ISSN: 2455-3220 International Journal for Social Studies Volume 03 Issue 11 Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals October 2017

The Status of Tribal Women in : Responding to India's Social Challenges.

-Dr. ASHA SOUGAIJAM Department of Sociology Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Regional Campus, Chingmeirong, Adhimjati Complex, Imphal-795001, . INTRODUCTION

Northeast India, considered as one of most interest in developing the living standards and culturally diverse regions of the world, is a tourism among these tribal occupied states. land inhabited by more than 200 fascinating tribes. It is no wonder the region has ever- Different ethnic groups and tribal groups since captured the imaginations of inhabit the region of northeast India. They all anthropologists from all over the world. have their own culture and tribal tradition and all speak their own tribal languages. This has The north eastern part of India shares its made Northeast India one of the most boundary with China, Nepal, Bhutan, culturally diverse regions of the world. The Myanmar and Bangladesh. Northeast India cuisines and attires also vary among the tribes. comprises of eight states. They are Mizoram, Each tribal community has their unique way of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Manipur, living. Tribal people mostly live and earn , Meghalaya and Tripura. Nagaland through the hills and forest areas. and Manipur share their boundary with Myanmar. Meghalaya and Tripura share it ORIGIN OF THE TRIBES with Bangladesh whereas Assam shares it‟s North East Indian tribes have originated with Bhutan. Sikkim shares its boundary with from the ethnic groups of Tibeto-Burmese, China, Nepal, and Bhutan. Mizoram shares proto Austrioloids and some groups of Indo with Bangladesh and Myanmar, and Arunachal Mongoloids. The trend can be seen in the Pradesh have their boundaries shared with looks, traditions that are visibly followed by China and Myanmar. The closeness of the these communities. They also show a cultural region so many international borders have left bridging with the neighbouring countries. And the region much unexplored due to its India has till now provided them with a safe sensitivity. haven, compared to living in neighbouring The entire area of northeast India is full of communist nations of China and Burma. lush green valleys, mountains, springs and TYPES OF NORTH-EAST INDIAN green vegetation. The land with its natural TRIBES beauty and cultural heritage has always topped the list of an ideal destination for travellers North-East tribes constitute a major part of from India and World. Vast research and Indian tribal community. They are all scattered studies are also done by scholars and research over all the states of North East. Arunachal groups who wish to learn about the life, food Pradesh consists of around 25 types of tribes. habits, culture, tradition, language and source Manipur consists of around 33 types of tribal of living among the tribes. The Indian community. Nagaland has around more than Government has also started taking keen 16 major tribes even. Some examples of

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prominent tribes are Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Adi, cotton and spun yarns. Using Nyishi, Angami, , Kuki, Rengma, Bodo vegetable dye, beautiful and intricate and Deori. They are scattered throughout the designs are woven which are mostly region. Christian-ism is followed among many geometric in nature. Kuki men wear of the tribes and some also follow Hinduism colorful Sangkhol, a jacket and a and Buddhism. The rest still have their „Pheichawm‟ (short dhoti). Sometimes indigenous beliefs and practise animism. a Chaddar or a wrap is used. They also wear Tuhpah (head cover). Women Some major tribes of North Eastern India and wear a nih-san underneath a pon've or the position of their women are:- a wraparound. The dress is worn from above the chest. Ornaments include  The Bodo Tribe is a vast tribe and earrings, bracelets, bangles, necklace shares a good number of populations in Assam. The tribal people have also and a typical ring shaped earring to migrated to other parts of India as well stretch the ear lobe. Smoking is enjoyed among these people. as to neighbouring countries. It‟s said Extensively crafted pipes are used for that Bodo tribes have introduced rice cultivation, tea plantation, poultry this purpose and are made up of stone farming, and silkworm rearing in the and brass-metal. They prefer cross- North Eastern parts of India. Bodos cousin marriage. Mimkuut Festival is the major festival celebrated by Kukis are non vegetarians and rice is and falls in the month of January. considered a staple food, and the traditional favourite drink of the  Adi Tribe (have two divisions namely Bodos is Zu Mai (rice wine). Rice is Bogums and Bomis) are found in Arunachal Pradesh. They live on the usually accompanied by a non hills and have their own village vegetarian dish such as fish, meat or pork. Weaving and silkworm rearing council. This group is again divided is another part of Bodo culture. Many into various small sub tribes. The families rear their own silkworms. The dress for women and men are naturally weaved by the women folk of the cocoons of the silkworms are spun tribes. Men wear helmets made from into silk. Bodo women teach their girls the art of weaving from a young age. cane, bear and deer skin, depending on One can always find a Bodo courtyard the region. Older women wear yellow necklaces and spiral earrings. Beyop is with a loom. Women weave and wear worn by unmarried girls (ornament their own Dokhnas, which is the traditional dress of the Bodo women consisting of five to six brass plates with shawls. The Bodos are also fixed under their petticoats). Tattooing expert in making beautiful crafts from of hands, arms and face is very popular among the older women of the bamboo. neighboring Apatani Tribe. Rice  Kuki Tribe or the migrant ones can be found all over the northeastern states. cultivation is practiced by this The language of the tribe varies but community and rice serves as the staple foods for the Adi. Trapping and are all similar in a way, and can hunting is also popular and the Adi broadly be termed as the Kuki Language. They prefer to live on people keep pigs, chickens and grow hilltops. The villages of Kuki tribes vegetables in their home. are a cluster of closely constructed  Nyishi or Nishi Tribe has originated from the Indo-Mongoloid stock. They houses. The tribe cultivates dwarf

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are mainly inhabited in the lower other. Men wear shawls and women region of the Subansiri district in wear Mechala. It‟s a wrap around skirt Arunachal Pradesh. They are and shawls with unique designs and considered a large tribe according to patterns. Both men and women enjoy the area and population in Arunachal wearing beautiful ornaments which Pradesh. Their spoken language is comprise of beads, pendants, bangles different from the other tribes, which and bracelets. Angamis are popular for is a part of the Tibeto-Burman their woodcraft and artwork and are language family. The hairstyles of the famous among Indian people as tribe‟s are unique. They plait their hair producer of bamboo work, cane and tie it neatly at the forehead using a furniture, beds and shawls. Music is a Tibetan thread. Skewer made up of part of this group and is played with brass is passed horizontally through the help of drum and flute. This art is the tied hair. Rings made up of cane passed on from one generation to the are worn around the waist, arms and other. Music plays the important role legs. Additional decorations vary from in their rituals and festivals. a person to person. Men wear Traditional dancing is also performed sleeveless shirts made from thick by the tribe during festivals and cotton cloth. Striped gaily with blue occasions. Angami women also and red together with a mantle of practice pottery and basket making. cotton or wool are worn around the Pork with bamboo shoot is considered throat and shoulders. Strings made of one of the common dishes among the beads are also worn, mainly for Angamis. decoration purpose. The Nyishi  Rengma Tribe are a Naga tribal women generally wear a sleeveless community, and are found in both mantle of striped or plain cloth. The Nagaland and Assam. The total upper part is tucked tightly over the population is more than 50,000 in breast. It allows the body to envelop entire Nagaland. The community is from the armpits to the center of the further divided into two categories - calves. A ribbon is tied at the waist. A Eastern and Western Rengma‟s. They girdle and cane garters are worn at the are considered experts in terrace waist. Hair is parted in the middle, cultivation. The traditional Rengma plaited and tied. The ornaments for the clothing consists of various types of females include colorful bead clothes and is worn according to the necklaces, brass chains, metal bells, status and position of the weavers. silver earrings and heavy bracelets of Rhikho is worn by a man who has various metals. never been able to offer a great feast  One of the major tribal communities or has never killed and enemy. Rhikho of Nagaland is the Angami Tribe. This is a white cloth with four narrow black community is also found in Manipur bands and the number of black bands and has a total population of 12 varies with the age of the wearer. million. The tribal community follows Moyet tsu, another ordinary type of Christianity and speak Tenyidie. They cloth are usually worn by the young cultivate rice and grains on the hilly men. It is a dark blue cloth with a very areas. The pattern and design of the broad median band, with the red clothes worn by the Angami men and zigzag pattern at the edges. Alungtsu women are almost different from each is a cloth worn by well-to-do men.

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Rengmas are famous for making Christianity. These tribes speak the yellow dye from the flowers of a tree. Garo language. This language is They also practice painting on cloth. further divided into different sub-  Bhutia Tribe are the prominent tribal languages. The main features of the community of Sikkim and have Garo tribes are the women. The Garo migrated from Tibet. The residing women are the property owners and places for the tribes are the Lachen there is a custom where the youngest and Lachung areas of North Sikkim. daughter inherits the property from her They speak Bhutia (a dialect of mother. Unlike other marriages, in this Tibetan language). They are counted tribe a man shifts to his wife's place among the most developed tribes and after the marriage rituals are over. earn their livelihood through These tribes are a great lover of music agriculture, government jobs and local and dance. Various traditional musical business. The dressing culture of the instruments like stringed instruments, Bhutia tribes is unique compared to wind and self sounding instruments other tribes. Women were heavy are used by the tribe. The Garo men jewelry of pure gold with full sleeve wear turban with clothes whereas blouses. The main garment is a loose women wear blouse and a cloth tied gown. Males wear Bakhu, which is a around their waist. The traditional loose traditional full sleeved dress. jewelry is made of beads and other These tribal people live in a material. Garo‟s also celebrate rectangular shaped house called Khin different festivals and Wangala is one and follow Tantric Buddhism. The of the significant festivals generally remarkable feature about the tribe is celebrated in the month of October. their legal framework, termed as The Garo‟s celebrate this festival as a Dzumsa. Agriculture and breeding of symbol of thanksgiving ceremony to sheep and yaks are the main source of their deity Salijong after harvesting of occupation. Bhutia tribes are mainly the crops. The food habits of the rice eaters. They also eat animal fat Garo‟s are non-vegetarian with rice as and beef. Bhutia tribes in India are the staple food. Liquor is consumed famous for preparing awesome food. among this tribe and is made at home Some examples are Momos, Ningro from food grains. The main cultivation with Churpi, Sidra Ko Achar, crops are rice, ginger, millet, bananas, Phulaurah Gundruk, Phagshapa, Sael vegetables, chilly and cotton. Roti. They are very fond of Chaang or  hasi Tribe are one of the major tribal the millet beer and serve it in a special communities and occupies almost half bamboo container called Tongba of the total population of Meghalaya. which has a hollow pipe made up of They reside in the Khasi and Jaintia Bamboo. hills of Meghalaya and follow the  Garo Tribe are the second largest matriarchal society. Their language is tribal community of Meghalaya. They known as Mon-Khmer which belongs constitute 1/3rd of the total state to the Austro-Asiatic Family. In this population and mainly reside in the tribe, Women are given more Garo hills of Meghalaya, some importance than men. The youngest districts of Assam and West Bengal. daughter inherits the property from her Their traditional religion was mother. Men wear Jymphong, which Songserak and later was changed to is a long sleeveless coat without

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collar. They also wear turbans. Pada, Ajima roa and Chambil mpa are some Women are very fond of wearing among the major dance forms found among jewelry and earrings. They have a the North-eastern tribes. tradition of wearing silver chains around their waist. U Blei Nong-thaw, North East Indian tribes are undoubtedly Ulei Longspah (god of wealth), one of the most colourful and culturally rich Shnong and many other gods are communities of India. They represent a totally worshiped by this tribe.Rice is the unique trend and living among the Indian staple food and they also consume fish tribal community. and meat. Rice beer is used as liquor. STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN IN INDIA Nongkrem is a famous festival celebrated amongst the Khasi tribes. Tribals or adivasis, as they are popularly This festival falls in the month of known as a symbol of self-assertion, comprise November and is celebrated for five of around 8.2 per cent of the national days. population. The tribals are concentrated mostly in the central belt of India and parts of the OCCUPATION AND CULTURE OF THE North-East. The status of women in the tribal TRIBES OF NORTH-EAST INDIA societies is comparatively better than that of Agriculture and farming are the biggest the women in general society—apparently so. occupation between the tribes. Along with The sex ratio of the tribes in India during 2011 agriculture, they also depend on weaving and showed 990 females per 1000 males while it rearing of woolly animals. The women‟s was 940 females among the general community does the job of weaving. These population. Mitra and Singh write that woollen products are very famous among discrimination against women, occupational tourists. Another source of income lies in differentiation, and emphasis on status and making and selling of tribal arts and crafts, hierarchical social ordering that characterise which is widely loved by tourists and visitors. the predominant Hindu culture are generally The tribal art and craft shows the rich culture, absent among the tribal groups. Bhasin (2007) creativity and tradition of the tribal also writes that though tribes too have son communities. Some major developed tribes preference, they do not discriminate against like Bhutia‟s, Nyshis and Adis earn their girls by female infanticide or sex livelihood by working in Govt. Jobs and some determination tests. have also engaged themselves in local The status of tribal women can be judged business. mainly by the roles they play in society. Their The cultural trend of the tribal community roles are determined to a large extent through is reflected beautifully in their dance, food, the system of descent. The families try to pass festivals, arts and other social occasions. The their property by the line of descent. The tribes are very lively and energetic people and family surnames too are traced on the basis of enjoy dance, music and drama with great the system of descent. In an unilineal system enthusiasm. Each tribe has its own distinctive the descent is traced either through the male or way of dressing, jewellery designs, and dance. female line. When the descent is traced They all have their separate festivals grouped through the mother‟s line, it is called a with tribal songs in their own language. Some matrilinear system and when it is traced of the festivals celebrated are Nyokam, Ngada, through the father‟s line, it is called a Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Ka-Shad-Kynjoh patrilinear system. Most of the tribes in India Khaskain, Wangala, etc. Ponung, Rekham follow a patrilinear system. There are exceptional cases like the Khasi, Jaintia, Garo

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and Lalung of Meghalaya in the North-East the of Ladakh and Sikkim are who follow the matrilinear system. The polyandrous. It is quite often found that two or Mappilas of Kerala too are a matrilineal three wives marrying four or five brothers. community. There are very rare cases of This system is called polygynandry. This bilineal descent. system is quite common among the Jaunsaris of Jaunsar Bawar in Uttarakhand. In such The status of a person quite often depends marriages the eldest woman usually wields on the system of authority he/she enjoys in the greater respect and command. Among the community. When the authority is held Jaunsaris each family is usually found to have through the male line, it is called „patriarchy‟ dwellings at different elevations along the hill and when it is held through the female line, it ranges. The dwellings at the central village are is called „matriarchy‟. Quite frequently one called „sadar‟. The eldest wife usually resides mixes up „descent‟ with „authority‟. Not there. While the younger wives have to toil surprisingly, the Khasis are often believed to hard between the farm houses located close to follow matriarchy. But in reality though the the valley or the ones at the higher reaches, property is inherited through the mother‟s line, divorce is quite common among the Jaunsaris the final authority of the household vests with and it is usually the younger wives who desert the mother‟s brother. their husbands.

The position of a woman to a large extent ♦ Since women in the tribal communities toil depends on the kind of family one is placed in. hard, they are considered to be assets. Not In a joint family system the eldest woman surprisingly, the practice of bride price during usually enjoys a prerogative in the decision- marriages is quite common among them. This making process. The type of family differs to a is in sharp contrast to the general caste-Hindu large extent with the type of marriage population. Sometimes when the prospective prevalent in the community. The nuclear groom is not in a position to pay the bride family formed through monogamy is the most price, he has to render physical labour and common type of family prevalent in the tribal service at the wife‟s house. At times he even communities in India. The extended type of stays back at the wife‟s house throughout his family is also quite a common norm wherein life to reside as a „ghar jowai‟. In recent years the daughters leave the natal home after as the capitalist economy is setting in and marriage to distant places. The older sons too women are being deprived of their traditional leave the parents after marriage to set up new role, their economic value is decreasing and homes in the near vicinity. It is common to the practice of „bride-price‟ is giving way to find the youngest son residing with the parents the system of dowry as witnessed in the even after marriage. Some of the tribes in general society. Among the Jaunsaris, the new India enter into polygamy. When one man husbands have to pay the suit money or the marries more than one wife, it is called amount paid as bride-price by the former polygyny. Polygyny can be of two types. husband to the girl during earlier marriage. When the wives are sisters, it is called sororal This amount becomes quite large as interest is polygyny and when the wives are unrelated, it also added to it. In order to repay the „suit‟ is called non-sororal polygyny. When one money, the wife is often sent away seasonally woman marries more than one husband, it is to the cities like Dehradun, Meerut, Sahranpur, called polyandry. When the husbands are own Moradabad, Lucknow and Delhi to work as brothers, the type of marriage is called prostitutes. They virtually turn into „bonded‟ fraternal polyandry. When the husbands are labourers. unrelated, the type of marriage is called non- fraternal polyandry. The Todas of Nilgiri or

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The status of the tribal women usually emphasis on mono-cropping is being laid. depends on the economic roles they play. The Cash crops and horticulture are also being tribals in the past were usually forest dwellers preferred. In the process women are losing and their livelihood to a great extent depended their labour work and in many places of the on the food-gathering economy. More than the North-East like Nagaland and Arunachal men, the women walked long distances to Pradesh, migrant male labourers are being fetch wood and fodder. Besides, they also employed. collected fruits, roots and tubers, lac, gums and Apart from the hill areas, tribals have also in leaves for self-con-sumption and sale. The present days opted for settled cultivation in men also complemented them by collecting place of the forest-based economy. They are timber and logs. They climbed the trees to also preferring to raise cash crops and exotic shake down the fruits that were gathered on high-breed crops. In the process the women the ground by women. As there has been large are getting displaced from their work. scale deforestation, women have to slog harder to retain the gathering economy. Chaudhary The tribal women in the North-East were (2010) observes that in the tribal areas of Betul famous for their weaving skills. Almost every in Madhya Pradesh, collection and marketing tribal girl used to learn weaving at home. They of firewood is generally the domain of tribal usually used to weave in their leisure time and women. They sell it at Sahpur and whatever for self-consumption. Each textile used to income they have, they immediately spend it portray a certain history of the respective on meeting the basic requirements such as rice, tribes. But now with commercialisation of the pulse, edible oil, soap, detergent powder, products, the women have lost control over the tobacco, bidi and so on. designs as the market has come to be the decisive factor. Besides, in many cases In many parts of the country, swidden Marwari traders have taken over the business cultivation or slash and burn cultivation or and are getting the textiles woven by migrant jhum cultivation, as it is called in the North- non-tribal persons. Tribal women as such East, was in vogue. Boserup calls swidden enjoy very little control over immovable cultivation as a women‟s enterprise since it is property. They hardly ever inherit land, they who almost entirely managed the show. particularly in the patrilineal societies. Among While the men mainly felled the trees and the Khasis as well, it is mainly the youngest spread them around on the ground to dry daughter or „khadduh‟, as she is locally before collectively kindling fire, it is the known, who inherits the house and property. women who were engaged in broadcasting the The tribal women generally inherit the seeds, weeding and harvesting. It is the women ornaments from the mother. The customary who preserved the seeds at home and took the laws do not permit them to own land. It is decisions about the crops to be cultivated mainly due to this reason that often the Santal every season. The men mostly guarded the widows are declared as witch and murdered by crops from wild animals and trapped wild-life close relatives. (Kelkar and Devnathan: 1993) games, big and small. Lalhriatpuii (2010) writes about the Mizo women in Mizoram that they were extremely In recent years, due to the population discrimi-nated against with regard to the explosion and in-migration, the jhum inheritance of property as they were never cultivation is gradually losing its viability. given rights over the landed property. If there Besides, due to the capitalist policies of the is no son in the family, the family property state jhum cultivation is giving way to including ancestral home should go to the permanent terraced wet-rice cultivation. Multi- nephew of the father. It is, however, seen that cropping practices too are getting lost and the the kitchen garden is controlled by the wife.

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The pigs, goats and chicken too are owned by woman MLA or MP in the country. In the case her. The sale proceeds of the domesticated of Agatha Sangma, the Union Minister of animals are retained by the housewife and she Social Welfare, she is an exception; her father makes purchases of her own liking when Purno Sangma happened to be a prominent visiting her parental home. Women are also politician of the country and also served as the adept at selling fruits and forest products in the Speaker of the Lok Sabha in Parliament for weekly markets. Vegetables and horticultural one term. products are usually sold by them in the markets. During the recent upsurges in the North- East or central India, many tribal women have Women among some of the tribes of the joined the underground army. They are found North-East are very proficient in doing leaving their homes and undergoing military business. It is mainly the Khasi women who training. In the North-East, many of the girls run shops in the markets of Shillong and were known for running errands for the Nongpoh in Meghalaya. Many women in underground. Several of them have laid down Mizoram too manage big shops and large their lives too. But even among them, the business. Lalhriatpuii (ibid.) observes that the women have never been known for wielding women workforce in the State of Mizoram is the leadership. The Naga Mothers Association concentrated more in the primary sector and has earned some good name in recent times for many of them are turning to become becoming interlocutors between the agricultural labourers. She further observes: underground and Indian security forces. Even “Many women run small family businesses, during the head-hunting days, the Naga called micro enterprises, which require very women acted very bravely to usher in peace little initial capital and often involve the between warring villages. They operated as marketing of food articles and handicrafts peacemakers between the warring villagers produced under the domestic system. No doubt (Zehol, 1998) - “If we recall that the Tangkhul, women‟s limited access to capital leads to like other Naga society who were feuding higher rates of return on their tiny investments. communities, we find that in the Tangkhul But the unbelievably low capital-labour ratios society, the women are assigned some confine women to low productivity responsibilities of critical importance. In an undertakings.” account on head hunting among the Nagas, a special section has been assigned to women‟s The tribal women in India have virtually no role. It is mentioned there that, when a party role to play in the social and political spheres. was pressed very far killing a warrior or two, Even in the past though for many tribes in and the verdict was known, a neutral force central India and in the North-East there were come in. The neutral force belonged whether bachelor‟s dormitories, there was hardly to the neighbouring villages or the neutral anything for the girls. The girls used to fag ladies called Pukhareila... they could not be around for the boys residing in the dormitories. harmed as a rule. She was highly respected for The tribal women had no place in the village neutrality, and they were called as councils. The women were never represented ambassadors of peace. In the bygone days, in the traditional panchayats. It is only now, when head hunting was practiced, these due to the mandatory provisions of the state, Pukhareilas played vital role saving lives of that some women are getting elected in the men.” Vitso (2003) also observes that among panchayats. But even in such cases, usually the the Chakhesang Nagas of Nagalnd, the wife of women are dictated by husbands or relatives the traditional village priest wielded a lot of who already wielded enough power in the power and respect. She also notes that though locality. Even then there is hardly any tribal traditionally the women had no political

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power, their decisions, particularly related to developing church or State is the condition of women‟s issues, were always respected. women, the way they are treated and regarded and the type of jobs they are given”. ♦ In the course of history one comes across the name of queen who had fought against the It may be stated once again that though the enemies. The name of Rani Gaidinliu, the women in the tribal society in Northeast enjoy Naga leader who headed a revolt against the a greater freedom to mix and move around, British. She also led the Nagas for their social organisations and institutions are a homeland in the contiguous areas of still discriminatory particularly with regard to Manipur, Nagaland and Assam. She was the customary laws that guide the ownership named as a Rani by Jawaharlal Nehru who of property and inheritance or also with regard came to learn about her during the freedom to exercising authority both in the domestic movement. Gassah has stated that women and public spheres. rulers had appeared even among the Jaintias in Meghalaya, (Downs: 1996) In recent times, the POLICY OF INTEGRATION OF Bhotia tribal women of Kumaon came to the TRIBALS fore when they led a forest movement—the Chipko Andolan—against the timber The Government of India has adopted a contractors. The tribal women of Reni village policy of integration of tribals with the in particular became famous as they hugged mainstream aiming at developing a creative the pine trees to save them from the saws of adjustment between the tribes and non tribes the loggers. leading to a responsible partnership. By adopting the policy of integration or Christianity has brought about a significant progressive acculturation the Government has emancipation of the tribal women. While laid the foundation for the uninhibited march earlier the women were restricted from of the tribals towards equality, upward attending schools, it is the missionaries who mobility, and economic viability and assured opened schools and encouraged the girls to proximity to the national mainstream. The attend them. They also opened up church constitution has committed the nation to two forums where women could participate and courses of action in respect of scheduled also take the lead. The Protestant Church took tribes,viz a lead over the Catholic Church in these matters. The Roman Catholic Fathers offered  Giving protection to their distinctive lesser space to the tribal women in the way of life parishes. No wonder that the Protestants  Protecting them from social injustice became much more acceptable in the and all forms of exploitation and matrilineal tribes like the Khasi and Garo. discrimination and bringing them at They gave trainings to the girls to be not just par with the rest of the nation so that good home-makers but to become teachers, they may be integrated with the doctors and nurses. But Lalhriatpuii (op. cit.) national life. states that the women in Mizo society are excluded in all decision-making bodies in both Thus by the Constitution Order 1950 issued by social organisa-tions and church life. They get the President of India in exercise of powers no representation in the church administration conferred by Clause9 (i) of Article 342 of the in spite of playing a crucial role in the Constitution of India 255 tribes in 17 states evangelical work. She concludes: “Church were declared to be scheduled tribes. Besides plays a dominant role in Mizo society. enjoying the rights that all citizens and Therefore, the criterion of judgement of a minorities have the member of the Scheduled

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Tribes have been provided with special Apart from their legal status and the safeguards as follows: presence or absence of protective mechanisms, the general state of the tribal customary laws Protective Safeguards varies according to the nature and extent of their application and the manner in which they  Educational safeguards-Article 15(4) are invoked and adhered to. Besides, changes and 29 introduced in the colonial age and continued  Safeguards for employment -Articles after 1947 have modified their customary law 16(4), 320(4) and 333 and traditions, and have, by implication,  Economic safeguards -Article 19 changed many values governing their culture.  Abolition of bonded labour -Article 23 Among the first to change are land relations  Protection from social injustice and all because except in the Sixth Schedule areas, the forms of exploitation -Article 46 formal law recognises only individual ownership while central to the culture of most Political Safeguards tribes is community control over the common property resources (CPR). Since the culture of  Reservation of seats for ST in equity and the relatively high status of women LokSabha and Assemblies-Article depend on the CPRs, changes in the 330,332,164 management have implications for these  Appointment of Minister in charge of values. Tribal welfare  Special provisions in respect of Despite the commonality of a community Nagaland, Assam and Manipur - ethos, the land tenure system is not uniform all Articles-371(A),371(B) and 371 over the region. Some tribes have complete community-based ownership and others Developmental Safeguards combine individual with clan ownership. Among the former are the Aka who lacked the  Promoting the educational and very concept of individual ownership till economic interests of the Scheduled recently and only had usufructuary rights. Tribes-Articles 46 Each family cultivated as much land as it  Grants from Central Government to needed in the jhum season after which it the states for welfare of Scheduled reverted to the community. However, a family Tribes and raising the level of could use wetlands on the banks of the river administration of Scheduled Areas- for settled agriculture but it continued to Article 75. belong to the village (Fernandes and Bharali 2002: 22-23). Among the latter are the Angami Following the reorganization of states, the of Nagaland and the Dimasa of Assam who list of STs was modified by the Scheduled combine community with individual Castes and Tribes List (Modification) order, ownership. The Garo of Meghalaya made a 1956 on the recommendations of the distinction between the regular residents of a Backward Classes Commission. In the revised village and strangers. The former could list 414 tribes were declared STs. Since the cultivate as much land as they needed but the revision of the list in 1956 there have been latter required the nokma‟s (chief heiress) several proposals for fresh inclusions and permission and had to pay a tax. In theory land deletion from the lists of the SC and STs. remained with the owner-lineage but was in practice with an individual family as long as it LAND RELATIONS, CUSTOMARY cultivated it (Majumdar 1987: 158-159). LAWS AND TRIBAL CULTURE Traditionally the Karbi villages did not have a

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fixed boundary or name since they kept family was to get how much land according to shifting. Communal ownership was the norm the number of mouths to feed, which family among them (Saha 1987: 21-23). The Boro with excess labour would help which one with followed the Ahom custom of allotting 3 very few adults and the day before which purahs (about an acre) of land to each family cultivation would not begin. After it the man in return for free labour for about a third of the of the house chose the plot and performed the year (Roy 1995: 27). worship to mark the beginning of cultivation. At this stage the woman took charge of Community ownership was basic to intra production and organised work. As a result, and inter-generational equity as well as the gender-based division of work was more relatively high status of women. When a gender friendly among the jhum cultivators community controls the resource, every family than in settled cultivation-based communities is able to use it according to its need since it (Fernandes and Menon 1987: 68-70). In settled cultivates land according to the number of agriculture, the man does what is considered mouths to feed. Community ethos ensured difficult work such as ploughing and digging. inter-generational equity because they treated Back breaking work like transplantation and even individually owned land as their harvesting that involves long hours of standing community livelihood coming down from the in wet fields is left to women. In jhum, on the ancestors that they could use to meet their contrary, hoeing, digging and other difficult needs but had to preserve for posterity work is shared by men and women. Even according to ecological imperatives (Baviskar keeping watch at night that is considered and Attwood 1998: 255-264). Studies show dangerous work is shared in the sense that the that tribal natural resource management was whole family shifts to the jhum field at that by and large geared to this need. For example time (Fernandes 1994: 135-137). traditionally jhumia tribes cultivated only up to 20-degree slopes and planted root crops before Differences did exist so did inequalities. the rains to ensure soil protection. Then For example, the tribal woman‟s status was followed other crops harvested in different higher than in caste societies but she was not months in order to ensure food supply for most equal to men. That too had exceptions. For of the year till fruits, edible leaves and roots example, despite their CPR based jhum became available (Das 2001: 8-10). Most economy, traditionally Aka women‟s status tribes left the plot fallow for 18 years after was low (Fernandes, Pereira and Khatso 2005: cultivating it for 3 years in order to let forests 94-98). So one cannot make a statement about regenerate. Only the Tripura and some other all the tribes with no exception. One can only tribes in the predominantly bamboo growing say that if resources like land, forests and regions followed a five-year cycle suited to water bodies are community owned women that crop (Banerjee, Das Gupta and Roy 1986: have a say in their management. The relatively 26-27). Some tribes in Mainland India high status it confers on them is based on their practised also bush-fallow jhum. They left the role as economic assets in the family, not in plot fallow for 5-6 years for bushes, not their society. Most tribal traditions kept a clear forests, to grow (MRD 2006: 46). One is not separation between the family and society. aware of this system anywhere in the Women were in charge of the family Northeast. Jhum is considered environmentally production and economy while men controlled healthy for the hilly terrain. social power (Menon 1995: 101). Even the matrilineal tribes like the Khasi, Garo and Before the jhum season, the village Jaintia of Meghalaya are patriarchal. Descent council made up of men alone decided which and inheritance are through women, they are area was to be cultivated that year, which uxorilocal but social power is with men. They

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control the village council and other decision- Garo Hills. The individual-centred approach of making bodies and also take decisions different State bodies is another step in the concerning land alienation (Barak 1997: 162- culture of pattas entering their tribes. In the N. 163). C. Hills the Coffee Board gives subsidies and loans only to individuals (Barbora 2002: Impact of the Interface on Tribal Culture 1287). However, a voluntary agency has introduced oranges on a commercial basis in The interface of the customary law with the formal systems has to be situated in the some of their villages without changing the context of an egalitarian society that also had ownership pattern. Some families in these seeds of inequality. Some inequalities such as villages accept individual ownership and also confer inheritance rights on women. Thus the women‟s subordinate status have been trend towards individual pattas goes hand in modernised. Among the forces influencing these changes are the individual-based formal hand with new land use without changing the laws, administrative systems, education and ownership pattern drastically (Fernandes and Pereira 2005: 37). religion. Most changes began in the colonial age. For example the office of the village Impact on Women’s Status leader or gaonburah created two centres of power since he is rarely the same as the Since, as stated above individual ownership traditional chief. Its other examples are also reduces the little power women have in colonisation and appropriation of their their tradition over their CPRs, gender common lands and forests through military relations become an area of concern around campaigns or legal fictions, and their eviction modernisation. For example, before the from their territories. These changes are at Rubber Board began to provide subsidies and times accelerated by the rapid integration of loans only to individual owners and heads of their economies with the national and global families understood as men, the Nokma or markets especially today in the age of chief heiress used to take decisions on land globalisation. This rapid integration continues though men played an important role in them. to expose them to economic exploitation With the State dealing with men alone in because they are either excluded from the decisions on land transfer, the Nokma‟s processes of trade and governance or are husband has become the main decision-maker marginal actors in them (Roy 2005). This especially in the distribution of individual section will study some of their implications pattas (Fernandes and Pereira 2005: 201-202). for land relations, equity and women‟s status. The tribal leaders, especially the elite, Internal Alienation and Individual consolidate such change triggered by external Ownership inputs like the formal law and education, by internalising the dominant ideology. More than Among the forces facilitating this change in the past, men interpret the customary law in is the mode of implementing the Sixth their own favour. For example, during the Schedule. The administration uses its Naga Nationalist Struggle, most Angami Naga individual-based culture in these areas too. For men who led it went underground. Women example, by treating the gaonburah as the took charge both of the family and of their owner of all land though he only represents the society. They also gained access to schools village. Besides, decisions on land have been that were built in their area in the 1970s. As a transferred from the village council to the result two thirds of the graduates among them DAC. Both the DAC and one person, the are women. However, men continue to gaonburah can be influenced to give pattas to demand adherence to their customary law individuals as one sees in the N.C. Hills and

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according to which the husband has to be schools were opened among them and better educated than the wife. Since there are women‟s access to education was limited. relatively few educated young men among Despite religious change, Garo access to them, a large number of women remain schools is less than that of the Angami. It is unmarried (Kekrieseno 2002: 182-184). The true particularly of women. Where there was State too seems to take the man as the access to education, for example among the breadwinner though two thirds of their Angami, women have gained greater graduates are women. 75 percent of the awareness of their rights but men continue to persons having a salaried job in the interpret the customary law in their own administration are men (Fernandes and favour. Thus, it is not religious change as such Barbora 2002: 108-112). but the access they gained to education after it, that has made some change possible Another example of modernising the (Fernandes and Barbora 2002: 171-172). tradition and consolidating social power is Because of this divide between the religious elections to the legislature. For over a decade and secular spheres women gain access to after its formation, Meghalaya did not have a education without necessarily becoming equal single woman legislator though all three of its in the Churches. major tribes are matrilineal. At present it has 3 or 4 in a total of 60. But for one Rajya Sabha CONCLUSION member Ms Rano Shaiza in the 1970s, Nagaland has not had a single member of For modernisation to be just, one has to Parliament or of the State legislature. Some begin with their triple value system of equity, women wanted to contest the parliamentary resource sustainability and women‟s status and elections in 2004 but they were dissuaded push them towards class and gender equality. from doing so in the name of their customary In practice, instead of taking the tribes law that confers all political power on men. towards such equity many modern inputs Even the DACs have not had any women introduce class formation, strengthen members. A few who contested the Karbi patriarchy and force their communities to DAC but could not win (Fernandes, Pereira make a transition from their constructive to a and Khatso 2005: 97-98). destructive dependence on the natural resources. It shows that if measures are not Religious conversion can add to men‟s taken to counter these impacts, modern inputs power but it remains ambiguous. Both can modernise the negative aspects of their Hinduism to which sections of tribes like the tradition. For example, a hierarchy existed in Boro and Adivasi have converted (Roy 1995) most tribes but every family was provided and Christianity that many tribal groups have access to the resources and social systems embraced in recent decades are male required for its sustenance. That hierarchy dominated. There is, however, a difference seems to have taken the form of a ruling between the two. Being a religious body with economic class. That discrepancy can be an organised structure, Christian churches avoided if one begins not with their customary have gone beyond religion to education. law understood as rules and regulations but Access to schools depends on the situation of with the value system guiding it. Its objective each tribe. As stated above, Angami women is to take it towards the type of equity meant gained access to them because in the 1970s for today‟s society. In other words, the when many schools entered their area, a large solution lies neither in imposing modernisation number of men had gone underground. Since nor in romanticising their past. One has to find Hinduism lacks such structures and investment ways of building a future on their past values on education has been low, relatively few by adapting them to the present

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