Review Article Mushrooms and Truffles: Historical Biofactories for Complementary Medicine in Africa and in the Middle East
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Hindawi Publishing Corporation Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Volume 2013, Article ID 620451, 10 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/620451 Review Article Mushrooms and Truffles: Historical Biofactories for Complementary Medicine in Africa and in the Middle East Hesham El Enshasy,1,2 Elsayed A. Elsayed,3,4 Ramlan Aziz,1 and Mohamad A. Wadaan3 1 Institute of Bioproduct Development (IBD), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai, 81130, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia 2 City of Scientific Research and Technology Application, New Burg Al Arab, Alexandrai 21934, Egypt 3 Bioproducts Research Chair, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia 4 Department of Natural and Microbial Products, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo 12311, Egypt Correspondence should be addressed to Hesham El Enshasy; [email protected] Received 22 April 2013; Accepted 1 October 2013 Academic Editor: Imed Eddine Hassen Copyright © 2013 Hesham El Enshasy et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The ethnopharmaceutical approach is important for the discovery and development of natural product research and requires a deep understanding not only of biometabolites discovery and profiling but also of cultural and social science. For millennia, epigeous macrofungi (mushrooms) and hypogeous macrofungi (truffles) were considered as precious food in many cultures based on their high nutritional value and characterized pleasant aroma. In African and Middle Eastern cultures, macrofungi have long history as high nutritional food and were widely applied in folk medicine. The purpose of this review is to summarize the available information related to the nutritional and medicinal value of African and Middle Eastern macrofungi and to highlight their application in complementary folk medicine in this part of the world. 1. Introduction as pigs and dogs to discover this type of underground fungus. This is based on their high sensitivity to the characteristic From early stages of civilization, desert macrofungi in forms truffle volatile compounds. Traditionally, mushrooms and of mushrooms and truffles have been used as food and truffles are taken as type of precious food and consumed medicine. Originally, these types of organisms were asso- either raw or cooked. In addition, they have been also applied ciated with Mediterranean region and were first recorded as main component of folk medicine. This was based on as poem in Egyptian temples as follows: “Without leaves, thefactthattheyarerichsourceforproteins,aminoacids, without buds, without flowers: yet they from fruit; as a food, fattyacids,fiber,minerals,vitamins,terpenoids,sterols,flavor as a tonic, as a medicine: the entire creation is precious.” compounds, and carbohydrates as reported by many authors Thus, macrofungi were considered as food and medicine [3–5]. for royalty, and that no normal citizens were allowed to In general, not all types of macrofungi are able to grow consume this precious food. During Greek and Roman in the harsh environmental conditions of desert. The term eras,theywereimportedfromLibyaandsoldinsouthern “Desert Macrofungi: Mushrooms and Truffles” is related to part of the European continent [1]. In the southern part of the nature and distribution of those species which can grow African continent, the nomadic people of Kalahari Desert under arid and semiarid conditions. Thus, the geographical used truffles for millennia2 [ ]. distribution of desert truffles in Africa and Middle East Mushrooms are visible to the naked eye as they grow is related to countries around the Mediterranean such as above the earth, whereas truffles grow underground in depth Morocco,Algeria,Tunisia,Libya,Egypt,andIsraelinaddi- between5and10cm.Trufflesareusuallycollectedbyspecial- tion to the countries of the Arabian Peninsula such as Jordan, ists who have special skills and experience to explore this type Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Bahrain, and Kuwait. However, of flora. Sometimes, truffle collectors use some animals such some types of desert truffles were also found in South Africa 2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Botswana [6]. Generally, the growth of desert truffles to Tirmania nivea (known locally as Zubaidi) are available requires an annual rainfall range between 50 and 380 mm. in this region [13]. In addition, another species of truffle In North Africa, good yields of truffle are usually obtained Phaeangium lefebvrei is commonly known as bird truffle if the rainfalls range between 70 to 120 mm. In addition, “FagaAltoyoororHopper”andismainlyconsumedbybirds. the time, quantity, and distribution of the rainfall play an In North Africa, in addition to the previous local names, important role in the quality of desert macrofungus growth. many other names are also given for truffles such as “Nabat For example, to obtain good truffles in North African and Al Radh, asqal, Bidat El Ardh and Banat Ober” [14]. Middle Eastern regions, it needs to get rainfall no later than MushroomsspreadinwideareainAfricaandMiddle the beginning of December whereas, in southern Europe it East. The most common types of mushrooms belong to should not be later than the beginning of October [7]. Agaricus and Pleurotus sp. (Basidiomycetes). In North Africa, For centuries, it was proposed that most of the wild different types of Pleurotus sp. were found only for few days macrofungi are not cultivable. However, with the increased after rainy season. Based on its morphological structure and knowledge of mushroom and truffles physiology, nowadays, physiology, mushrooms are more sensitive to high temper- it is possible to cultivate many types of macrofungi. Mush- ature and dry conditions compared to truffles. The tropical rooms were successfully cultivated in green houses and in and subtropical regions of Africa are characterized by higher submerged culture fermentation. Whereas, based on the mushroom diversity compared to North Africa. Table 1 shows symbiotic behavior of truffles as typical ectomycorrhiza, they some examples of different types of mushrooms and truffles were cultivated in soil with their host plant in truffle green in Africa and Middle East. houses in semiarid area [6, 7]. With the rapid growth of bioprocess technology industries, it was possible to culti- 3. Nutritional Value vate many macrofungi in submerged culture under fully controlled conditions to produce the desired biotherapeutic Desert macrofungi are rich source of different types of compounds in high concentrations, in shorter production essential nutrients, and thus their nutritional value and time, and under fully sterile conditions according to cGMP chemical profile were studied and reviewed by many authors [8–10]. [15]. The chemical analysis of desert truffles showed that Thisreviewoutlinesthecurrentstatusofknowledgeon the dry matter is composed of up to 60% carbohydrates, the macrofungi bioactive compounds and their applications 20–27% protein, 3–7.5% fat (unsaturated and saturated fatty in complementary and alternative medicine in different acids), 7–13% fiber, and 2–5% ascorbic acid [12]. Another African and Middle Eastern cultures. study for chemical profiling of three Iraqi truffles (Terfezia claveryi, Tirmania nivea,andTirmania pinoyi)showedthat 2. Type and Identification the carbohydrate concentration in dry matter ranged between 16.6 and 24.8%, protein content ranged from 8.1 to 13.8%, Different types of desert epigeous macrofungi (mushrooms) phosphorus from 9.7–25.5%, and ash 4.9–5.9% [16]. Another and hypogeous macrofungi (truffles) are considered as nat- ural flora in the Middle East and the African desert. Mush- research showed also that the chemical composition of truffle rooms are characterized by their distinguished structure of is highly strain specific and the white desert truffle Tirmania stalk and their fragile and soft feature. Truffles have no nivea (Zubaidi) was higher in protein, fat, and crude fiber stalk and no gills with firm, dense, and woody feature. content compared to other two types of desert truffles The name truffles/terfezia comes from the word “Terfass,” belonging to black truffle group (Gibeah and Kholeissi) [17]. which is an Arabic word describing hypogeous desert fun- However, the same study showed also that all essential amino gus. Truffles are also known locally in North Africa and acids were present in all three truffles including the sulphur Arabian Peninsula under other names such as “Al-Kamaa” amino acids (methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, and lysine) or “Al-Fag’a.” Taxonomically, truffles are ascomycetes fungi which are usually the limiting amino acids in many foods of belonging to the genus Tuber, the family Tuberaceae, and the plant origin. In addition, different studies demonstrated also order Pezizales [11] and are distributed in six pezizalean fam- that truffles are rich source of essential minerals such as Si, K, ilies: Glaziellaceae, Discinaceae, Morchellaceae, Helvellaceae, Na,Ca,Mg,Mn,Fe,Al,Cu,andZn[15]. Tuberaceae, Pezizaceae, and Pyronemataceae [12]. In general, Unlike truffles, the dry content of mushrooms is usually most of known desert truffles species belong to genera such in the range between 60 and 140 g/kg. In most types of mush- as Terfezia, Delastreopsis, Balstonia, Delastria, Leucangium, rooms, carbohydrates and crude proteins