Access to Elementary Education in India Country Analytical Review
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Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Sussex Research Online Access to Elementary Education in India Country Analytical Review R. Govinda Madhumita Bandyopadhyay July 2008 National University of Educational Planning and Administration NUEPA The Consortium for Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE) is a Research Programme Consortium supported by the UK Department for International Development (DFID). Its purpose is to undertake research designed to improve access to basic education in developing countries. It seeks to achieve this through generating new knowledge and encouraging its application through effective communication and dissemination to national and international development agencies, national governments, education and development professionals, non-government organisations and other interested stakeholders. Access to basic education lies at the heart of development. Lack of educational access, and securely acquired knowledge and skill, is both a part of the definition of poverty, and a means for its diminution. Sustained access to meaningful learning that has value is critical to long term improvements in productivity, the reduction of inter-generational cycles of poverty, demographic transition, preventive health care, the empowerment of women, and reductions in inequality. The CREATE partners CREATE is developing its research collaboratively with partners in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The lead partner of CREATE is the Centre for International Education at the University of Sussex. The partners are: The Centre for International Education, University of Sussex: Professor Keith M Lewin (Director) The Institute of Education and Development, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh: Dr Manzoor Ahmed The National University of Educational Planning and Administration, Delhi, India: Professor R Govinda The Education Policy Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa: Dr Shireen Motala The Universities of Education at Winneba and Cape Coast, Ghana: Professor Jerome Djangmah The Institute of Education, University of London: Professor Angela W Little Disclaimer The research on which this paper is based was commissioned by the Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (CREATE http://www.create-rpc.org). CREATE is funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries and is coordinated from the Centre for International Education, University of Sussex. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of DFID, NUEPA, or the CREATE Team. Copyright © CREATE 2008 ISBN: 0-901881-15-5 Address for correspondence: CREATE, Centre for International Education, Sussex School of Education, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QQ, United Kingdom Tel: + 44 (0) 1273 678464 Website: http://www.create-rpc.org Email [email protected] National University of Educational Planning and Administration 17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi-110016 Email: [email protected] Please contact CREATE using the details above if you require a hard copy of this publication. Access to Elementary Education in India: Country Analytical Review R. Govinda Madhumita Bandyopadhyay July 2008 Contents List of Acronyms ...........................................................................................................v Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................vi Summary......................................................................................................................vii 1. Introduction................................................................................................................1 2. The State of Elementary Education in India: An Overview ......................................4 2.1 The Education System in India.......................................................................4 2.2 Coverage and Growth of Schooling Facilities................................................5 2.3 Education Providers........................................................................................8 2.4 Enrolment and Participation...........................................................................9 2.4.1 Enrolment and Types of Schools .....................................................12 2.5 Schooling in Small Habitations and for Hard-to-Reach Children................13 2.6 Disparities and Inequities in Elementary Education ....................................15 2.7 Children with Special Needs ........................................................................16 2.8 Teacher Provision and Management ............................................................18 2.8.1 Varying Levels of Demand for Teachers Across the States ............20 2.8.2 Teacher Management and Training...........................................................21 2.8.3 Availability and Deployment of Teachers .......................................22 2.8.4 Recruitment of Para-Teachers..........................................................24 2.8.5 Teacher Motivation and Performance..............................................26 2.9 Financing of Elementary Education .............................................................28 2.9.1 Spending on Elementary Education in Recent Years ......................28 2.9.2 Fund Flow, Utilization and Accountability......................................29 2.10 Overall Observations..................................................................................30 3. Zones of Exclusion: Drawing the Contours.............................................................32 3.1 Zone 1: Children Not Entering Primary School...........................................33 3.2 Zone 2: Children Dropping Out from Primary School.................................36 3.2.1 Why Do Children Drop Out?...........................................................37 3.3 Zone 3: Children At Risk of Exclusion ........................................................38 3.4 Zone 4: Children Who Complete Primary School But Do Not Enter Upper Primary School ...................................................................................................41 3.5 Zone 5: Children Who Drop Out from Upper Primary School....................43 3.5.1 Why Do Children Drop Out from Upper Primary Schools?............45 3.5.2 Transitions from Upper Primary to Secondary: Backwash Effects on Upper Primary Schooling..........................................................................46 3.7 Out-of-school Children and School Enrolments ..........................................47 3.8 Overall Observations....................................................................................49 4. Profile of Excluded Children: Who Goes to School and Who Does Not? ..............51 4.1 Health, Nutritional Status and School Participation.....................................52 4.1.1 Quality of Life of Indian Children ...................................................52 4.1.2 Health, Nutrition and Educational Participation..............................54 4.2 Poverty, Child Labour and School Access...................................................56 4.2.1 Education of Children from Low Income Groups ...........................56 4.2.2 Children Affected by Migration.......................................................57 4.2.3 Education and Child Labour ............................................................59 4.2.4 The Magnitude of Child Labour and School Attendance: State-level Analysis.....................................................................................................61 4.3 Children of Illiterate Parents: First Generation Learners .............................63 ii 4.3.1 The Shankarpalle Experience...........................................................64 4.4 Children from Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Communities: Poverty and Social Discrimination ..................................................................................65 4.5 Gender and Social Background: Double Disadvantage for Girls.................67 4.6 Overall Observations....................................................................................69 5. Issues and Priorities for Action and Research .........................................................71 5.1 Understanding Exclusion as a Process .........................................................72 5.2 Unraveling the Nexus of Poverty, Social Inequity and Gender Discrimination ....................................................................................................72 5.3 Including ‘Invisible’ Children from the Margins .........................................74 5.4 Diversification and Disadvantage.................................................................74 5.5 ECCE, Nutrition, Health and Schooling Access ..........................................75 5.5.1 Understanding the Implementation of the Mid-Day Meal Scheme .76 5.6 Schooling Governance, Community Participation and Educational Exclusion ............................................................................................................................76 5.7 Re-examining the Role of Private Providers................................................77 5.8 Breaking the Inter-generational Cycle of Illiteracy: Acting Beyond the School Walls.......................................................................................................77