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INSTRUCTIONAL AND PERFORMANCE MATERIALS FOR TEACHING THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL STYLE TO THE HIGH SCHOOL BAND STUDENT

Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic)

Authors Kreloff, Herschel Mayer, 1931-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/287730 |¥ 71-2^,886 I i". KRELOFF, Herschel Mayer, 1931- | INSTRUCTIONAL AND PERFORMANCE MATERIALS | FOR TEACHING THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF I MUSICAL STYLE TO THE HIGH SCHOOL BAND I STUDENT.

| The University of Arizona, A.Mus.D., 1971 I Music

I University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

HERSCHEL MAYER KRELOFF

ill

IHIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED INSTRUCTIONAL AND PERFORMANCE MATERIALS FOR TEACHING THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL STYLE TO THE HIGH SCHOOL BAND STUDENT

by Herschel Mayer Kreloff

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the SCHOOL OF MUSIC In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 7 1 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

GRADUATE COLLEGE

I hereby recommend that this dissertation prepared under my direction by Herschel Mayer Kreloff entitled INSTRUCTIONAL AND PERFORMANCE MATERIALS FOR TEACHING- THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL STYLE TO THE HIGH SCHOOL BAND STUDENT be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement of the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts

Q'%. Dissertation Director Date t *

After inspection of the final copy of the dissertation, the following members of the Final Examination Committee concur in its approval and recommend its acceptance:* si "7 / y/a it/ 3>//*/?./ Z//{./7f

*.This approval and acceptance is contingent on the candidate's adequate performance and defense of this dissertation at the final oral examination. The inclusion of this sheet bound into the library copy of the dissertation is evidence of satisfactory performance at the final examination. PLEASE NOTE:

Some pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS. STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that ac curate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

SIGNED: 7LJl 7^,Uf~ -.m

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude first to DP. 0. M. Hartsell who served as advisor and disserta tion director for this project. His encouragement and inspiration were essential. His guidance and criticism were invaluable, A special acknowledgment is owed to Professor Robert McBride who initially encouraged the author to pursue a doctoral degree, and whose continued friendship and aid supplied a large measure of resolve toward its completion. Thanks and appreciation are extended to Professors Henry Johnson and James R. Anthony for their time, interest, and numerous helpful suggestions.

iv TABLE OP CONTENTS

Page LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS viii ABSTRACT xiv 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Limitations of the Band Program 1 Purpose 1 Repertoire 3 Emphasis k- The Utility and Technique of the Study ... 5 2. STYLE IN MUSIC 9 Style as Culture 10 Style as History 1f? Style as Communication 18 3. GREGORIAN CHANT AND ORGANUM 22 Chant as Genre 23 General Features of Plainchant 26 Modal Theory 28 Notation and Rhythm . 33 Tropes and Sequences 36 Organum 1+1 Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes . Il3 Condensed Score of the Band. Setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes llU Pull Score of the Band Setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes ... k7 Student Study Material . 59 The Ecclesiastical Modes 60 Mode Transposition 61). Gregorian Notation 66

v vi TABLE OP CONTENTS—Continued

Page k. MEDIEVAL MOTET AND CONDUCTUS 70 Twelfth Century Organum 70 Modal and Mensural Notation 72 Thirteenth Century Polyphony 76 The Polyphonic Conductus 78 The Medieval Motet 82 Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of De Castitatis - Victimae 88 Condensed Score of De Castitatis - Victimae 91 Full Score of De Castitatis - Victimae ... 9i|. Student Study Material • "102+ Modal and Mensural Notation 106 The Polyphonic Conductus 110 The Medieval Motet 111 5. LATE RENAISSANCE SACRED POLYPHONY. 115 Rhythm and Melody 115 Dissonance 118 Texture 123 Harmony 127 The Motet 131 Thomas Luis de Victoria 131 Condensed Score of 0 V03 Prunes 133 Pull Score of 0 Vos"*0mnes 135 Student Study Material 1^1-3 Melody • . . . . 14-3 Intervals 1if-6 Passing Tones 1^9 Suspensions . . 150 Chords and Cadences ...... • • • 15k 6. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MONODY 1£8 Figured Bass . • 159 Melody 16k Caccini and Nuove Musiche ••••••••• 166 Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of Dovrb Dunque Morire ..••••..• 167 Condensed Score of Dovr6 Dimque Morire ... 173 Pull Score of Dovrk Dunque Morire 175 Student Study Material . 180 Figured Bass ^ Triads 183 Harmony and Counterpoint 187 Recitative . 189 vii TABLE OP CONTENTS--Continued

Page 7. LATE BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL POLYPHONY 192 Vocal Models for Instrumental Forms .... 19k- Raraeau's Harmonic Theories 200 The Realization of Tonality 20£ Orchestral Development 209 Handel's Orchestral Style 212 Condensed Score of Overture and. Alia Breve . 215 Pull Score of Overture and Alia Breve ... 218 Student Study Material 228 Melody 232 Harmony 2.3k-

8. PRE-CLAS3ICAL INSTRUMENTAL HOMO PHONY 2L\& Melody 2l|-7 Texture 2lj-9 Form and Harmony 252 The Sinfonia 25>7 Giovanni Battista Sammartini 25>8 The Mannheira Orchestra 2^8 Comments on the Band Setting of the Sammartini Symphony in F Ma;]or ..... 2f?9 Condensed Score of the Symphony in F Major, First Movement 261 Pull Score of the Symphony in F Major, First Movement 26ij. Student Study Material 272 Melody and Harmony . 272 Texture 275 APPENDIX: CORRECT RESPONSES TO THE STUDENT STUDY ASSIGNMENTS POUND IN CHAPTERS 3 THROUGH 8 279 LIST OP REFERENCES 292 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page 1. Three Styles of Text Setting In Gregorian Chant 25 2. Original and Transformed Storms of Modes 1 and 3 31 3. The Pour Authentic Modes in Their Original Forms and Transposed to Begin on the Tone G 33 l|. The Principal Simple Neumes of Gregorian Notation Shown Opposite Their Counter parts in Contemporary Music Notation ... 3k- 5» A Melody in Plainchant and in Modern Notation • 35 6. The Sequence Victimae Paschali Laudes 37 7. The Plainchant Melody Victimae Paschali Laudes Used as a Cantus Firmus in a Renaissance Motet 39 8. The Opening of the Hymn Christ Lag in Todesbanden 39 9. The Opening Melodies from Three Movements of Bach's Christ Lag in Todesbanden, Each Based upon the Chant Victimae Paschali Laude s 10. Types of Organum l|.2 11. Three Kinds of Text Setting in Gregorian Chant 59 12. The Ecclesiastical Modes 60 13. An Excerpt from the Chant Victimae Paschali Laudes 62 1lj., America in Major, Dorian, and Phrygian Modes • 63 15. Untransposed and Transposed Forms of the Dorian Mode 66 viii LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued

Figure Page 16. Gregorian Square Notation and Modern Notation • 67 17# Two Types of Twelfth Century Organum 71 18. The Rhythmic Modes 73 19. Transcriptions into Modern Notation from the Ligature Notations of Modes I and II . . . 7J+ 20. The Transcription of Mensural Notation into Modern Notation 76 21. An Excerpt of Ilenstiral Notation from a Polyphonic Conductus and its Transcrip tion into Modern Notation 80 22. The Polyphonic Conductus De Castitatis Thalamo 81 23. Portion of a Motet which Features a Different Mode in Each Voice &k- 2i|-. Victiraae Paschali Laudes as a Gregorian Chant and as a Motet Tenor 85 25. The Arrangement of a Page of Motet Manuscript . 85 26. The Notation of a Medieval Motet 86 27. The Transcription into Modern Notation of the Excerpt (Figure 26) Above 86

28. The Motet Nus hom - Cil s1entremet - Victimae . 87 29. Medieval Cadences 88 30. The Sustained Note and Discant Styles of Organum 10J4. 31. The Rhythmic Modes 106 32. The First Rhythmic Mode in Modal Notation and its Transcription into Modern Notation . . 107 33. A Portion of a Two Part Polyphonic Conductus . 110 31^. A Portion of a Medieval Motet 112 X LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued

Figure Page 35>» Three Rhythmically Independent Lines ••••• 116 36. A Two Line Excerpt Barred According to the N.atural Accents 117 37. Examples of Melodic Curves from the Music of Two Composers of the Late Renaissance . 118 38. Examples of Suspensions 120 39# A Progression of Consonant Intervals (a) and the same Progression with Suspensions (b) . 121 I4.O. Passing Tones 122 lj.1. A Progression with Passing Tones and with Suspensions . . . 123 l|.2. A Homophonic Texture 121). ij-3* A Polyphonic Texture 12i|. Canonic Imitation 126 Eree Imitation 126 l|.6. Modes used in Renaissance Music 128 lj.7* Typical Renaissance Cadence in Two Parts . . • 129

I4.8 # An Authentic Cadence 129 lj.9. A Leading Tone Cadence 130 J>0. A Phrygian Cadence 130 51. Melodies of Victoria 1l±3 52. A Melody of Palestrina 1i|4 53. Voice Ranges 1lj-5 The Identification of Intervals 1l|-7 The Passing Tone 114-9 xi LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued

Figure Page 56. The Suspension . . . . . 151 57. An Example Containing Suspensions, Passing Tones, and Consonant Intervals 152 58. The Basic Two-Part Cadence 155 59. A Portion of a Monody with a Realization of the Figured Bass 161 60. A Portion of a Composition in Monodic Style which has an Unprepared Dissonance . • • • 161 61. The Same Musical Example as Figure 60 but with the Dissonance Prepared 162 62. An Example of Figured Bass which uses Compound Interval Figures 162 63. An Example of Recitative 165 6I4-. The Monody Dovro Dunque Morire by Caccini • • 170 65. Examples of Sixteenth Century Polyphony and Seventeenth Century Monody 180 66. A Portion of a Monody Showing the Figured Bass 182 67. Construction of a Triad in Root Position ... 183 68. Root Position Triads on Each Note of the C Scale 183

69. Construction of a RLrst Inversion Triad ... 181j. 70. First Inversion Triads Showing the Position of the Root and the Third 181|. 71. An Example of Early Operatic Recitative ... 189 72. Examples of the Notation of Prose Rhythms . . 190 73. An Instrumental Melody Showing the Influence of Vocal Monody 195 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued

Figure Page 7if-« Portions of a Canzona Showing the Sectional Divisions . 197 7$, Opening of a Ricercare Showing the Fugal Subject and Answer 198 76. Tones Generated by the Fractional Division of the Vibrating String 200 77• The Triple Progression 203 78# A Polyphonic Excerpt which Contains an Hkrmonic Bass Line 206 79* A Descending Series of First Inversions ... 208 80. A Cadence with Chord Roots Shown below the Chord Symbols 213 81. A Melody of the Sixteenth Century 232 82. A Melody of the Early Seventeenth Century . . 232 83. A Seventeenth Century Melody which has Features Similar to many Melodies of the Eighteenth Century 233 814.. A Melodic Fragment of the Eighteenth Century 233 85. A Seventh Chord 23U- 86. Melodic Fragment which Outlines Seventh Chords 235 87. A Melody tirith no Sequence . . . . 235? 88. A Melody with a Sequential Extension .... 235

89. A Well-known Melody which has been Altered with the Addition of a Sequence 236 90. Tonic and Dominant Triads in the Key of F Major 237 91. A Melody Harmonized with Dominant and Tonic Chords 238 xiii LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued

Figure Page 92. A Melody Harmonized with Tonic and Dominant Chords only 239 93. A Melody Harmonized x*ith Root Position Triads, First Inversion Triads, and the Dominant Seventh 2l\.0 9lj.» A Melody Harmonized with a Relatively Fast Harmonic Rhythm 2l(.2 95. A Melody Composed of Contrasting Figures . . 21^.8

96. A Fragment of a Pre-Classical Symphonic Texture 251 97. A Melodic Figure from the Samiaartini Symphony 253

98. A Diagram Showing hoi-; Tonal Areas and Structural Divisions may Coincide .... 254 99. The Form of the First Movement of a Pre-Classical Symphony by Sammartini . . 256 100. Three Melodies in Contrasting Style3 .... 273 101. A Melody Harmonized by Chords which are Implied in the Melody Itself 27l| 102. Broken Chord Patterns 276 103. An Excerpt Showing a Broken Chord Accompaniment 276 ABSTRACT

The activities of the high school band seem to reflect an attitude in which music is considered a public relations extension of the school system rather than an academic discipline. In suggesting new approaches which might aid in amending this situation, this dissertation provides both teacher and student xvith materials relating to musical style and its historical development. These materials include band arrangements and transcriptions. Each of these selections is representative of a style of music prevalent in earlier periods of history. Both con densed and full score versions of each composition are presented. The student materials place emphasis upon music theory as it directly relates to music history and. musical style. In addition, the compositions for performance pro vide the student and teacher with a hitherto largely un explored repertoire. The musical styles used and the compositions chosen to represent each are as folloxis: 1. Gregorian Chant and Organum — Victimae Paschali Laudes. 2. Medieval Motet and Conductus — Nus horn- Cil s' entremet-Victimae (motetfj, De 'Cast i't a t i s Thai amo (c on due tus ).

xiv 3. Late Renaissance Sacred Polyphony — 0 Vos Prunes by Victoria. Seventeenth Century Monody — Dovrb Dunque h. Horire by Caccini. $. Late Baroque Instrumental Polyphony — Overture and Alia Breve from Concerto a Dog CorT liuxabor 1_ Fy Handel. 6. PrerClassical Instrumental Homophony -- Symphony in ? Ha.jor, First Movement, by Sammartini".

Each of the last six chapters of the dissertation contains the teacher and student study materials and the scores for one of the styles listed above. CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Bands are an almost universal feature of high school education in the United States, and, as such, involve great numbers of students. By the criterion of quantity or number alone, the school band movement must be considered a success. Yet, we live in a time when basic educational reform is receiving more and more atten tion and when traditional goals are being challenged. The band movement is subject, as are all phases of education, to this compulsion for reform and is clearly liable to criticism on the ground of certain limitations. These limitations focus upon three points: the band's purpose, its repertoire, and its emphasis. While acknowledging the vitality of the band movement, the writer hopes that the materials presented in this dissertation may be in dicative of ways in which these limitations might be overcome.

Limitations of the Band Program

Purpose It is often suggested that the primary purpose of the band is to entertain or to act as a vehicle for 1 2 public relations. Most directors would probably argue that this is only a secondary purpose and not representa tive of the focus of their efforts. Such a suggestion, therefore, should be given only as much weight as it truly deserves. The school year activities of the band are divided into two areas at the high school level: the marching band and the concert band. As regards the former, it is inescapably clear that the primary emphasis is upon enter tainment, pageantry, exhibitionism, and public relations. What other purposes, for example, are in evidence at out door performances complete with pompon girls, banners, and twirlers? Can a street parade be justified in terms other than entertainment and public relations? It should be borne in mind, also, that most of the first semester is occupied with activities of this nature, and that a large part of the budget goes into providing the trappings asso ciated with these activities. It is conceivable that some musical learning could be stressed by directors when pre paring half time shows or parade routines. Furthermore, a repertoire of march music might be chosen with great care so as to avoid the more banal. Still, in spite of any gestures toward quality in repertoire and preparation, the inescapable conclusion remains. The first phase of the yearly band curriculum is overwhelmingly devoted to pageantry and public relations. 3 What, however, of the second phase of this program, the concert season? Do the same judgments apply here? Is there credibility in the assertion that the preparation of one or two formal and informal concerts only serves the purpose of entertaining an audience composed largely of parents? If we do consider this to be a reasonable asser tion, we then must face the fact that the entire band program is entertainment oriented and that such musical or educational values which may benefit the student are too meager to be of much consequence because of their lack of a central place in the curriculum. That this is, in fact, the case is evident upon considering the band's repertoire and the focus of student effort in dealing with that repertoire.

Repertoire One criticism often leveled at the high school band is that its repertoire is too limited in representa tive styles and idioms. The establishment of the validity of such a charge would require a separate, statistical study covering a large number of bands. However, it is possible to make some comments bearing upon this question. Originating in the late seventeenth century, the wind band as an organized group arose from within the military. Hence, the music which can be considered native to the band itself is the military march. Even in those early days, conductors sought to expand the repertoire. The result of these efforts was the orchestral transcrip tion* Thus, until recently, these tvio classes of compo sition have been staples in the band's repertoire. Of course, today composers are writing original works for band. Not all of the music written for band in the past several years, however, reflects the more advanced tech niques or experimentation, nor does the repertoire in general include musical styles predating the late eighteenth century. It therefore appears that the con cert band repertoire is still a somevxhat circtuiiscribed one.

Emphasis' Band directors are sometimes askod at the end of a semester, "What has the average band student learned about music that he didn't know before?" Any such question indicates a belief on the part of the questioner that the focus or emphasis in the current band program is at best misdirected. It implies that the band class is directed totally at public performance and at the mastery of an instrument. It assumes that the band class activities normally exclude such areas of study as theory and music history. It is the implicit criticism of music as a "frill." It is quite clear that the band teacher cannot answer such a question as easily, for example, as a teacher of English, and in view of music education's current drive toward academic respectability, this issue cannot be brushed aside lightly. In point of fact, the band program is directed primarily toward performance. Musical growth or learning, when it does occur, is at best a for tunate by-product of good rehearsal technique; at worst it is a sheer accident. In neither case is such learning a direct goal or objective of the time spent in rehearsal.

The Utility and Technique of the Study This dissertation consists of a number of compo sitions for band, each of which illustrates a particular historical-musical style. Arranged in chronological order, this series of works presents in summary those shifts of musical style which took place between the eleventh and eighteenth centuries. It is not intended that this series illustrate a continuum of change throughout seven hundred years of Western musical history. It is hoped, however, that the evolution of musical style can be presented ef fectively in the secondary school in the stages as outlined in this study, notwithstanding the obvious gaps in the sequence of tho3e stages. The six styles or style periods from which music has been chosen for this dissertation are: 1. Gregorian Chant and Organum 2. Medieval Motet and Conductus 3. Late Renaissance Polyphony 1).. Seventeenth Centxiry Honody ' Late Baroque Instrumental Polyphony 6. Pre-Classical Instrumental Homophony

The purpose of this dissertation is to provide a plan of instruction "by which the instrumental music student may become acquainted with unfamiliar musical styles. The means of achieving this purpose is the band rehearsal. To facilitate the director's role in implementing this study, the author has provided information regarding the stylistic characteristics of the music prepared for performance. In addition, st\xdy materials which include written assignments are provided for the student. By including musical styles from the period of the ecclesiastical plainchant to the pre-Classical period, this dissertation demonstrates that it is possible to expand the repertoire of the band into unfamiliar areas. It presents each style in its historical context, relating each one to its precedents and antecedents, thu3 fixing an orderly and planned repertoire and providing the band student with a variety of musical experiences. The emphasis in this study is on developing in the student an awareness of musical style and its change. The study intends that the student's own technical skill will be an adjunct to these purposes; hence, his ability as a performer will not be the criterion of success. Rather, his understanding of the developmental aspects of music will be the focus of his effort and the measure of his achievement. The technical procedures used in developing the various scores included in this study have varied accord ing to the type of composition chosen to represent a par ticular historical-musical style. These compositions are either transcriptions of short instrumental or vocal works or rather free settings of already existing vocal or in strumental material. Although this study may be based upon vrhat some might consider a rather radical idea, it is not intended as a revolutionary change in the teaching of instrumental music. Neither is it to be considered a course of study or a curriculum. This dissertation simply provides both band teacher and band student with new materials. These are of three types: performance materials, study mate rials for use by the students, and materials for use by the teacher in preparing to lecture or otherwise aid student learning. Although the best utilization of this study would involve the simultaneous use of all three types, the lack of the time or the occasion to do this should not preclude the use of only some of the materials presented here. The student study materials, for example, are relatively self-contained and could be used without presenting the same material in lectures. Furthermore, the band compositions could be used without involving the student in the kinds of assignments suggested in his study notes. Obviously, the unique situation at a par ticular place will determine how this approach to instru mental teaching may best be implemented. This study is only one idea for change. Other ideas can and should be investigated. It is possible, for example, to involve the student in chamber ensemble experiences to a much greater degree than currently is done. Opportunities for creative or original work could also provide the basis for a new approach. In addition, the use of materials based upon commercial musical styles is presently an almost untested possibility. The tradition-infused high school band stands as a challenge to the imagination of educators and music teachers. This dissertation is an attempt to oppose tra dition and, by so doing, to accept the challenge. CHAPTER 2

STYLE IN MUSIC

There is perhaps no more elusive concept in aesthetics than "style." One need only reflect upon the multiple connotations of the term to appreciate its vague ness and at the same time its utility. In the area of the visual arts, for example, one may apply this concept to. the works of an individual artist (Jackson Pollock style), the works of a whole school of artists (Cubist style), of a period (Gothic style), or even of an entire group of people (Egyptian style). In addition, this term is some- «« times applied to such areas as hairdressing, clothing, and to such roles as that of the writer, the skater, or for that matter, the second baseman. This profusion of uses is found also in the study of music and music history where one finds the word em ployed in reference to types of compositions (symphonic style), historical periods (sixteenth century style), composers (Wagnerian style), periods of a composer's life (late Beethoven style), and cities (Viennese or New Or leans style). Such a broad concept cannot avoid being ambiguous. Under the heading "operatic style," one might include an opera by Handel as well as one by Strauss. A comparison of the music of these two composers will reveal so many differences which can be interpreted on the basis of other criteria than type of composition as to render the heading "operatic style" of little historical or analytical use fulness. It should be noted that it is precisely in the field of history and analysis that the concept of style is most purposeful. This is not to declare that the use of the term in such a broad context is improper or incorrect, since a definition might easily encompass so ambiguous an application as well as so diverse a usage. Rather, it is to recognize the sweeping scale on v/hich this concept is put to use, and to acknowledge the need to define and de limit that scale so as to make that concept a more histor ically valid and useful one.

Style as Culture One idea which appears in many interpretations of this puzzling concept is that style inheres in the specific characteristics and relationships which occur in a work or works of art. Definitions in which this twofold idea ap pears are common. "Style refers to the distinctive charac teristics of a work, a composer, or a period" (Stein 1962, p. vi). "Style is the xeflection of the individual es sence of a work of art which gives it its identity. This identity is a result of a distinctive conjunction of com ponents coupled with distinctive emphases among the oompo- nents" (Dickinson 1965# p.3)» Musical style may be thought of as a set of elements which on the one hand gives a piece of music its identity and on the other allows it to be related to something outside itself: to a particular period of time, to a particular coun try of origin, to a type, to a function, to a composer, or to another piece of music. Elements of style may include the principles of tonal or ganization, ways of combining single melodic lines, ways of employing instruments, uses of cer tain rhythmic patterns, ways of treating the ver tical component of music, ways of assembling tones and phrases to form larger musical entities (Ulrich and Pisk 1963, p. 1|). As has been suggested, style studies and stylistic research serve the primary purpose of adding to the sum of knowledge regarding the technical development of music. It is possible to extract the discrete elements from a given body of music and to analyze the ways in which they are structured to form the common or normal procedures which allow us to identify a style. However, the rela tionship of a style of music to a particular time or place can be understood only if viewed within a cultural context. An analysis of style is based upon the ability to abstract from the raw data (music itself) those features which are the norms or conventions in a number of compo sitions. Where such compositions share many such conventions, these works may be considered representatives of a style. Style is defined on the basis of norms. How ever, a composer does not rediscover these conventional procedures each time he composes. They are a part of his inheritance. He may build upon them, but he, and his listeners, will be culturally preconditioned to favor those norms and that style. Styles change with time as do other aspects of culture, and musicians are no less influenced by such changes as are other persons. Nor are composers imper vious to social trends or political upheavals. Given a political system which puts no great restraints upon freedom of expression, the composer is at liberty to deviate from his inherited conventions in accordance with the influence of social trends or that of hi3 own imag ination. He cannot very easily obliterate those conven tions, however, without possibly destroying the framework by which his music may be understood. The concept of style, then, is a cultural gener alization based on the presence of a set of distinct tonal elements, such as tones and chords, and a series of con ventional procedures or a syntax by which these elements are related and interrelated. It is a concept which can be thought of as the relation of musical sound and the 13 human culture which produced it. It is, in part at least, a social phenomenon. The norms of a musical syntax are not something of such constancy that they cannot be ignored or deviated from if a composer is so inclined. Styles are man-made systems and as such are subject to the imagination and daring of the human mind. They are capable of being changed due to innovative procedures which subsequently may be diffused and assimilated, and are at the same time sufficiently stable to provide an organic sound complex capable of being perceived as are other learned, cultural phenomena. Indeed, our customary style period designations are based on the assumption of stable factors. Yet, we cannot be unaware of stylistic change, and thus are faced with the necessity of investigating the nature of style in terms of its being both a stable and flexible system. As has been pointed out, the composer working within an inherited tradition walks a path between tradi tional norms on the one hand and deviations from them on the other. We do not, however, assume that where an indi vidual composer has infused his tonal materials with a unique personal touch or an imaginative turn, his music suddenly loses its association with the style of his time or place. Hence, although music in a single style must by definition share a number of significant traits, it will not necessarily all sound alike. Innovation or de viation can, as we have noted, be widely copied, diffused, and ultimately assimilated. In such a circumstance, we may suppose a fundamental stylistic change. In short, the deviation has become the convention. Although this process may be very slow, the seed of change is firmly planted in the ground of style itself. As style is a cultural phenomenon, we may assume that an individual's familiarity with a style is a func tion of the experiences and especially the expectations based upon those experiences which he subconsciously em ploys on the occasion of hearing music. For a deviant musical expression to become a conventional one, it must have undergone a sufficiently widespread employment so as to become a part of the listener's expectations. But, as has been noted, no expression, no procedure, is of neces sity employed continually. Therefore, expectation is a matter of the individual's response to the probability that a particular expression will occur. There is, apparently, an important link between musical style and probabilities which are inherent in the system by which tonal elements are related to one another. Thus the two-fold nature of style, stability and flexibility, is inherent in the concept of style as a complex of probabilities. Stylistic norms may be thought of as most proba ble events. A statistical shift in the probabilities of the system is the mechanism by which these norms may dis sipate or rearrange. If the dominant-tonic cadence is considered a stylistic norm in tonal music, it is primari ly because the occurrence of the tonic chord following the dominant is the most statistically probable. If this were not true, if in fact the norms were not expectations based upon probabilities, the expression "deceptive cadence" would be a non sequitur. Since these probabilistic rela tionships are reflected in the listening habits of a person who is familiar with tonal music, he is responsive to that music, he "understands" it. Before continuing with a discussion of the syntax of musical elements in terms of probabilities, there are several points to be raised regarding the dynamics of style change and the applicability of style period desig nations.

Style as History If style is determined on the basis of probabil ities, and these have the capacity to alter during the course of time, then the choice of a period on a contin uous time scale whose limits define a style is very prob lematical. Inasmuch as style change is usually a slow and continuous process, the probability relationships which define style also change slowly, hence the limits of the sample from which to determine the frequency and probability of a musical event are unclear. As Meyer (1967# p. 261) points out, we cannot use, for example, all Western European music for our sample, for we ab stract in our listening what he calls "subsets" from this total sample when we hear music of a particular style period. The problem remains, therefore, in putting limits upon these subsets. Music historians acknowledge the rather arbitrary nature of style period designations and stress the fact that these overlap one another (Grout i960, p. 1f?8). Thus, they apparently give credit to what has been said regarding the organic change of musical style which has • been described in this study in terms of shifting prob abilities. However, change in music is not always organic and evolutionary. Under the influence of an innovation or a revolutionary concept, music can take a turn in a new direction and a new style or styles may come into being very rapidly. Such was the case with the advent of the monodic style at the opening of the seventeenth centviry. That disparate styles may exist concurrently is amply demonstrated by the situation existing today where a multiplicity of trends are in evidence. Conceivably, this state of affairs is a transitory one awaiting the emergence from the flux of a single dominant style. However, such a view presupposes the norm of a cultural coherence which may not be present in today's world (Meyer 1967, p. 172). Furthermore, this view also seems to infer the notion of progress or predestination for style change and the associated implication that those works of art which promote this trend are "destiny ful filling" and superior to those which do not promote it (Ackerman 1962, p. 227). A belief in the inevitability of one dominant style seems to cast doubt on a thesis of style change as a manifestation of the individual imagi nation working within the framework of stability or security on the one hand and the instinct for creating the new on the other. In any case, the objective reality of the time limits of a style period is difficult to establish owing to the nature of confluent change and the potentiality for concurrent styles. Traditional style period desig nations tend to imply a predetermined evolution and are, therefore, doubly suspect. Furthermore, subdivisions such as "early" or "middle" are compromises which confuse stylistic criteria with arbitrary time spans. However, since these period generalizations have proved useful for historical or critical purposes, their use is not proscribed in spite of their inherent defects. Inasmuch as the concept of style should be based upon stylistic criteria, that is, norms derived from 18 basic terms and characteristic procedures, it is felt that the best time scales for style designations are relatively modest ones. Granted that any such limits are to a degree liable to the objections noted, none the less, it is felt that "seventeenth century monodic style" is a more functional historical frame of reference than, for example, "Baroque style" or "seventeenth century style."

Style as Communication The syntactical nature of style perhaps can be understood best if music is considered as a communication system. Like language, music operates xd.th a set of dis crete elements or symbols whose arrangements are restricted in various ways by limitations upon random combinations. Once one presupposes a set of fixed pitches, i.e., the chromatic scale, one has imposed a considerable limitation upon what would otherwise have been a completely random choice of sounds. A melody, for example, consists of a sequence of melodic intervals ordered according to a choice of successive pitches and a choice of successive durations. These choices may be completely random or constrained by imposed limitations. If a mechanism is provided whereby the successive choice of intervals can be completely random, a random melody is produced. On the other hand, if no choice whatever is provided, the melody is a monotone. The imposition of a characteristic style between these extremes involves the choice of specific rules of melodic writing which will govern the nature of specific interval selection (Hiller and Isaacson 19^9, p. 19). These observations presuppose that music is a mode of communication. On this assumption, modern in formation theory (the mathematical theory of communica tion) has been applied in investigating the syntactical nature of the art through the use of digital computers. "Information" in this context may be taken to refer to the total capacity of a communication system to make random choices. The fewer the restrictions upon choice, the greater the number of possible choices inherent in the system itself. Information is greatest in such a circumstance. Information, then, is related not to a specific message which is communicated, but to the totality of messages which a system is capable of com municating. Where constraints upon random choice are im posed, information is diminished. Style in music has been discussed in terms of constraints upon the ordering of symbols in a syntactical system. A digital computer can be programmed with the necessary input to reproduce a finite set of symbols according to probabilities which are inherent in a type or style of music. In effect, what is done is to build a communication system which is capable of generating a random process, and then to reduce the informational 20 content of that system by programming limitations derived from an analysis of a style. The product of such a system should be music in a style similar to that from itfhich the stylistic rules were abstracted. A composer working within the context of the pre suppositions of style, rejects and accepts alternative solutions to compositional problems, all the while imposing order upon his tonal materials. This process is one in which the composer or composers will create a class of essentially similar compositions whose details will differ but whose general properties will be the same. A computer can perform the same process irrespective of whether the norms imposed on the system are derived from a statistical analysis of style or are originally conceived. Hence, the computer creates music using a process which can be con sidered roughly analogous to the creative process of the musician. In spite of this, we cannot say that the use of information theory has solved the mystery of the crea tive process. As a matter of fact, if Cohen (1962, p. 151j.) and Hiller and Isaacson (195>9# P» 33) are to be believed, where computers have been employed to write music in the manner discussed above, the results have been banal or prim itive or both. It should be realized then, that the use of digital computers in music composition has served primarily to enlighten interested students regarding the basic syn tactical nature of music rather than to create good art. 21 The chapters which follow will give attention to the six styles considered in this study. CHAPTER 3

GREGORIAN CHANT AND ORGANUM

The monody of Gregorian chant and the polyphony of organum are features of the first band composition included in this dissertation (p.l|i|.). It is usual to ob serve the separation of monophony and polyphony inasmuch as each of these textural designations is usually considered a distinct attribute within a single style. However, one can offer a cogent reason for linking them as a stylistic unit withovit, at the same time, nullifying the common dis tinction. Parallel organum cannot be considered the addi tion of an independent voice to an already existing melody. The added, voice is, in fact, inextricably linked to its cantus firmus by a specific interval, usually the fourth or fifth. So long as that interval is maintained, the additional voice must follow the chant's melodic contour so that the two voices reveal the one melody. Further more, if musicologists are correct in their belief that organum may have arisen when groups of people inadvert ently sang parallel intervals xjhile thinking to sing in unison (Seay 1965# 77)t then the insistence upon a firm distinction between monophony and polyphony in 22 respect to their appearance in early liturgical music is somewhat misleading. Grout (1960, p. 69) deals with this point as follows: It has been maintained that the course of monophonic Gregorian Chant from 5>00 to 1000 might properly be regarded as the last stage of'the music of the ancient world rather than the first of the modern. The principal objections to this view are, first, that Gregorian Chant did not cease developing at the eleventh century, for some of its finest \tforks, especially antiphons and sequences, were produced thereafter; and, second, that polyphony in the first five hun dred years after 1000 vras so intimately bound up with the Church and so dependent on Gregor ian Chant for its modal system, its musical form, its melodic style and even a large pro portion of its actual melodic material that the two epochs cannot be arbitrarily separated without doing violence to the historical facts.

Chant as Genre The term "chant" is a generic designation used in referring to the music.of several religious tradi tions. In spite of the wide disparity among some of these, for example the Jewish, the Hindu, and the Christian, the musical setting of each of their lit urgies possesses several common characteristics. Liturgical chant is monophonic, unaccompanied, and rnythmically free. Its performance is exclusively vocal, sung by one singer or by several singing in unison In the liturgical tradition of the Christian West, there developed several ways of setting liturgical texts as well as several ways of chanting. The setting of the texts of plainchant, as it came to be known, could be done in any of three styles: (1) syllabic - where one note is set to one syllable of text; (2) neumatic - two to four or more notes to one syllable; (3) melismatic - groups of notes, often as many as ten to twenty, to one syllable. Plainchant also featured three different xjays of pre senting a chant: (1) responsorial - solo voice and choir alternate; (2) antiphonal - choir alternates with choir; (3) direct - choir sings with no alternation of any kind. The various text settings are not mutually exclu sive and a single chant may include all three. The chant Victimae Paschali Laudes which serves as the basis for the first band study of the project (p. 37)» combines the syllabic style with the neumatic. An example of the latter can be found at the end of the chant at the words "Amen, Alleluia." The following examples from the Liber Usualis, one of the Roman Catholic chant collections (1956, pp. 293> 362, 1|.05>) and quoted by Ulrich and Pisk (19&3, P* illustrate each of the ways in which a plainchant text may be set. These are reproduced among the student's 2$ study materials in the expectation that they will be sung as a natural study procedure for this essentially vocal music. It is further suggested that the responsorial and antiphonal methods of chanting be demonstrated using the first syllabic chant in the examples below. The director or one of the better singers in the band may be the leader to whom the band, acting as a vocal choir, responds in demonstrating the responsorial style, and the entire group can then be divided into two choirs to demonstrate antiph onal singing. In general, where a primarily vocal style is to be studied, it is recommended that the student be expected to use his singing voice in classroom performance as well as his band instrument.

Syllabic $ » » » & I Sur- rex- it So- mi- nus de se- pul- cro l Neumatic

Re - ve-la - bi- tur glo- ri- a So- mi-no Melismatic 1 J' fU ]TI j Al- le- lu- - ia

Figure 1. Three Styles of Text Setting in Gregorian chant The many chants which comprise the music of Roman Catholicism began to form long before the reign of Pope Gregory the Great after whom this religious musical tradition is named. His exact role in the final organization of this body of plainchant is still the sub ject of some debate. That he was highly instrumental in the standardization and final codification of the chant had long been a generally held view (Grout 1960, p. 28). Not so generally accepted was the belief that he himself composed or had composed under his direction some or most of this music. Apel (1958, p. L|.9) writes: The analytical and comparative studies of chant that have been made during the past fifty years show beyond any doubt that the melodies of the Roman repertory were not written at one given period, but are the result of multiple evolu tionary and cumulative processes which must have extended over several centuries. It is currently believed that what is called Gregorian Chant is the result of a final development which, in fact, postdates the Gregorian period. Hence, the association of the name Gregorian with this music is an enduring tradition no longer paralleling con tinuing historical research.

General Features of Plainchant Whatever artistic merit a chant melody may possess, its ultimate purpose is to serve the liturgy. Actually, 27 the liturgical texts to a large extent determine the unique stylistic features which nay distinguish one type of chant from another. To understand the significance of a chant or of plainchant in general, one should possess a knowledge of the liturgy and of its varied role throughout the litur gical year. A review of these features is beyond the scope of this paper. However, several stylistic features of chant melody may be noted and added to those already suggested. Apel (1958, p. 214-8) lists the overall range of Gregorian melody as being one tone short of two octaves, extending from low A to the G above middle C. Based upon his exhaustive examination of numerous examples, this determination delimits the comprehensive range of plainchant. It is not meant to imply that an individual chant might approach so wide a gamut. In fact, in most chants, the range is quite limited, rarely more than the octave. Occasionally, this octave is encompassed within a melodic arch. Irrespective of its pitch range, the arch may be considered a basic melodic design of plainchant phrases (Apel 1958, p. 2i|.0), although it is by no means a universal feature of such phrases. A look at Victimae Paschali Laudes reveals a number of arch like forms, many of which are unbalanced with their greater length on the descending side. Erickson (195#, p. 29) believes that the longer, more gradual descent from the apex of the arch is a distinct feature of Gregorian melody. Stepwise progressions are the rule in this music. Intervals larger than fourths and fifths are rare; octave leaps are absent.

Modal Theory The systematization of the melodic material of plainchant into the eight modal scales of modal theory (p. 60) was no overnight process. To state that Gregorian Chant is based upon the eight ecclesiastical modes is to imply mistakenly that early plainchant was conditioned by this theory. In fact, plainchant was sung for many cen turies before the codification of modal theory. Subse quently and until tonal harmony became established in practice, modality reigned and doubtless influenced com posers in the development of their art. Two of the important concepts involved in modal theory are the final or finalis and the range or ambitus. The final in the modal scale is analogous to the tonic in the tonal scale and is the tone upon ttfhich the modal melody normally ends. The range is an octave expressed as a combination of the tones enclosed in the perfect fifth plus the perfect fourth. The final, being the lowest note of the fifth, has its location in the modal scale determined by the relative positions of the two scale segments. The range can lie totally above the final as would be the case if the fifth were placed below the fourth. The range can also encompass the final as would be the case if the fourth were placed below the fifth. The former is called an "authentic" mode. The latter is called "plagal." Each final, therefore, is the primary tone of two modal scales. The four finals, D, E, F, and G, are associated with eight scales which, although num bered 1 to 8 in Roman Catholic chant books, also have been given names taken from ancient Greek music theory. The following outline should bring all of these points into perspective.

Table 1. The Ecclesiastical Mode System Mode Greek Modal Mode Number Name Scale Final Form 1 Dorian DEFGABGD D Authentic 2 Hypodorian ABCDEFGA D Plagal 3 Phrygian EFGABCDE E Authentic k Hypophrygian BCDEFGAB . E Plagal S Lydian FGABCDEF F Authentic 6 Hypolydian CDEKrABC F Plagal 7 Mixolydian GABCDEKJ G Authentic 8 Hypomixoly- DEPGABCD G Plagal dian 30 The range of the mode may be extended with the addition of a tone immediately below the lowest note of the modal scale. This additional tone is called the subtonium. The modal classification of a chant melody is de termined on the basis of two factors, range and final. However, there are many melodies which are difficult to classify because of their excessive ranges. The total range of Victimae Paschali Laudes, for example, exceeds the octave and encompasses both the plagal and authentic ambitus of the Dorian mode. Designated mode 1 in the chant books, its middle section, from the low A at the words Pic nobis to the double bar just after the word surgentis, is quite obviously in mode 2. The modal scheme of the whole chant can be said to outline an interesting tripartite form with the return to mode 1 in the closing section. Regarding the problem of extended range and modal theory, Apel p. 1£1 ) has this to say: "Confronted with the problem of accounting for. melodies moving in the authentic as well as in the plagal ambitus, later theorists coined the terms tonus plusquamperfectus, mixtus, and commixtus, thus merely conceding that the system of the eight modes is not applicable." The melodies of the Gregorian repertoire are always notated without the use of accidentals. B flat is the 31 single exception. It appears in the chant books and is the only one accounted for in the system. Its presence in a chant frequently indicates that a transposition has occurred. The persistent use of B flat in a chant ending on G, for example, indicates that the transposition up a fourth from modes 1 or 2 has occurred. Such a chant ending on A, not normally a final, might indicate the transposi tion up a fourth from modes 3 or ij.. Keeping in mind that the mode must retain its order and sequence of tones and semitones in both original and transposed forms, one can see in Figure 3 how the B flat functions in mode trans position.

Mode 1 o—P: zoz I ^-——Z—!

Mode 1 Transposed ^ Q I O Q._frP **

Mode 3 St o » Q i

Mode 3 Transposed J3L J&L b& o ° a P

Figure 2. Original and Transposed Forms of Modes 1 and 3 The whole issue of modal theory and the transpo sition of modes is of far greater interest to musicolo gists than to most teachers. This discussion is no more than a brief introduction to a rather esoteric branch of knowledge. However, the matter of the transposition of a mode being achieved through the retention of a unique pattern of whole and half steps is significant in that it is a fundamental point in any transposition. For this reason, it is suggested that the student be introduced to written transposition using the modal scales he will find among his study materials. The transposition of a mode, at any interval, can be achieved by first observing the degree of the C major scale on which each mode begins. The Dorian mode which begins on D, or the second degree of C major, can begin on the second degree of any major scale and will retain the accidentals found in the key signature of that scale. Therefore, the Dorian which is to begin on the note C will require accidentals derived from the major key of which C is the second degree, or B flat major. As can be seen in Figure 3# the Dorian mode built on the tone C includes the B flat and the E flat, and thereby retains the se quence and pattern of whole and half steps which are unique to that mode. It should not be forgotten that the B flat is also used in plainchant to avoid the harsh sound of the tritone 33 between P and B. It can be found used for that purpose on page I|4 at measures 21 and 22. In addition, the sub stitution of B flat for B natural in the Dorian (D) mode Lydian (P) mode provides two new modes which when transposed up a fifth are identical to the A minor and C major scales (scales not recognized as modes by the medieval theoretician).

Dorian Mode Dorian Mode on C a o c> ^ ° j>p o I"€T o o 0|)0 ft ° **

Phrygian Mode Phrygian Mode on C 33C O & -VX5- •^bO po o

Lydian Mode Lydian Mode on C O » 6 O a » i o o O #'

Mixolydian Mode Mlxolydian Mode on C O O o a <£ 31

Figure 3. The Pour Authentic Modes in Their Original Forms and Transposed to Begin on the Tone C

Notation and Rhythm Plainchant notation as it appears in the Roman Catholic chant books is unlike the printed music which is familiar to mo3t people* The note symbols which are called neumes are placed on a four line staff rather than a five line staff. Two clefs are used: the C clef ( g ) which is placed on one of the upper three lines, and the F clef (£ ) which is usually placed on the third line from the bottom. Vertical bar lines of various lengths are used to indicate phrase endings and subdivisions. The neumes themselves are square shaped note symbols which occur singly or in groups of txro, three, or four. The follow ing figure shows the principal simple neumes.

1 Vlrga "1 J*

tunc turn •

Podatus a P Cllvis >

Torculus A

Porreotus N

Climacus 1*

Figure i|.. The Principal Simple Neumes of Gregorian Notation Shown Opposite Their Counterparts in Contemporary Music Nota tion 35 The composite neumes, those containing two or more notes, are. read from left to right as is normal, but it should be noted that the podatus is correctly sung when the lower note precedes the upper. The example below is a short excerpt in neumatic style with a transcription into modern notation. It should be noticed how the barring of the eighth notes marks the locations of the original composite neumes.

E II ' .. . » f f ' « . 1 1

§ 2 r P ^ .'Ti i1 j i 6

Figure A Melody in Plainchant and in Modern Notation

A singular feature of plainchant notation is the lack of any symbolic representation for durations. There is nothing to indicate differing lengths of tones nor any thing to indicate recurring rhythmic patterns. The lack of these features, however, does not prove that in practice the chant was not actually sung in measured durations, and, in fact, the proper interpretation of rhythm in Gregorian Chant has become the single most contentious issue among scholars. Much in this area is conjecture regarding the 36 question of whether or not the neunes should be interpreted as signifying one basic time value or various relative values. This issue, perhaps, may never be resolved, but in spite of a considerable weight of evidence to the con trary, the position of the Benedictine monks of the Solesmes Abbey in Prance is at present most widely observed. This view holds that a single time value for all notes is the best way to reflect the ancient practice and the spirit of the liturgy.

Tropes and Sequences The practice of adding music or texts to already existing and standardized chant literature was begun in the ninth century. These interpolations are frequently referred to with the generic term tropes. The sequence was a type of trope which consisted of pairs of lines of text^with the same number of syllables and the same music for the two lines of each pair. Called "paired versicles," these double lines were introduced and followed by single lines or "single versicles." The form of the sequence may be represented ttfith the schematic structure, A-BB-CC-D. Victimae Faschali Laudes (Fig. 6), is an example of the sequence form in a transitional stage. The unequal sizes of the double versicles and the irregularity of the melody are not characteristic of later examples of this form, which, in addition, do not have single versicles. 37

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Figure 6. The Sequence Victimae Paschali Laudes The following translation of the text of Victimae Paschali Laudes is taken from Masterpieces of Music Before 1750 by Parrish and Ohl (19f>1, p. $)•

1. Christians, to the Paschal Victim offer your thankful praises. 2. The lamb the sheep hath ransomed; Christ, by sin undefiled, reconcileth sinners to the Father. 3. Death and Life in a conflict sore and wondrous contended. Life's Captain, he that died, deathless roigneth. I|.. Speak, Mary, declaring, what thou sawest wayfaring? S>. His tomb, who passed through its portal, His glory, who rose from death immortal: 6. Bright angels attesting, the shroud and napkin resting, 7. The Lord, my hope, hath arisen: to Galilee He goeth before you. 8. We know that Christ is risen henceforth ever living; have mercy, Victor King, pardon giving. The melody of Viotimae Paschali Laudes provided the basis .of a number of later compositions. The first example below is the opening of the plainchant used as a cantus firmus in a six voiced sixteenth century Renaissance motet by the Flemish composer Willaert.

Willaert •Ol

Vic - tl - mae ps> ~ scha- li Lau - r J rTr r J B des im - mo -lent Chri- sti - a - ni

Figure 7• The Plainchant Melody Victiraae Paschali Laudes Used as a Cantus Pirmus Tn a Renaissance MolTet

The melody of the hymn Christ Lag in Todesbanden by Luther begins with a phrase which is identical with the opening of the chant Victiraae Paschali Laudes,

Luther p =0= J f P O: Christ lag in To-des- ban- den Figure 8. The Opening of the Hymn Christ Lag in Todesbanden The hymn melody which appeared in is the melodic basis of Bach's Cantata No. [)., Christ Lag in Todesbanden. • The following three examples show how Bach treated the beginning of the melody in the first, second, and fifth movements of the cantata. Note that Bach added a sharp to the second note of the original chant melody.

Bach —0-:^cl d T~f £=J.

i> +T=Fep—e— ±4* J // P'1 H1

0 • 3 —sr ' —*— ' 3. " 2-4--? -.MP _ 1-—

Figure 9. The Opening Melodies from Three Movements of Bach's Christ Lag in Todesbanden. Each Based upon the Chant Victimae Paschali Laudes Organum Some musicologists believe that organum, the earli est part singing in liturgical music, may have grown out of what has been called "traditional folic polyphony" (Bukofzer 1914-7* P» 2l|-9). Implicit here is their belief that part singing was a spontaneous, unsophisticated development based on natural causes. Fourths and fifths were the first of the harmonic intervals to appear in organum, and several rationalizations have been advanced to account for this. One has to do with the nature of the overtone series. If the ear accepts as consonant those intervals closest in the series to the fundamental, then the occurrence of fourths and fifths as the predominant intervals of early organum can be explained on that basis. A simpler explanation has it that the natural ranges of the voices from bass to so prano lie approximately a fifth apart and that untrained singers may have divided their singing into parallel lines without knowing what in fact was taking place. Parallel organum was not the only type which oc curred in the early days of polyphony. Free organum which involved other intervals than the medieval consonances was also practiced at an early date. Contrary motion and the crossing of parts characterized this organum and rendered it quite distinct from the parallel type. Occasionally, in parallel organum, oblique motion appeared at cadences, k2 and even contrary motion was used in reaching the cadential unison. This was called the occursus. It always progressed to the unison through the major third. The addition of a voice, a fourth or fifth below an already existing plainchant, restated in a two part parallel organum which could be extended into a three or four part shape by the doubling of the original voices at their lovier and upper octaves. This type, called composite organum, is illustrated below with an example of the occursus.

J> J> J' \ 2 J? i>.t> £J? ^ ft I

.y-H* ]»]> H* *

J% j1 i > * f j> j> f> ,

Figure 10. Types of Organum (a) Composite Organum (b) Parallel Organum with Occursus k-3 Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes The text just concluded is intended partly as study material to help in preparing the performance of the music which follows on the next several pages. The band setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes cannot be considered an attempt to recreate early chant. Rather it is an at tempt to make use of the band medium for the study of early music. Basically, this is a band composition, the melodic material of which is Gregorian Chant. Its harmonic basis is primarily the medieval consonance although several measures are triadically harmonized. Its form is a three fold repetition of the chant melody. Each of the main sections of the work emphasizes a different attribute of early medieval liturgical music. The first of these sections (to the first double bar) is a statement of the chant melody without those repetitions basic to the sequence form. Originally, this was meterless music. It is set in Jj| meter for the purpose of making it easier for the players and the conductor to read. Since the rhythm is free, the conductor should avoid regular accents in the melody on what ordinarily would be the strong beats of the me.asure. The second section (measures 21-lj.O) emphasizes parallel and composite organum, and the final section introduces free organum in several short passages. 44 Condensed Score of the Band Setting of Victimae Paschali Laudes

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Horns 59 Student Study Material Gregorian Chant or "plainchant" is the religious music of the Roman Catholic Church. It is very ancient. In this music the relationship of the musical tones to the syllables of the words is very important. You should be able to sing the following examples of chant and know the differences between the three kinds of word settings, the syllabic, the neumatic, and the melismatic. Briefly, these are: (1) the syllabic uses a separate note for . every syllable, (2) the neumatic uses several notes on a syllable, and (3) the melismatic has*many notes on one syllable.

Syllabic

£ Sur-rex- it Do- mi -nus de se - pul - cro Neumatic

Re- ve-la - bi- tur glo-ri- a Do - mi-no 0 Melismatic _ ^ 5

Al- le — lu — — — ia. — — — —

Figure 11. Three Kinds of Text Setting in Gregorian Chant 60 The Ecclesiastical Modes In the early days of music history, scholars determined that the melodic basis for Gregorian Chant was what were called the "ecclesiastical modes." A mode is a seven note scale with a unique pattern of whole and half steps. These eight modes are shown in Figure 12 below. Play them and notice their differences. The half steps in each mode are marked v .

i. Dorian I 2. PSi b Hypoaorian

Phrygian ° O O,

4. O O Hypophrygian :r o ^ 13 o Lydian 5* O O. o o IO O Hypolydian 6. & o Q; jCX

Jgl o Mlxolydlan 7. i o o

8. o o o Hypomlxolydlan I O o, 3*2: Figure 12. The Ecclesiastical Modes (# denotes the final) In each, mode, there is one tone which is called the final. This is the tone on which a modal melody usually begins and always will end. The range is another feature of chant raelody which is of importance. It is an octave extending up from the final, as in modes 1, 3» and 7» or from the note four steps beloxtf the final to the octave above, as in modes 2, 6, and 8. This simply means that a chant melody with a final on D may have an octave range from D to D or from A to A. On the following page there are several short excerpts from the Book of Psalms. Try to set one of these texts to your own melody in Gregorian Chant style. To do this well, you must keep several things in mind: 1. Begin and end your melody on the final, D, E, P, or G, and be sure to keep the melody within its proper range. 2. Avoid leaps in the melody. Emphasize stepvrise motion and arch like shapes. 3. Indicate phrase or breath marks using short vertical lines for short pauses and longer lines for longer pauses. Use no rests. ij.. Use only eighth notes, and try to set the words with all three of the types of text settings. ASSIGNMENT I

Set one of the following excerpts to your own melody in Gregorian Chant style. .» Psalm !±2 - "As a hart longs for flovring streams, so longs my soul for Thee, 0 God." Psalm 6l_ - "Hear my cry, 0 God, listen to my prayer.11 Here are some additional hints. Put an occasional skip in the melody in order to avoid monotony. Don't re peat the same tone too often. Remember, important words can be emphasized by setting them in the melismatic style. To help you become accustomed to this style of melody, you may play or sing the following portion of the chant Victimae Paschali Laudes.

^ b I'i'j'jH '1* : j Jfrl'J'i J>| ' P J1

Figure 13. An Excerpt from the Chant Victimae Paschali Laudes '

Can you tell the mode of the above chant? It is in mode 1. Notice that the range extends to the note C just below the lowest D. This tone, which is located one step below the lowest tone of the range, is called the subtonium. 63 To demonstrate how the modes affect melodies, the •writer has. copied the tune America in its correct major mode and in the Dorian and Phrygian modes. Play and sing these, and note the differences.

Major Mode

• 04 > •

I t r il i. P J d * d j J 0 Dorian I5oae i , . .I -1—s—r+ —t— h 1 -rH- S3 .jLJ )— =fci=±l bfad 7^ UJJ —

i •—»• ^ 10 *3 • * *--S i Phrygian """«Mode —1_ „ I\ J J JI J, Jj M J^jlJ J jlj.lff flfH

)iJ|I JMI J ^ i vj • i i pi

Figure 1lj.. America in Major, Dorian, and Phrygian Modes Mode Transposition Gregorian Chant was written without the use of any sharps or flats other than B flat. In writing the modes, we ordinarily use only those tones which are the white notes on the piano. However, if we wish to write the Dorian mode starting on a tone other than D, or the Phrygian mode on a tone other than E, or the Lydian mode on a tone other than P, we can do so only if we employ sharps and flats to keep the half steps and whole steps in the proper positions in each of the modes. Remember, a mode, like any scale, has its own pattern of whole steps and half steps. As long as you retain that pattern or order, you can write a Dorian or Phrygian mode on any note you choose. Talcing a mode or melody and relating it higher or lower so that it begins on a different note is called "transposition." Our next project will be to write the Dorian mode a tone higher than it ordinarily is written, to transpose it up one tone. Since this mode is ordinarily written from D to D with no sharps or flats, we must write our trans posed Dorian mode starting on the note E and will now have to determine which sharps or flats will be necessary. To do this, you should know your C major scale and the key signatures of the other major scales. Several steps are necessary. 1. Notice that the Dorian mode begins on the second note, or second degree, of the scale of C major. 2. Notice also that the untransposed Dorian mode has no sharps or flats, just as the C major scale has none. 3. Think of the tone on which you intend to build your transposed Dorian mode as the second degree of a major scale. Jj.. Use those sharps or flats in your transposed mode as occur in that major scale. Now to return to our transposed Dorian mode on E. Observe: 1. E is the second degree of the scale of D major. 2. D major has two sharps in its signature. 3. A transposed Dorian mode starting on the note E will therefore require two sharps, P sharp and C sharp, to give the correct sequence of whole and half steps. Let us now check our transposed Dorian mode against the untransposed form. 66

f r\ LS ° J S °v

4 [ANA rt If . O w if '* oyw P — ' I

Figure l£. Untransposed and Transposed Forms of the Dorian Mode

Following the same sequence of steps, we should now be able to transpose any mode. If we wish, for example, to transpose the Lydian mode so that it begins on the note C, we must first establish that the untransposed Lydian mode starts on the fourth degree of C major. Hext, we determine that C, our starting note, is the fourth degree of G. The key of G has a signature of one sharp, so the Lydian mode transposed to start on C will require an F sharp.

ASSIGNMENT II Construct a Dorian mode on the tone C, a Phrygian mode on the tone A, and a Mixolydian mode on the tone F. (The correct answers or solutions to the student assignments can be found beginning on page 279 in the Appendix).

Gregorian Notation You are now going to be introduced to an entirely new kind of music notation. This notation was actually developed to its present form by the year 1200 and has 67 been continually in use until today. The books in which this notation is found are the chant books of the Catholic Church. The note symbols are called neumes« They are square shaped and occur singly and in groups of two, three, or four. Neume3 are placed on a four line staff. The upper line of this staff is usually the line for the note C. There is a C clef ( JJ ) which is usually placed on the top line but can also be placed on one of the lower ones. Below, you will find some of the neumes* Look them over and note how they translate into the kind of notation with which you are already familiar.

CEJE m

Figure 16. Gregorian Square Notation and Modern Notation On the next page, you will find two lines of Gregorian Chant which you will be asked to transcribe from the square note symbols into modern music notation. You also will be asked to determine the mode of each of these examples. Here is a list of things to observe in tran scribing this music. 1. The upper line of the four line staff is the C line. The other notes can be determined by count ing down from C. 2. All notes are eighth notes except those which have dots. These may be written as quarter notes. 3. The vertical lines on the staff represent pauses or phrase marks. Do not use rests, but rather copy these marks directly onto the five line staff. l±, Neumes which are composed of two or three notes are called "composite neumes." These should be written as eighth notes vjhich are connected by a single bar as in the examples on the preceding page. 5>. Keep your transcription within the staff. The symbol A indicates that the actual sounds 8 will be an octave lower than written. 69 ASSIGNMENT III Transcribe into modern music notation the two lines of Gregorian Chant you find below.

Mode 8 11 3 « fU • " ' r* * n 1 a • m g * 3 * p • a

Mode

a'i *3"' 8 a 1'*" CHAPTER 1|.

MEDIEVAL MOTET AND CONDUCTUS

The primary subjects of this chapter are two types of medieval polyphony, the motet and the polyphonic conductus. Since an understanding of these forms requires some background information regarding earlier forms and notational developments, this chapter begins with a discussion of tirelfth century organum.

Twelfth Century Organum Two types of organum were performed during most of the twelfth century. These were the "sustained note" or "melismatic" style, in which each of the tones of the lower voice or tenor functioned as an organ point beneath the duplum (a voice which was written in a florid or melis matic manner) and the "discant" style in x^hich both voices moved along in measured rhythms. On the following page is an example of each of the textures described above. Both of them could appear as contrasting sections within the same composition during the twelfth century. Passages of discant organum were called clausula and are the structures from which the thirteenth century motet directly developed,

70 71

Sustained Note Style -O- * si ijji tit

m R

Discant Style J JI*i J> ^ J. ^ ;r+

H. 1. J.JrJ, 6

Figure 17* Two Types of Twelfth Century Organum

The square notation of Gregorian Chant does not differ greatly in any important aspect from the manuscript in which this twelfth century organum was written. How ever, unlike the chant, this organum very probably was sung in rhythms as indicated above, although there is still some doubt whether this applies equally to the sustained note organum as it does to the discant type. At any rate, at the close of the twelfth century, the rhythm of organum where the parts were measured, as in the discant clausula, was one in which recurring groups of three pulses pre dominated. Called "perfections" because of theological concerns with the Holy Trinity, these groups most often occurred in the pattern J i .

Modal and Mensural Notation As has been mentioned, the notation of early polyphony did not differ greatly from that of the monophonic chant. However, the application of specific rhyth mic patterns in the rendering of this music was based upon conventions which were implied in the notation itself. It was necessary to examine the notation, decipher it so as to ascertain the intended rhythmic patterns, and apply them in the performance of the music, or, in modern times, in the transcription of the notation. It should be understood that notation in medieval music was a continuously evolving system, not one in which notational procedures were formalized or codified. Dis agreements among scholars and differences in their tran scriptions of the same early manuscripts attest to this fact as do notational differences of the same compositions which appear irr different codices of the period. In the first attempts at a methodological treat ment of rhythm, medieval writers acknowledged six separate rhythms or rhythmic modes. The six illustrated on the next page are all in triple meter. Hence, music which demonstrates modal rhythm moves along in groups of three (perfections) or multiples of three as in ^ or ^ . 73

Mode I Mode 11 n i>i Mode III i. J>J Mode IV j»j j. Mode V j. j. Mode VI m Figure 18. The Rhythmic Modes

It was mentioned in the previous chapter that the square shaped notes of chant notation, were often connected into groups of two, three, or four. These were called composite neumes. The same technique of grouping was practiced in modal notation, except that these "ligatures," as they now had come to be called, assumed a far greater degree of importance with respect to their rhythmic impli cations than had been the case with the neumes of monophonic chant. For example, if the most common modal rhythm (that of the first rhythmic mode) was intended, the nota tion was arranged as a series of two note ligatures pre ceded with one of three notes. The second mode was indicated again with a series of two note ligatures but this time ending td.th a three note ligature. The other modes were indicated with their own respective ligature groups. There were, also, several devices "which enabled the mediev.al musician to vary or alter the rhythm within a particular mode. However, as Parrish writes (1959, p. 73, "The system of modal notation was ambiguous in some respects, however, and often indicated the rhythmic intent indirectly; for the same notes and ligatures may have different meanings according to context." The following is an example of a single sequence of tones which has been grouped first into Mode I and then into Mode II. This example can be found in the chapter on fixed rhythm of Volume II of the New Oxford History of

Music (Hughes 19P» 332). Observe that Mode I begins with a three note ligature and that Mode II ends with a three note ligature. Ligatures are customarily represented in modern notation by brackets. Short vertical lines are used to indicate rests.

0 Modq I 1 m — n _ JH .. II tt a pi 3 N 1— ninTi \y< : —fr \

rt Mode II A a » _•••• -• . • • i f—rir-n . *< V, ^ - fls (V ft j 1 R 1 |> * • J, • IR n 1' Figure 19. Transcriptions into Modern Notation from the Ligature Notations of Modes I and II

Ingenious though modal notation may be, it is a far cry from the kind of notational situation in which 75 the shape of the note itself indicates its relative dura tional value. Such a notation is called "mensural" or measured. In mensural notation, the symbol of fundamental importance is that for the individual note. Modal nota tion is based upon combinations of notes in the form of ligatures, and although these continued to be used, the alternations of the symbol for a single long note and the symbol for a single short note provided a means of notating modal rhythm without the use of ligatures. The definitions which follow are inserted here for purposes of clarification. Modal Rhythm - music which progresses in triple meter following one or another of the rhythmic modes Modal Notation - notational symbols con sisting of groups of liga tures which imply modal rhythm Mensural Notation - the type of notation which contains individual symbols for long and short notes The two symbols of fundamental importance in men sural notation are the long ( ^ ) and the breve (• ). By alternating these two, it was possible to notate Mode I or Mode II without the use of ligatures, although it should be understood that ligature notation continued to be employed and was not immediately superseded by mensural notation. 76 One can see from the illustration below how Modes I, II, V, and VI would appear in mensural notation. Normally, twelfth century manuscripts are transcribed using quarter notes and eighth notes to represent longs and breves. For music of the following century, half notes and quarter notes are used in order to accommodate smaller note values.

Mode I •1 • n * J J J I Mode II •1 • 1 JJJJ' Mode V in J- J. el-

Mode VI • • • J i J

Figure 20. The Transcription of Mensural Notation into Modern Notation

Thirteenth Century Polyphony The medieval motet, perhaps the single most impor tant medieval form, and the polyphonic conductus share certain features and display certain significant differ ences as well. Perhaps the most important difference has to do with the fact that, unlike the conductus, the motet is a cantus firmus composition (one which is based upon an already existing melody). 77 In addition to the distinction based upon the presence or absence of a cantus firmus, there is a rhythmic difference between these forms which should be noted. The two or more parts of a conductus follow a generally similar rhythmic pattern, the strict adherence to which causes the voices to appear to move as block chords rather than as separate polyphonic lines. It should be observed, at this point, that the individual voices of the polyphony of this period are believed to have been composed consecutively rather than simultaneously. Unlike the conductus, the motet voices were free to follow separate patterns or modes. Even where one pattern predominated in the upper voices of a motet, these were often more rhythmically independent than was the case with the voices of the polyphonic conductus. Since the voices of these polyphonic forms were composed consecutively, the composer's concern with the rules of consonance and dissonance were first applied to the duplum as it related to the newly composed tenor (in the case of the conductus) or to the plainchant which served as tenor (in the case of the motet). When it came to the addition of a third voice or triplum, the rules of conso nance were applicable to that voice and either of the other two but not necessarily to both. Hence, medieval polyph ony sometimes sounds highly dissonant. The medieval consonances were the octave, the perfect fifth, and the unison. They almost always occurred 78 on the beginnings of perfections, as an examination of the conductus De Castitatis Thalamo (p. 81) will show. Thirds, both major and minor, were called imperfect consonances and were treated as passing dissonances generally linking the consonant fifth and the unison. The sixths were disso nances and, according to Reese (1940, p. 29kh the fourth had diminished in importance as a consonance by this century. A study of the motet Victimae (p. 8*1 ) also reveals the presence of consonances at the beginnings of perfec tions, but the three voice texture causes a more complex harmonic character to manifest itself even to the appear ance of an occasional triad. It should be understood, how ever, that harmony as such was of little importance to the medieval musician whose concern lay in fitting melodies together horizontally rather than vertically.

The Polyphonic Conductus Most of the tenor parts of the polyphonic conduc tus repertoire i^ere free creations of medieval composers. Because earlier polyphony, whether strict, free, sustained note, or discant organum, was based upon preexisting chant, the polyphonic conductus is considered the first polyphony in the history of Western music to be the free creation of the composer. This act of creation involved inventing a tenor and then setting to it one, two, or three upper parts whose rhythms were the same as that of the original voice. 79 One might assume that there must have been a rep ertoire of non-polyphonic conductus which preceded the rise of the polyphonic type. This was, in fact, the case. The monophonic conductus was a composition of the eleventh and twelfth centuries- whose function was to provide a music to accompany the priest or celebrants from one part of the church to another; in short, to "conduct." Although this is partly speculative, the nature of conductus rhythm with its regularly recurring stresses and the use of the iden tical rhythm in all the parts of the polyphonic conductus would have been essential for a church procession. The text of a conductus was written out only once in a manuscript. This was all that was necessary since the notation was in score form (vertically aligned), and all parts were rhythmically similar. Most of the text was set in a syllabic style. There were, hoitfever, melismatic sections of music set over a single syllable of text. These sections were called caudae and may have been instru mental interludes or sung in the manner of a vocalise.

The conductus De Castitatis Thalamo was copied into the Las Huelgas codex (Angle's 1931, Vol. II, p. 131) using both modal and mensural notation. The portion with text is in mensural notation. However, the manuscript begins and ends with caudae (melismatic sections) which feature a ligature notation. Since the mensural notation is quite obviously m Mod© I, the entire piece is transcribed in that mode. In this case, the presence of the mensural notation simplifies the transcription process since here, as in many conductus, the sections in modal notation (caudae) are unclear as to the intended mode. Below, the reader will find a portion of the men- surally notated section of the conductus with its tran scription. This is followed by a transcription of the entire conductus.

fr-T-r SP £ <

* *m1*1 1 q ^ J 8

Figure 21. An excerpt of Mensural Notation from a Poly phonic Conductus and its Transcription into Modern Notation 81

!—A—J—J — I J T*i 1 —O ri• oi c>—j—J O Oi >C r.p- - n - r r r f* A " J j, P ^ —H—1 1—|-———A J *J >) i—i—i t-- T jp irpi ^*• P t t t p ri<> p ff tYfrf A - i j i _ —. d J J id J e P r f- ' p- r r r r '"Ml J f H- 1 1 J J J j J— "J 1—I*— f r r ^' f r f

Jt—J—j j j j—j J j ? P ^1 iK, ^ 1 el j J>| ff r r fr r p * 5 o H f r Cfpj

A A J 1 J i"J J £ " J—J j j FH—H—-J—4— 7 r f F r 'ip r r * Tffrrr>T A. cl 1 —^^—d—!__a——o—i —d—1 f i j j j ii TP 1* fW p r p J 'p I Jr X ri j j j i—j ^ >-- j 1 J rs— , j j j Ji q jo f dp-^_ 3 r p r ¥=rr^ f r <* it—vd—£——J— Vfr* C ft i=fj. figure 22. The Polyphonic Conductus De Castitatis Thalamo 82 The Medieval Motet It was noted earlier that twelfth and early thir teenth century organum sometimes included contrasting sec tions of sustained note and discant textures. Passages in discant organum were given the name clausulae and are the structures from which the medieval motet arose. The lowest voice of organum was plainchant. The choice of which texture to use in polyphonically setting this chant, in effect, where to place the clausula, was based upon the relationship between the tones of the chant and its text. Where there were many notes per syllable of

text, that is, where the chant \iaa melismatic, the discant texture was the one preferred since to use the sustained note texture would have lengthened the whole composition unduly. The addition of words to the upper voice or voices of discant clausulae was the next step in the creation of • the medieval motet. The word motet comes from the French mot meaning "word," and was first applied to the clausula duplum to which a text had been added. Later by extension, it was applied to the composition as a whole. Soon, this style became modified in various ways. The upper voices of the olausulae were discarded and new dupla and tripla were substituted over the original tenors. The texts which were added to the new voices vrere frequently in the French language instead of Latin, although some times the upper voices in a three voice motet were set in French for one voice and Latin for the other. In addi tion, these new texts frequently dealt with secular, mun dane matters. In short, there was a great deal of change and alteration which the medieval composer indulged in with respect to the development of the motet. The whole area of twelfth and thirteenth century polyphony was one of interaction and close relationships among the various forms. For example, a motet without a text would appear to be a clausula, while a motet without a tenor could easily appear to be a conductus depending upon the rhythmic nature of the upper voices. Stevens (1960, p. 23b) writes:

With the close interaction of forms and styles and the linking of organum and discant, conductus and clausula, motet and conductus, it can be seen how amazingly interdependent are these types of medieval music. However clearly one may try to separate them and divide them into rigid categories, the various types seem to cling together as if un willing to be classed as parallel and independent phenomena. In this strong tendency towards inter relation, something of the subtlety and variety of the medieval mind may be seen, some practical re flection perhaps of the doctrine of the Trinity or the harmony of numbers. Although clausula, conductus, and motet coex isted for a time, the conductus diminished in importance as the motet increased in popularity during the latter half of the thirteenth century. 61«• If a motet without a tenor would appear to be a conductus, this would have to be because the upper voices were written in the same rhythmic mode. Some motets, how ever, featured a different rhythmic mode in each voice, as in the example below. This example quoted in full by Grout (1960, p. 2J?) has a tenor in Mode V and a motetus (duplum) in Mode II; the triplum is in a version of Mode VI with the first beat divided into two parts.

Figure 23. Portion of a Motet which Features a Different Mode in Each Voice

The motet tenor consisted of a portion of a plainchant which was fitted into short recurring rhythmic pat terns called ordines. These were separated from one another by rests. A comparison of the chant Victimae Paschali Laudes with itself used as a motet tenor will illustrate the manner in vihich the motet tenor was treated. 85

Chant k jmj. Jf1 > j* jj>' J' h .h J |jt Tenor*

: j j, j ?i j J»jh-^P *S=? mJ

Figure 2I4.. Victimae Paschali Laudes as a Gregorian Chant and as a Motet Tenor

Since these tenors were originally melismatic por tions of plainchant, their texts consisted of one or two words at most. These (incipits) were placed underneath the notation of the tenor voice. The upper parts, complete with full texts and written largely without ligature nota tion took up more space on the page than did the tenor. In order to take advantage of this difference, and to conserve space, the motet manuscripts were designed in columns with the triplum on one side of the page, the duplum on the other side, and the tenor across the bottom. The following is an illustration of the way a motet page was arranged.

Triplum Duplum

Tenor

figure 25. The Arrangement of.a Page of Mo tet Manuscript 86 The manuscript on this page is a copy of the orig inal notation of the motet which uses a part of the chant Victimae Paschal as a tenor. This motet which is identified as Nus horn - Cil s'entremet - Victimae, using the first itford or words of each voice, was taken from the Montpellier Codex (Rokseth 1935* Vol. II, p. 301), the largest manuscript source for the thirteenth century motet. It is transcribed in its entirety on the following page.

Trlplum Duplum C: 1 1 •» I,., lie HO% ' Nus hom ne por Cil s'en-tre-met Tenor 1 cFh 1

Victimae Figure 26. The Notation of a Medieval Motet

s/Nus hom ne po 5 ft 3s &

Cil s'en-tre-

Victimae Figure 27. The Transcription into Modern Notation of the Excerpt (Figure 26) Above 87

m mm

if pp*

41 i* i

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A J. « L-f) J- ' Figure 28. The Motet Nus hom - Gil s'entremet - Victiinae 88 In closing this brief resume regarding the motet, attention ,is drawn to a characteristic cadential formula. Note the opposite motion between the tenor and the upper parts, and the presence of two leading tones. This latter feature gives this cadence the name by which it is usually identified, the "double leading tone" cadence.

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Figure 29. Medieval Cadences

Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of De Castitatls - Victimae If one examines the motet on the preceding page, or any thirteenth century polyphony, one must note a great deal of part crossing. The designations tenor, duplum, and triplum do not denote an actual range differential. So, in performing this music on instruments, care mu3t be taken to isolate the individual parts by using widely disparate timbres. Also, the presence of dissonances due to the practice of composing each line separately without concern for the resultant three part harmonies demands an instrumental treatment which will tend to de-emphasize those dissonances and will focu3 on the integrity of the line. Again, this probably can best be achieved by iso lating thq sonorities and avoiding any emphasis upon verti cal structures which might be thought of as chords. "Conductus style" is an expression which has come to mean any music with a similar rhythm in all the parts. This rhythmic and accentual homogeniety should be empha sized. However, one must at the same time be aware that the two parts of the conductus are truly that - two sepa rate parts. Therefore, in demonstrating the conductus during the band rehearsal, it might be wise to assign one instrumental timbre to one part and juxtapose that with a different timbre on the other part so as to separate the individual voices from the resulting harmonic intervals. For example, the muted trumpet might play the lower part against the saxophone or flute. Although this is primarily vocal music, it is thought, that motet tenors were often played upon instru ments. To give perhaps the truest picture of medieval practice, it would be commendable to have a few of the band members be prepared to sing or vocalize the upper parts of the motet over a tenor played on an instrument. Again, it should be emphasized that instrumental performance must hot preclude the use of the singing voice in the study of early music. On' the other hand, it is not at all pertain that thirteenth century practice was to have large choirs sing these polyphonic forms. Consequently, it is not ex pected that the entire band will act as a choir. Perhaps the use of only a few selected singers for demonstration purposes would be appropriate. Where these styles are presented relatively intact in the band score (measures 13 and I4.7)» it would be proper to strive for a rather transparent texture. Try to have the student use a thin light tone with little if any vi brato. During those portions of the composition which are heavily scored, the traditional band treatment and sound is what is intended, and the dramatic and dynamic potential of the band should be applied fully. 91 Condensed Score of De Castii'ba'fcis ~ Victimae

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Figure 30. The Sustained Note and Discant Styles of Organum 10£ The first of the two examples (a) on the preceding page contains many notes in the upper voice which is called the duplum, over a single very long, sustained note in the lower part or tenor. This style of organum is called the "sustained note" or "melismatic" style. Each of the long notes of the tenor is part of a plainchant, so, you can see how lengthy, a piece in sustained note organum could become. In order to prevent a single composition from becoming too long, the medieval composer sometimes placed in his compo sitions sections of organum in the style of the lower of the two examples (b) on the preceding page. This second method of organum writing is called the "discant" style. In this style, or texture, the notes of the tenor, which are also plainchant, move along fairly quickly in rhythmic accord with the upper voice. By all means, you should practice singing these two styles, or play them on your instruments. Singing them would be a much better way of becoming familiar with their sound than would playing them on the piano. The notation in which this early music was written is not, as you undoubtedly realize, like the music nota tion used at the present time. Notation has long been an evolving and changing process. You are now going to be introduced to two trends in the evolution of notation during the Middle Ages. These are modal and mensural notation. 106 Modal and Mensural Notation Before beginning a discussion of modal notation, it is necessary to mention something about the rhythm of this early music. Twelfth and thirteenth century music usually moved in a triple time similar to ^ or ^ meter. There were six rhythmic patterns, called rhythmic modes, in which this music was performed. These patterns are illustrated below.

Mode I J J>J J> Mode II J>J w

Mode III J. h Mode IV h J. Mode V j. J. Mode VI m w

Figure 31. The Rhythmic Modes 107 Once it is understood that this early manuscript must be transcribed and performed in triple meter, then, it must be determined which of the six modes are the proper ones to use. The clue to this is provided in the notation itself. In modal notation, the square notes are connected into groups of two, three, or four. These groups of notes are called ligatures, and it is the manner in which these ligatures are arranged that indicates the correct mode. Musicologists tell us that if a line" of ligature notation begins with a three note group and continues with a series of two note groups, the intended rhythm is that of Mode I, as in Figure 32.

r~•—;» Y-F3=3H * m \ 4 (m 3 fa ? P* I * i —J • '—4 \ E11 '1

Figure 32. The First Rhythmic Mode in Modal Notation and • its Transcription into Modern Notation

If the notation consists of a series of two note ligatures and ends with one of three notes, the second rhythmic mode is indicated. With the numerous rules con cerning the other modes, modal notation can become very complicated. Therefore, no further rules regarding modal notation will be presented. Instead, you are instructed to complete the following assignment. ASSIGNMENT XV Transcribe into modern notation the short excerpt you find belovr. In this example, the first sign is a C clef. This means that any square shaped note located on the same line as the C clef will be the note C. The pres ence of the C clef enables you to tell the letter names of all the other lines and spaces. The final vertical line in the notation below is a rest. Does the first ligature have three notes? What mode is indicated?

Modal notation indicates rhythm through the use of ligatures. Unfortunately, this is done indirectly and by implication since the notation only vaguely signifies the intended rhythm. If there were some way by which the shape of the note itself would tell whether it was to be long or short, the process of reading the notation would be greatly simplified. In fact, such a syatem did come into use in the thirteenth century. It is called "mensural11 or measured notation and is based upon two note shapes, the 109 long (^} and the breve (•). Usually the long will equal two breves so that a notation such as clearly indi cates JJJJ or Mode I, Furthermore,• ^ is obviously J

ASSIGNMENT V Below, you will find a section of a two part compo sition written in mensural notation. Your assignment is to transcribe this section into modern notation. In doing this, you should let the long (^) equal the half note and the breve (•) equal the quarter note. A3 you can see, ligatures are not entirely eliminated in mensural notation. The two note ligatures and ^ are used to divide the breve into two equal note values. These should be tran scribed as eighth notes. Notice that the C clef in each voice is positioned on a different line of the staff. Be careful that you determine correctly the location of the note C.

'*>• 1 1 * 110 The Polyphonic Conductus The notation you have been asked to transcribe is actually a part of a composition called a conductus. Your transcription should have the same rhythm in both parts. This rhythmic uniformity is probably the most predominant feature of this medieval music. Below is a portion of the conductus De Castitatis Thalemo with its text. As you sing or play this music, note that there is always a unison or a perfect fifth (P-C or E-B) on the strong or accented beats of each measure. The first and the fourth beats are the strong beats in a ^ measure. This early music usually has a consonant interval on the strong beats. We can see, therefore, that the unison and the fifth (and the octave) are considered consonant intervals. A consonant interval is one considered pleasant to hear rather than harsh.

Ca-sti-ta-tis tha-la-mo Ven-trem vlr-si-na~lem

Figure 33. A Portion .of a Two Part Polyphonic Conductus 111 The Medieval Motet The conductus was a very popular form of compo sition in the early part of the thirteenth century. Grad ually, however, it came to be replaced in popularity by a form called the motet. To understand some of the historical background of the motet, it is necessary to return to our study of or ganum and recall what was said about the disc ant style. Discant organum, as you may remember, consisted of a tenor, the lowest voice (which moved along in fairly short note values) and one or more upper parts written in shorter, faster note values. The tenor was a part of a Gregorian Chant and therefore had a Latin text as does all plainchant. Since the discant style was used over plainchant which had many notes per syllable of text, these sections frequently had a complete text which amounted to no more than a single word. If you will turn back to Figure 30, example (b), you will see exactly what has just been described. Notice the one word text "Domino." It must have seemed a very natural thing to do when someone set new words to the faster, upper parts of discant organum and by so doing invented the motet. This new form became a composition in its own right when sec tions of discant organum were lifted out of the longer 112 compositions. Medieval musicians then composed new upper parts over the old tenors using the French language as well as Latin. As in the conductus, all the parts of the motet move in triple meter, although each corild be written in a different rhythmic mode. In the conductus, the parts were in the same mode. Below, you will find a section of a motet to study

and perform. V/hile singers sang the upper parts, the tenor was often played on an instrument.

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Figure 3l+. A Portion of a Medieval Motet ASSIGNMENT VI The final assignment in this section on medieval music is to match some terms with notated examples of the materials you have been studying. On the following page you will find six examples which you should be able to identify. You are to match the notation with the appro priate terms. Place the word or words which identify each, of the musical examples in the space provided. 111].

Examples Instructions: Select your response from the list of terms at the bottora of the page and place the cor rect word or phrase in the space opposite the example

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I g i=£ £=i i Modal Notation, Discant Style, Conductus, Motet, Sustained Note Style, Mensural Notation CHAPTER £

LATE RENAISSANCE SACRED POLYPHONY

The style of late sixteenth century sacred, vocal music is a refinement and idealization of Flemish influences which permeated the music of European communities in the Renaissance, Abraham (1968, p. 312) writes: The final perfection of the a capella 'Netherland' style in church music was reached in the work of four composers: Palestrina (c. l£2£-9i|-)> Lassus (15>32-9l|-, de Monte (1J?21-1603), and Victoria (c. 15L[.8-1611). Although there are numerous pas sages in their music which might pass for the work of any one of them, each shows an -unmistak able individuality within the common style, the almost universal language of European church music of the sixteenth century. That style is the subject of this chapter. The work chosen as the study material for this style is the motet 0 Vos Omnes (p. 133) by Victoria.

Rhythm and Melody The use of the bar line in transcribing Renais sance manuscripts for contemporary performance has tended to distort the rhythmic and accentual nature of the indi vidual voice in a polyphonic textxire. A melodic line, when divided into measures, incorporates a series of regularly recurring stresses which are associated with the placement of bar lines. These accents may or may not

115 116 coincide with those intended by the composer who in the sixteenth century did not use bar lines in the individual parts. The essential nature of a polyphonic texture is one of independent and intermixed rhythms. It is this rhythmic fluidity and rhythmic cross relation within the context of a basic meter which is the essence of sixteenth century counterpoint. In Jeppesen's xrords: "The musical works themselves afford vinmistakable evidence that in the sixteenth century, or perhaps even earlier, there was in troduced a collective rhythm with regularly recurring accents, between which and the individual rhythm of the single parts there arose mutual strife and contradiction." (Jeppesen 1927, p. 25) The following example is taken from the v/orlcs of Palestrina. It is quoted by Soderlund (19i|-7, p. 7) as an example of the rhythmic interplay of sixteenth century music. A•Soprano Palestrina 4»* it r u r r gi * Ho - - - - san - - na in ex-eel - - p Alto ,

yf J. }l J f |-f J i **1 J. J" ^ J I HO san -na ' In ex-cel - - - -

z»r• i yy r f it r » i Figure 3S>» Three Rhythmically Independent Lines 117 The figure below shows how the soprano and alto parts of this same music would look if the barring in the notation were based upon the actual stresses of the two upper parts. When barred this way, the notation more clearly illustrates the rhythmic complexity of the music„

•Scrprano Palestrina * 1 m •Alto

gfr J / * 0 -* ^ Jli i ^ J. } t

Figure 36. A Two Line Excerpt Barred According to the Natural Accents The melodic line of late sixteenth century po lyphony, like Gregorian chant, was conjunct or stepwise. Variety and interest were provided by changes of note value and occasional leaps. These were rendered incon spicuous by the practice of approaching and leaving the leap by step and in the opposite direction than that of the leap itself. The result was a melodic line in which ascent was balanced with descent in both the internal motive and the long phrase. Following are examples of melodies of Palestrina and Victoria which exemplify this characteristic melodic curve. 118

Paleatrina ib|" i J J r i> [.[ i r r p c?*A ^ jI i j |l 0 Victoria <> ^ •Oc *j* f I" ' P^lup=5 J T

Figure 37. Examples of Melodic Curves from the Music of Two Composers of the Late Renaissance

Dissonance Dissonance is the primary generator of emotional force in the music of the late Renaissance, The resolution of a dissonant sound is one of those tension relieving principles which underlies the creation of emotive force in music generally (Meyer 1956, pp. 27-30). Sixteenth century contrapuntal technique followed rather strict pro cedures which controlled the resolution of dissonances formed by simultaneously sounding voices. These proce dures were among the most significant aspects of the style# Intervals which were considered consonant are as follows: the unison, the octave, the perfect fifth, the major and minor thirds, and the major and minor sixths. The perfect fourth formed with a note in the bass voice was considered dissonant. 119 These prevalent consonant intervals created the chords which were the harmonic basis of this sixteenth century music. These were root position and first inver sion triads. Since the stable harmonic factor in sixteenth century sonority was the consonance, the resolution of dissonance became an important impulsive factor as well as an emotive one. It has been noted that individual voices retained rhythmic independence. It will now be shown how two of the dissonances found in sixteenth century music, the "suspension" and the "passing tone," were employed, and how their resolution served a rhythmic as well as an emotive effect. The primary dissonance in sixteenth century music is the suspension. A suspension is a tone which is conso nant in one chord, becomes dissonant as the chord changes, and then resolves down stepwise to become consonant in the new chord. The dissonant sound caused by the suspension is especially effective because it occurs on the "strong" or t accented parts of the measure (beats.one and three) where only consonant intervals ordinarily would be allowed to occur. In jj- meter, the suspension is first prepared as a consonance on a "weak" beat (2 or Ij.), then sounds as a dis sonance on the following strong beat (3 or 1). Finally it resolves as a consonance on the following weak beat (JLj. or 2). 120 In the following examples the numbers beneath the lower notes indicate the sounding harmonic intervals.

£ '4 Figure 38. Examples of Suspensions

In example (a) above, the suspension is prepared as a consonant octave on the fourth beat. It is tied across the bar where it becomes a dissonant seventh with the D in the lower voice on the strong first beat and finally de scends to the consonant sixth on the second beat of the bar. This is a 7-6 suspension since the dissonant seventh re solves to the consonant sixth. Example (b) is a 2-3 suspension since the lower voice resolves to a consonant third from a dissonant second 121 on the strong third beat. Here again, the suspending voice resolves downward. The final example is a 1^.-3 suspension. The basic material of the suspension is a pair of consonant chords or intervals. The suspension occurs when one voice delays its descent into the second chord from its position in the first. The following example is a progres sion of consonant intervals followed by the same progression with suspensions. Note how suspensions have the effect of adding rhythmic flexibility to the individual voices.

Figure 39. A Progression of Consonant Intervals (a) and the same Progression with Suspensions (b)

Successive intervals of the sixth or of the third are perfectly acceptable in this style and, in fact, are among the basic progressions upon which suspensions may be imposed, as the example above clearly indicates. 122 However, successive intervals of the fifth and of the octave do not occur in sixteenth century music and, there fore, are strictly forbidden. If the suspension is the most expressive of the dis sonances used in sixteenth century polyphony, the passing tone is probably the most common. It is a dissonant tone linking two consonant chord tones which are located a major or minor third apart. Rr»om this it follows that the passing tone is approached and left by step and in the same direc tion. In ||- meter the eighth note passing tone may appear on the second half of any beat, while the quarter note passing tone must appear on the second or fourth beat. Remember that only consonances are permitted on the first and third beats except \*hen suspensions are present. The following is an example of a quarter note passing tone and an eighth note passing tone.

Figure lj.0. Passing Tones

The example on the following page is a progression of intervals which contains both passing tones and sus pensions. 123

Figure 1|.1 • A Progression with Passing Tones and with Suspensions

It should be apparent that dissonances can over lay a simple progression of consonant chords and convert it into a more complex polyphonic fabric. It must not be thought, however, that this music proceeds from a predeter mined consonant harmonic basis. It is essentially melodic music. As the simultaneous melodies unfold, chords appear. These are independent of any predetermined scheme, and even when the general texture is primarily chordal, the various voice parts retain their integrity.

Texture The basic texture in this style of music is a prod uct of the melodic equality and the rhythmic independence of individual voices. It has been seen how the handling of dissonance is organically related to this rhythmic char acteristic. A free flowing matrix of independent and equal melodies, however, is not the only kind of texture to be found in the music of the late Renaissance. A succession of chords whose parts have little or no rhythmic independ ence is also found where such a setting is appropriate to 121+ a given text. This "homophonic" texture perhaps is not so characteristic as the polyphonic type, yet much music from the period partakes of both styles. A case in point is the motet of Victoria, 0 Vos Omnes which has been transcribed for band and is the study composition of this chapter. A melodically and rhythmically static bar of music, such as the following, is what is meant by a "chordal" or "homophonic" texture. It is reminiscent of the medieval conductus style and v/as especially useful in Renaissance music to emphasize the words.

4-4—4-4. ** jrp~f £

Figure L\.2, A Homophonic Texturo

How compare the above with this measure taken from the same motet of Victoria. It illustrates a much more linear texture, one more nearly typical of Renaissance polyphony. i p

Figure J^-3 • • A Polyphonic Texture 125 It has been noted that Renaissance texture is typically linear and contrapuntal. It has also been as serted that late Renaissance vocal music was based upon procedures which were spread throughout Europe by Flemish musicians. One of the most significant of these proce dures, one which contributed greatly to establishing the typical Renaissance texture, was the use of imitation. The introduction of imitation into Western music was partly linked to medieval and early Renaissance concerns \tfith enigmas and mysticism. Great delight was taken in fitting musical materials into constructive schemes such as strict imitation, inversion and even retrograde. An imitation is simply the repetition of a theme or figure at a specific interval above or below the orig inal statement. In sixteenth century counterpoint the intervals most commonly used for imitations were the fourth and the fifth, hence the most common imitations occurred between adjacent voices. One form of imitation is called "canon." This is a device whereby strict imitation is applied to the entire length of a given melody. A more common form of imitation is one consisting of a short fragment of melody which is exchanged among the voices. Since this process can be bro ken off at any time, the composer is not so shackled as he is when using the strict imitation of canon. 126 To write canonic imitation one first duplicates the initial melodic fragment of an original voice at a lower or higher interval. To this imitation one then writes a countermelody in the original voice. This section of countermelody is then added to the imitation. The same pro cedure is followed until the end of the passage inhere the imitation is broken off in favor of a suitable cadence. The following is an example of canonic imitation written at the octave and using only consonances.

-0- d Jvlk i. dj ^ J 1 .0*s - ** Q i ecc. frfn Figure Canonic Imitation

Imitation v/as especially common in the Renaissance motet where it typically occurred at the introduction of a nevr phrase in the Latin text. The notation below is an example of such a "point of imitation."

6P=«

Figure 1$. Free Imitation 127 Harmony The ecclesiastical nodal system (Chapter 3), which had been continuously in use from Gregorian times, had be come rather muddled as a theoretical basis for polyphony because of the practice of putting accidentals in the music. The presence of B flat in the Dorian mode, for example, resulted in a scale which was identical with the natural minor, or as it had come to be recognized in the late six teenth centtiry, the Aeolian (a-a) mode. Since the B flat was common in the Dorian, the distinction between the Aeolian, and the Dorian was nullified. Consider also the case of the Lydian mode on P. Here the B flat gave rise to a mode identical to our major scale and equivalent to the Ionian mode built on C. Remember that the Gregorian formulation of the modal system, although it used the B flat to avoid the tritone (f-b) and to effectuate mode transposition, did not recognize separate modes on A or C. Other accidentals were in common use although they were not always written out or indicated in the Renaissance manuscripts. For example, the P sharp as well as the B flat could be used to avoid the tritone. The tone below the final (tonic) was often raised to establish a func tional leading tone. In addition, the final chord almost always included a major third. 128 The Gregorian division of modes into authentic and plagal forms could not be sustained in the Renaissance. The range differential of adjacent voices (soprano alto, alto tenor) corresponded to that between plagal and authen tic modes, hence, a polyphonic composition necessarily shared both forms. For this reason, the distinction be came impossible to maintain and the whole system actually boiled do\m to six modes rather than twelve. Of these, and they are presented below, the Ionian and Aeolian became predominant.

Ionian Dorian V ] a o a o ^ C$ Q V ° ° 0 J -flr O 1 © I ft Phrygian Lydlan o « ° k _ „ o ° ° l Q £> —o o "—

p Mlxolydlan Aeolian ,-Q—O n A - a—Or-O u . ^ ft o M (nl o P ° '"O" o

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Figure i|.6. Modes used in Renaissance Music

Inasmuch as the modes are melodic phenomena and. not directly related to chords and chord progressions, the mutation of modality into the major-minor scale system 129 was not aooompanlod by the ©mergence of tonal harmony. "Harmony" carries with it the implication of chord pro gression. Such progressions were not identified in the Renaissance period. The most common melodic approach to the cadence in two part writing was by opposite motion stepwise. It is the basis for almost all the cadences in Renaissance polyphonic music.

Figure lj.7• Typical Renaissance Cadence in Two Parts

In three or more ports, the lowest voice at the cadence often descended a fifth, or ascended a fourth, to the tonic. This is the familiar V-I (dominant tonic) progression and is called an "authentic cadence."

Figure 1+8. An Authentic Cadence 130 When the final chord is preceded by a diminished triad in the first inversion, the progression is called a "leading tone" cadence.

Figure L}.9, A Leading Tone Cadence

When the root of the final cadence chord is ap proached by a half step from above, this progression is called a "Phrygian" cadence since such movement is normal in the Phrygian mod© (F-E).

u 1

Figure £0. A Phrygian Cadence 131 The Motet A Renaissance motet such as £ Vos Primes (p. 133), is a sacred part-song based on a single Latin text. It is sectional in form with now thematic material for each line or phrase of text. This material was usually treated imi- tatively often with overlapping of phrases. Sometimes, however, a section of motet would be set chordally. "When the term 'motet style1 is used by itself, it is the six teenth century sectional style, with its imitative treat ments of new subjects in each section, that is implied" (Stein 1962, p. 181|.)•

Thomas Luis de Victoria The composer Victoria was a Spaniard who was trained and who composed in the Roman school of the late sixteenth century. The Roman school was typified by a rather cool and restrained emotional tone in which smoothness and flu idity were dominant traits. Victoria's personal style was somewhat atypical in that he brought a degree of intensity and drama to his settings of sacred texts not found in other composers. His use of repeated tones in 0 Vos Omnes (measures 7 and 2lj.), for example, was a draraatic device not characteristic of most religious music. Writing of Vic toria and his teacher, Cristobal Morales, Lang (19^1, p. 266) stated: "Their music glows with the visionary power which 132 emanates from the mystics; they discover in the text dra matic moments which they illustrate with poignant music, ltfithout dropping for an instant the perfect fluid poly phonic style of the Roman school." 133 Condensed Score of 0 Vos Ornn.es

Victoria

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Baa* Clarinet

Bassoon*

Altol

5 Alto II

2 Tenor

Baritone

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BW Cornet*

BV Trumpets

Trombonui

Baritone*

Timpani

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138

Pieeolo

BV Clarinet*

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Alto I

S Alio II

5 Tenor

Baritone

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Alto I £ Alto II < Tenor

Bsritone Authentic cadonce

H»Cornet*

W> Trumpet*

Trombone*

Baritones

Batae*

Brum*,etc T°>. * 11*3 Student Study Material The music composed at the end of the sixteenth century consisted primarily of separate melodies which were very carefully combined. The study of the ways in which melodies are combined is called "counterpoint." Essential information about sixteenth century counterpoint is pre sented in the paragraphs below.

Melody Melodies in the sixteenth century v/ere in some ways quite similar to the ancient Gregorian chant. Like the chant, much of this music was also religious; therefore, it should not be surprising that there are some similarities. On the following page, you will find a list of some of the characteristics of sixteenth century melodies. All of them, except the variety of note values, are also found in Gregor ian chant. Here are two examples of melodies by the great six teenth century composer, Thomas Luis de Victoria.

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Figure . Melodies of Victoria 11* As you sing or play the music in Figure 51* note the following features: - Each voice forras a rather gentle curve. - There are very few jumps or leaps in these melodies. They move by step, up or down. This kind of motion is called "conjunct." - The range of each voice, from lowest note to highest note, is very restricted. - A variety of note values are used, but these are not put into a recurring rhythmic pattern. Some notes are held across the bar line. Not all the melodies in the sixteenth century were quite as conjunct and smooth as the two examples by Vic toria. Here i3 a melody by the composer Palestrina.

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Figure 52. A Melody of Palestrina

Notice the jumps or skips in the third and fourth measures of this melody. After each of these upward skips, the melody immediately turns down and continues by step. This is another melodic characteristic of the music of the late Renaissance. If you try to sing this melody, you will quickly become aware that it is written for a high voice. The highest voice range is called the soprano. The other voice ranges, in descending order, are the alto, the tenor, and the bass. The following table shows the best range for each of the voices (Soderlund 19l+7» p. 17)*

Soprano Alto Tenor Bass

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Figure 53* Voice Ranges

You can see from this table that the raelody of Palestrina is actually written at the top of the soprano range. The average singer might have had difficulty sing ing this rather high part. Look again at the two melodies of Victoria. Can you tell which voices are supposed to sing these melodies?

ASSIGNMENT VII You are now to compose two short melodies in the style of the sixteenth century. Follow these instructions in completing this assignment: 1. Select only one voice range for each melody. Keep your melody as close to the middle of this range as you can. Avoid extremes. 1^6 2, Begin on the tonic note C, D, E, P, G, or A. Start with a half note or a whole note on the first beat, 3. Elnish on the same note which you used to start. It should be preceded by a tone one step above or below. If your next to last note is one step beloxtf the final note, it may be raised by using P sharp, G sharp, or G sharp, but not D sharp, l|.. Use whole, half, dotted half, quarter, and eighth notes, but do not put them into a recurring pattern. To help you do this, you might first write your melody without bar lines. Then put it in jj meter with bar lines. Use the tie to connect tones across the bar when necessary, 5>. Don't employ too many skips. Stepwise motion is preferred. Remember to use the melodic curve idea. 6. Sing or play your melodies. If done well, they should not be difficult to perform.

Intervals Before studying the techniques used in combining two or more melodies, you must understand how to identify harmonic intervals. An harmonic interval is the distance in pitch between two notes which sound at the same time. The name of the interval refers to the number of scale steps from the lowest to the highest note. The name or w identification of an interval is determined by counting both notes and all the lines and spaces in between. For example, the interval c-g is a fifth because it encloses five notes, c-d-e-f and g. (For the time being, sharps and flats will not be used). The number v/hich identifies the interval should then be placed beneath the notated interval itself as follows:

#—&— a—^—s 4% & Kt wS « m——fcse*—r-% 3 —— —a— 8 n 6 f + 3 X \ Figure £l|.. The Identification of Intervals

When two melodies are played or sung at the same time, harmonic intervals (such as those you see above) will occur. In order to learn how composers combined separate melodies, it is necessary to know some of the rules used to regulate the order and the succession of these intervals. Most of this music was written in measures of four pulses or beats. Of the four beats in each measure, the first and third were called "strong" beats, while the second and fourth were the "weak" beats. This is because the first and third beats had natural accents. Remember that only those intervals called "conso nances" were allowed on the strong beats of the measure. 11+8 There is an exception to this rule which will be discussed later. In the meantime, you should understand that the octave, the fifth, the sixth, and the third were considered consonances and were allowed on beats one and three. The other intervals, the seventh, the fourth, and the second, were called "dissonances." Tones which formed dissonances usually were used to connect other consonant tones. The dissonant interval never was allowed to stand alone, as would be the case, for example, at the beginning or ending of a composition.

ASSIGNMENT VIII Use the following illustrations to see if you can identify consonances and dissonances. In the first example you are aslced to place the number which indicates the name of the interval below each interval, and then to identify each one as a consonance or a dissonance by putting the letter G or D above each interval.

(a) 1ll$ In the next example-, you are to place notes above those already written in order to provide examples of four different consonances and three dissonances. These are also to be identified by number as in the first example.

(b)

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Passing Tones It was stated earlier that dissonant tones (tones which form seconds, fourths, or sevenths) were used to link consonant tones. Below is an illustration of one of the ways this process of connecting took place. This par ticular kind of writing uses a "passing tone." 1 T S3 8 7 3 Figure 55. The Passing Tone

The first measure consists of two harmonic inter vals, the octave and the third, both consonances. The two upper notes, E and C, are located a third apart. This type of an interval, formed when one tone sounds after the other, is called a "melodic" interval. In the second measure, this l£o melodic interval is filled in with the note D which is a dissonant tone since it sounds against an E in the lower voice, forming tho dissonance of the seventh, and is so labeled. The passing tone, therefore, is a note which bridges a melodic interval of the third and sounds as a dissonance. It may descend, as in our example, or ascend, but will always sound against a tone at least double its own duration.

ASSIGNMENT IX Label all the harmonic intervals in the following three examples by placing the number which describes the interval above each of the top notes. Circle the passing tone3.

Suspensions As you can see, passing tones do not occur on the first or third beats of the measure. They must occur on the second or fourth beats. There is one kind of disso- nanoe, however, which will occur on one of the strong beats. This is called a "suspension." Examine the example's you will find on tho following page. 151 Jii ii J.iA J; TT rr~ 6 6 *76 Figure 56. The Suspension

The first pair of harmonic intervals consists of titfo sixths. The first is located on beat four, the second on beats one and two. Both of them are consonances. The example after the double bar is the sarae as the one before it except that the upper part sustains across the bar line to form a dissonant seventh (suspension) on beat one and then goes doxm one step to a consonant sixth on beat two. Rroiti this example, one can draw several conclusions. The suspension: - Begins as a consonance on a weak beat (Ij. or 2). - Sustains to become a dissonance on a strong beat (3 or 1 ). - Proceeds down stepwise to become a consonance on a wealc beat (2 or ij.).

ASSIGNMENT'X Label all the harmonic intervals in the examples which follow. Circle each suspension or each tone which becomes a suspension. •I'l.l I Jtl J- I |.M nr 152 To become truly familiar with the technique of sixteenth century style, you should attempt to write several two-part exercises which combine suspensions, passing tones, and basic consonant intervals. Below is a model for you to study. It consists of four lines. Line (a) contains consonances only. Line (b) is the same progression of intervals a3 line (a) with the addition of passing tones. Line (c) is again the same progression only this time with the addition of suspensions. Line (d) has both suspensions and passing tones.

Figure An Example Containing Suspensions, Passing Tones, and Consonant Intervals 153 ASSIGNMENT XI Compose two exercises in two parts which, contain passing tones and suspensions. The following instructions may be helpful: 1. First compose a melody of five or six bars which contains only half notes except at the end where the last tone should be a whole note. Start and end on the same tone. This may be any note of the C scale except B, and include one or two melodic intervals of the third. The final whole note should be approached stepwise from below. 2. Add a second melody, also written in half notes, which begins an octave below the first. The har monic intervals formed by the combination of these two melodies should contain only consonances. Use mostly thirds and sixths, but never vise two octaves or two fifths in succession. The final note should be an octave below the last note of the first (upper) melody. This note should be approached stepwise from above. 3. Put in passing tones and suspensions i-jhere appro priate and identify each.

These may be difficult at first. Have your teach er analyze and correct your efforts. 1S1+ Chords and Cadences All of the examples that have been discussed so far have been written in two parts. Most of the music composed in the sixteenth century, however, was written in three or more parts, so the problems of sixteenth cen tury counterpoint are considerably more complicated than has thus far been shoxm. In three-part Xiiriting, a separate interval can be found between the lowest voice and each of the upper two voices. A structure which consists of three notes is called a "chord." Since sixteenth century counterpoint is based upon consonant intervals, the basic chords in three or four part music are also made up of consonant intervals. Where dissonant tones occur, these still must lead, or resolve, to consonant intervals or chords. The last two chords of a composition, or of a section of a composition, are called a "cadence." In two-part writing, the cadence usually ends on an octave. The interval just before this final octave is usually a sixth located on the tone one step above the final note. In such a case, the lower part descends one step to the final note */bile the upper part ascends to the final note. The tone which moves up to the final note is often raised by placing a sharp before it. This is called the "leading tone." The following sharps occur as leading tones: 155 C sharp, P sharp, and G sharp. Examine the examples below.

Figure 58. The Basic Two-Part Cadence

A cadence which occurs in three or four-part music will often include the two-part voice movement shown in the example above. There Ttfill be, naturally, additional features as indicated below: - The final chord may include other consonant inter vals than the octave, but will not include the sixth. - If the tone a third above the final note is included in the final chord, it is often raised by the use of the sharp. This only applies if the final or tonic note is D (F sharp), E (G sharp), or A (C sharp). The raised third is called a "major" third. This rule simply means that sixteenth century music almost always ended on a major chord, - The lowest voice will often move up a fourth or down a fifth to reach the final. This movement of the lowest part forms what is called an "authentic ca dence. 11 156 ASSIGNMENT XII In the following cadential examplo, you are to identify: 1• The voice movement which is the sign of an authen tic cadence. 2. The accidental (sharp) used to raise the third of the final chord and make it a major chord. 3. The use of an accidental (sharp) to provide a leading tone. i|.. The voice movement within the four-part cadence which provides the basic cadence in two parts. 1S7 ASSIGNMENT XIII In the final assignment of this chapter, you are to circle and label the following items: the eighth note passing tone, the suspension, the leading tone, and the bass voice movement which indicates the presence of the authentic cadence.

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You also should note, in this example, the prev alence of consonant intervals and the rhythmic independence of the various parts. CHAPTER 6

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY MONODY

As Renaissance polyphony was reaching its culmi nation of expressive power in the music of Lasso and the composers of the Roman school, a new style was emerging. In its opposition to older methods, this new technique was truly revolutionary. It initiated a turn away from the kind of complex polyphonic fabric in which the mean ing of a text could easily become obscured to a texture in which a single voice delivered a poem whose meaning was the ultimate purpose of the music. The new style, called "monody," was composed es sentially of two voices only. The upper one (the melody) delivered the words. The lower voice bore no direct rela tion to the words but rather was an harmonic bass line. There was a trend toward the harmonic bass during the late Renaissance (see p. 157)> but at the beginning of the seventeenth centviry this trend was established as a prin ciple. Although there is no difference in sound between a or ^ triad Xtfhich occurs inadvertently in the confluence of independent voices and one which is conceived and under stood as an harmonic entity, there is a crucial difference 1f?8 159 in attitude implied by these two ways of viewing and hand ling chords. While it is true that the chordal basis of Renaissance polyphonic music was the root position and first inversion triad, the Renaissance musician's primary concern was to combine independent lines, not to write chords. On the other hand, when the seventeenth century monodist wrote a single note in his bass part, what he actually had in mind was a root position triad or a chord of the sixth. This practice is illustrative of a new har monic concept which accompanied the introduction of monody at the start of the seventeenth century.

Figured Bass Additional signs and numbers \fere often placed above or below the bass notes of seventeenth century mono dies. The use of such figures indicated the composer's intention to include accidentals or dissonant tones in the underlying harmonies. A bass line which implied such har monies and included such figures was called a "figured" bass or basso continuo. It was played on instruments by players who "realized" the harmonies in an improvisatory manner. Some monodic music was unfigured, and although the presence of the number 6 beneath a bass note would indicate a first inversion, the absence of such a figure did not necessarily exclude that particular chord. It meant that 160 the player who realized the bass was expected to choose the better harmony from the context. All of which tended to illustrate the composer's concern about the outer voices and apparent indifference to the inner ones. Figured bass was a shorthand method of indicating chordal harmony. Its theory is rather simple. The number 7, for example, means that the seventh note above the bass must appear in the harmony, the bass being counted as 1. This applies to any other number which might show up in a figured bass. An 11 below a D in a bass line calls for a G in the harmony. This G, however, must be placed an octave plus a fourth above the D since the number 11 indi cates a compound interval (greater than the octave) and tells not only the note to use but also the octave in which it must appear. Eventually, composers discontinued indi cating compound intervals. Their substitution of the num ber Ij. for the 11 which specified a compound interval afforded the player still greater freedom of voice leading since the i\., while indicating the proper note, was not meant to specify the octave placement. On the following pages are several examples of figured basses taken from the monody of Caccini, Dovro Dunque Morire. In each case the realizations are shown with the smaller note heads. The unfigured bass of the first measure in Figure £>9 is realized with triads on the strong beats. One can see that it was not necessary to 161 harmonize every bass note with a separate chord. Beats two and four, for example, are treated as passing notes. In the second measure, the sharp below the second half note indicates that the third of the chord should be raised (major triad) thus cancelling the flat in the key signature. The flat, when it appears alone, indicates a minor triad. ±4 5 1 SI J i i u t f nj li m & C6) (6) # Figure £9» A Portion of a Monody xvith a Realization of the Figured Bass

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In the second example above, the sharp to the left of the 6 specifies a major sixth above the bass. This note functions as the resolution of the dissonance on beat three. This dissonance is not initially prepared as a consonance. 162 Arnold (1931, P» k£) believes that this is in fact what the composer desired. He also suggests, however, that the com poser may have intended instead to have the note on beat two bear a £ chord, thus preparing the 7 on the following beat, as in the example below. In any case, the freedom to inject unprepared dissonances was not long in coming once polyphony with its careful preparation of dissonance was rejected.

Figure 61. The Same Musical Example as Figure 60 but with the Dissonance Prepared

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Figure 62. An Example of Figured Bass which uses Compound Interval Figures 163 The cadential example on the preceding page shows how the early monodist indicated octave placement with compound interval figures. The same harmonies would have been figured JLj. - # - 7 at a later date. The numbers 11 #10 indicate the resolution of a dissonance. This is followed by the addition of the minor seventh above the bass, thus outlining a functional dominant seventh. In terestingly, the 1l|. in the figured bass indicates that the harmonization ends a third higher than the voice part. In this case, as in the other examples, the player >ras free to realize the chords with whatever rhythm or spacing (except for the compound intervals) he felt to be appropriate. The remarkable integrity of Renaissance polyphony, its coordination of all elements into a unified, cohesive xtfeb of sound, is a factor which distinguishes it from the monodic style in which contrast and opposition rather than unity are basic stylistic factors.. The contrast between melody and bass, for example, is one in which we can recog nize the commonly suggested opposition of melody and har mony. It carries with it also the distinction between vocal and instrumental lines, a distinction not so funda mental in the sixteenth century. The figured bass, it should be understood, was a basic stylistic feature of seventeenth century music for the very reason that these contrasts were inherent in its use. 1611. The realization of a figured bass was a technique which always involved more than one player. The bare mini mum was two, one to play the bass line itself, the other to play the intended harmonies. Obviously, an instrument ca pable of sounding chords such as a lute or keyboard instru ment was essential. Bukofzer (191-1-7 > P. 26), however, states that the common practice was to have more than two accom panying instruments. "Massed ensembles, in fact, charac terize the early baroque continuo practice."

Melody When that small group of men, the Florentine Camarata, determined to let ancient Greek music, or their understanding of it, become their guide on the path of musical innovation, they necessarily rejected polyphony and its technique of part writing. Instead, chordally accompanied melody which expressed the sense of a poem and was designed not only to reveal the emotion within the poetry but also to convey that emotion to the listener, was adopted as the preferred aesthetic and technique. The purpose of the new music was not only to express feelings and emotions but also to touch the listener. To this end, various other techniques (written and improvised) were employed. Vocal embellishment and ornamentation characterized the new melody and were used to heighten the emotional effect. The melodic line in the third from last 165 measure of Dovro Dunque Morire (p. 170) by the Florentine composer Caccini is an example of this type of vocal em bellishment. In addition, improvised ornaments such as runs and trills, crescendos and decrescendos were expected from the singer. The Scotch snap or Lombard rhythm ( n. n.) was often employed for the poignancy it could give a song. Bukofzer (19l}-7» 28) calls it a "sobbing effect." Since early monody was so closely linked with poetry, it is hardly surprising that the pacing and pitch of speech itself came to influence greatly musicians in the development of their art. The result of a blending of speech and melody was the melodic declamation called "reci tative." Musical recitative which has played so prominent a role in operatic development vras supported in the earliest operas by slow sustained harmonies against which dissonances in the melody tended to be less annoying. Compare the fol lowing excerpt with the monody by Caccini on page 170* Non- harmonic tones are marked X. „ Peri 4 0 a 9-ur-r r r t £ f v Lf I* Fune-ste piaggi, ombros ijorridl campi, Che di stelle f

Figure 63. An Example of Recitative 166 The Caccini excerpt has a more fluid bass. Its melody follows the rhythm of speech but to a lesser ex tent than the example on the preceding page. These two examples rather effectively illustrate two melodic tenden cies in early monody. In Bukofzer's words, "The monodic style varied between two extremes: it appeared either as a recitative iirith a static bass that amounted practically to a series of pedal points, or as a songlike melody with a more vivid bass line."

Caccini and Nuove Kusiche The Florentines who introduced monody and its offshoot the opera, were not, for the most part, composers; nor were they all professional musicians. This group which met informally to discuss artistic and literary affairs in cluded Guilio Caccini who although not a professional com poser was a musician of considerable attainment. He was, in fact, considered a virtuoso singer. (Grout 1965* P« 35) Caccini published in 1602 a collection of songs, monodic settings of lyric poems, called Huove Musiche (new music ) which includes the song Dovrb Dunque Morire. Although the period in which the monodic style was dominant is sometimes called "Nuove Kusidh^' (Apel 1969, p. 583)» the first performances in the new style antedate the publication of that name by Caccini. 167

Several operas, one by Caccini hemself,,t another by Peri, both based on the myth of Orpheus and Euridice, are not only among the earliest works in monodic style but are also the earliest extant operas. Figure 63 is an excerpt taken from Peri's Euridice. This excerpt in a more com plete form can be found in volume 2 of the Historical An thology of Music by Apel and Davison (19^0, p. 1) along with another complete monody of Caccini. The latter is noteworthy for its elaborate vocal ornamentation. These earliest operatic works consist largely of recitative. They differ from the monodies of Caccini's Nuove Music he in that the latter are poeras set to melodies which are more expressive and lyrical than t'ae recitative of these operas. There is, therefore, a distinct corres pondence between the two basic trends in monodic music: the speech-song called recitative with its static bass and the more lyric melody with its more fluid bass, and the two earliest forms into which the monodic style was integrated: the opera and the solo song.

Performance Suggestions for the Band Setting of Dovr6 Duhque Korire There are several different combinations with which the monody Dovrb Dunque Morire can be performed. This composition can be played by the band just as it appears in the full score. Special inserts in the score tell the conductor at any measure of the composition 168 exactly which instruments are playing the melody, which the bass line, and which the harmonic realization. The music is also arranged so that the flute part (the highest line of the full score) plays the melody con tinuously through to the end. The basso continuo is cued in both baritone horn and bass clarinet, so that either of those instruments or the bassoon or trombone (playing the baritone part) could perform the bass line while the piano plays the harmonic realization. It should be remembered that vocal monody was "intimate room music" (Dart 1963, p. 101).). The closest approximation to seventeenth century practice would prob ably consist of voice or flute, harp or piano (or guitar), and bassoon or bass clarinet. The texture of the full score has been kept rather light. The conductor is free, of course, to lighten it still more if he feels the need. Conversely, he is free to add greater weight to the basso continuo by alloxtfing the bass clarinet and baritone to play all the cued parts. In addition, the realization of the figured bass can be augmented by allowing celeste, harp, marimba, or glocken spiel to play the harmonies of the piano part during per formance by the band. Thus, this arrangement may be used to approximate the early performance of vocal monody or to reproduce the accompaniment texture of seventeenth century Italian opera. A remark of Dart (1963, p. 129) is relevant. 169 The seventeenth century used these (continuo instruments) more lavishly than the eighteenth. The orchestra for Orfeo, for instance, con tained at least thirty-nine instruments and of these no fewer than nine were continuo instru ments (though not all of these were used at once). The printed full score of Landi's II Sant1 Allesio (163Il) has three raelody parts ("for unspecified instruments) and two sepa rate bass lines, one for harpsichord and the other for "harps, lutes, theorbos and string basses." Cesti's Giro (I66I4.) was scored for strings and five continuo instruments (three harpsichords and two theorbos), and the com poser himself was at the first harpsichord for the first performance. Such arrays of continuo instruments would provide a firm rhythmic and harmonic foundation for the orchestra, a x-ri.de variety of tone-colour, and a twinkling veil of sovind woven into the fabric of the whole work. Some attempt ought to be made to reproduce those characteristic features in a modern per formance. Finally, this composition can also be performed as a vocal solo with band accompaniment. A translation of the text can be found in Masterpieces of Music before 1750 by Parrish and Ohl (1951). In this case, the weight of the scoring can be diminished by using only one player on a part and by muting all the brasses. 170

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Figure 6ij.. The Monody Dovro Dun quo Moriro by Caooini 171

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tUrttonea Biml 180 Student Study Material The beginning of the seventeenth century brought with it a fundamental change in the history of music. An important new style called "monody" originated around the year 1600. If you will examine and play the two excerpts below, you will be able to see and hear the differences between monody and the style of music which preceded it. The first of these examples is a short section of sixteenth century polyphonic music by the composer Palestrina; the second is an excerpt from a monody by the seventeenth cen tury composer Gaccini. ±4 J J Palestrina :j \\ t LuU mu $

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Figure 6£. Examples of Sixteenth Century Polyphony and Seventeenth Century Monody .181 As you play or listen to these examples, you should be axtfare that the music of Palestrina is really vocal music. Sometimes instruments played these parts, but the parts were designed primarily to be sung. The Caccini, on the other hand, is music in which only the topmost voice was to be sung. The other parts were played on instruments and i-jere used to support or accompany the vocal melody. Polyphonic music, such as the example by Palestrina, consisted of separate melodies which were fitted together very carefully and formed a network of flowing sound. Seven teenth century monody, on the other hand, had only one im portant melody. It was the top line of the music. Beneath this melody, and in support of it, were chords. These functioned in almost the same way that guitar chords are used to accompany a popular or "rock" singer. In fact, the guitar is very much like one of the important Instruments of the seventeenth century, the lute.

Figured Bass In the early seventeenth century, composers who wrote in the new style of monody did not write out all the notes of the accompaniments of their melodies. Since the melody itself was the most important element of the music, composers left much to be improvised by the instrumental players who supported the singer. They put down on paper only a skeletal outline of what actually was to be played. 182 It consisted of the melody, the bass line, and numbers or other symbols which told the accompanist which tones had to be present in the chords. You can see some of these symbols in Figure 65. In the same example by Caccini, all of the notes of the chords which support the melody have been written out so that anyone can play them on the piano. Nov;, look at the example below (Pig. 66). It is the very same music as that of Figure 65. However, it is written in the kind of notational shorthand used by the early composers of monodic music. Not every bass note had a figure written beneath it, but as you can see, each one is the lowest note of a chord. This type of a bass part is called a basso continuo or a "figured" bass.

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Figure 66. A Portion of a Monody Showing the Figured Bass 183 Triads The chords used in this style of music are called triads because they consist of three different tones. When these three tones are positioned so that the inter vals of the third and the fifth occur over the bottom note, this is called a triad in "root position."

O" i Root Third Fifth Triad in Hoot Position

Figure 67. Construction of a Triad in Root Position

A root position triad can be built on every note of the scale, and, in each case, the lowest note of the triad is called the "root." i

Figure 68. Root Position Triads on Each Note of the C Scale

If the root is taken from its low position and shifted an octave higher, the triad is then called,a "first inversion." The intervals which compose this chord are the 1814- third and the sixth. For this reason the first inversion is often called a "chord of the sixth."

0 n—s *— 2*1 a *4 Third Sixth First Inversion or Chord of the Sixth

Figure 69. Construction of a First Inversion Triad

Another way of identifying these chords is by noting the bottom tone in each case. If the root of the triad is the bottom note, the chord is in root position. If the third of the triad is the bottom note, the chord is in the first inversion.

Figure 70. First Inversion Triads Showing the Position of the Root and the Third

In the assignment on the following page, you will be asked to construct root position triads or chords of the sixth. Since the root position triad was common in the style of music we are studying, no other symbol than the bottom note itself was needed to indicate when such a 185 triad should be played. However, if a 6 appeared beneath the bottom note, this indicated that the chord of the sixth (the first inversion triad) was required. Remember, the root position consists of a fifth and a third ( £ ) above the bottom note; the chord of the sixth contains a sixth and a third ( ^ ) above the lowest note. For the time being, we will not be concerned with chords having more than three tones.

ASSIGNMENT XIV Construct a root position triad or a chord of the sixth (first inversion) above each of the notes already written. The first txvo examples on each line are done for you. When you have finished this assignment, play the chords on the keyboard. 186 The music notation in your next assignment (below) is written in a notational style similar to that of early monody. Here, as before, the 6 indicates a first inversion triad and the note with no other figure beneath it indicates a root position triad. When you play these examples at the keyboard, after having completed the assignment, you should be aware that the keyboard player or accompanist was expected to play the correct harmonies (chords) from the figured bass itself. In other words, he had to play the accompaniment at sight from the outline of the music provided by the composer.

ASSIGNMENT XV Pill in the chords which are indicated by the lovrer notes of the folloxtfing excerpts.

rni mi iHni.

"r r r r~ j. | j. •!> j j | j. > i n | 6j. j ui vy 1—2 ——l—— O if 187 You undoubtedly recognize the two melodies of Assignment XV. As you can see, triadic chords can be used to harmonize other melodies than those written at the be ginning of the seventeenth century. The invention of the monodic style began a musical process i^hich has continued until the present day. Of course, what you have studied so far is just a brief beginning and an elementary one at that. For example, most chords have more than three notes; there are other Arabic numerals than 6 which may be used to indicate chord construction. For that matter, triads are not the only chords nor are the root position and chord of the sixth the only triadic chords. The seventeenth century was the period when chordal harmonization of melody began. It brought with it a new understanding of the relationship betvieen counterpoint and harmony. Some aspects of this relationship will be discussed . in the following paragraphs.

Harmony and Counterpoint The triads used in the harmonization of early melodies consisted only of consonant intervals formed with the lowest note of each chord. The rules regarding the preparation and resolution of dissonant tones (tones which formed seconds, fourths, and sevenths) which were so care fully followed by sixteenth century composers, generally 188 continued to be observed in the following century after the introduction of the monodic style, although unprepared dissonances began to appear early in the century. If you will turn once again to the Caccini excerpt on page 180, you can see in the written harmonization (chords) the preparation and resolution of a dissonant tone whose presence is clearly indicated by the number 7 in the figured bass of the third bar. This number refers to the tone D, a seventh above the bass (E), which resolves to the C# on the fourth beat. Bote also that it was prepared as a consonant fifth above the G on the fourth beat of the preceding measure. In this case, the 7 #6 in the figured bass clearly indicates the resolution of a dissonant tone. The number 6 (or #6) in the figured bass not only denotes a chord of the sixth, but also shows the movement of one of the inner parts in a harmonization, in this case a 7-6 suspension. This indicates that there is a closer relationship between harmony and counterpoint than is assumed when they are considered separate phenomena. You must remember that there will necessarily be a movement of separate voices when there is a progression of chords, just as there will be a progression of chords when three or more melodies are combined. 189 Recitative A new form of musical drain a Which used the mono die style as its basic technique and texture was invented at the same time that monody itself came into being. This happened in the city of Florence in what is now Italy, and the new form was the opera. The first operas consisted almost entirely of a kind of accompanied melody called "recitative." This is melody based upon the natural rhythms of speech itself. In the following example from the opera Buridice by Peri, the melody descends at the close just as the voice tends to drop at the end of a sentence. This and other examples of the early theater style of monody can be found in A Short History of the Opera by Grout pp« l|-S>-\£0).

Peri i ^—l- I La- sa che-dlspa ven-to e di'pie-ta de GrelamiJ.1 oor nel se

Figure 71• An Example of Early Operatic Recitative 190 It should not be difficult for you to provide the correct triadic harmonies to the bass of the excerpt on the preceding page. Here, as in .the example by Caccini, the composer apparently left a 6 out of the figured bass below a note which ordinarily would have a first inver sion triad built upon it. This note is the C sharp in the eighth measure. Now for an experiment designed to help you per- ceive the nature of operatic recitative and give you prac tice in notating various rhythms. In the following assignment you will find several short excerpts from prose writing which should be familiar to you. You are to write out musical rhythms which will fit the natural rhythras of these texts just as you would speak them. Here are sev eral examples which should help.

Music and poetry

Park the car

I pledge allegiance ."[j jflj

Figure 72. Examples of the Notation of Prose Rhythms 191 ASSIGNMENT XVI Using musical notation, copy the natural rhythms of the following prose excerpts on the horizontal lines below, First practice clapping or speaking each of these texts. In writing these rhythms let the strongest accent come after the bar line.

"This was their finest hour."

"I knew him, Horatio."

"Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable"

"With malice tovrard none, with charity for all" CHAPTER 7

LATE BAROQUE INSTRUMENTAL POLYPHONY

The Baroque period of music history which covers a chronological span of one hundred fifty years (1600-1750) encompasses a multitude of different musical tendencies as well as the inevitable cross influences among those tenden cies. Idiomatic differences related to the means of tone production or the aesthetic purpose, structural differences revealed in the proliferation of forms, and national dif ferences reflective of ciiltural conditioning and predilec tion all confound the student who seeks a stylistic thread amidst the music of the period. Accordingly, the name "Baroque" is seen as an arbitrary title with respect to musical 3tyle, although the stylistic "thread" sought above is clearly revealed in the practice of the basso continuo, a practice which continued throughout the century and a half iii question. To seek to discover musical styles in the Baroque "Vather than a Baroque style as such is no more than con sistent with the delineation of style suggested in Chapter 2 of this dissertation. However, it is only fair to note that tho intent was not in this direction when dismissing the music of tho Renaissance. In fact, Chapter 5 of this 192 193 dissertation deals directly with the music of the masters, of late Renaissance polyphony without regarding the stylis tic developments which immediately preceded it. Yet, we are now suggesting the difficulty of choosing among the numerous stylistic manifestations whose time limits fall within the one hundred fifty years of the Baroque after having already discussed one style, the Italian monody (Chapter 6), which according to some history texts (Palisca 1968, TJlrich and Pisk 19&3) ushers in that very period, Why the.contradiction? Why the unequal treatment of Renaissance and Baroque? Perhaps the rationale can be expressed best in the following quotations. Regarding the Renaissance and Baroque musical styles, Blume (19&7, P» 122) iirrote: Henceforth the stylistic unity of the Renaissance was no longer understood. Just as little was it understood how an earlier age could destine a composition "to be sung or played on all sorts of instruments." In the Baroque, vocal style parted company with instrumental style....The Renaissance unity of tone color resolves into that variety of color in which the Baroque finally achieved what ever was humanly possible, not to be outdone even in the Romantic Era in exploitation of tone color, spatial effect, vocal-instrumental combinations, and the "idiom" as Bukofzer called it, of the in dividual instruments.

In his chapter on Renaissance versus Baroque music, Bukofzer (19J+7, p. i+) wrote: The Renaissance stands out as the last era of stylis tic unity, and for this reason it has been glorified as the paradise lost of music. Thi3 stylistic unity expresses itself in the self-reliant attitude of 19i|- Renaissance composers toward musical style. They took style for granted, whereas it be came a problem for Baroque composers. The Baroque Era is the era of style-conciousness.

It perhaps has not gone unnoticed by the reader that until this present chapter, each of the styles discussed in this dissertation has been one derived primarily from vocal music. The reasons for this are implied in the para graphs quoted above. To be sure, musical instruments ^^rere used before the seventeenth century. However, such uses often were subordinate to the dance or to worship or were devoted to reflecting purely vocal models. It is apparent, furthermore, that the major stylistic developments in early western music had been in the realm of the vocal. It is natural, therefore, that this dissertation should reflect this historical fact. Accordingly, the emphasis upon vocal music has continued through Chapter 6. The present chapter, however, begins the emphasis upon instrumental music.

Vocal Models for Instrumental Forms The expressive ideal of monody created a kind of melody whose emotional tone, though based on the meaning of a text, in the final analysis was inherent in the melody itself. The transference of such a melodic type into the purely instrumental realm was a likely process given the fact of its affective nature, now independent of text, coupled with the development of instruments and instrumental technique which occurred during the Baroque period. 19S The relationship between the following instrumental excerpt by the composer Marini and the monodic style is apparent. The work, introduced in 1617> was written for cornett (a lip vibrator made of wood) or violin and the basso continuo (Grout 1960, p. 302). The melody itself, while featuring the Lombard rhythm which we have already noted as fairly common in monodic melody, retains another trait common to later instrumental music, the sequential repetition of short melodic motives.

Marini

Figure 73. An Instrumental Melody Showing the Influence of Vocal Monody

The distinction of vocal and instrumental lines in the early practice of the basso continuo was one of the features of monody which had a bearing upon the de velopment of an instrumental art in the Baroque. However, an equally important basis for Baroque instrumental music came out of the Renaissance. If one remembers that a com mon practice during that time was to allow instruments to 196 play along with the singing voices in the performance of vocal polyphony, one should not "be surprised to note the development of purely instrumental forms vrtiich derive di rectly from vocal models. The Renaissance chanson and its Italianate instru mental counterpart, the canzona, are perhaps the most sig nificant of these related forms since by their sectional design they led to some of the multimovement instrumental compositions of the Baroque. To be sure, the Baroque suite which derived from dance forms rather than from vocal forms was also multimovement. Hence, it cannot be said that the canzona was the basis for all such music. Yet, if one were to seek a single antecedent for the Baroque sonata, "a com position for a small group of instruments - usually two or four - having a basso continuo and consisting of several sections or movements in contrasting tempos and textures"

(Grout 1960, p. 3$1)t one could reasonably end his search with an ensemble canzona such as the one excerpted on the following page (Pig. 7^)* This composition, by the composer Taeggio, is dated 160£. In this work, the sections are distinguished by changes of both texture and meter. Its abstract quality as well as its lack of the basso continuo place it in a Renaissance tradition rather than a Baroque one. 197

Taeggio I

Figure 7k-* Portions of a Canzona Showing the Sectional Divisions

Initially, the name "sonata" was applied to compo sitions such as the one above. Later, and after the basso continuo \*as added, an ensemble texture which included two upper parts, usually written for violins, was established. Requiring four players (two to play the continuo) this form xras called a trio sonata and became the basic texture of Baroque chamber music. In addition to those changes in texture which led to the trio sonata, the "canzona- sonata" underwent further changes which saw the individual sections of the work become fewer and longer. The second of the important instrumental forms of the seventeenth century whose roots were planted in the vocal music of the Renaissance was the ricercare. This Instrumental form developed out of the motet and was gen erally a slower more somber piece than the canzona. It was xfritten in an imitative, polyphonic style. Often based upon a sustained legato subject, the monothematic type of ricercare led finally to the fugue. 198 In the example below, the chromatic elements of the fugal subject give the piece an emotional quality more reflective of the Italian Baroque disposition than one finds in the can zona of Figure 7^l-*

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Figure 75>* Opening of a Ricercare Showing the Fugal Subject and Answer

Both the ricercare and canzona were primarily poly phonic forms whose style and textures were initially more reminiscent of Renaissance polyphony than of the contra puntal harmonic forms of the late Baroque. The difference between these early forms and their later counterparts lay in the absence from the former of a certain controlling theoretical principle. This, a tonality based upon a major-minor scale system, was the major theoretical devel opment of the Baroque period. The realization of a tonal system based on chords and the corresponding obliteration of a modal system based on melody was achieved in practice in the music of Corelli (16J?3-1713) and explained in theory in the writing of Rameau 199 whose initial statement, published in 1722, was revised in several subsequent publications. It has been noted (p. 127) how the use of acciden tals tended to polarize the modal system in favor of the major and minor scales. Later, the coming of monody with its basso continuo established a chordal basis for musical style. It is interesting to note how this chordal basis and scale system vrere viewed by the Rrench composer and theorist Rameau whose ideas are the basis for the teaching of the theory of music as it is practiced almost univer sally in the western xrorld. Harmony, which is one of the key elements of music theory, is in reality the description of the way composers of the last three centuries have handled and constructed chords. It is truly an aspect of the study of musical style and, as such, properly can be included at this point in this text. However, since harmony, at least in terms of its basic elements, is widely understood, a review of its main features is unnecessary here. Instead, the theoretical basis of this aspect of musical style, as conceived by Rameau, the founder of the modern theory of harmony, is dis cussed on the ground that this "theory of theory" is rele vant not only to harmony as a theoretical discipline but also to musical style from around 1600 until the present.

% 200 Rameau's Harmonic Theories Rameau adopted as his point of departure the effect of the vibrating string when divided into sections (frac tions) according to the arithmetical series 123^6. The following illustration shoxtfs the relationships among the tones generated by such a series of vibrating partials and also expresses the resultant tones and intervals with whole number ratios.

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Figure Tones Generated by the fractional Division of the Vibrating String

An analysis of the tones and intervals generated by the number series upon the vibrating string is as fol lows: (1) three separate tones are generated: the funda mental, the fifth, and the third; (2) five intervals are produced: the octave, the fifth which can be expressed with the whole number ratio 2:3, the fourth (ratio 3:l|)» the major third (l|.:f>), and the minor third (J?:6); (3) the numbers 1,2, and if. all represent the fundamental tone which forms one member of every interval except the minor third. 201 From these observations, Rameau "derived several theoretical principles* He determined that the basic har monic sound, which he called the "perfect harmony," x^as the major triad. This triad could be expressed with the number series i|.:£:6. The tone which generated this triad was the fundamental tone (root) represented by the number 1|.. He insisted that this tone would retain its identity as the generator of the triad even if it was inverted to an upper position. Hence, the first inversion of the triad which would be expressed with the ratio 5:6:8 and the sec ond inversion, 6:8:10 would still be harmonic entities gen erated by and based upon the same fundamental. This tone would retain its function or identity whether it was repre sented by the numbers 2, ij., .8, or 16 etc.. The same principle of inversion was applied to intervals. Thus, the fourth (3:l|) is an inversion of the fifth (2:3). The minor sixth (5:8) is an inversion of the major third (i|.:£), and the major sixth (6:10) is considered an inversion of the minor third (5i&) in spite of the fact that neither tone is actually a dxiplication of "Cho funda mental. All of these intervals were considered by Rameau to bo consonant and to have been generated by the funda mental tone which was no longer synonymous with the bass or the lowest note. 202 It can be seen how important was the octave in this theory. Since it served as a boundary for all the intervals, the theory of inversion became possible. The inversion of intervals, the inversion of chords, and the generative fxmction of the fundamental represent a unified concept. The fifth, being the first tone engendered after the fundamental, was considered the basis for the chord and therefore the basis of harmony. A chord (according to Rameau's definition) could not exceed the space of an oc tave, had as its basis the fifth (2:3)» and consisted of thirds placed one above the other. Again, these concepts were derived from the initial principle of the division of the string. Rameau held them in spite of inconsisten cies with respect to ninth and eleventh chords which, of course, exceed the octave. Rameau was much concerned with the scientific or mathematical justification of his theories. He did, in fact, base several of his most important ideas upon arith metical manipulation. Not the least important of these was his demonstration of the principal harmonies of a tonal system. The arithmetical progression 1:3which also ex pressed the "perfect harmony" was inherent in the division of the string by the first six numbers. Talcing the first two numbers of this progression (1:3) which represented 203 the fundamental tone and its upper fifth (actually the twelfth), Rameau projected a geometrical progression, 1:3:9:27 etc., which represented a series of fifths. Taking three adjacent members of this series, he postu lated a "triple progression," 1:3:9, the terms of which represented a series of fundamental bass notes, each bear ing a perfect harmony and each related to the next by the basic interval of the fifth.

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Figure 77 • The Triple Progression

Taking the middle term (3) as the tonic, Raraeau suggested with this progression that there is a dominant below the tonic (1) as well as one above it (9). This was the initial statement of the concept of the subdominant. In actual fact, the dominant above the tonic is demonstrable; the dominant below is not. According to the initial principle of the vibrating string, there is no subdominant below the fundamental tone. Even if the fifth above the fundamental, in the series of tones engendered 20k

by the vibrating partial3, is called a tonic (this in

effect is what Rameau does with his triple progression), this does not demonstrate the source of a lower dominant since the basic principle insists that the lower tone en genders the upper fifth and not the reverse. Hence, as Shirlaw states, (1955 > P. 1l|-1 ) "Rameau merely assumes what he wishes to prove." In spite ox' these difficulties in accounting for the subdorainant, Rameau retained the idea of the triple progression as the mathematical foundation for the princi pal harmonies of a tonal system. Encompassed within this concept was the idea of deriving the tones of the scale from these same harmonies. A1though the major scale can- be derived by arbitrarily ordering the tones of the dom inant, . subdorainant, and tonic triads, Rameau felt obliged to demonstrate that this ordering of tones was a consequence of a progression of fundamental harmonies whose roots were

a fifth apart, harmonies, that is to say, which were repre sented by the triple progression. Although he could not succeed in doing this with ease, he consistently attempted to show thc.t root movement by the fifth, which through the application of his theory of inversion was demonstrably the most prevalent, (KcHose 19Ji7> P• I-!-) was based upon mathe matical or natural law. Rameau's theories regarding inversion, chord con struction by thirds, harmonic progression in fifths, and 20£ the principal harmonies of a key are, essentially, still taught. Those parts of his theory which he was unable to resolves the source of the subdominant, the source of the minor harmony, are still largely unresolved. Considering the intellectual climate of eighteenth century fiance, one ought not be surprised that Rameau should have sought a natural phenomenon tipon which to con struct a theory x^hich would explain the tonal harmonic na ture of music. He believed he had found it in the vibrating string. Yet, had the principle of partials and overtones gone undiscovered, the tonal and harmonic elements of music still would have developed as they did. Stylistic elements in music almost always emerge independently of their theo retical explanation. Rameau's ideas are yet another example of theory following practice. It is necessary, therefore, to examine briefly those elements ivhich exerted so forceful an impact that Rameau felt compelled to seek in nature for their basis.

The Realization of Tonality The development of tonality was a process which commenced long before its definitive realization in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Although they were not identified as such, root position and first inver sion triads were the basic harmonic structures of sixteenth century polyphony. Thus, the chordal triadic quality of 206 Baroque music was present in Renaissance polyphony of three or more parts. Since polyphonic writing is, theoretically at least, considered to be purely melodic, composed of separate but roughly equivalent melodies, a bass line, within such a texture, itfhich consisted mostly of melodic intervals of the fifth would have to be considered an anomaly. It could have no other function than to serve as an harmonic bass, as a series of fundamental bass tones in the sense that Rameau suggested.

In a polyphonic work, when three parts move in more or less conjunct motion while the bass moves in disjunct intervals of the fifth, they do so usually because the bass contains tones which function as chord roots.

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Figure jB, A Polyphonic Excerpt which Contains an Harmonic Bass Line

In the example above, the bass tones clearly sup port D minor, A minor and E major chords which form a ca dence in the minor key. It was customary, of course, to make the final chord major, thereby acknowledging the 207 primacy of the major triad (perfect harmony) over the minor triad which, in fact, does not have the clearly established acoustical basis of the former. Nevertheless, the subdominant and dominant chords, in this example, function to cir cumscribe the key and establish it clearly at the cadence. The establishment of a tonic is, of course, a prime characteristic of tonal music. This essential element was ultimately achieved by means of a cadence. Thus, an element of the motive quality of the music, apart from rhythm, came from the harmonic impulsion to the cadence. This "drive to the cadence" (Bukofzer 191+7, p. 220) was frequently carried out by technical means involving sequences. Chord sequences through the circle of fifths and sequences of sixth chords are two of these means which were especially conspicuous in the music of Corelli in whom tonality was first fully and systematically realized (Horsley 1966, p. 62; Bukofzer 191-1-7» p. 220). The example on the following page, quoted by Bukofzer (19i|-7, p. 221) and Pincherle (1956, p. 92), is a descending series of first inversions which circumscribe the key by what amounts to the parallel harmonization of the descending scale. 208

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f —> V v 1 —? —$ : 0- ^ 1 j— —4- *

Figure 79. A Descending Series of First Inversions

When polyphonic writing returned into vogue, after its proscription by the Italian raonodists, it did so under the domination of an harmonic tonality which had penetrated into the polyphonic fabric through the basso continuo. The sensitivity of the Baroque musician to instru mental idioms, especially that of the violin, meant that the melody of Baroque music could have a wider pitch range and could avail itself of more rapid figure and scale pas sage work than would otherwise have been possible. This, coupled with the strong rhythmic and harmonic implication of the bar line, produced an eighteenth century contra puntal texture whose voices were firmly held in check by the 209 chords of a rather fast harmonic rhythra. Harmonic rhythm, the frequency and manner with which basic harmonies succeed one another, became an important stylistic factor in the late Baroque as it vras in succeeding periods. Elementary aspects of tonal harmony are introduced in the student's materials on pages 223 "b° 233* The musi cal examples on those pages should be scored for band in struments if it is not possible for the students, either individually or in small groups, to play them at the piano. In fact, it might be beneficial to write out the parts and have them performed simply to allow the entire group of students to collectively hear and discuss the matters in troduced on those pages. In this connection, it is sug gested that the instructor direct some of his nontransposing instruments, such as lower brass or double reeds, to play the harmonies, while the group, or soloists from the group, sing or play the melodies. It is the author's belief that the ear training potential of these exercises would be more fully realized if band instruments played the musical ex amples.

Orchestral Development The development of large instrumental ensembles in the Baroque was a process which saw the distinction between orchestral sonority and chamber sonority become manifest. The actual difference lay in the fact that the latter fea tured one player on a part while the former allowed more 210 than one. "Large instrumental ensembles" in this context may mean as many as thirty-five to forty players, but never as many as one finds in the modern symphony orchestra. Early Baroque sonatas xjere chamber music. Thus, the trio sonata, the texture in which these compositions were commonly found, required four players, the continuo itself requiring two. The strict adherence to the chamber ensemble interpretation of this music began to break down, however, as these sonatas were sometimes performed with larger numbers of players, that is, xîth parts doubled. In addition, nationalistic predilection played its role in orchestral development. In Germany, for example, îe collegium musicum, an association of musical amateurs, and the town band were common. In Italy, and especially in EVance, the opera orchestra with its basic string tex ture played its decisive role. The many dances of the French opera, for example, probably led to the orchestral suite which so often featured as its opening movement the same form that was used as the opera overture. This, the so-called Stench overture, was often the opening movement of suites for solo instruments and for small ensembles as well. It was composed of two parts. The first was a rather slow, chordal section TJhich featured a dotted rhythm. This was followed by a faster, fugal or imitative section which broadened out at the end. 211 The two movements by Handel which have been tran scribed for band (pp. 218-227) closely approximate the two parts of a French overture, although they xêre not origi nally conceived as such. Instrumental music had long been associated with the dance. Baroque suites, whether orchestral, solo, or ensemble, generally consisted of dance movements of dif fering meters, tempos, rhythms, and general character. As has been pointed out, suites often began with the French overture. Like the Rcench overture, most of the individual movements were in binary form. Those which were part of a suite all shared the same key. The concerto grosso was perhaps the single most important large orchestral "work of the late Baroque. Its most distinguishing characteristic was the contrast of tex tures. One textural group contained a small number of soloists, often a trio sonata. This was contrasted with the larger group of orchestral strings or strings plus winds. We see incorporated in this form the clear dis tinction between the chamber ensemble and the orchestra. There were numerous instrumental forms which oc curred during the latter part of the Baroque period. The orchestral concerto grosso, the suite, and the French over ture were but a few of those which were assimilated by the genius of Bach and Handel, those masters of the eighteenth century, in whose music occurred the summation of all that had gone before. 212 Handel's Orchestral Style The two movements by Handel which have been tran scribed for band, can be found as originally composed for orchestral strings and winds in the first of Handel's two orchestral Cone or ti a Due Cori. Like the Water I-lusic and Fireworks Music, these concerti contain many movements in various stylos and forms. The first of the two study movements (p. 215) is actually the introduction of the first of the two concerti. Its derivation from the first part of the French overture is obvious. The second movement is in a contrasting fugal style. Its origin in the polyphonic texture of the ricercare and its dependence upon tonality in limiting the freedom of the individual line should be stressed in rehearsal with special note tak en of the dominant and tonic pedal tones. The tonality of E flat rather than 3 flat is imme diately suggested by the fugal subject of this movement. The presence of the A flat leads the ear to accept the fi nal B flat as the dominant rather than the tonic. The answer is in B flat. This is verified in the bass figures supplied by the composer. It is immediately followed by a cadence in three voices which unequivocally establishes this tonality. Thus, in spite of a momentary diffusion of key center, the B flat tonality is indicated at tho end of tho first eight bars. This cadence (Rig. 80), VI-II^-(I^)V-I, cloarly con firms tho key and illustrates the basic root movement by 213 the fifth which not only engenders the cadence but also establishes the degree relationships of the various chords in a key to the tonic. The ^ chord on the tonic, in this example, is part of the dominant harmony functioning here as an accented or appoggiatura In the example b'elovr, the roots of these cadential chords have been extracted and placed below the chords themselves. This illustrates the importance of the inter val of the fifth in determining key. It also shows that our traditional use of Roman numerals is simply a process of extracting roots in relation to a tonic.

¥ J uri gm ri if 6 •«)W ' SLTti X\t

Figure 80. A Cadence with Chord Roots Shown below the Chord Symbols

The role of tonality in influencing form ;in its larger terms can also be seen in the fact- that the first movement ends on the dominant key which i$i turn leads to the second section in the B flat tonic once again. Thus, 211|. these sections or movements are linked, in spite of con trasts of tempo and texture, by the harmonic pull of the fundamental interval of the fifth. These key relation ships also illustrate the basic I-V-I harmonic progression which exerts so fundamental an influence upon elementary harmonization (see p. 238) as well as txpon large scale mu sical form. This music was adapted for this dissertation for several reasons. It tends to sum up much that has gone before in the history of Baroque music, suggesting as it does the fugue, the French overture, the interpenetration of counterpoint and harmony, and the influence of the I'tench opera. In addition, these movements have no scale or pas sage work typical of string writing, hence, they are bet ter suited for performance by winds. The dotted figures in the first movement should be performed almost as if they were double dotted. This ac centuation of the dotted rhythm was a traditional perform ance practice in the I^rench style. These movements should be performed consecutively as one continuous composition rather than as two separate ones. The modulation and cadence on the dominant of the first section preclude using it as anything but an intro duction. 215>

Condensed Score of Overture and Alia Breve

Siou/ Ja/oo Handel -LJvU-t }'n a V Isl r f-fc? r i f ( ±=© -ir; jr- 3=S9 TT \ t r m IB 3= # & m } *•, *^ 1^* 2r irt-1:rr m

?j, i i T * rrrr f

'mojtboio u x c)?/XO ± IB t' w- * ¥ 0 ' r_J_ - d==B ?" ~~n -h—\- •* -J WS p"L& J ±* W+*- -f 11 r i -rH- r riffi GD" •HiO i *n—rrJl 1 \ < 1* tj 4 *"t t, / -^—4~«w i.« r ?-- -hn frr-stt , * 9- «a gj g—i-i ? 1 'trfv 1 r 1 EB r Uf j-i j—•]_ " J 1 ~~p** f 4 <— ^ I7l -, r nr rruT U M •tKti 'I>*»5

tf-ff*—b"-~RH1=a -rtJw$>.. .. B1. w- w— —M -8- -t—r EI * A A' - f L_p 1 -o— V l? ;°— —H— f1 -o— J 3—-J 218 Pull Score of Overture and Alia Breve

Horn Sffeggfi Bros w fvnfi Baritone llttf itiiflill'If'^lTnlf' Trombone M pppspl A mm Basses

-n'r.la introductory movu.-jent in in tno Timpani = stylo of tho flrat p-urt of the Frcmoh ..avorturo, It featuroa a dotted rhytha PercuHKion 1 rfhioh ahould bo performed as If tho "lotted nnt«n wuro actually double dottod. Bb Trumpets Saxophones (Comets) BV Clarinets i

Et Clarinet Fuc&l anowor •./hich Bucsoots Fugal subject 3 flat tonality which sulcata A flat tonality. iiliaii adence which establishes the Clarinet }3 flat tonality

.because of its more lively tuopo ana Baritone ugal nature, thia section approximates the second nart of a French overture.

1 = J)= 3=4=^p|==j^ T-=£=l=^I mm Horn Ifita IPl j=l k&k Baritone

• " * .m 1 » 1 — « — •** —• • •— Trombone 1 ,. . . * •-* 1 " v m Ub—1 ~1 Baseee

Timpani -J' m 5. * «? " " ' ' m

•"-•••• m: rc Percussion rr—' •- " • BV Trumpets (Cornets) B* Clarinets

H e!£jk"e@i> eSj..

ro BV Trumpets Saxophones (Cornets)

ro ro ro BV Trumpets (Comets) BV Clarinets BV Trumpets Saxophones (Cornets) B* Clarinets

e|!i» «|i» e§i» egi.

ro £ B> Trumpets (Cornets) Bb Clarinets

...

ro (A BV Trumpets Saxophones (Comets) BV Clarinets

This abrupt change of tempo and texture Is a feature of pueh of Handel's ousic, It also serves here to pemlnd ua that the fugal part at the French overture also often broadened Clarinet out at the end. m Tenor

XVrcuHSion 228 Student Study Material In the history of music, those years between 1600 and 1750 which are called the "Baroque" period, saw an unprecedented development of new forms of both vocal and instrumental music. The story of the great changes which took place during this time had its beginning before 1600 in the period called the Renaissance. The Renaissance did not have the great variety of forms of instrumental music that we find in the period which followed. At this time, most of the important music was vocal. It was music for singing. However, one of the unique features of Renaissance music was the use of instruments to play the same melodies that were primarily intended to be sung. Occasionally, instruments substituted for missing singers; sometimes voices and instruments all sang and played the same melodies at the same time. In short, there was no very basic distinction between vocal and instrumental music. Of course, musical instruments had been used for many centuries to accompany worship and the dance. In addi tion, the development of a genuine and independent style occurred in the realm of keyboard music, especially in England. However, the vocal music of the Renaissance is generally considered to be predominant in that period. The situation changed quite drastically in the century and a half which follox^ed the year 1600. This was 229 a time which saw the flourishing of instrumental music as never before. Not only were new forms of music developed, but new instruments, especially in the string family, also came into being. These conditions can be attributed most directly, perhaps, to the Renaissance practice of allotting instruments to play vocal melodies. In any case, we do find, in the early Baroque, several instrumental forms which were based upon purely vocal models. The most important of these compositions was called the canzona. It consisted of several sections which were connected into one continuous composition. These sections differed from one another in meter and tempo. In time, as they became fewer- in number and greater in length, a new form called the sonata developed. The sections of the can zona had now become the separate movements of the sonata which was composed for a solo instrument plus basso continuo or for a chamber ensemble plus the basso continuo. The basso continuo, you may remember, was invented at about the beginning of the Baroque period. Occasionally, sonata movements were more reminiscent of dance music than they were of the vocal music which served as the model for the canzona. Dance music is, of course, very ancient, and during the course of centuries many different dances had come into being. These differed in their rhythms, tempos, meters, and in their general character. Here is a list of a few of these Renaissance 230 and Baroque dance styles which should give you some idea of their variety: pavane, galliard, passamezzo, saltarello, allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue. Dances were often arranged into groups called suites. These were composed for solo instruments, ensembles, and for the orchestra. An orchestra differs from a chamber ensemble in that in an orchestra, a single part will be played by several in struments. In other xrords, some of the parts, especially those for the stringed instruments, will be doubled. The orchestra which accompanied the singing and the stage action of the opera was also called upon to perform separate instru mental pieces such as were needed for ballets and as over tures. This was especially true in the French opera where dances and ballet were so much a part of the style of the theater. Thus, the development of the orchestra itself was greatly influenced by the role of instrumental music in the opera. The orchestral suite, mentioned above, often began with a movement derived from the overture of the flench opera. This form, called the French overture, consisted of tx>ro parts. The first was a chordal section with dotted rhythms, while the second was imitative and polyphonic. The development of instrumental music in the Baroque, as you are probably aware by now, is fairly complicated. It might be well at this point to attempt to summarize. 231 Two main influences upon Baroque instrumental music came out of the Renaissance period. These xtfere vocal music and dance music. The most important instrumental form which was based upon Renaissance vocal music was the canzona. This form contained separate sections of differing tempos • and meters. It led to the sonata. Sometimes a sonata move ment was dance-like in character. Dance music in the Baroque period was usually foxind in the form of the suite. A suite of dances occasionally included an abstract, non dance move ment similar to the type one might find in a sonata. In other words, there was some interchange between these too forms of Baroque music. In addition, the dance suite frequently began with a movement taken from the Rrench opera. This t^as called the French overture. Dance suites, like sonatas, could be performed by solo instruments, chamber ensembles, or by the full orchestra. It was mentioned earlier that the sonata was writ ten for a solo instrument or chamber ensemble plus the bas so continuo. The basso continuo came into being at the beginning of the Baroque period. It was a feature of what was called the monodic style. As instrumental music was developing and expanding, the monodic style and its basso continuo was having a powerful influence, and in the eighteenth century had succeeded in creating, or at least 232 in greatly influencing, a new style - the music of the late Baroque. Several aspects of this style are discussed in the paragraphs which follow.

Melody The musical examples you xri.ll find below and on the following page (Pigs. 81-8JL).) are intended to illustrate some of the changes in melodic style which had taken place between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. The first of these, a sixteenth century melody by Victoria, contains few jumps or skips and outlines a balanced melodic curve.

Victoria I HT til J I

Figure 81. A Melody of the Sixteenth Century

After the .introduction of monody, around 1600, melody became more emotional in quality and rhythmically more like speech. Dotted rhythms were quite common.

• Caccini P i IJ O

Figure 82. A Melody of the Early Seventeenth Century 233 The third example is a transitional one. It has elements of both seventeenth and eighteenth century melodies.

Marinl

Figure 83. A Seventeenth Century Melody which has Features Similar to many Melodies of the Eighteenth Century

The dotted notes and skips at the beginning of this melody are very much like those found in early seventeenth century vocal music. Beginning with the fourth measure, the melodic figures and rhythms are the same in both measures of each succeeding pair. These repetitions, which occur at dif ferent pitch levels, are called melodic sequences. They can be found in many of the instrumental melodies of the late Baroque period. The following is a short melodic fragment which was composed in the early part of the eighteenth cen tury by the Italian composer, Vivaldi. It is a melodic sequence.

Vivaldi c | fe1 hffi" 1 ilij i .iii

Figure 8ii>, A Melodic Fragment of the Eighteenth Century 23k Harmony Another general feature of late Baroque music is its chordal basis. The study of chords and chord progres sions is called "harmony." For this reason, Baroque music is considered to be harmonic music. Some aspects of har mony will be discussed in this chapter as were discussed in the previous chapter. The harmonic basis of Baroque melody is suggested by the melodic sequence in Figure 8i|.. The notes in each measure of this melody outline a chord. These chords con sist of four rather than three notes. Actually, they con tain a triad to which another note has been added. This makes a four note chord which includes three intervals of the third piled one on top of the ether. Such a structure is called a seventh chord since the interval from the root to the topmost note is a seventh.

In RyeveTttW-

Figure 8f>. A Seventh Chord

Once again the example of early eighteenth century melody by Vivaldi is shovm on the following page. This time the seventh chords outlined by the notes of the first two measures are shown in parentheses. 23£

Figure 86. Melodic Fragment which Outlines Seventh Chords.

Seventh chords can be built on every degree of the scale and like triads can also be inverted. This discussion of seventh chords will be continued presently. For noxv, the nature of the melodic sequence will again be illustrated. The follox-ting melody is composed of two short melodic figures. The rhythm of the first, which is repeated once, is jfljj • The rhythm of the second is jnrn.

Figure 87. A Melody with no Sequence

If we take the second of these figures and repeat it at different pitch levels, we have a melodic sequence.

5C«uene e m

Figure 88. A Melody with a Sequential Extension

In the example on the following page, a well-known melody has been extended with the sequential repetition of one of its melodic figures. 236

1 J 1. iU i-4fi 1 I HI l>" if fir w'rmi'tuu1! ujj'' 'U r T

Figure 89. A Well-known Melody which has "been Altered with the Addition of a Sequence

As you can see, a sequence is a process by which one can extend a melody through use of a form of repetition. In each of the last three musical examples, the fi nal note is one iirhich is felt to be the key note or the final resting place of the melody. It is the proper note on which the melody should end. In. Figures 87 and 88, the key note, or as it is also called, the "tonic," is F. Often a melody will also begin on the tonic. In each of these two examples, hox^ever, the melody begins on C which is located a fifth above the tonic. This note is called the "dominant." These two tones, the tonic and the dominant, and the chords which can be built upon them are the most important and basic of all the tones and chords in a musi cal composition. A progression of two or more chords tvhich comes at the end of a composition or of a section of a composi tion is called a "cadence." A cadence provides a feeling of rest or repose in the music. The strongest cadence is 237 one in which the roots of two chords form the melodic in terval of a descending fifth (or ascending fourth). In other words, it is a progression of chords based on a domi nant followed by a tonic. Sine© the dominant is a fifth above the tonic, we indicate its presence with the Roman numeral V. The tonic is represented by I. Thus, the "authentic" cadence, which is what this progression of chords is called, is indicated by the symbols V-I. The example below (Figure 90) shows the tonic and dominant triads in the key of F major and indicates with arrows the direction of root movement in a V-I cadence.

T x Figure 90. Tonic and Dominant Triads in the Key of F Major

The dominant and tonic are only two of many chords which can be used for harmonizations. Since they are the most basic and essential, one can use only those two and no others to adequately harmonize many melodies. Let us attempt to do this to the melody of Figure 87. 238

Jf— -L » —- \ it |f f y ! —. J J — •4 U u I

fhr , =9 -e- &

X X V X

Figure 91• A Melody Harmonized with Dominant and Tonic Chords

As you can see, the chords used for our harmoni zation contain four notes rather than three. What we have done is to double the roots of our basic dominant and tonic triads so that each chord is in four parts. Doubling one tone of a triad will provide a basic four part harmony. A chord is still considered to be in root position as long as the root note is the lowest one. The other chord tones may then be placed in any upper octave without changing the identity of the chord. In this short four measure harmonization, the first, second, and fourth measures are harmonized with the same tonic (P major) chord. The third measure uses the dominant. Thus, the entire melody is harmonized with the basic I-V-I harmonic progression. In this short example, our point of departure and our point of arrival are the same; therefore, our tonic is clearly revealed. Can you find an authentic cadence in this harmoni zation? As is proper in such a cadence, our last two chords 239 form an ascending interval of a fourth. Therefore, an authentic cadence is present in Figure 91. Below and on the following page, there are several well-kno\m melodies which can be harmonized with tonic and dominant chords. The first has been harmonized for you. The others are all in the same key, so the identical chords will work for these melodies as well. You have only to play the proper chord where the symbols indicate it should come. If you attempt these at the piano, try singing the melody at the same time you play the chords. You should also attempt to sing and play these examples without having, the notes or chord symbols in front of you. This will take a little concentration because your fingers must find the proper notes of the two chords while your ear tells you when to change from one to the other. 3 @T r- i i

Figure 92. A Melody Harmonized with Tonic and Dominant Chords only

ASSIGNMENT XVII Play or sing the following melodies and accompany yourself using tonic and dominant chords a3 indicated. 2^0

4 * llS r ? a n* r=F=f* r t\r f X * X I I 2 X

Our next project will be to attempt to harmonize the melody which was extended with a melodic sequence.

ij nn ji o /£ "1' 1

•&- — 0 -o ~o~ ^ X6 T7

Figure 93» A Melody Harmonized with Root Position Triads, First Inversion Triads and the Dominant Seventh

Once again the tonic and dominant chords are the only ones needed. However, several alterations have been made in these basic harmonies. The number 6 alongside the Roman numerals of the second and third measures indicates that these chords are in the first inversion position. In both of them, the root has been inverted to an upper octave leaving the third as the bass note and forming the interval of the sixth between the bass and the inverted root. You 2l\.1 should recall from the previous chapter that the first in version chord is also called a "chord of the sixth." Like the root position triad, the chord of the sixth can have one note doubled to form a four part chord, but this chord still must have its third in the bass. The common use in most harmonizations of both root positions and first inver sion chords can result in a more fluid progression as well as a more interesting bass line. If V& indicates a dominant chord in the first in version, what then does V7 indicate? This symbol, which you can find in the fifth measure of Figvire 95* represents a chord type met earlier - the seventh chord. When the seventh is added to the triad on the fifth degree of the scale, a chord called the dominant seventh (Vy) is formed. This is a very important chord \vhose use in the authentic cadence strengthens that cadence by establishing an even stronger forward thrust to the tonic. This is so impor tant a chord, it is necessary to discuss it now in more detail. The intervals of the third, fifth, and. sixth above the bass which occur in root position and first inversion chords are all considered to be consonant. They are stable and pleasant sounding. Chords which contain only those in tervals do not produce a tension which must be relieved. Such chords may stand alone; they do not demand resolution. Dissonant intervals such as seconds and sevenths cannot 21.J.2

stand alone; they must resolve to consonant ones. So, If we take a consonant triad, such as the dominant, and add a dis sonant tone or interval, such as the seventh, we create a strong forward harmonic drive to the tonic. This is largely due to the necessity of resolving the dissonant note. This note, however, affects the entire chord which becomes a dis sonant harmony that must resolve. The B flat added to the C triad forms a dominant seventh in the key of I*1. Compare the sound of the Vy-I cadence with that of the V—I cadence in the same key. The speed or frequency with which chords succeed one another is called "harmonic rhythm." Since our example (Pig. 93) contains one chord for each measure of music, it can be considered to have a rather slow harmonic rhythm. A faster or more frequent change of harmony is more typical of the practice of instrumental music in the late Baroque period. The following excerpt is harmonized with a faster harmonic rhythm than the previous one. The melody is the

same.

'U ^=0=8 dpil* ii 9 i if— t •— Is 1 mp PPPP & *6 TB X(, sr 7 I 1FT Figure 9I4.. A Melody Harmonized with a Relatively Past Harmonic Rhythm 2k3 As you can see, numerous additions have been made to the previous harmonization. Chords built on the second and sixth degrees of the scale have now been added. You may note their presence by the symbols VI and II, The II chord is built on G which is the second degree of the P scale, and the VI chord is built on D which is the sixth degree of P.. The third and fourth measures are rather interest ing because they demonstrate how the harmonic rhythm can be affected without necessarily adding any new chords. Meas ure three contains a root position, first inversion, and a seventh chord all built on the dominant. Measure four con tains two root position tonic chords which have different arrangements of their upper parts. The root note P is, of course, the bass note of both chords. Look now at the next to last measure. Here, there is a separate chord on every beat. Although only two chords are being used, the effect of these changes is to suggest a much faster harmonic rhythm than can be found anywhere else in this example. Before you finish this section, look at the final cadence and tonic chord of the last example. By repeating in the last measure the rhythmic figure which occurs on' the first two beats of every other measure ( in ), this six measure harmonization closes in a way that fuses the ending rhythmically as well as harmonically into the complete 2kb structure. In addition, you can see in this measure how the tonic chord can also be extended in time by spreading its notes out instead of sounding them all at once. By doing this, it is possible to make a much more effective close. The extension of chords in time, the nature of the minor key, the second inversion of triads, the inversions and uses of seventh chords, and the process of modulation or the shifting of key center, are all problems of harmony which cannot be touched upon here. When you consider them along with problems having to do with the combining of melo dies, you will be considering theoretical aspects of music as they have existed from about 1600 until today. Although much contemporary music has a theoretical basis far differ ent from that which you have been considering, the influence and shaping force of harmony is still very much with us. The foregoing discussing is only a brief introduction of harmony and harmonic music. If you wish to pursue these matters in greater detail, you can do so by consulting one of the numerous books devoted to elementary harmony. Per haps your teacher would be willing to recommend one.

ASSIGNMENT XVIII In closing this chapter on late Baroque instrumental music, you are asked now to discuss the following topics and to answer the following questions: 1. When did the Baroque period of music history occur? Y/hat was the relationship between vocal and instru mental music in the Baroque? In the Renaissance? What was the origin of the canzona? Which feature of the canzona had the greatest bearing on the sonata? Discuss the nature and origin of the Baroque suite. For what instrumental combinations were Baroque suites composed? Explain the difference between a chamber group and an orchestra. Describe the sections of the French overture. Where did the French overture originate? Explain the nature of the basso continuo. (You may wish to review Chapter 6). Define or explain: (a) melodic sequence, (b) ca dence, (c) tonic, (d) dominant. Explain the strong harmonic thrtxst of the dominant seventh chord. How is this chord constructed? Discuss harmonic rhythm. CHAPTER 8

PR3-CLAS3ICAL lij 3TRU123I.iT AL HOKOPEOHY

The first 'movement of a three movement symphony by the Italian composer Sainraartini (1701-1775) has been chosen as the performance and study material for this chapter. This music was •written at a time when the characteristics of pre-Classical music were just becoming prevalent trends. G-rout states (1960, p. Lj.1l|.) that these trends did not be come "generally noticeable" until after the year 17^-i-O. Thus, the earliest pre-Classical music was contemporary with some of the greatest masterworlrs of the Baroque period. The Ilessiah, for example, was first performed in 17^-2 J the pre- Classical Sammartini symphony was completed sometime before 17lji|- (Churgin 1963, p. 37). The earlier shift in musical style from the Ren aissance to the Baroque was heralded by the invention of monody. This style, in addition to being a considerable departure in technique also, and perhaps more significantly, was an aesthetic reaction to tho contrapuntal, "learned" style of the earlier period. That musical style subsequently should have come again under tho domination of contrapuntal techniques may be as much due to the creative genius of late Baroque

2l£ 2h7 masters as to the fruitfulness of polyphony alone. In any case, the emergence of pre-Classical style was due to the circumstance wherein composers consciously rejected the style of their predecessors for the simpler more homophonic music which satisfied their changed aesthetic outlook. There is, therefore, a parallel between the shift of musical style from the Renaissance to the Baroque and from the Baroque to the Classical. The following is a dis cussion of some of the qualities of rausic in the pre-Clas sical style \;ith emphasis on the pre-Classical symphony.

Melody There was in Baroque melody a uniformity of char acter, a basic "affection" stated at the outset of a com position and carried out uniformly to the end. Aided by melodic sequences, this basic affection was continued to the end of a section or composition often without pause or contrast. With such a monothematic melodic type, nei ther length nor structure was an especially significant aspect. Melodies in this style often were continuous asym metrical spans. Under the influence of changing fashions, which saw the emphasis move away from complex counterpoint and toward simplicity and balance, melody became more symmetri cal and dancelike. Unlike that of the Baroque, pre-Classi cal melody sustained contrasts within a theme, as opposed motives or figures, and within an entire movement, as opposed themes. Of coxirse, it was in the Classical period of Haydn and Mozart that first movement form was developed fully and when thematic development became an important characteristic. It was, however, in the pre-Classical peri od that melodic contrast within a movement was initiated. The following example from the Sammartini symphony in ? major (Churgin 1968, p. 95) shows how contrasting me lodic figures can be combined into a melodic line.

I I Indicates a melodic figure,

Figure 95>» A Melody Composed of Contrasting Figures

The example above doe3 not exhibit all the charac teristics which melody was to assume in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Melodic period and phrase structure, in this example, are not so clear as they were 211-9 to become. In addition, the distinction of first and second themes in the melody from which this excerpt was taken is not as apparent as it was to be in the Classical symphony. Hoitfever, the melodic contrasts which distinguish pre-Classi- cal melody from that of the Baroque are clearly evident.

Texture In sixteenth century music, those sections of com positions xtfhich vrere written in a homophonic texture were, in a sense, atypical of Renaissance music. The primary, textural quality of this music was polyphonic, thus, homo phonic sections were distinguishable because they were clear exceptions to the prevailing texture. Conversely, in pre-Classical music, homophony was the prevailing texture. It may be that one of the keys to the creation of great music from the Renaissance to the present has been the balancing of both polyphony and homophony, always con sidering, of course, the predominant texture of a given style. The integration of contrapuntal writing with homo phonic writing is one of the features of the Classical sym phonies of Haydn and Mozart which distinguishes them from most pre-Classical symphonies in which the predominance of homophonic textures has been considered a weakness (Ottaway 1968, p. 61|.). Counterpoint in the Classical period was unlike that of the Baroque. Having a "terse, motivic" quality, 250 it was distinctly different from the "sustained flow of Baroque polyphony" (Ottaway 1968, p. 6£). In the pre-Clas sical period, counterpoint, in general, was lacking. As shall be shorn, however, the imitation of melodic figures in the lower voices of essentially homophonic textures did occur. The homophonic texture of the pre-Classical period was composed of a top line melody supported by the chords of a rather slow harmonic rhythm. This top line emphasis in music not all of which was composed for voice, indicates the difference between pre-Classical horaophony and that of the Renaissance polyphonic period as well as that of the monodic style. In the Renaissance, the upper voice, in general, was no more than equal with the other voices. When homophonic sections appeared, the music displayed no apparent emphasis on the upper voice at the expense of the lower ones. The equivalency of voices was maintained irrespective of texture. Monody, on the other hand, was a style in which the outside voices were emphasized. While the melody was sung, the bass part xtfas reinforced or doubled by a non-chordal instrument while a chord playing instru ment filled in the harmonies. In pre-Classical style, the melody was still emphasized but the nature of the bass was in the process of undergoing a change from the late Baroque style in which the traditional basso continuo was still prominently featured. 251 In the Sammartini example (p. 261), in measures six, seven, and eight, the bass sustains slowly changing harmonies through the use of the many repeated notes which, though they provide a rhythmic thrust, dp not increase the rate of harmonic change. Thus the new style of bass was coincident with a slow harmonic rhythm. The numerous rests in the bass line also remind us that the nature of the basso continuo was changing. This change xms advanced as composers were beginning to write the inner parts of their basic harmonies into the orchestral scores.

Figure 96. A Fragment of a Pre-Classical Symphonic Texture

The example above was taken from the second move ment of the Sammartini symphony in P. The presence in the bass of this excerpt of rests alternating with rapid, short runs suggests very little of the basso continuo which, it can be assumed, was still a feature in the performance of this music (Churgin 1963, p. 12). In addition, these runs 2f?2 which appear in the viola part and are imitated in the bass, are a textural feature of pro-Classical music "which was both a departure from Baroque practice and an intimation of what was to come in the pre-Classical and Classical periods. Churgin (1966, p, 10) considers that among the early Sarnmartini symphonies, this one in P major is "the most re moved from the Baroque idiom." It is instructive to com pare this example with the Saramartini symphony movement in D major printed in the Historical .Anthology of Ilusio, Vol ume II, Number 2^3 (Apel and Davison 19^0, p. 216). In this movement, the bass line is, as Pauly points out (1965, p. ij.6), still governed by the requirements of the basso continuo. It is truly a "continuous bass." It, in addi tion, supports a melody and texture which does not have the contrasting elements of most pre-Classical and Classical music. It is, in short, more suggestive of the Baroque "single affection." Inasmuch as the D major symphony is dated before 1730 and the F major is dated closer to 171^1- (Churgin 1968, p. 37), the comparison of these works clearly reveals a stylistic development from the Baroque to the Classical in the symphonic works of a single eighteenth century composer.

Form and Harmony Regarding eighteenth century symphony composers, Adam Cars© (195>1, p. 65) has itfritten: "They all thought 253 in terms of harmony; a chord or a succession of chords underlies .every melodic idea." This conclvision is verified in the melody of the Sammartini symphony. For example, the final melodic figure before the double bar (p. 261, measure thirteen) is typi cally found as the bass line of a cadential progression of chords as in the example below.

t*>) (A>) c i 'i j> js i r m jj U-U y."" tis i v v m U CI Jn i Figure 97. A Melodic Figure from the Sammartini Symphony (a) as it Appears in the Melody (b) used as a Cadential Bass Line

The section of melody quoted in Figure 9£> also offers verification of Carse's comment. In this melody, the key areas of F major, G major, and C major are all present. It cadences on the dominant key after an incur sion into the dominant of the dominant. Not only does this illustrate that the composer conceived his melody in terms of underlying chords, but it also suggests the close relationship in Classical and pro- Classical music between tonality and form. Goldman writes (196£, p. 35>) that the basic I-V-I harmonic progression is a fundamental relationship in tra ditional music as well as being the "genesis of all form." One can see the relationship between forra and tonal ity in the Samraartini symphony. The main key areas of the movement coincide with the structural divisions indicated by the repeat signs and double bars in the diagram below.

x V V I lis 'Ih :|| Figure 98. A Diagram Showing how Tonal Areas and Structural Divi sions may Coincide

A more detailed examination of the relationship of key areas to structure, in this movement, is necessary before the significant aspects of this relationship become apparent. The modulation to the dominant in the melody of the first section is verified first by a v| - cadence at measure nine which is followed by an authentic cadence two rneasx:iros later. The next four measures contain a melody in C major which is nothing more than a C major seventh chord followed by the cadential figiu'e mentioned above (Pig. 97)• Because of it3 brevity and the fact that it is simply a broken ctiord, this four bar melody hardly deserves to be called a theme, yet it i3 clearly in the dominant key and 255 has qualities which contrast it with the opening melody. Thus, the first fourteen measures contain a first subject in the tonic (measures one through six), a modulating tran sition (measures six through ten), and a second, subject in the dominant key (measures eleven through fourteen). These are the component elements of the exposition section of the full sonata allegro form which wa3 later brought to full development by German musicians. After the double bar, the music, using thematic material from both subjects of the first section and from the transition between the two, moves through the keys of C, P, and B flat, and back to C where a fermata occurs on the dominant seventh of F, .Following this ten bar modulating section, the original theme retxirns in the tonic P major, and, with further elaboration, the music continues to the end with the second subject, when it returns (measure thirty- four), also in the tonic key. This second main division of the movement contains a short modulating development section which is followed by a recapitulation of both subjects but without a modulation outside of the tonic key. Thus the entire movement has features of the full sonata form of the Classical symphony. Since the composer indicated that the work was in two sections, and each was to be repeated once, there is some question as to whether this movement is best considered a binary or ternary form. It is clear that the section 2£6 which in our analysis contains a development and a recapitu lation is to be treated as a single unit; however, in the later works of Haydn and Mozart, the second repeat was dropped and the three section sonata allegro forra became fully established. Perhaps it would not be inaccurate to describe this pre-Classical symphonic movement as a binary form upon which has been imposed x^hat might be considered a primitive sonata form, as the follox^ing diagram shows.

Exposition Development Recapitulation Meas. 1-14 Meas. 15-24 Meas. 25-37 *V (V-) I 1

Figure 99. The Form of the First liovement of a Pre-Classical Symphony by Sammartini These developments in form and those of thematic contrast were found in keyboard music and chamber music as well as the early symphony. Ottaway (1968, p. 58) calls this combination of elements, "the sonata principle" and writes: Though revolutionary in significance, the sonata style was an evolutionary development to which many composers contributed. Betxjeen its first tentative stirrings and its mature expression in the later works of Haydn and Mozart nearly half a century elapsed. Moreover, certain of its fea tures were already latent in the music of the Baroque. This is not a paradox-; every style con tains within itself the germ of its oxm dissolution. 257 The Sinfonia The overture to the Italian opera is sometimes con sidered to be the principal origin of the modern symphony (Ottaway 1968, p. lj.0). It is by no means the only one, however. The opera buff a with its simple horaophony and festive finales and the da capo aria with its thematic con trast and its recapitulation are also cited by authorities (Lang p. 598; Grout 1960, p. lj-17) as being of signif icance in this development. The Italian overture contained three movements in the order, fast-slow-fast. The first movements in these compositions were binary in form with both sections re peated. The first of the two sections modulated to the dominant or to the relative major if the tonic was in the minor key. The second section began on the dominant and returned to the tonic. This movement, as has been indicated, later developed to become the full sonata form with its ex position, development, and recapitulation. Since these compositions, called Sinfonia avantl 1'opera, generally had no thematic or other dix-ect relation to the operas they introduced, their performance as concert music was not inhibited by a strong association with the theater. Hence, composers using this form wrote iaany sin- fonias which were performed in the concert rooms and thea ters of the eighteenth century. One of the most important of these composers of sinfonia (symphonies) i*as G. B. Sam- martini. 258 Giovanni Battista Saromartini G. B. Sammartini (1701-1775) was a Milanese musi cian and teacher who composed over four hundred and fifty compositions. Included among these are seventy-seven symphonies, the qualities of which justify the view that Sammartini was "the first important master of the sym phonic form" (Churgin 1968, p. J), Ottaway (1968, p. I).1), summed up his importance in the following paragraph: Working in northern Italy, he kept up a prodigious output and his music became well-known in Vienna, Paris and many of the principal German cities. Ke is credited with being the first symphonist to introduce a distinctive second theme, ill the dom inant key, an important step in the evolution of •first-movement form.1 Especially striking is his grasp of the kind of harmonic and rhythmic activity on which the reality of opposed key-centers, and therefore of the whole sonata principle, ultimately depends. This is where his influence was important.

The Mannheim Orchestra Although the origin of the symphony was mainly Italian (Ottaway 1968, p. L|-1 ), its subsequent development took place largely in a German cultural climate. One of the more important centers for this development was the city of Mannheim x-Jhere a large and skilled orchestra flourished for some forty years during the middle of the eighteenth century. Under the leadership of one of the founders of the "Mannheim School," Johann Stamitz (1717-1757)* this 259 ensemble became noted for the precision of its playing, its dynamic range, and the sound of its crescendo. Stamitz was also an important composer whose mu sic reflects an increasing interest in the wind instru ments. "Stsunitz was one of the first composers regularly to use a contrasting lyrical second theme in his allegro movements in sonata form and to expand the symphony from three movements to four (the standard number in the Clas sical period) by adding a fast finale after the minuet, which had formerly served as the closing movement" (Grout 1960, p. Zj.23).

Comments on the Band Setting of the' ffpjiffliartlni Symphony in F Major Since this work was composed originally for a string orchestra, this transcription has been made so that the complete string quartet texture is reproduced in the woodwind and reed sections of the band. In performing this music, the director may omit the brass and percussion sec tions so as to approach more nearly the performance char acteristics of the eighteenth century. Sammartini1s symphonies were performed in Milan by orchestras which seldom reached forty players (Churgin 1968, p. 11). It is assumed that these symphonies required a harpsichord or continuo part. This may be provided on the piano by having the player read from the condensed band score in which the continuo harmonies are written out in full. 260 In the late eighteenth century, composers were writing out the notes of the continuo harmonies, often giving these parts to the wind instruments (Ulrich 195>2, p. 60). This was one of the conditions which caused the basso continuo ultimately to disappear. In the present transcription, the continuo harmonies are vjritten out in ' the psTts for the brass instruments. Several of the brass instruments also double woodwind parts as well. 261 Condensed Score of the Symphony in F Ma.jor First Movement

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Sammartinl

Piccolo

Fluto

i r \

Clarinet

Bassoon

§• Tenor Baritone w=mmm

This slnfonla movement was composed originally for strings and continuo. It con be performed in this transcription by woodwinds and reeds alone. The struc ture of this movement con tains the elements of a primitive sonata form.

Baritone

Trombono

BasflOH •.rj—y~J*: :L=fr^==j== rrj frz.---.{fcrrj'.iV-z .zn — J—2J J— 4r Timpani L PercuHfiion ««.. ' J-+4 r^IrTf-?:*>T i \ \ \ t 265

Piccolo

Flute

Clarinet

g1 Tenor

Baritone

2his is a transitional passage Introducing a section In the doalnant key.

i[Sg3

LLLf r.rrr Authentic Baritone H Cadence

Trombone

BasHba g jS5a=

Timpani

Percunfiior. 266

Piccolo jp ClfcS*- Fluto

Oboe

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Clarinet PPPPW

Bassoon

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Baritone

Trombone

Basses

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—oro 272 Student Study Material It has been pointed out (Pauly 1965, P» 11) that a concerto grosso by Haaidel and an early symphony by Haydn could have been written within twenty years of each other. The author of this observation also suggested that these works would display such pronounced differences that a listener might very well be surprised to discover that such a marked change of style could have occurred in such a short span of time. This chapter is concerned with the music which links the musical styles of these two composers. Since Haydn is considered a composer of the Classical period, the musical style to be discussed in this chapter is called pre-Classical.

Melody and Harmony Most pre-Classical melodies were more simple and dancelike than those of the Baroque period. They also contained more internal contrast. Later, in the Classical period, melody became more balanced in structure. Note these differences in the following three melodies each of which begins with the same melodic figure. 273

/ bb j*n -tr rr^i ———6- )i • a ->—fj- -M- ^ I ^ up

I (C) cm1 -J

Figure 100. Three Melodies in Contrasting Styles

The first example (a) is a melody in the Baroque style. Hotice how the music sustains its basic character without change. It continues to "drive" forward in the basic sixteenth note pattern. The second example (b) is much different,, This melody contains several contrasting melodic f-^y .pes: the first is made up of sixteenth notes, the second contains legato quarter notes, and the third is a syncopated figure. This melody is more typical of pre-Classical music. The next example (c) is somewhat similar to the melody in pre-Classical style. For example, it h&> con trasting elements, but unlike either the Baroque or the pre-Classical melody, it also has a much more balanced structure or form. As you sing or play this melody, 27k notice how the first four measures is ansvrered and balanced by the last four measures. This balance of four bar phrases (the first is often called an "antecedent" phrase and the second is called a "consequent" phrase) is a feature of melodies in the Classical style. A melody s\xch as the one in pre-Classical style is always based upon a chord or series of chords. Here is the same melody with the basic chord structure i^ritten beneath it.

Figure 101. A Melody Harmonized by Chords which are Implied in the Melody Itself

How many different chords do you find in this ex ample? Actually, there are only three: the B flat major chord in measures one through four, the C major chord in measure five, and the F major chord in measures six and seven. When music changes its basic chordal foundation very infrequently, as in this example, it is said to have a slow harmonic rhythm. Pre-Classical mu3ic generally had a rather slow harmonic rhythm. 275 Texture Texture in music refers to the relationship between chords and melodies. Another way of stating this same re lationship is to say that the texture of a composition is determined by comparing its harmony (chords) with its counterpoint (melodies). Where music consists almost en tirely of one melody accompanied by chords, the music is said to have a homophonic texture. Pre-Classical music is conside3?ed homophonic music. In order to create the feeling of forward motion in homophonic music, composers needed to use some mechanism to overcome the static nature of the slow harmonic rhythm. They often did this by taking the tones of the chords and spreading them out in time. In other words, they turned the chords into little melodic figures, sometimes called "broken chords," which were repeated over and over. By using these broken chords, the texture of the music could be altered and, at the same time, the music could be made more interesting by the addition of what could be considered a rhythmic "motor." To see how this was accomplished, ex amine the notation on the following page. 276

TH §

y v 8 rm k

: * ni » JlH I 7b*C § p r Pig-are 102. Broken Chord Patterns

Sometimes the necessary rhythmic impulsion was achieved simply "by repeating th"e 'bass note over and over. This was the technique used by Ssjnraartini, the composer whose music you will be performing. To hear hoi; effectively this technique can be made to work, you should play the following excerpt:

JKuhlau

Figure 103. An Excerpt Showing a Broken Chord Accompaniment 277 In the example on the preceding page, the chord of the accompaniment never changes, and the melody contains only the notes of this C major triad.

ASSIGM-G3HT XIX In this exercise, you are to take the music of Figure 101 and convert the chords which accompany the melody into each of the patterns you find in Figure 102. The first measure of each pattern is completed for you ,T\0i j=Mi•Hi Ff=Fr i fH i *I L

T P' in—& -*-j—r- i* - — ^ ft | *1 * ijf* TT

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*4f * — „ . 278 ASSIGNMENT XX As was pointed out earlier, pre-Classical melodies were based on chords. In this assignment, you are to com pose two, four measure melodies which contain only the notes of the C major triad (C-E-G). Use a variety of note values and rhythms. Start and end your melodies on the note C. Use the example by Kuhlau (Pig. 103) as a model. After you have written your melodies, write an accompaniment to each of them which also contains only the notes of the C major chord. Use the patterns you are already familiar with or invent one or more of your own.

ASSIGKIGNT XXI Define the following terms: (a) texture (b) homophoiiy (c) antecedent phrase (d) consequent phrase (e) broken chord. APPENDIX

CORRECT RESPONSES TO THE STUDENT STUDY ASSIGNl-iENTS FOUND IK CHAPTERS 3 THROUGH 8

Not all of the assignments incruded among the study- materials intended for student use can be concluded with a single definitive answer or response. Cases, for example, which require the invention of a melody (Assignment I) or of a rhythm (Assignment XV) can have innumerable solutions. For this reason, no one solvition for any such assignment is included in the following list of correct resioonses.

Chapter 3

Assignment I, page 62.

No definitive solution, but examples should be primarily conjunct with sections in syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic setting. VJords such as "flowing" offer opportunity for the latter.

Assignment II, page 66.

Dorian Mode on C $

279 280

Phrygian iiode on A j o^° ° °

Mixolydian i-iode on P

w L ftp n a oJj° °^ =

Assignment III, page 69.

j>lode 3

& Cf n i 8

i-iode 6

j^j> n tw nnih\krmftr 6 (| j~3 >J»O rjfji f.r.f. rjJTJ j Chapter 1^.

Assignraent IV, page 108.

pi m n pir* * 8

Assignment V, page 109.

4l 0 # eJL 0—g-e

Assignraent VI, page 113.

1• Sustained Note Style 2. Discant Style 3. Mensural Notation i|.. Modal Notation £. Condxic tus 6. llotet 282 Chapter 5>

Assignment VII, page

These melodies should be checked for the balance of ascent and descent. A variety of note values should be used. The tie should be used to connect notes across the bar. Rhythmic variety and fluidity are important.

Assignment VIII, page 11|.8.

C V L L 7> J>C,t-J>L(^esD3) 0— ft Q —Q- (a) o jj o DC o o o g ° o o o. fl sr 4 7

(b) Numerous possible solutions,

As si penment IX, page 15>0.

60" CC) 3 4 6. * 7 £ S * 3 i ° i|' & 4III % 283 Assignment X, page 151.

(*•> GO CJL) I JfijkJ IIJII J I J II J1A, j II » r'p "r r> " rVf11 - y ln <* 1 b 1 S X 2> S 'n

Assignment XI, page 153.

Exercises such as these can be rather difficult at first. The initial efforts should include only a fev; sus pensions or passing tones. The student or teacher can analyze these progressions by indicating the intervals be neath the notation, as in the previous assignments. This may help to locate parallel octaves, fifths, unintended dissonances, or places where dissonant passing tones and suspensions may be placed.

Assignment XII, page 1J?6.

1. Authentic cadence indicated by progression A - D in the bass voice. 2. F sharp in final chord makes chord major. 3. C sharp in first chord is "leading tone." 1|. Basic cadence in two parts is provided by the progression C sharp - D in the soprano and E - D in the tenor. 28Ij. Assignment XIII, page

St Leading tone

Authentic cadence Eight note ' Suspension passing tones

Chapter 6

Assignraent XiV, page 18£.

o- % II 8 8 ^=B~§-§-§ L £

*ihs -O O- •e* -o- 285 Assignment XV, page 186. £Ti < STl > iii-i tl.

j J»JJ,j.;infabjy X

Assignment XVI, page 191.

There can be more than one solution for each of these prose excerpts. Any deviation from the solutions found below should not necessarily be considered incorrect, a J.I- ,nv....i; "This was theitf finest hour. 1

jm /i-* j* m

"I knew him, Ho-ra-^i-o"

m rJmu r«n n.i\) >n /fn m i( "Liberty and union, now and for-ever, one and in-separable

-J|H •* > l-r }\ni y J I "With malice toward none, with charity for all". 286

Chapter 7

Assip;nment XVII, page 239.

This assignment is primarily one of performance, The student should hum or whistle the raelody while play ing the chords.

p #• F i i

•*—9- iO» f" f r rr r 31 3' 1JL- # * ~r*~ i 287 Assignment XVIII, page 2ljl|..

1• The Baroque period occurred between the years 1600 and 1750. There was a much greater distinction be tween vocal and instrumental music in the Baroque than in the Renaissance, liuch rausic during the Renaissance could be played or sung. Ih the Baroque, instrumental music be came separated from vocal music, although some instrumental Baroque forms were derived from Renaissance vocal models. Many new instruments were perfected during the Baroque. 2. The canzona originated in the Renaissance chanson. Its most important feature was its sectional design. 3. The Baroque suite originated in the dance. A suite consists of a number of dance forms all of which are in the same key. Suites could be composed for or performed by solo instruments, ensembles, or by the full orchestra. Some of the dances which could be incorporated into suites are: the allemande, the courante, the gigue, and the sarabande. I4.. A chamber group consists of one player for each instrumental part. The orchestra may have many players (especially on the stringed instruments) playing the single part. 5. The French overture contained two main sections. The first was slow, chordal, and featured a dotted rhythm. 288 The second was faster, imitative (fugal), and occasionally broadened out at the end. The ]?rench overture originated as the overture to the French opera. 6. The basso continuo is a musical shorthand used to represent an accompaniment. It contains a bass line beneath which are placed figures which are intended to indi cate the chords or intervals to be played above the bass notes themselves. These chords are "realized" in an improvi satory manner by a keyboard player. The bass line itself is reinforced by an instrument such as cello or bassoon. Thus, the basso continuo requires a minimum of two players. 7. (a) A melodic sequence is the repetition of a pattern of notes which occurs at different pitch levels with in a melody. - (b) The cadence is a progression of chords which provides a feeling of rest. It occurs at the end of a composition or of a section of a composition. (c) The tonic is the main tone of a melody. It is the tone on which the melody will end. It is the keynote. (d) The dominant is the second most important tone of a melody. It is located a fifth above the tonic. Both tonic and dominant tones can have chords built upon them. The chord progression, dominant tonic, forms the "authentic cadence," the--strongest of all cadences. 8. The dominant seventh chord contains a dissonant tone, the seventh, which demands resolution. This chord 289 consists of the major triad built on the fifth degree of the scale to which the seventh of the scale has been added. 9. Harraonic rhythm refers to the frequency and the manner in which basic harraonies (chords) succeed one another. Baroque music is generally considered to have a rather fast harmonic rhythm, that is to say, it is characterized by a rather frequent chord change. 290 Chapter 8

Assignment XIX, page 277.

j^Sj j— Ff=ri -^1—ja--S—^

L>i i, i =f^= «r-f f ®=t wJ' * J * *— •*—-— N 1 1

i. j » \f=r I> r, F¥=F i; _ =H= M- If * if** -43

•fr ±»~ »a» mW: 1— -

"7—f i f f N- m j FN=t ,T 4 3 fcfe f 1 r —*pll J. £f

-iS3- •qt. * j—j—j— jl?*=m= ' '— o Jlpy -f>'' ~—-f*— 4

Assignment XX, page 278.

Because of the extreme limitations imposed upon the student, these exercises can be rather difficult. Strive for rhythmic variety in the invented melodies. The example of the bugle call may be a helpful guide. 291 Assignment XXI, page 278.

(a) Texture is the quality of a rausical composi tion determined by the relationship of chords (vertical) and melodic lines (horizontal). (b) A homophonic texture is one in which chords predominate. (c) An antecedent phrase is the first four bar phrase in a balanced melody characteristic of the Clas sical period. (d) The consequent phrase is the second, answering, or balancing phrase of a melody characteristic of the Clas sical period. (e) A broken chord is a chord whose tones are sounded consecutively rather than simultaneously; one whose tones are spread out in time. LIST OF REFERENCES

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