Captioned Media in the Classroom. INSTITUTION WGBH-TV, Boston, Mass

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 252 995 EC 171 328

AUTHOR Decker, Nan; Montandon, Betsy TITLE Captioned Media in the Classroom. INSTITUTION WGBH-TV, Boston, Mass. The Caption Center. SPORTS AGENCY Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS), Washington,

REPORT NO 4N-0-913072-60-5 PUB DATE a% NOTE 48-1. AVAILABLE FROMNw.ional Association of the Deaf, 814 Thayer Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910 ($4.50). PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Audiovisual Communications; *Captions; *Deafness; Educational Media; Elementary Secondary Education; *Hearing Impairments; Media Selection IDENTIFIERS *Captioned Media

ABSTRACT Intended to promote the effective use of captioned media in the education of hearing impaired students, the manual contains theoretical and historical background information about captioning, illuminates major issues in the field of captioning (e.g., edited versus verbatim captioning and the need to teach caption-reading skills), and offers instructional ideas for using captioned media to teach decoding skills, word meaning, grammar, and story structure. Sources of captioned media and a selected research 4-"°. bibliography are appended. t )

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o WGBH Educational Foundation 1954. AS rights swerved. For pernindians and other sights under tldscopyright., contact The Caption Center etWOBILTV, 125 Western Avenue, Boston, Mown chosen* OM.

This work was developed =der a content or groat with Spend Relmatien Progresso, °Mee of Speed Ethecation and Rehabilitative fiervicoi, U.S. De- p However, the content dote not necessarily reflect the position or policy of SEP/OBEES/DOB, and no Alen' endorsement of the niatenalo Amid be inferred.

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3 Contents

Betsy Montapdon The Whys and Wherefores of Captionedilledia 1

Rationale for Captioning 2

The Development of Captioning 4

Edited or Verbatim Captions

Nan Decker Captioned Media: Food for Thought 13

I nt roduct ion 14

A Review: Skills and Concepts which may be 17 Taught through Captioned Television

Decoding Skills. Word Meaning and Grammar 20

Story Structure Setting 24 The Episode 26 Sequencing 26 Conflict 27 Implied Meaning in The Episode 28 Characteriution 29 Theme 31

Conclusion 32

Sources of Captioned Media 34

Bibliography 38 4 Acknowledgements For their enthusiasm, help, The Multi-level Captioning Project was and support in carrying out funded by the Office of Education's this prQ;ect, special thanks Handicapped Media Services and Captioned are due to: Films Program in order to develop a "model" for the effective use of captioned Governor Baxter media in the education of hearing-impaired School for the Deaf, students. One of the project's major Portland, ME activities was providing "Captioned Media Awareness Workshops" for teachers in a Willie Ross selected number of schools for the hearing School for the Deaf, impaired and for teachers-in-training at Longmeadow, MA several colleges and universities. This manual is the result of those workshops and Rhode Island of work with individual teachers who tried School for the Deaf, out utilization techniques in the classioom. Providence, RI It contains theoretical and historical background information about captioning, The Learning Center illuminates the major issues in the field of for Deaf Children, captioning, and offers ideas for using Framingham, MA captioned media as an integral part of daily classroom activities. Boston University. Boston, MA

New York University, New York, NY

Western Maryland College, Westminster, MD The Whys and Wherefores of Captioned Media by Betsy Montandon Rationale for Captioning

Why Captions?

Because deafness is a communication several research studies have proven this handicap, the hearing-impaired population empirically. The studies show that under has unique communication needs. This is ideal conditions of lighting, distance, and especially true in relation to television. This clarity of the speaker. even the best speech- pervasiSe phenomenon in our society is a reader can understand only 26% of what is major source of information and enter- said (Lowell, 1959). Therefore. the impor- tainment. But in its standard form it is not tant question to pose is this: since the audio fully accessible to hearing-impaired track of a program must be available to viewers. While somepeople suggest the ensure complete comprehension. how can it possibility of using speech-reading to fill in be conveyed to viewers who cannot hear it? the information gaps, this is not really a There are two possible solutions to the viable option. Basic common sense indicates question: captions and sign language inter- that various techniques of television preters. editing, such as off-camera speakers, long shots. and side angle shots. present insur- mountable obstacles even to the most proficient speech-reader. In addition, Captions or Sign Language? For a number of reasons, captions are the Another pi.oblem with using sign language method of choice to convey a program's is geographic variation in signs, correspond- soundtrack to hearing-impaired viewers. ing to dialects in spoken language. For Research-based support is of two types. example, a sign in use in North Dakota First, studies comparingthe amount of might be different from that used in Florida information conveyed in captioned pro- and could thus result in confusion or mis- grams vs. that in uncaptioned programs understanding instead of the clarification it foimd that the former were more successful was intended to promote. (Boyd and Vader, 1972). Other studies looked at the differences between cap- Finally, on a more practical level, there is a tioned and signed presentations: those that problem with the visibility of the inter- were captioned were preferred by deaf preter on television. A few programs, such viewers and superior in providing factual as local news broadcasts, do allowthe information. interpreter to appear full-screen. But in most cases, the interpreter is located in a Several factors support the use of captions small circle or square in the lower corner of rather than sign language. The method the television screen and the finer move- chosen to replace the audio portion of pro- ments of signs and/or fingerspelling are grams must match the diversity of com- difficult or impossible to see. munication skills exhibited by the hearing- impaired population. The use of sign language interpreters would exclude orally oriented hearing-impaired people. as well as that group of people who lost their hearing later in life from accidental causes, illness or old age. Captions can most successfully provide information to all hearing-impaired viewers, regardless of their preferred met hod of communication.

O The Development of Captioning

Movies, Television, and the Printed Word

The use of printed words on the screen is not programs for children such as Sesame Street new. In fact, in the days of silent movies, and The Electric Company rely heavily on hearing and hearing-impaired audiences print to teach reading through the associa- had equal access to a program when frames tion of the§poken arid written word. But the of words were inserted between pictures in majority of television programs and movies order to clarify the action or plot. But the have been viewed with incomplete or situation changed radically when sound was erroneous understanding by hearing- added to the movies and the printed words impaired people because they miss the all- were dropped. Television has retained important information in the audio track. graphically displayed words in many com- mercials, weather forecasts and sports broadcasts. In addition, some educational Captioned Films for the Deaf

It was not until the 1950's that experiments began in captioning films for hearing- impaired viewers:- In 1968, Public Law 85-905 established Captioned Films for the Deaf as a loan service to hearing - impaired people. The' idea was a successful one and today there are approximately 800 theatrical/entertainment films in an Indianapolis-based depository and 1,188 educational films in 58 depositories nationwide.

Television Captioning

In the world of television, captionLig began in 1971. WGBH-TV, Boston's public television station, received federal funding for two years to caption The French Chef. The experiment proved that the important program content could be conveyed via caption. Fifty other programs were captioned during the next two years, but even though these shows were successfully received, hearing-impaired audiences expressed the need for captioning of news and current events programs. Thus, in 1973, under the Education of the Handi- capped Act, the WGBH Caption Center received a contract to rebroadcast a captioned version of ABC's "'ling news.

0 Captioning for Children

In 1977, the Multi-level Linguistic Caption- Becauseteachers and students,as well as ing Project was set up at WGBH to conduct parents, need guidance and encouragement research on captioning for children. Prior to to use captioned media to its best advan- the project, there had been almost no tage. federal funding was granted to research directly related to children's cap- develop a "model" fiir the effective use of tioning. The Multi-level Project focused on captioned media in the education of hearing- several areas: developing and evaluating a impaired students. rekgarch-based system of writing captions at three reading levels; studying the effect of various placement techniques on comprehension; discovering the optimum rate of caption presentation: evaluating children's affective understanding of program characters; studying the effect of using syncapped programs with handicapped students and with bilingual students (syncapping is the process of replacing the original soundtrack with new audio that matches the edited captions). MM. After four years of conducting captioning research and, in the process. captioning 44 programs for children, the Multi-level Project changed its focus in the fall of 1980.

Recent Developments: Closed Captioning Originally, television captioning was of the shortened form. This criticism spawned a "open" variety. In open captioning. the new idea: perhaps the captions could be captions are superimposed on the picture broadcast invisibly and would become and are visible to all viewers, hearing and visible, using special equipment, only for hearing-impaired alike. Unfortunately. not those viewers who wanted them. This is the all hearing viewers were sympathetic to the idea oehind the "line 21" or "closed-caption- addition of captions to popular programs. ing" system. They complained that the captions were distracting, especially when they rephrased the original audio track into simplified or

11 4 "closed - optioning"

PBS began experimenting with closed The National Captioning Institute (NCI), captioning in 1972 under a contract from the was established by HEW on March p, 1979, Bureau of Education for the Handicapped to provide the captioning. In March 1980, ( B E H) of the Department of Health, Edu- the first dosed-captioned program was cation and Welfare. In 1973, PBS received broadcast. The initial 20 hours per week funds to develop a prototype closed- have gradually increased to a current total captioning system; in this system, the of 40. In addition, in April 1981, the WGBH captions arc converted to electronic signals Caption Center joined NCI as a source of and broadcast in a portion of the television closed-captioning services. signal, line 21, which is usually blank. While all viewers receive the signals, only those The home decoding equipment for line-21 with a special decoder can convert them into closed captioning is available for purchase captions. In 1974, PBS began over-the-air from Sears, Roebuck and Company, the tests of the closed-captioning system, under National Captioning Institute, and several Special Temporary Authority from the hearing-impaired consumer organizations Federal Communications Commission under the trade name TeleCaption. Tele- ( FCC). PBS petitioned the FCC in Caption decoders can be purchased either as November 1975 for permanent authority to adapter units (which can be attached to any broadcast captioning on line 21, and in 1976 television set) or as color TV sets with the FCC approved the use of line 21 for decoders built in. In addition, some cable- closed-captioning information. TV operators rent line-21 decoders, under the Colormax brand name, to their Three of the four major networks, ABC, subscribers. NBC, and PBS, agreed to have several hours of their programming closed captioned each week.

Most Recent Developments in Captioning Technology

It is an exciting tint.: in the world of caption- Teletext is a system which can provide text ing. Line -2I closed captioning is now well information and graphics as well as closed established and new systems are being per- captioning. Teletext is a service intended fected to keep pace with our culture's high for hearing and hearing-impaired viewers technology. alike. To receive closed captions and "pages" of text information (such as news, Real-time captioning is now in use and elim- weather reports, airplane schedules, real inates the time lag which required estate listings, etc.), the viewer's television to caption a program befobroadcast. must be attached to a special teletext Real-time captioning permits live shows, decoder. CBS and NBC are currently devel- such as news, sports and special events, u; oping nationwide teletext services. Cable be accessible. This captioning method com- teletext and regional broadcast teletext ser- bines the skills of court stenographers with vices are also now being developed. special computer translation systems to provide almost instantaneous captioning.

12 Dual-mode captioning is a system which allows simultaneous transmission of closed captions to both line-21 and teletext decoders. This innovative technology became available in 1983 and will ultim....teiy expand the size of the viewing audience for closed-captioned programs.

1.j EditedorVerbatim Captions?

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There are major philosophical differences in Therefore, when using the term verbatim, the captioning field concerning the issue of we mean that the captions areedited only using edited or verbatim captions. In edited minimally due to time constraints. captions, the words from the original audio track are condensed and/or changed; in The argument between edited or verbatim verbatim captioning, the words in t.ie captions actually goes deeper than merely captions are kept as close as poss:Sle to condensing or deleting information. Editing what was actually spoken. Both sides of can also include majorrewriting of the the debate agree that some editing is neces- spoken words into English sentences at a sary because people speak muchfaster than lower reading level. Proponents of this they afe able to read. While the normal approach cite the often lower English and speaking rate is often between 200-250 reading skills of many hearing-impaired words per minute, a comfortable viewers, especially children (Trybus and speed when there are simultaneous back- Karchmer, 1977). If the viewer is not able to ground visuals is 120-140 words per minute. read verbatim captions, then the English Obviously, in order to close this gap, there should be simplified to a level compatible must be some changes made in the captions. with the viewer's skills. In the prwess, there may be a reduction in the frustration In order to standardize the editing pro- that often accompanies the reading task and cedure and to produce captions at levels the beginning of a more positive attitude matching the viewer's reading abilities, the that reading can be enjoyable. Multi-level Linguistic Captioning Project, as described earlier, developed andevalu- On the other hand, advocates of verbatim ated a method of editing that could replace captioning say that hearing-impaired the older, intuitive approach. Following a viewers deserve the same information as set of research-based guidelines which are hearing viewers and not a "watered-down" found in the project's manual Readable version of the original. In adOit ion. they English .ti)r IIeu ring- Impaired Students, claim that the viewer's reading skills will captions for selected programs were writ- improve when presented with the challenge ten at one or all of three levels of difficulty. of a more difficult reading task. While, as Project staff controlled vocabulary, syntax yet, there has been little research in support and inferential content in its captioning of44 of this theory, proponents of verbatim popular commercial television programs for captioning claim that the viewer will rise to children. the occasion and successfully read and understand the captions at a higher reading There is not yet any agreement or standard level. philosophy regarding the editing of captions. Teachers should lx aware that each To complicate the situation further, even approach, edited or verbatim, has merits with the group that supports editing, there and can serve a specific and positive pur- are two approaches. The "intuitive" pose. For example, as a tool forexpanding approach has been used for years and is vocabulary and teaching idioms, a teacher based on common sense and on an under- might choose a program with verbatim standing of the complexity of English. captions. On the other hand, a program with Using his/her judgment, but with no edited captions could be a means to foster standardized guidelines, the captioner independent reading and viewing with little replaces difficult vocabulary words with teNcintervent ion. easier ones, shortens and/or simplifies sentences, and replaces or rewrites idio- matic expressions. These editing decisions are subjective and not consistentfrom captioner to captioner. In addition, only one level of captions results and this level might not be adequate in meeting the variable reading skills of the intended audience. S

Caption-Reading Skills of Students For years, teachers habreathed a sigh of Principles needing explanation include the relief when supplied.th captioned media. following: They assume that tPe combination of visual information in tho dm or videotape and printed information in the captions will go a Captions represent speech and/or sound long way towards teaching the material. effects. However, there is a basic assumption underlying the use of captioned Words in a caption are sometimes different media with hearing-impaired students from the wonis in th? original soundtrack which must he called into question. That because of editing. assumption is that students understand the concept of capt inning ( t hat captions convey Caption placement c',elp identify speech and/or important sounds) and speakers. various captioning principles (placement. identification of off-screen speakers. etc.) Off-screen speakers and sounds are without ever receiving directed instruction ident ified and captioned when they are on these topics. Hearing viewers can easily important to the plot and/or content. perceive the relationship between voices and captions, sounds and captions. or A single sentence can extend through techniques such as left-right placement to several captions; punctuation can he an aid identify speakers. But these concepts and in determining the end of sentences. techniques are not so apparent to haring- impaired students. When the Multi-level Project carried out an assess- With a better understanding of captioning mer.t with hearing-impaired youngsters in principles, hearing-impaired children will the New England area to ascertain their find greater comprehension and enjoyment level of knowledge about captioning, it in the ever-growing body of captioned became clear that-instruction in the materi:, Is available to them. rationale and techniques of captioning should definitely be a prerequisite to the use of captions as a source of information.

References Boyd, J. and Vader, E. A. Lowell, E. L. "Research in Trybus, R., and Karchmer, "Captioned television for thespeechreading: some rela- M. "School achievement deaf." American Annals altionships to language scores of hearing-impaired the Deal. 1972, 117, 34-17. development and implica- children: national data on tions for the classroom achievement status and teacher." Proceedings of thegrowth patterns. American Convention of American Annals of the Deaf. 1977. Instructors of the Deaf. 122. 62-69. 1959. 16

Introduction

Reading and an appreciation of literature, present stories which can teach the same whit+ are usually taught in schools through competencies as the traditional reading a language arts curriculum, are corner- lesson. stones of a child's education. From simple decoding abilities to the comprehension of In most schools and classes for hearing- literal and inferential meaning, readir7; impaired children, the potential of captioned skills encourage children to think crea- television as a teachinf tool has not been tively, to deal with symbolism, to see the. realized. Very often, programs or movies world through another's eyes, to find are shown primarily during recreational generalizations and to draw conclusions periods, with little or no discussion of the from details. It is because of this close tie content before or after viewing. Captioned between reading and reflection that the media are too often used only during those tasks presented to reading groups in the times when students need to be occupied classroom are typically called "directed while teachers are busy with other activ- reading/thinking activities."' Reading and ities. When captioned materials are used literature can elevate the child's thinking educationally, it is usually just those from the concrete level to the abstract and programs that deal with factual material- can sharpen insight into human nature and how glaciers are formed, or where lumber life. comes from. We know that teachers usethis genre well already. We are concentrating Yet we know how difficult it is for many deaf here instead on the use of fictional, "enter- children to !earn to read well. The statistics tainment" programs in an educational way, are disheartening: the averagestudent to impart an appreciation of form usually graduating from a school for the deaf reads developed through literature. at about a fourth grade level (Trybus, 1978). And unfortunately, this figure represents a All of the skills and concepts ordinarily larger problem than simply low reading taught in a language a rtse 1177-Wiliam can be achievement scores. Those deaf children introduced th rtntgh captioned materials. who fail to acquire reading skills will often Story structure, theme, and characteriza- be deprived of exposure to many thinking tion, which may be difficult concepts to activities as well, since these activities are understand when presented to the reluctant often taught through the printed word. reader by the printed page, are more easily Our special thanks go to understood when the medium is video rein- Naomi E. Singer, reading! What can teachers do to promote agile forced with captions. It makes sense to start English specialist in thinking in hearing-impaired students? One children thinking about such notions as the Newton, MA, public obvious way is to base thinking activities on character development, points of conflict, schools, for her insights a skill other than reading. Deafness does not and inferential content by using a familiar, into the role and usesof impair a child's ability to perceive and inter- non-threatening format such as television. the language arts cur- pret visual information in his environment. We already know that deaf children enjoy riculum in education. Teachers of hearing-impaired students can TV; if anything, they watch more of it than easily introduce "directed viewing /thinking their hearing peers (Ofiesh, 1970). Coupled 2 See Ka ne719807 as a activities" into their classrooms based on with the teacher's creativity in planning resource on critical tele this innate visual ability. And the visual 'Icasons around this motivating medium, it vision viewing skills for medium we suggest that they use in these represents a wonderful supplement to the general school audiences. activities is captioned television an more traditional curriculum. movies.2 Captioned media, like literature, For many deaf students, reading even three with some suggested activities for their or four pages of a short story may be a reinforcement. Teachers will naturally find frustrating, unrewarding struggle. Cap- only a portion of these activities appropriate tionNia require the viewer to do some for students of a given academic level. We reading, but not an overwhelming amount. leave it to their judgment to decide which Once captioned materials have given an are suitable and which are not, and also to understanding of the basic issues covered in augment the limited number of suggestions a standard language arts curriculum, the in each section with their own ideas. teacher may turn to stories and books as additional resources.

This chapter briefly outlines some of the skills and concepts that may be taught through captioned media viewing, along

A Note on Procedure

Two very important prerequisites for effec- In the following discussion of classroom use tive use of captioned materials in the class- of captioned television, we assume the room are teacher previewing and inter- teacher has chosen those concepts she or he rupted viewing. By the first, we mean that will teach before the program is shown and the teacher should watch the program makes liberal use of the pause facility to before its classroom presentation so that highlight details which illustrate these she or he is totally familiar with its content concepts. and can pick out key scenes for discussion of target concepts. Previewing is also essen- tial for determining an appropriate break point for longer shows.

Interrupted viewing refers to the use of the pause or stop function on the videocassette recorder to freeze the image at a desired frame. The use of this simple facility goes a long way in changing merely recreational viewing to educational viewing. The teacher can pause whenever necessary or desired to ask questions, initiate discussion, and add explanation of difficult vocabulary words, twists of plot, etc. Another facility, the rewind function, allows the viewer to look back and review in the same way that the reader of the printed page can. 19 A Note on Video Eqsa*ment Perhaps one reason why is the eight-pin type (the captioned media are not usedplug has eight pins extend- more extensively inthe ing from it), there's no need classroom is that many to tune the TV to any par- teachers lack familiarity ticular channel. Instead, with the necessary equip- push in the button marked I ment. We'd like to reassure "VTR" on the front of the our readers that there is television set. nothing complicated or intimidating 1,'oout the The videocassette is then machinery involved in show-simply popped into the face ing thee materials. Video- of the VCR. Press the "play" cassette recorders are no button to start the program. more mystifying thanaudio-The "fast forward" and "re- cassette recorders. wind" buttons serve the same purpose as theydo on To show videocassettes thatan audio tape recorder. you havg eitherobtained on Many VCR's also have a loan or taped off the air, "pause" button that allows you'll need an ordinary colOryou to freeze the picture at a television set, a video- desired place. cassette recorder (VCR), and a cable to connect the Always adjust the television two. It is helpful to set up for color and hue or tint, your equipment on amedia since VCR's often require cart, which is a metal cart ondifferent settings from ordi- wheels about 4% feet high nary television viewing.It is with two or three shelves. not usually necessary to Put the VCR on a lower shelfdarken the room. In fact, and the TV on top. This ele-natural lighting often keeps vates the television enough students alert and allows so that the entireclass can thekn to communicate with view the program easily. each other during the show. Hook the cable from the out- let marked "RI.' Out" on the back of the VCR to the VHF antenna of the TV set. Then tune the TV to channel3 or 4 (the one you choose will depend on the type of VCR used). If the cable you have

20 A Review: Skills and Concepts which maybe Taught through Captioned Television

Any language arts curriculum may be The following pages are not organized adapted for use with captioned television. A according to these categories. After a brief given school mathave devised its own cur- look at the way decoding skills, word riculum or may use any basal reading series. meaning and grammar can be taught The scope and sequence for a series pro- through captioned television, we discuss vides a listing of the skills and Concepts story structure and the many skills and taught grade by grade, and is an excellent concepts that can be taught about it. source of teaching ideas. In the pages that follow we have taken ideas from the To illustrate activities in each section we use Addison and Wesley Reading Program a program from CBS's Young People's (Rowland, 1979) and the Laid law Reading Special series called "Joshua's Confusion" Program (Eller, 1976). These programs (hereafter `JC'). A summary of the plot of categorize skills in roughly the following this show is given here. way:

word decoding skills: including phonetic analysis, structural analysis, and sight recognition of words; comprehension: including word meaning, literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, critical and 'reative reading; study skills: including dictionary use, out- lining, summarizing, making lists, etc. Plot Summary of "Joshua's Confusion" When Papa discovers that Joshua is an Amish boy of As the show opens, Papa is At school the next day. ten or'eleven. Although he driving Joshua to his public Bobby and Benny want to Joshua is not in bed, he's furious. He barges into the lives in 20th century Amer- school in the family's horse-Snow whether Joshua will at Bobby's to ica. he is being brought up indrawn buggy. On the play- come to the party.Benny midst of the of life. ground. Joshua learns that teases Joshua about his announce, "Joshua, we will an 18th century way Stunned, the Joshua can't understand his best friend, Bobby, is family and its strict Amish go home now." boys Watch Joshua leave why his home is so differentgoing to have a birthday rules. Joshua feels pressure with his father. In the car- from those of his friends. party. Bobby really wants from these taunts and from Joshua to come, but Joshua Bobby's genuine desire to riage on the way home, Papa The peaceful. old-fashioned tells Joshua that because he farm conflicts with the is not sure his father will have him at his party as his did something wrong he will mechanized world outside. allow him to go. Another best friend. Joshua lies: he friend, Benny, is certain thatsays he has permission to go. ve to be punished.Joshua Joshua's father won't let him very upset. He leaps from go. It looks as if Bennyis That night, Joshua pretendsthe carriage and runs away right. to be tired and goes to bed into the rainy night. early. His parents think he After school, Joshua works might be sick or resting for The next morning, we see a with his father in the fields. the next day's farm work. muddy and bedraggled He starts to ask Papa about Joshua sneaks out of his bed-Joshua approach his father, the party, but his father cutsroom window, crawlsdown who is working in the fields. him short, saying that it's the roof and runs to Bobby's,Papa embraces his son and time to work, not talk. At where the party is in full begins to talk. He explains the dinner table that night swing. The kids play with that he too was young once with his parents and little slot cars, read comic books and couldn't understand his sister Becky, Joshua tries and watch TV. Joshua old-fashioned parents. He again, but his mother and doesn't know what to make understands, he says, how father are unyielding. They of these activities. very hard it is to grow up know that Bobby's family is different from other Amer- not Amish. Papa anticipates icans. But now that he's a Joshua's discomfort in a man, Papa feels that their household with electricity Amish life is better than and television. Joshua begs other people's. Papa hopes to be allowed to go and pro- that when Joshua grows up, tests that his parents are he will feel the same way. unfair. Finally he is sent to his room. :1"i , '

'11 .1 r Decoding Skills, Word Meaning, and Grammar

Decoding Skills

In decoding, the reader simply converts the Find the base forms of words. For example, written word into a spoken or signed what is the base of "confusion?" What verb equivalent. Attaching meaning to the does the word "carriage" come from? decoded word is a more advanced skill than Find the two words in the compound words simple decoding: the child may be perfectly "sunrise," "birthday,' and "old-fashioned." able to decode a paragraph but still not know what it means. By making students What is the suffix of the word "electricity?" more aware of the structure of words, you What base word does it come from? What is make it easier for them to attach meaning to the suffix of "planted?" The prefix of them. The following exercises, based on the "unhappy?" captions in 'JC', develop the awareness of What smaller word do you see in word structure. "television?"

Word Meaning Captions can be used as a source of vocabu- Develop the skill of using context to infer lary study just as any text can. meaning. For example, explain to the class that they can use visual context to help them During teacher previewing, pick five to ten understand words. Joshua's father tells his words with which the class is unfamiliar. son, "We must plow now." Stopthe tape and Before the students see the program, do ask the students how many meanings they regular dictionary work with these words, know for the word "plow." SoMe may know have students write sentences using the the term as it refers to a machine for words, etc. During viewing, stop the tape at removing snow or as a technique in skiing. each word and ask for itviefinition. Point to the visual context of this scene. The two are standing in a field in the spring. Is the word likely to refer to either of these flinctions here? If not, what could it mean?

24 Grammar

Captions are a convenient vehicle for many Pause the tape and use one scene in a kinds of language lessons. Any concept that writing drill on the use of prepositional is ordinarily taught through text can be phrases to describe spatial relationships in taught just as easilyand probably with the scene For example: "The chair is next more fin-- through captions. Here are a few to the door."; '"The lamp is on the table." suggestions: Use captions as sample sentences for exercises in all written grammar drills: pluraliza- Find pronoun referents, the person or thing tion, subject-verb agreement, sentence to which a pronoun refers. This is a simple analysis, tense formation, etc. task when the referent is on-screen. Wind the tape forward or back ward to find off- Papa said: God made those pretty camera referents. .(flower at-flowers) Use captions w practice writing direct and Becky said: The jelly _ really indirect discourse. Watch Joshua say, "May good. (was or were) I go to Bobby's house?" and ask the children to write: "Joshua asked, 'May i go to Mama said: Becky taste_ the jelly. ( change Bobby's house?'" to pasttense) Ask more advanced students to change this to indirect discourse: "Joshua asked if he could go to Bobby's house." StoStructure

Unlike most hearing children, n ny deaf note on selecting programs withrelatively children have few, if any, stories read to uncomplicated structures. We then con- them during their early years. Therefore, it eider the major story components in turn is not surprising that whir hearing- and suggest classroom activities to help stu- impaired students begin to read in school, dents understand the nature and function of their lack of familiarity with story structure each. causes confusion. This sectionbegins with a brief description of story structure and a

The Components of a Story In traditional terms, a story consists of a "Joshua's Confusion" is a story with one conflict which leads to rising action, a climax episode containing clearly delineated parts: and then a resolution of conflict in the falling action. According to newer models (Stein Initiating event: Bobby invites Joshua to and Glenn, 1977), a story contains a setting his birthday party and Papa refuses to let and an episode. In the setting, the main him go. characters are introduced and information Joshua's internal response: He vows to go is given about the social, physical (geo- to the party. graphical), and temporal (time) contexts of the story. An episode consists of: Attempt: He sneaks out of his room in the middle of the night. an initiating event (conflict),which causes Consequence:irndgoes to Bobby's house the main character to respond to it; to retrieve his punish him. an internal response, which mayinclude Reaction: Joshua runs off into the night. the setting of a goal by the character; an attempt by the character to attainthe Three other very important aspects of a goal; story, which prevail through thewhole, are characterization, Conflict, and theme. All the consequences of the attempt, including three require the ability to drawgeneraliza- attainment or non-attainment of the goal; tions from details, to distill into a fewwords and the essence of a person or situation. In the reaction of the character to the con- developing an awareness of character, sequence. conflict, and theme, the student transforms the story from merely a plot to an observa- The simplest stories contain just one epi- tion about life and human nature. sode, while in more complicated stories, one or more episodes may be embedded within another.

26 Considerations in Program Selection

For students who are just beginning a lan- And finally, the conflict which drives the guage arts curriculum, it is probably best to action forward should be of a type that is use a program with a simple story struc- meaningful to young viewers. Story conflict ture. This means that the show should have can take many forms. It can be a struggle a limited number of characters, whose rela- internal to one person, a clash of opinions, or tionships to each other are clear. The a physical fight between two characters, physical and temporal settings should not among other things. In general, we would require a great deal of world knowledge on not expect children to enjoy stories where the part of the viewer. So: for example, one the conflict is entirely intellectual or verbal. would not want to show a lower school group An example of such a story is Edward a story in which the setting of the French Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf Revolution plays an important role in the where two characters argue in a living room episode. We would also advise teachers all night. In %IC', the conflict on one level is against selecting programs in which the highly intellectual, in that Joshua is rebel- parts of the episode do not follow regular ling against the traditional values of his order. Shows with flashbacks scramble the community. But this kind of internal conflict structure and may cause confusion. Like- is very familiar to growing children and wise, stories in which two seemingly unre- therefore should not be problematic. The lated episodes with separate sets of char- conflict also manifests itself on the level of acters eventually intertwine are best left for action: Joshua decides to go to a party older, more sophisticated viewers. against his father's wishes. This physical manifestation of the conflict adds to the program's appeal for young viewers. Classroom Activities for Teaching Story Structure

!Physical Slotting Setting Make maps of the getting and use them as Since setting is usually To appreciate the contribution physical determined by visual clues, setting makes to a story, students should be the basis for board games. A map of ',IC' might contain Joshua's and Bobby's houses, it is a good starting point foraware of the effects thatthe geography and a discussion of story struc- environment can have on the characters' with a trail in between, and the barn and ture. Physical and temporal lives. The following exercises help to school along the trail. You might then make instructions on them like, settings are presented sepa- develop this kind of awareness. a set of cards with "Joshua falls down while he is running to rately here for clarity, Bobby's house: go back two spaces." or although no doubt in class- As the program is being shown for the first "Joshua slides down the roof to the grass: room work, the two may time, put the tape in pause during the move ahead three spaces."The first player often be considered together. opening scenes. Ask the students where they think the story takes place. Such to get from Joshua's house to Bobby'swins. things as landscape, buildings, weather con- Make models of the physical setting. These ditions and costumes are all clues. What may range fromshoe-box sized representa- visual details support their conclusion? In tions to dioramas that fill the entire VC', the opening scenes depict a rural classroom. scene. The narration nevermentions a specific locale. Ask the students where they Encourage the children to talk about the think Amish country is and why. symbolism or meaning of place names. For example, on a map of the Amish area in Compare the program's physical setting to Pennsylvania, students will note that one the area where your students live. Ask town is called Paradise. Define this word. them to note interesting similarities or Why is this name fitting for a religious differences. community like the Amish? Write to the Chamber of Commerce of How would the story change if the physical Lancaster, PA, to gather more information setting were different? For example, could about the setting. Find library books about `JC' take place in an urban environment? the Amish and look the topic up in an Why or why not? Would the plot be much encyclopedia. different if it took place in a tropical setting Ask students to note when the physical like Hawaii? setting changes. These changes can signal to the viewer that an importantlapse of time has occurred, or that new characters are about to be introduced. Is the new setting far removed from the old or nearby? Temporal Setting The temporal setting places the story at a Pinpoint the action on a time line with other particular time in history, the present, or important events that the class is familiar future. An appreciation of temporal setting with, such as the Revolutionary War, involves an understanding of significant Columbus' voyage to America, their events in the world or a certain locale during birthdays. their parents' birthdays. that period. Discuss ways in which costumes Rive clues to temporal setting. Note that one can't During the opening scenes of a program, always rely on costuming clues to place the stop the tape and ask the children when they story in time. For example, in IC' Joshua think the action takes place. Ask them to wears clothes which are very different from support their opinion with details from the the other boys'. The Amish preserve the old scene, such as physical objects that connote ways of dress. Look in the encyclopedia to a certain period of history. find when the Amish sect began and when After viewing the complete show, list they settled in America. How do students objects from the program particular to the think the Amish dressed at the time of temporal setting. Are there castles, settlement? Why isn't Joshua wearing covered wagons, Apollo missiles? Do a cate- pantaloons or a powdered wig? gorization activity with this listgroup all How would the program change if the objects concerned with Imne life together, temporal setting were different? What all objects concerned with work together, problems would Joshua face if the story took etc. If the temporal setting is historical, ask place one hundred years ago, when nobody the class `e note those objects which are no had electricity, cars or television, and longer in use today. What have these everyone dressed somewhat like Joshua obsolete objects been replaced with? Why does now? Try to find pairs of TV shows or have the objects changed over the years? movies, like "West Side Story" and "Romeo Which object does each student prefer, the and Juliet," where the basic plots are the old-fashioned one or its modern equivalent? same but the temporal setting differs. The Ask them to imagine objects which might classic movie "The Prince and the Pauper" perform the same function in the future. and the ABC AFTERSCHOOL SPECIAL Have the children note some things in the "P.J. and the President's Son," both video which have not changed since the available from Captioned Films for the historical periodfood, for example, or Deaf, are one such pair. In the former, the articles of clothing. son of an English Icing and a poor boy change Estimate the amount of time the action places. The latter takes place in modern-day spans. You might want to compare and Washington, D.C. Use this kind of activity contrast two shows, one which spans a few as a basis for discussion of the way that hours or days and one like "Roots," which human nature remains the same over the spans generations. centuries, and the way that great themes endure. 29 The Episode Sequencing The episode components of The order in which events occurs matters. The terms rising action, climax and falling initiating event, internal Students must learn to remember all of the action suggest the visual representation of response, attempt, conse- important events in the story and to story structure as a pyramid shape. Ask the quence and reaction are the remember them in the correct sequence. students to arrange the list of ordered "what happened" of the Sequencing is one of the most fundamental captions or ev, nts in such a shar,,,, with the story. It is probably unnec- skills underlying story appreciation. The climax at the peak. essary or even undesirable next few activities stress the importanceof to use these terms when dis- sequence in stories: climax cussing the plot with children. There are many Ask the students to name the events of the activities which the class can story and sequence them in chronological do that will make the struc- order. ture of the story clear. Pick captions from key scenes in the program and present themin scrambled order. Tell the students, individually or The class may come up with mori, than one collectively, to order them correctly. From such diagram and chances are t'-.at they will ',IC' you might provide the following list: all be right. Papa: Joshua is gone! Ask the students to retell the son as a Narrator Joshua and his family are Amish. group, with one child beginning It , kand picking up where the first left of, tie Joshua: May I go to Bobby's house and story is complete. slett there? Dramatize the story in class. Papa: You lied to me. Joshua. Joshua: I'm back, Papa. Bobby: coming to my party Friday? Papa: The answer is no! Let the children draw pictures that illustrate the main events in the story. Have them compare their picture stories. Do they all give the same information? Ask them to sequence their pictures andwrite their own captions for them. Is the information in the pictures and in the captions the same or different? If the story spans years or generations,ask the class to arrange events from it along a time line. Conflict A second group of activities that help from very minor conflicts (Mom wants Sue students to understand story structure is to wash her hair at night so she won't tie up concerned with conflict. Note that in order the bathroom in the morning, while Sue to say that we have a story at all, there must prefers to wait until the morning) to quite be a point of conflict. A story consists of important ones (Jim's best friend's parents establishing a conflict and then resolving it are getting divorced and the friend is caught in some way. As mentioned earlier, there in the middle). Imagine a possible solution are many kinds of conflicts in stories. The to each conflict. conflict can be a physical confrontation Present a brief paragraph like the following: L etween two or more people, a strong difference of opinion between two char- Joshua was a ten-year-old boy. He lived in acters, a struggle within a single person Pennsylvania. One day in April. Joshua with divided interests or mixed feelings, a woke up at 7:00. He grit dressed, washed his feud between two groups, a clash when one face and brushed his teeth. After breakfast, person opposes the wishes of his/her he went to school. He came home at 2:30. community, etc. Furthermore, there is Ask the students if they think this para- often more than one conflict in a story. For graph is a story or not. Is there a conflict example, in `JC' the overt conflict is between Joshua and his father, but there is here? Ask them to arrange the events of the story in a pyramid shape. No doubt they also a conflict within Joshua himself over will have difficulty doing so. Help them to what kind of life to lead, Amish or worldly. understand why. Now ask them to identify Another conflict which is not developed to any great degree involves Benny and the conflict in VC. Refer to your pyramid of Joshua. the program's events. Note that the major conflict first appears on the "rising action" line of the pyramid. To fully appreciate stories, students must become adept at identifying conflicts and After viewing a program, ask the class the their resolutions. The following exercises following questions: Who is disagreeing will help them to do so. with whom? Is the conflict a physical, mental or emotional one How is the conflict Have the class act out various conflicts, resolved? Can you think of other ways it ranging from those they are likely to have might be settled? How many conflicts can experienced in everyday home or school life you identify in the program? (a parent won't let them go on a trip; two Pinpoint scenes that dramatize the conflict students gang up on another in the dorm) to or harmony between two characters. Is those not based on personal experience (a there a visual symbol for the conflict? If so, person is wrongly convicted of a crime; how is it used? In the opening scenes of ',IC' an employee finds out his boss is cheating there is a long shot of Papa's carriage and his customers). Who is involved in each the school bus traveling down the road side conflict? How is it resolved? Have the class by side. The scene presages the conflict to propose alternative solutions. come between father and son. Identifying Instruct the students to keep a record of all such visual symbols is preparation for the conflicts they experience or witness on a recognition of symbolism in print. given day. Point out that they may range

31 .

Implied Moaning in the Episode dealt with From whose point of view is the storytold? So far in this section, we have point information that is overtly given inthe In literature, a narrator establishes a programsequencing events and identi- of view. This narrator may be oneof the of exercises characters in the story or an independent, fying conflict. The next group might encourages the class tothink about infor- outside agent. In television, there provided in the also be a narrator, or morecommonly, the mation that is not explicitly world from where a show. These exercises help develop the camera may see the students' inferential skillsthe ability to certain character stands. Ask the class world of draw further conclusions fromevidence and through whose eyes we see the been fill in implied meanings. IC'. Once the point of view has established, ask them to retell the story Imagine how the story would changeif one from another character's viewpoint. alternative of its components were different.For Dramatize the story from this example, ask students what would happen perspective. For example, howwould %IC' Papa's in IC' if: differ if it were told from Bobby's or perspective? What would be a goodtitle for out? Papa had given Joshua permission to go to the alternative story the class acts the party? Explain the difference between factand each Joshua had hurt himself while climbingoff opinion. Which kind of statement is item on a list like the following? the roof? Joshua had broken his leg while running to Joshua did not obey his father. the party in the middle of thenight? The Amish don't use electricity. Papa had not noticed his son's disappear- ance from home? Joshua's father is too strict. Joshua had gotten lost in the woodsafter Amish children don't have any fun. running away from his father? It is important in reading to beable to During the first viewing, stop the tape judge the importance of details and to frequently and ask students to predictthe understand the function of each bit of outcome of a particular action.For example, information. Not every paragraph on the in IC', stop the tape at the pointwhere page advances theplot; some passages character. The Papa denies his son's request to ge tothe create a mood or develop a for television, with an party and sends Joshua to his room.Ask, same holds true added consideration. In books, one isquite "What do you think Joshua will do next?" write What kind of evidence (insights intochar- free to digress and expound, to the prose. acter or human nature ingeneral) can they prose for the beauty of Television is, relative to print, a much more provide to support their predictior.? expensive medium. Therefore, we would expect there to be fewer extraneousdetails in a television program and aclear function for each scene. Television viewers must learn to recognize the purpose forwhich information is presented. In order to 32 Chatrecterization practice this skill, show the class a scene Another very important facet of story from a program it has already watched. For appreciation is an understanding of char- example, in VC', there is a scene where acterization and character development. Papa, Mama, Joshua and his little sister Stories give children a chance to scrutinize Becky eat dinner by lamplight. Joshua has human behavior in a controlled situation of a already asked his father about the party limited duration. The observation skills and earlier in the day and his father has told him language a student learns by watching a that they must wait to discuss the matter. character develop on screen can be carried The dialogue at dinner is as follows: over into real life, allowing that child to express feelings and ideas s/he might Mama: Becky and I made jelly-16 jars! otherwise never have had words for. The Becky tasted the jelly. following activities suggest ways the Papa: Good? teacher can help the class become more aware of each character's qualities, moti- Becky: The jelly was really good, Papa! vations :ind conflicts. Mama: Did you see our pretty flowers? List all the characters in the program. Papa: Yes. We should thank God for them. Describe their physical characteristics. Pick Right, Joshua? one outstanding physical characteristic for each name on the list. Stop the tape at this point and ask the class, "Is this scene very 'mportant in the story? Costumes help to define character. Describe the way each character dresses. Does Would you understand this program if we left out this scene?" (You might even play anything about each player's clothing give the tape kipping over the scene.) At this clues to the kind of person he or she is? For point, you might review plot summaries example, a black leather jacket might that the class has written to see if any of connote a tough, belligerent attitude, while the students included this interlude. Once a prim and proper "stuffed shirt" might there is a consensus that the scene is not wear a three-piece suit. crucial to the plot, ask the class why they Classify the characters in a number of think it was included in the show. The waysas adults vs. children, males vs. scene highlights the simplicity of Amish females, good guys vs. bad guys, etc. life. Household chores and nature are the Sometimes a character's name has special basis of dinner-table conversation, which provides a contrasting background to significance. You Might look up names in the Joshua's request to join in the outside Oxford English Dictionary or any book of world. names to see if this is so for the show you are working on. Ask the children to compare the way they would react in a certain situation to the way the main character reacts. What would they do if their father refused to give them permission to go to a party?

33 conflict with Ask the class to make a `spidergram'for A character's words sometimes each main character. Draw a circle on the facial expression. Note instanceswhere a board and have each child in turn provide a character says one thing but meansanother. characteristic that becomes a 'leg' extend- Does the main character change overthe ing from the circle. For example,Joshua's course of the program?Do Joshua's spidergram might look like this: reactions, opinions, and/or feelings atthe end of the show differ from those atthe beginning? How would the story change if thecharacter were different?What would happen if Joshua were black, or only five yearsold, or a girl? boy Amish Characters are often presented inpairs, as though they are either twins, orpsycho- logical and physical opposites. This notion may be explaineddiagrammatically in a Ai 'number of ways. IP'44- Ns

It may be difficuit fordeaf children to understand the concept ofpersonality at first. To introduce this concept,start with programs wherecharacters are portrayed absolutely: the WickedWitch in The Wizard of Oz is bad; Pollyannais good, etc. This activity can be a goodincentive for vocabulary building. Determine the characters' motivations. certain Why do they act the way they do in Bobby situations? In VC', when confrontedwith Joshua Benny's scorn toward his father,Joshua A says his father hasgiven him permission to II years old Why doe*, he lie like this? go to the party. live in same town with Require that conclusions be backed up boys details from the program. If theclass decides that Joshua's father is toostrict, what makes them believe this? Ask Joshua Bobby students to cite relevant scenes. Amish not Amish no electricity, TV has phone. TV 34 Theme Deaf readers may have difficulty under- Discuss the meaning of the show's title. standing the concept of theme. Maybe your Does it reflect the theme? Is it a good or bad students have worked on finding the main title? What other titles might the show idea in short paragraphs. Extend this skill have? to longer printed texts by finding the main Once the theme has been established, look idea in television programs first. Below are for visual symbols of it as you watch the some exercises for this purpose. program a second time. Ask your students what the program was Watch other programs with similar themes. about. Make a list of their suggestions, Discuss ways in which the shows are the perhaps in spidergram form. same and different.

Now break the most interesting suggestions down into specific instances. Conclusion

Captioned media can be used as a child's first exposure to the concepts ordinarily taught through printed stories, or they can be used simultaneously as these same skills are presented throughreading. One interesting use of captioned materials is to have the students read a story and also view a captioned versionof it. The Captioned Films for the Deaf theatrical catalog, for example, lists a number of children's classics for which simple and/or advanced books could be obtainedHeidi, The Wizard of Oz, Black Beauty, Alice in Wonderland, Rambi, Lady and the Tramp, Pinocchio, and Charlotte's Web are just a few of the titles available. The video support provided by the captioned version might inspire students to work through the printed text. There is probably no need to fear that repetition of the story (within limits) will bore readers or viewerswe know that children enjoy being sold or reading a story over and over again as they work to master its content.

The ideas we have presented here are just a beginning. Teachers will no doubt want to supplement our suggestions with additional activities. Captioned media can bring many hours of entertainment and exciting learning to hearing-impaired students. Approach these materials with a sense of discovery and above all, enjoy them!

36 References Eller, W. and Hester, K. (eds.) The Laid law Reading Program Scope and Sequence. River Forest, IL: Doubleday, 1976. Kane. H. (ed. Critical Television Viewing. New York: Cambridge, A Basic Skills Company, 1980. Ofiesh, G. "The potential of television for teaching the deaf." American Annals of the Deaf, October 1970, 115(4 ), 577-586. Rowland, P. T. The Addi- son and Wesley Reading Program Scope and Se- quence. Reading, MA: Addison and Wesley Pub- lishing Co., 1979. Stein, N. and Glenn, C. "The role of structural variation in children's recall of simple stories." Paper presented at the Society for Research in Child Develop- ment, New Orleans, 1977. 'rrybus, R. "What the Stan- ford Achievement Test has to say about the reading abilities of deaf children," in Reynolds, H. and Williams, C. (eds. ), Proceedings of the Gallaudet Conference on Reading in Relation to Deafness. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet College, May 1978. Sources of Captioned Media

Address Type(*) of Name and Phone Captioned Media How to Obtain

Modern Talking Pictures 5000 Park Street. North 1 For loan only. Service, Inc./Captioned St. Petersburg, FL 33700 1.100 16mm educational Must have account number Films for the Deaf. (800) 237-6213 films Apply to Florida address. 2 400 16mm theatrical/training and adult continuing education (ACE) films

:1 44 Multi-level 3/4" videocassettes (see Multi-level listing below)

The Multi-level Captioning The WGBH Caption Center Popular children's programs For loan only Must have CFD account. Project 125 Western Avenue 44 3/4" videocassettes cap- Boston. MA 02134 tioned at one or all of three (617) 492-2777 x.2810 reading levels (617) 491-5724(TDD) Restrictions Supplementary on Ws Coat Materials

1 1 Return postage at library 1 Educational titles ordered Shown to group with at leastrate ($.30-.40 per film) Separate catalogs for educa- from one of 58 regional de- one hearing-impaired indi- tional titles and theatrical/ positories nearest your vidual. training titles. school. 2 2 2 No admission fee can be Return postage at library Lesson guides for captioned Theatrical/training, ACE charged. rate (S2-S2.50 per film) films published annually for and Multi-level from: films captioned during that 3 Captioned Films for the year Cannot be shown on TV Deaf, Suite,223 624 East Walnut Street 4 Indianapolis, IN 46 Various responsibilities of (317) 637'9 borrower outlined in full in catalogs.

Order Similar to standard CFI) Return postage at library 1 Captio Films for the obligations of borrowers. rate. Listed in both CFI) catalogs. Deaf. Su e 223 624 East Walnut Street 2 Indiana tlis. IN 46204 Readable English .for Hear- (317) 63 -$204 ing-Impaired Students: manual of guidelines for editing materials at three levels of difficulty.

39 110 Sources of Captioned Media, continued

Address Typele) of and Phone Captioned Media How to Obtain For loan or sale from address Gallaudet Media Distribu- c/o Gallaudet College Various historical, educa- listed at left. tion Library tional and theatrical titles 7th & Florida Avenues. 16mm films, 3/4" U-matic N. E. videoCassettes (not all pro- Washington, D.C. 20002 grams in both formats) (202) 651-5580 (voice) (202) 651-5579(TDD)

Division for Media Develop-36 adult-level informational Contact individual dis- Adapted Media Exchange tributors listed in catalog. Project ment & Services, N.T.I.D. films, filmstrips or slide One Lomb Memorial Drive shows Rochester, NY 14623

Order from address at left. International Film Bureau, 332 S. Michigan Avenue Curriculum areas include Inc. Chicago, IL 60604 art, social studies, language (312) 427-4545 arts, science, mathematics 1'6 mm color films and videocassettes Order from address at left. Screen News Digest Hearst Metrotone News Volume 1: energy, business Codaeap (TM) Division of the Hearst Corp. and economics, science, Coded-Captioned Films 235 East 45th Street polities. (Concepts and facts New York, NY 10017 are coded and identified.) (212) 682-7600 x278 8 16mm films Order from address at left. National Geographic SocietyDepartment 81 Natural history and science Educational Services Washington, D.C. 20036 Limited number of cap- (301) 948-5926 tioned 16mm films and filmstrips Restrictions Supplementary on Use Cost 'Notarial*

I ,Cannot be copied, broad- Return shipping and insur- Catalog of films and video- Loan requests should be cast, or shown where ance ($300 for 16mm film; tapes available to the public. made at least S weeks admission is charged. $50 for videocassette). Catalog of captioned off-the- ahead of use date. Cassette prices vary from air broadcast recordings to 2 $37 to $165, depending on be shared with non-profit Loan orders filled on first- length. educational institutions come, first-served basis. serving the deaf only. 3 Normal use period is one week. 4 Shipped and returned by United Parcel Service (UPS)

Prices vary according to 16 mm film available for length. rental from several film rental libraries and from free loan services. Catalog lists.

$250 each or $1,500 for all.

Other National Geographic films available from Cap- tioned Films for the Deaf (see above).

41 Bibliography

While the basic concept behind captioningis relatively simple, that of conveying the soundtrack of a program in printedwords on the screen, there is actually much moreto captioning than that. Spoken communication is a cimplex phenomenon and cap- tioners must devise ways to convey aspects of speech such as intonation, rhythmand dialects. When writing and displaying captions, there are a number offactors which must be considered: linguistic complexity, placement of the captions onthe screen,"rate of presentation, therelation of thecaptions to the underlying video,the effectiveness of using special techniques such as colors, moving captions, etc. Techniques must be developed to dealwith speakers or sound effects thathappen off- screen, music,narration. etc.

Researchers have looked into manyof these areas and haveconducted studies ranging from controlled laboratoryevaluations to subjective viewer preference surveys.The bibliography which follows lists articlesand books from 1970 to the presentwhich per- tain to the field of captioned media.

42 "Advertising interest in Ball, C. "Project ABCQ: Braverman, '3. "CaptioningBraverman, B. and Cronin, captioned TV shows grows."Caption Center question- research: a summary of the B. "Television and the deaf." Advertising Age, April 10, naire results." Boston: results of a cooperative Journal of Educational 1978, 59. WGBH-TV, 1974. research effort between the Technology Systems, 1978- WGBH Caption Center and "Affecting the human poten- 79, 7, 7-18. Ball, J. "Television for the the Department of Instruc- tial of the deaf student: an- deaf." Paper presented at tional Television, National Braverman, B., Cronin, B. other role for educational the 48th NAEB Convention,Technical Institute for the and Hertzog, M. Caption- media." American Annals Las Vegas, October 31, Deaf." Rochester, NY: ing: Shared Perspectives. of the Deaf, October 1972, 1972. NTID, December 1980. Proceedings of a National complete issue. Captioning Conference, Belletleur, P. "Radio/tele- Braverman, B. "The effects Agency for Instructional type communications NTID, Rochester, NY, June of caption language level and Television, et al. "Affectivesystems: an adjunct to tele- 1-3, 1978. viewer reading ability on films for the hearing-im- vision captions for the deaf." comprehension of captioned Braverman, B., et al. "A paired child: a test of cap- Philadelphia: Pennsylvania television." Final report for report on two pilot studies in tioned INSIDE/OUT pro- School for the Deaf, 1978. The Caption Center, captioning research." grams." Indiana: Agency for Bickman, L., Roth, T., et WGBH, Boston. Rochester, NY: NTID, Instructional Television, 1977. al. "An evaluation of cap- Braverman, B. "The effects 1977. tioned television for the of caption rate and informa- Braverman, B. and Harri- American Educational Re-deaf: final report." Evans- tion density on comprehen- son, M. "The acquisition of search Association, et al. ton, IL: Westinghouse sion of a videti presentation."idioms from a captioned "The effect of reading level, Evaluation Institute, June Final report for The Captiontelevision program." visual display and cognitive 1979. Center, WGBH, Boston. Rochester, NY: NTID, style on learning from cap- 1977. tioned instruction." Toronto:Blatt, J. and Sulzer, J. Braverman, B. (ed.) "Pro- AERA. 1978. "Captioned television and gram of captioning re- Braverman, B., Harrison. hearing-impaired viewers: search." Rochester, NY: M., Dowaliby, F. and Andrews, J. "Our eyes are the report of a national sur- NTID, 1979. Bowker, D. "The effect of always on television." Amer-vey." American Annals of reading level, visual display ican Annals of the Deaf. the Deaf, December 1981, Braverman, B. "Review of and cognitive style on learn- 1980. 126(9), 1017-1023. literature in instructional ing from captioned instruc- television: implications for Austin, B. "The deaf audi- Boatner, E. "Captioned tion." Paper presented at deaf learners." American ence for television: a bibli- films for the deaf." Ameri- the American Educational Annals of the Deaf, August ographic essay on empirical can Annals of the Deaf. Research Association, 1977, 395-402. research, 1950-1978." Jour-August 1981, 126( 5), 520- Toronto, March 1978. nal of Comm u n icat ions, 525. Braverman, B. "Television Braverman, B., Heffernan, Spring 1980, .10(2 ), 25-30. captioning strategies: a sys- P, and Montandon, B. Boyd, J. and Vader, E. tematic research and de- "Back to media: how to use "Captioned television for the "Toward effective utilization velopment approach." of captioned materials in the better what you already deaf." American Annals ofAmerican Annals of the have." American Annals of classroom." Paper pre- the Deaf, February 1972, Deaf, December 1981, the Deaf. 1980, 125(6/, com- sented at CA ID Convention, 117(.5), 34-37. 126(9), 1031-1036. plete issue. Rochester, NY, June 1981.

43 Canon, G. "Television cap- "Communicative television Earley, S. "Captioning at Braverman, B. and WGBH-TV." Boston: The Hertaog, M. "The effect of tioning at the Clarke School for the deaf student." Amer- for the Deaf." American ican Annals of the Deaf, CaptionCenter, WGBH - caption rate and language TV, 1978. level on comprehension of a Annals of the Deaf, 1980, October 1970, complete captioned video presenta- 125(6). issue. Earley, S. "Captions bring tion." Final report for The Caption Center, et al. Cronin, B. J. "Closed-cap- ZOOM to hearing-impaired Caption Center, WGBH, "Hearing-impaired viewer tion television: today and children." The Deaf Boston. reactions to alternative fontstomorrow." American American, May 1976, 28, 15. Braverman, B. and for television captions." Annals of the Deaf, 1980, "Educational technology for Hertzog, M. "SynchronizingBoston: WGBH-TV, 1978. 125, 726-728. the 80's." American Annals audio with edited captions: "The Captioned ABC Davila, R. "Effects of of the Deaf, September 1979, the effects upon the com- Evening News: Common changes in visual informa- 124(5), complete issue. prehension of deaf and hard-questions and accurate tion patterns on students' Federal Communications of-hearing viewers of chil- answers." The Deaf achievement using a cap- Commission. Amendment dren's entertainment pro- American, March 1975, tioned film and specially of part 73 of the rules to grams." Final report for The27(7), 3-4. adapted still pictures." establish requirements for Caption Center, WGBH, Unpublished doctoral dis- "The Captioned FRENCH captioning of emergency Boston. sertation, Syracuse Univer-messages on television. 61 CHEF: A study of the deaf sity, 1972. Brown, L. "Captions for and hearing-impaired FCC. 2d(1977), 18-22, deaf to be shown on TV." audience." Cleveland, OH: Decker, N. "CharacteristicsDocket #20659. The New York Times, WVIZ-TV. of hearing-impaired televi- Federal Communications February 28,1974, 66. sion viewers." Boston: The "Captioned TV for deaf soon Commit-salon. Amendment Caccamise, F., Blasdell, R. Caption Center, WGBH, of subpart e, part 73, of the to be announced." Broad- 1979. and Meath-Lang, B. "Hear-casting, March 12, 1979, 42. Commission's Rules and ing-impaired persons' simul- "Developments in communi-Regulations, to reserve line taneous reception of infor- "Captioned TV in primetimecation technology for the 21 of t1vertical blanking mation under live and two hours." Boston: WGBH-TV,hearing impaired." Ameri- interval of the television visual motion media condi- September 8, 1976. can Annals of theDeaf, broadcast signal for - tions." American Annals of"Career education and edu- 1978,128(6), complete issue.captioning for the deaf. 63 the Deaf, June 1977, 339- FCC.. 2d(1977), 378-392, cational media for the deaf Dickerson, L. "Survey of 343. Docket #20693. student." American Annals hearing impaired." Madison, Caldwell, D. "The Public of the Deaf, October 1973, WI: WHA-TV, 1977. Fischer, 1). "Improvement Broadcasting Service complete issue. in the utilization of captioned closed-captioning project: a Dooley, I. "An evaluation offilms for the deaf." Doctoral Carson, L., "The captioning WGBH-TV multi-level status report." Paper pre- process: Productiontech- dissertation, University of sented at A. G. Bell Associa- linguistic complexity and Nebraska, University niques at the National synchronous captioning tion national convention, Technical Institute for the microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI: Boston, 1976. techniques with educable No. T1-19482, 1971. Deaf." Rochester, NY: mentally retarded children." Caldwell, D. "Use of gradedNTID, Spring 1978. Final report for The Caption captions with instructional Center, WGBH, Boston. television for deaf learners." American. Annals of the "Door is opened on closed Deaf; August 1973, 118(.1), captioning." Broadcasting, March 26, 1979, 32-33. 500-507. 44 Flagg, B., Carrozza, F. andGallaudet, et al. "A surveyGetson, P. "Perspectives Herman, V. and Venus, P. Jenkins, R. "Perception andof media equipment avail- for captioning: the captioned"Survey of the hearing im- comprehension of captioned able in special educational film and vocabulary project paired." Madison, WI: television:A*44 study." programs for hearing- at the Model Secondary WHA-TV, 1977. Unpublished manuscript. impaired students, 1977- School for the Deaf." Higgins, E. "Television for Cambridge, Mk. Harvard 78. " Washington, D.C.: Washington, D.C.: MSSD, deaf viewers." Gallaudet University, Center. for Gallaudet College, 1978. 1978. Today, Washington, B.C.: Research in Children's Gates, R. "The differential Goldfeder, C. and Gold- Gallaudet College, Winter Television, May 1980. effectiveness of various feder, J. "Television: a 1973. Flagg, B., Carrozza, F., modes of presenting verbal teaching tool for deaf stu- Fenton, T. and Jenkins, R. information to deaf studentsdents." American Annals ofHutchins, J. and Osterer, "Hearing-impaired through modified television the Deaf, August 1975, C. "Captioning processes at The Caption Center, children's eye movement format." Unpublished 120(4), 406-407. WGBH, Boston." Boston: doctoral dissertation, patterns in response to Good, J. "Television's University of Pittsburgh, WGBH-TV, 1978. captioned television." Paper potential to deaf persons." presented at annual meeting 1970. American Annals of the Jackson, R. "Television and of NAEB, October 1980. the deaf." The Deaf Ameri- Gates, R. "The reception ofDeaf, August 1973, 118(4), can, April 1974, 26(8), 10- Flood, J. "WGBH verbal information by deaf 496-499. captioning materials: students through a 11. Graham, L. and Loysen, G. Reading-disabled population Jackson, W. and Perkins, television mediuma "Realizing the full potential evaluation report." Final comparison of R. "Television for deaf of captioned education films report for The Caption speechreading, manual learners: a utilization for the deaf through lesson Center, WGBH, Boston. communication and guide utilization." Americanquandary." American reading." Proceedings of the Annals of thR Deaf, October Freebairn, T. Television for Annals of the Deaf, 1980, CAID Convention, Little 1974, 119(5), 537-548. the Deaf: Selected Projects. 125(6), 817-822. Rock, AK, 1971. New York: New York Hakuta, K. "Evahlation of Kelley, It. "Has educational Getson, P. "Captioning University, Deafness WGBH synchronous cap- technology misplaced the ,,' methodologies for enhanced Research and Training tions with bilingual stu- deaf learner?" American reading level and vocabulary Center, 1974. dents." Final report for TheAnnals of the Deaf, August Freebairn, T. and development." Paper Caption Center, WGBH, 1972, 117(4), 427-430. presented at the American Sternberg, M. "Television Boston. Lance, W. D. "Technology Educational Research for hearing-impaired audi- and media for exceptional Association, San Francisco, Harmonay, M. Promise ences." The Deaf American, and Performance: Childrenlearners: looking ahead." December 1974, 26, 23-24. 1979. with Special Needs. Cam- Exceptional Children, 1977, Getson, P. "Factors 444, 92-97. Freebairn, T., Stewart, A., bridge, MA: Ballinger Pub- influencing the content Delk, M. and Gentile, N. lishing Company, 1977. Leahy, R. and Percy, C. acquisition of hearing- "Evaluation of THE "The fate of line 21: Will the impaired adolescents using Harrison, M. and Braver- CAPTIONED ABC NEWS: deaf 'hear' TV?" The Wash- selected types of captioned man, B. "Legibility factors Final report." New York: related to the captioning of ington Post, September 7, New York University, video materials." Paper video displays: a review of 1976, 19A. Deafness Research and presented at annual meeting of CAID, Austin, TX, 1979.the literature." Rochester, Training Center, 1976. NY: NTID, 1978. 45 Peterson, P. C. "The influ- Levitov, B. "Evaluation of National Captioning insti-O'Bryan, K. "Captioning ence of horizontal camera THE CAPTIONED ABC tute, Department of Re- television programs for the search. Various articles on deaf: report of basic find- angle on deaf viewers' NEWS." Boston: understanding of and pref- WGBH-TV, 1976. captioning research. Falls ings." Toronto: Ontario Church, VA: NCI, 81/1-3, Educational Communica- erence for a television pre. McCoy, E. B. and Shum- 81/5-16, 1981. tions Authority, 1975. sentation using simul- way, R. "Real-time caption- taneous sign language and ingpromise for the Nix, G. "The effect of syn- O'Bryan, K. "Eye move- speech." Unpublished future." Alexandria, VA: chronized captioning on the ment research report on doctoral dissertation, Teledyne/Geotech, Micro- assimilation of vocabulary captioning television pro- Syracuse University, 1976. computer Design Center, and concepts." Doctoral dis-grams for the deaf." Propp, G. "An experimental 1979. sertation, University of Toronto: Ontario Educa- Oregon. Ann Arbor, MI: tional Communications study on the encoding of Miller, R. M. "A study to University Microfilms Inter-Authority, 1975. verbal information for visual determine the efficacy of national #72-8584, 1971. transmission to the hearing- captioned and interpreted O'Bryan, K. and Silber- impaired learner." Unpub- versions of an instructional Nomeland, R. "The effects man, H. "Summary of lished doctoral dissertation, television program." Doc- of inserts and captions on research findings for Chil- University of Nebraska, toral dissertation, Temple learning with deaf subjects dren's Television Work- 1972. using motion and still pic- shop." Oraario: Ontario University, University Public Service Programs of Microfilms #7910013, 1979. tures." Unpublished doc- Institute for Studies in toral dissertation, Syracuse Education, 1974. Gallaudet College. "Now of televi- Murphy-Berman, V. and University, 1973. see this: a survey Whobrey, L. "The impact of Mesh, G. "The potential of sion stations programming captions on hearing-im- Norwood, M. J. "Captionedtelevision for teaching the for deaf viewers." Washing- paired children's affective films for the deaf." Excep- deaf." American Annals of ton, D.C.: Gallaudet Col- reaction to television." Finaltional Children, 1976, 43. the Deaf, October 1970, lege, 1977. 115( 4), 577-586. report for The Caption Norwood, M. J. "Compari- Raymond, S. "How about Center, WGBH, Boston. son of an interpretedand Parlato, S. "Those other that: TV programs for deaf Murphy-Berman, V., captioned newscast among captioned films .. cap- students." American Jorgensen, J. and Shul- deaf high school graduates tioned educational films." Annals of the Deaf, Septem- man, J. "Evaluation of a and deaf college graduates."American Annals of the ber 1980, 125(6). Unpublished doctoral dis- Deaf, 1977, /22(i), 33-37. multi-level linguistic ap- Reiner, L. and Rockwell, proach to captioning televi- sertation, University of Panko, J. "The learning Maryland, 1976. D. "A study of instructional sion for hearing-impaired effects of visually mediating film captioning for deaf stu- children." Final report for Nygren, C. and Withrow, verbal presentation formats dents." Unpublished manu- The Caption Center, F. "Handicapped children on post-secondary stu- script, Rochester, NY: WGBH, Boston. and television." Columbus, dents." Unpublished doc- NTID, 1971. OH: Battelle Center for Im-toral dissertation, Univer- proved Education, 1975. sity of Pittsburgh, 1975. Perkins, R. "Proceedings of the first national conference on television for thehearing impaired." Knoxville, TN: December 14-16, 1971. Rosenbloom, B. "Guide- Shroyer, E. and Birch, J. Stepp, R., et al. "Sym- "Television and the deaf." lines to writing or rewriting "Captions and reading ratesposium on research and utili-Gallaudet Today, Washing- materials for deaf students of hearing-impaired stu- zation of educational media ton, D.C.: Gallaudet Col- with special emphasis on dents." American Annals offor teaching the deaf." lege, Winter 1973, 4(2). American Annals of the syntax." Unpublished the Deaf, 1980, 125, 916-922. "Television for deaf audi- manuscript. Washington, Deaf, 1970, 115,543-656. ences: A summary of the D.C.: Model Secondary Shulman, .1. "Analysis of the linguistic and non-lin- Stuckless, E. R. and current status." New York: School for the Deaf, Gal- Loutiel, L. "Real-time New York University, laudet College, 1978. guistic parameters affecting multi-level captioning for graphic display." Unpub- Deafness Research and Sewer, D. E. "A media ex- hearing-impaired children." lished manuscript, Roches- Training Center, April 1972. ter, NY: Rochester Institute perience in deaf education." Boston: The Caption Center, Thomson, P. "Closed cap- American Annals of the of Technology, 1972. WGBH, 1977. tions for TV." Today's Deaf, 1977, 122, 462-467. Shulman, J. and Decker, N.Stuckless, E. R. and Pol- Education, September/ Sendelbaugh, J. "Television"Multi-level captioning: a lard, G. "Processing of October 1981, 31-33. system for preparing read- fingerspelling and print by viewing habits of hearing- Torr, D. "Captioning project ing materials for the hearingdeaf students." American impaired teenagers in the evaluation final report." impaired." American Annals of the Deaf, 1977, Chicago metropolitan area." Washington, D.C.: Gallau- Annals of the Deaf, Septem-122(5), 475-479. American Annals of the det College, Office of Educa- ber 1979, 124(5). Deal; August 1978, 12.05), "Subtitles for TV and films."tional Technology, Decem- 536-541. Shulman, J. and Decker, N.American Education, ber 1974. March 1977, 13, 18-22. Sendelbaugh, J. and (eds. ) Readable English for Waugh, M. "Caption writ Hearing-Impaired Stu- Powell, J. "Television for Teachman, G. "A profile ofing techniques." Paper given dents. Boston: The Caption the deaf: a comparative the 8 to 10-year-old deaf at CEASD Convention, study of eleven nations." Center, WGBH, 1980. child's leisure activities andWashington, D.C., 1978. American Annals of the Shulman, J. and Wilson, K.TV viewing habits." Deaf, February 1978, Wells, D. "Captioning for "A multi-level linguistic Toronto: Ontario Educa- 123( 1), 31-34. tional Communications the Deaf: a PBS progress approach to captioning tele- report." SMPTE Journal, vision for hearing-impaired Authority, Office of Project Shaw, G. "Television September 1980, 89, 656- viewing habits of hearing- children." Boston: The Cap- Research, report #3, Janu- 658. impaired high school stu- tion Center, WGBH, 1978. ary 1980. White, A. and Stevenson, dents ina residential school Stillman, D. "Line 21, Teachman, G. and Duggan, V. "The effects of total com- setting." Department of closed captioning of televi- K. "The effectiveness of cap- munication, manual com- Radio-TV-Film, University tioned television programs sion programs: A progress munication, oral communi- of Texas, Austin, 1979. report." American Annals for deaf and hearing- cation and reading on the impaired children." Toronto: Shroyer, E. "A comparativeof the Deaf, W78, 123, 723- learning of factual informa- Ontario Educational Com- analysis of the readability 725. tion in residential school deaf munications Authority, and reading rates of cap- children." American Annals tioned films." Doctoral dis- August 1977. of the Deaf, 1975, 120, 48-57. sertation, University of Pittsburgh, University Microfilms International, 1973.

IP° 47 Wilson, K. and Nolen, W. "Multi-level synchronous captioning with mentally retarded, bilingual, reading disabled, hard-of-hearing and deaf children." Final report for The Caption Cen- ter, WGBH, Boston, No- vember 1979. Winslow, L. "Formative evaluation of captioned ZOOM." Boston: The Cap- tion Center, WGBH, 1976. Withrow, M. 'Me effects of different modes of captioning motion picture films on the learning of visual symbol association tasks of deaf adolescents." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1973. WXXIIIIT. "News for the deaf: W X X I-TV. " Roches- ter, NY: 1972. Ziev, J. "Sesame Street captioned for the deaf." American Annals of the Deaf, October 1970, 115(6), 630-631.