Eph104 the Evolution of Photography and It’S Impact on the World As We Know It

EPH104 THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND IT’S IMPACT ON THE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ...... 5

PART 1: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ...... 7

Precursors ...... 8

Early Experiments...... 9

HELIOGRAPHY ...... 9

DAGUERREOTYPE ...... 10

PHOTOGENIC DRAWING ...... 11

Early views of the medium’s potential ...... 13

The Revolution Of Technique ...... 14

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAGUERREOTYPE ...... 14

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CALOTYPE ...... 18

DEVELOPMENT OF STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY ...... 20

DEVELOPMENT OF THE WET COLLODION PROCESS ...... 21

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRY PLATE...... 23

PHOTOGRAPHY OF MOVEMENT ...... 24

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT COLOUR ...... 25

Establishing Genres ...... 26

PORTRAITURE ...... 26

PHOTOJOURNALISM ...... 28

DOCUMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHY - LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURAL ...... 31

SOCIAL DOCUMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHY ...... 34

Photography As Art ...... 37

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS ...... 37

NATURALISTIC PHOTOGRAPHY ...... 39

PICTORIALISM AND THE LINKED RING ...... 40

Timeline ...... 41

PART 2: THE HUMAN FACTOR ...... 80

Ansel Adams ...... 81

Henri Cartier-Bresson ...... 82

Dorothea Lange ...... 83

Robert Capa ...... 84

Helmut Newton ...... 85

André Kertész ...... 86

Sally Mann ...... 87

Mario Testino ...... 88

Steve McCurry ...... 89

Timothy Hogan ...... 90

Christian Aslund ...... 91

Jeremy Coward ...... 92

Annie Leibovitz ...... 93

David LaChapelle ...... 94

Nicholas Samaras...... 95

Anne Geddes ...... 96

Mareen Fischinger ...... 97

Andrea Gjestvang ...... 98

Florian Ritter ...... 99

Michael Kenna ...... 100

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PART 3: THE IMPACT ON SOCIETY ...... 101

Milk Drop Coronet ...... 102

The Burning Monk ...... 103

Muhammad Ali vs. Sonny Liston ...... 104

Fetus 18 Weeks ...... 105

Black Power Salute ...... 106

A Man on the Moon ...... 107

The Terror Of War ...... 108

Michael Jordan ...... 109

Tank Man ...... 110

Famine in Somalia ...... 111

Bosnia ...... 112

Starving Child and Vulture ...... 113

Falling Man ...... 114

Iraqi Girl At Checkpoint ...... 115

Gorilla In The Congo ...... 116

The Situation Room ...... 117

Oscars Selfie ...... 118

Alan Kurdi ...... 119

Closer to Home ...... 121

CONCLUSION ...... 123

REFERENCES ...... 123

ASSIGNMENT E4 ...... 125

PART A: IN THEORY…...... 125

PART B: PHOTO ASSIGNMENT ...... 126

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

TASK 1 ...... 126

TASK 2 ...... 127

TASK 3 ...... 127

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

We hop into our bright, shiny cars, turn on the air conditioning, crank up the music and drive on down the motorway at 110klms per hour without looking back. We travel great distances at high speeds and such is the technology that we often need a pit stop before the vehicle does. Most of us give little thought to the how or why, we just go for the ride.

Everything starts somewhere. Someone invented the wheel. That was a good start. Someone else came along, put two wheels on a cart and attached the cart to a horse. Another positive step forward! Further down the track, some very smart people figured out how to build a motor to turn an axle to turn the wheels, propelling what we now call a car in a forward direction. A major leap forward! This is a simplistic example but the moral of the story here is that advancements in the industry were created and continue to develop based on the achievements, failures, discoveries and setbacks of those that have come before us, with individuals having the ideas and corporations and governments backing those ideas with the facilities and funding needed to make things happen.

Photography is no different.

Photography in the 21st Century is primarily a digital world. A world that creates wonder, excitement and astonishment with relative ease. A world that documents current events with a realism far beyond anything we ever thought possible before. A world that continues to captivate people of all ages and races.

How we got here was through the ideas, achievements, failures, discoveries and setbacks of individuals, with those coming after learning from those that came before. Corporations collectively have played a significant part in industry development throughout the ages. Their thirst for profits has furthered the cause, resulting in continued technological advancement. Where we go from here is anyone’s guess. One thing is for sure. It will be an interesting journey. One well worth going along for the ride.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

In this module, we will look at three things:

1. The development in technology from ancient through to modern times. 2. Some individuals whose contribution cannot be ignored. 3. The impact and influence photography has had on society.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

PART 1: TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

A lot has happened in the world of photography from the creation of the first permanent image to the modern digital image. We will look in more detail at the stages that are the most significant.

Before we do that, here is a quick refresher so you understand the characteristics of the process itself so we can make sense of the different era / stages of development.

An image is recorded of what is when the camera sensor is exposed to light by a lens in the camera. The sensitive material undergoes changes in its structure, a latent (but reversed) image usually called a negative is formed, and the image becomes visible by development and permanent by fixing with sodium thiosulfate, called “hypo.” Time was very critical in the early days. Now, with modern materials, the processing may take place immediately or may be delayed for weeks or months. In the digital age, it is a whole other story. Processing time is irrelevant.

The camera sees what it sees, so it essentially captures a moment in time. This has, through the ages, given photography a sense of authenticity at the time of exposure, hence the expression “the camera does not lie”. Having said that, in the modern age with digital images and Photoshop, this cliché may no longer hold true. That is a case for another day.

In the early part of its history, photography was sometimes considered less of an art due to its dependence on technology. In truth, however, photography is not the automatic process that it was once considered, and as you have spent considerable time studying recently, the end result is very much in the hands of the Photographer, from his/her initial vision through to his/her technique and skill in bringing that vision to life. An effective photograph can disseminate information about humanity and nature, record the visible world, and extend human knowledge and understanding. For all these reasons, photography has aptly been called the most important invention since the printing press.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Precursors

The forerunner of the camera was the camera obscura, a dark chamber or room with a hole (later a lens) in one wall, through which images of objects outside the room were projected on the opposite wall. The principle was probably known to the Chinese and to ancient Greeks such as Aristotle more than 2,000 years ago.

Between 1000 and 1600, men such as Ibn al-Haytham, Gemma Frisius, and Itanian scientist Giambattista della Porta wrote on the pinhole camera, explaining why the images are upside down. When the shutter is opened, light shines through to imprint an image on photographic paper or film placed at the back of the camera. Pinhole cameras rely on the fact that light travels in straight lines – a principle called the rectilinear theory of light. This makes the image appear upside down in the camera.

Late in the 16th century, Giambattista della Porta demonstrated and described in detail the use of a camera obscura with a lens. While artists in subsequent centuries commonly used variations on the camera obscura to create images they could trace, the results from these devices depended on the artist’s drawing skills, and so scientists continued to search for a method to reproduce images completely mechanically.

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In 1727 the German professor of anatomy Johann Heinrich Schulze proved that the darkening of silver salts, a phenomenon known since the 16th century and possibly earlier, was caused by light and not heat. He demonstrated the fact by using sunlight to record words on the salts, but he made no attempt to preserve the images permanently. His discovery, in combination with the camera obscura, provided the basic technology necessary for photography. It was not until the early 19th century, however, that photography actually came into being.

Early Experiments

HELIOGRAPHY Nicéphore Niépce, an amateur inventor living near Chalon-sur-Saône, a city 189 miles (304 km) southeast of Paris, was interested in lithography, a process in which drawings are copied or drawn by hand onto lithographic stone and then printed in ink. Not artistically trained, Niépce devised a method by which light could draw the pictures he needed. He oiled an engraving to make it transparent and then placed it on a plate coated with a light- sensitive solution of bitumen of Judea (a type of asphalt) and lavender oil and exposed the setup to sunlight. After a few hours, the solution under the light areas of the engraving hardened, while that under the dark areas remained soft and could be washed away, leaving a permanent, accurate copy of the engraving. Calling the process heliography (“sun drawing”), Niépce succeeded from 1822 onward in copying oiled engravings onto lithographic stone, glass, and zinc and from 1826 onto pewter plates.

In 1826/27, using a camera obscura fitted with a pewter plate, Niépce produced the first successful photograph from nature, a view of the courtyard of his country estate, Gras, from an upper window of the house. The exposure time was about eight hours, during

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which the sun moved from east to west so that it appears to shine on both sides of the building.

Niépce produced his most successful copy of an engraving, a portrait of Cardinal d’Amboise, in 1826. It was exposed in about three hours, and in February 1827 he had the pewter plate etched to form a printing plate and had two prints pulled. Paper prints were the final aim of Niépce’s heliographic process, yet all his other attempts, whether made by using a camera or by means of engravings, were underexposed and too weak to be etched. Nevertheless, Niépce’s discoveries showed the path that others were to follow with more success.

DAGUERREOTYPE Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre was a professional scene painter for the theatre. Between 1822 and 1839 he was co-proprietor of the Diorama in Paris, an auditorium in which he and his partner Charles-Marie Bouton displayed immense paintings, 45.5 by 71.5 feet (14 by 22 metres) in size, of famous places and historical events. The partners painted the scenes on translucent paper or muslin and, by the careful use of changing lighting effects, were able to present vividly realistic tableaux. The views provided grand, illusionistic entertainment, and the amazing trompe l’oeil effect was purposely heightened by the accompaniment of appropriate music and the positioning of real objects, animals, or people in front of the painted scenery.

Like many other artists of his time, Daguerre made preliminary sketches by tracing the images produced by both the camera obscura and the camera lucida, a prism-fitted instrument that was invented in 1807. His attempt to retain the duplication of nature he perceived in the camera obscura’s ground glass led in 1829 to a partnership with Niépce, with whom he worked in person and by correspondence for the next four years.

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However, Daguerre’s interest was in shortening the exposure time necessary to obtain an image of the real world, while Niépce remained interested in producing reproducible plates. It appears that by 1835, three years after Niépce’s death, Daguerre had discovered that a latent image forms on a plate of iodized silver and that it can be “developed” and made visible by exposure to mercury vapour, which settles on the exposed parts of the image. Exposure times could thus be reduced from eight hours to 30 minutes. The results were not permanent, however; when the developed picture was exposed to light, the unexposed areas of silver darkened until the image was no longer visible.

By 1837 Daguerre was able to fix the image permanently by using a solution of table salt to dissolve the unexposed silver iodide. That year he produced a photograph of his studio on a silvered copper plate, a photograph that was remarkable for its fidelity and detail. Also that year, Niépce’s son Isidore signed an agreement with Daguerre affirming Daguerre as the inventor of a new process, “the daguerreotype.”

In 1839 Niépce’s son and Daguerre sold full rights to the daguerreotype and the heliograph to the French government, in return for annuities for life. On August 19 full working details were published. Daguerre wrote a booklet describing the process, An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Various Processes of the Daguerreotype and the Diorama, which at once became a best seller; 29 editions and translations appeared before the end of 1839.

PHOTOGENIC DRAWING The antecedents of photogenic drawing can be traced back to 1802, when Thomas Wedgwood, son of the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood, reported his experiments in recording images on paper or leather sensitized with silver nitrate. He could record

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silhouettes of objects placed on the paper, but he was not able to make them permanent. Sir Humphry Davy published a paper in the Journal of the Royal Institution, London, in June 1802, on the experiments of his friend Wedgwood; this was the first account of an attempt to produce photographs.

In 1833 the French-born photographer Hercules Florence worked with paper sensitized with silver salts to produce prints of drawings; he called this process “photography.” However, since he conducted his experiments in Brazil, apart from the major scientific centres of the time, his contributions were lost to history until 1973, when they were rediscovered. Others in Europe, including one woman, claimed to have discovered similar photographic processes, but no verifiable proof has come to light.

William Henry Fox Talbot, trained as a scientist at the University of Cambridge, could not draw his scientific observations, even with the aid of a camera lucida; this deficiency inspired him to invent a photographic process. He decided to try to record by chemical means the images he observed, and by 1835 he had a workable technique. He made paper light-sensitive by soaking it alternately in solutions of common salt (sodium chloride) and silver nitrate. Silver chloride was thus produced in the fibres of the paper. Upon exposure to light, the silver chloride became finely divided silver, dark in tone. Theoretically, the resulting negative, in which tonal and spatial values were reversed, could be used to make any number of positives simply by putting fresh sensitized paper in contact with the negative and exposing it to light. Talbot’s method of fixing the print by washing it in a strong solution of sodium chloride was inadequate, however, and the process was not successful until February 1839, when his astronomer friend Sir John Herschel suggested fixing the negatives with sodium hyposulphite (now called sodium thiosulfate) and waxing them before printing, which reduced the grain of the paper.

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When news of Daguerre’s process reached England in January 1839, Talbot rushed publication of his “photogenic drawing” process and subsequently explained his technique in complete detail to the members of the Royal Society—six months before the French government divulged working directions for the daguerreotype.

Early views of the medium’s potential

Photography’s remarkable ability to record a seemingly inexhaustible amount of detail was marveled at again and again. Still, from its beginnings, photography was compared—often unfavourably—with painting and drawing, largely because no other standards of picture making existed. Many were disappointed by the inability of the first processes to record colours and by the harshness of the tonal scale. Critics also pointed out that moving objects were not recorded or were rendered blurry and indistinct because of the great length of time required for an exposure.

Despite these deficiencies, many saw the technique of photography as a shortcut to art. No longer was it necessary to spend years in art school drawing from sculpture and from life, mastering the laws of linear perspective and chiaroscuro. Others saw these realizations as threatening. For example, upon first seeing the daguerreotype process demonstrated, the academic painter Paul Delaroche declared, “From today, painting is dead”; although he would later realize that the invention could actually aid artists, Delaroche’s initial reaction was indicative of that of many of his contemporaries. Such artists at first feared what Daguerre boasted in a 1838 broadsheet: “With this technique, without any knowledge of chemistry or physics, one will be able to make in a few minutes the most detailed views.”

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FROM 1940 ONWARDS, THINGS BEGAN TO TAKE SHAPE

The Revolution Of Technique

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DAGUERREOTYPE Daguerre’s process rapidly spread throughout the world. Before the end of 1839, travellers were buying daguerreotypes of famous monuments in Egypt, Israel, Greece, and Spain; engravings of these works were made and then published in two volumes as Excursions daguerriennes between 1841 and 1843. Although Daguerre’s process was published “free to the world” by the French government, he took out a patent for it in England; the first licensee was Antoine-François-Jean Claudet.

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The first daguerreotypes in the United States were made on September 16, 1839, just four weeks after the announcement of the process. Exposures were at first of excessive length, sometimes up to an hour. At such lengthy exposures, moving objects could not be recorded, and portraiture was impractical. Experiments were begun in Europe and the United States to improve the optical, chemical, and practical aspects of the daguerreotype process to make it more feasible for portraiture, the most desired application. The earliest known photography studio anywhere opened in New York City in March 1840, when Alexander Wolcott opened a “Daguerrean Parlor” for tiny portraits, using a camera with a mirror substituted for the lens. During this same period, József Petzval andFriedrich Voigtländer, both of Vienna, worked on better lens and camera design. Petzval produced an achromatic portrait lens that was about 20 times faster than the simple meniscus lens the Parisian opticians Charles Chevalier and N.M.P. Lerebours had made for Daguerre’s cameras. Meanwhile, Voigtländer reduced Daguerre’s clumsy wooden box to easily transportable proportions for the traveler. These valuable improvements were introduced by Voigtländer in January 1841. That same month another Viennese, Franz Kratochwila, freely published a chemical acceleration process in which the combined vapours of chlorine and bromine increased the sensitivity of the plate by five times.

The first studio in Europe was opened by Richard Beard in a glasshouse on the roof of the Royal Polytechnic Institution in London on March 23, 1841. Unlike the many daguerreotypists who were originally scientists or miniature painters, Beard had been a coal merchant and patent speculator. Having acquired the exclusive British license for the American mirror camera (he later also purchased the exclusive rights to Daguerre’s invention in England, Wales, and the colonies), Beard employed the chemist John Frederick Goddard to try to improve and accelerate the exposure process. Among the techniques Goddard studied were two that Wolcott had tried: increasing the light sensitivity of the silver iodide with bromine vapours and filtering the blindingly bright daylight necessary for exposure through blue glass to ease the portrait sitter’s eye strain. By December 1840 Goddard had succeeded well enough to produce tiny portraits ranging in size from 0.4 inch (1 cm) in diameter to 1.5 by 2.5 inches (4 by 6 cm). By the time Beard opened his studio, exposure times were said to vary between one and three minutes according to weather and time of day. His daguerreotype portraits became immensely

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popular, and the studio made considerable profits the first few years, but competition soon appeared, and Beard lost his fortune in several lawsuits against infringers of his licenses.

The finest daguerreotypes in Britain were produced by Claudet, who opened a studio on the roof of the Royal Adelaide Gallery in June 1841. He was responsible for numerous improvements in photography, including the discovery that red light did not affect sensitive plates and could therefore be used safely in the darkroom. The improvements that had been made in lenses and sensitizing techniques reduced exposure times to approximately 20 to 40 seconds.

Daguerreotyping became a flourishing industry. Practitioners such as Hermann Biow and Carl Ferdinand Stelzner worked in Germany, and William Horn opened a studio in Bohemia in 1841. It was the United States, however, that led the world in the production of daguerreotypes. Portraiture became the most popular genre in the United States, and within this genre, standards of presentation began to develop. Certain parts of the daguerreotype portrait, usually the lips, eyes, jewellery, and occasionally the clothing, were hand-coloured, a job often done by women. Because of their fragile nature, daguerreotype images always were covered with glass and encased in a frame or casing made of leather-covered wood or gutta-percha, a plasticlike substance made from rubber.

In the late 1840s every city in the United States had its own “daguerrean artist,” and villages and towns were served by traveling photographers who had fitted up wagons as studios. In New York City alone there were 77 galleries in 1850. Of these, the most celebrated was that of Mathew B. Brady, who began in 1844 to form a “Gallery of Illustrious Americans,” a collection of portraits of notables taken by his own and other cameramen. Several of these portraits, including those of Daniel Webster and Edgar Allan Poe, were published by lithography in a folio volume.

In Boston, Albert Sands Southworth and Josiah Johnson Hawes opened a studio in 1843 that was advertised as “The Artists’ Daguerreotype Rooms”; here they produced the finest portraits ever made by the daguerreotype process. The partners avoided the stereotyped lighting and stiff posing formulas of the average daguerreotypist and did not hesitate to

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portray their sitters unprettified and “as they were.” For example, in his portrait Lemuel Shaw, a judge of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, stands with a crumpled coat and unruly locks of hair under a glare of sunshine; in her portrait Lola Montez—adventurer, dancer, actress—lolls over the back of a chair, a cigarette between her gloved fingers.

Cities and towns, as well as their inhabitants, were also photographed by American daguerreotypists: the rapid growth of San Francisco was documented month by month, and the first history of the city, published in 1855, was illustrated with engravings made from daguerreotypes.

Daguerreotyping spread throughout the world during the 1850s as photographers from England, France, and the United States followed colonialist troops and administrators to the Middle East, Asia, and South America. Army personnel and commercial photographers portrayed foreign dignitaries, landscape, architecture, and monuments in order to show Westerners seemingly exotic cultures. Particularly notable were daguerreotypes made in Japan by the American photographerEliphalet Brown, Jr., who accompanied the 1853–54 mission led by Matthew C. Perryto open Japan to Western interests.

While most of the initial photographic work in these places was by Westerners, by the 1860s local practitioners had begun to open studios and commercial establishments. Marc Ferrez in Brazil, Kusakabe Kimbei in Japan, the (French-born) Bonfils family in Lebanon, and Kassian Céphas in Indonesia were among the international photographers who set up studios to supply portraits and views during this period.

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE CALOTYPE

The popularity of the daguerreotype surpassed that of the photogenic drawing, but Talbot, convinced of the value of duplicability, continued to work to improve his process. On September 21–23, 1840, while experimenting with gallic acid, a chemical he was informed would increase the sensitivity of his prepared paper, Talbot discovered that the acid could be used to develop a latent image. This discovery revolutionized photography on paper as it had revolutionized photography on metal in 1835. Whereas previously Talbot had needed a camera exposure of one hour to produce a 6.5-by-8.5-inch (16.5-by-21.6-cm) negative, he now found that one minute was sufficient. Developing the latent image made photography on paper as valued as the daguerreotype, although the image still was not as clearly defined. Talbot named his improved negative process the calotype, from the Greek meaning “beautiful picture,” and he protected his discoveries by patent.

A salt print developed from a calotype negative.

The first aesthetically satisfying use made of this improved process was in the work of David Octavius Hill, a Scottish landscape painter, and his partner, Robert Adamson, an

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Edinburgh photographer. In 1843 Hill decided to paint a group portrait of the ministers who in that year formed the Free Church of Scotland; in all, there were more than 400 figures to be painted. Sir David Brewster, who knew of Talbot’s process from the inventor himself, suggested to Hill that he make use of this new technique. Hill then enlisted the aid of Adamson, and together they made hundreds of photographs, not only of the members of the church meeting but also of people from all walks of life. Although their sitters were posed outdoors in glaring sunlight and had to endure exposures of upward of a minute, Hill and Adamson managed to retain a lifelike vitality.

Hill’s aesthetic was dominated by the painting style of the period in lighting and posing, particularly in the placement of the hands; in many of Hill’s portraits, both the sitter’s hands are visible, placed in a manner meant to add grace and liveliness to a dark portion of an image. Indeed, many of his calotypes are strikingly reminiscent of canvases by Sir Henry Raeburnand other contemporary artists. Proving the calotype’s artistic qualities, William Etty, a royal academician, copied in oils the calotype Hill and Adamson made of him in 1844 and exhibited it as a self-portrait. In addition to their formal portraiture, the partners made a series of photographs of fishermen and their wives at Newhaven and in Edinburgh, as well as architectural studies.

The calotype, which lent itself to being manipulated by chemicals and paper, was used in the 1850s to create exceptionally artistic images of architectural monuments.

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DEVELOPMENT OF STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Stereoscopic photographic views (stereographs) were immensely popular in the United States and Europe from about the mid-1850s through the early years of the 20th century. First described in 1832 by English physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone, stereoscopy was improved by Sir David Brewster in 1849. The production of the stereograph entailed making two images of the same subject, usually with a camera with two lenses placed 2.5 inches (6 cm) apart to simulate the position of the human eyes, and then mounting the positive prints side by side laterally on a stiff backing. Brewster devised a stereoscope through which the finished stereograph could be viewed; the stereoscope had two eye pieces through which the laterally mounted images, placed in a holder in front of the lenses, were viewed. The two images were brought together by the effort of the human brain to create an illusion of three-dimensionality.

Stereographs were made of a wide range of subjects, the most popular being views of landscapes and monuments and composed narrative scenes of a humorous or slightly suggestive nature. Stereoscopes were manufactured for various price ranges and tastes, from the simple hand-held device introduced by Oliver Wendell Holmes(who promoted stereography through articles in The Atlantic Monthly) to elaborate floor models containing large numbers of images that could be flipped into place. The stereograph became especially popular after Queen Victoria expressed interest in it when it was exhibited at the 1851 Crystal Palace Exposition. Like television today, stereography during the second half of the 19th century was both an educational and a recreational device with considerable impact on public knowledge and taste.

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE WET COLLODION PROCESS

Photography was revolutionized in 1851 by the introduction of the wet collodion process for making glass negatives. This new technique, invented by the English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer, was 20 times faster than all previous methods and was, moreover, free from patent restrictions. Paper prints could easily be made from glass-plate negatives. The process had one major drawback: the photographer had to sensitize the plate almost immediately before exposure and expose it and process it while the coating was moist. Collodion is a solution of nitrocellulose (guncotton) in alcohol and ether; when the solvents evaporate, a clear plastic like film is formed. Since it is then impervious to water, the chemicals used for developing the exposed silver halides and removing the unexposed salts cannot penetrate the coating to act upon them. The wet collodion process was almost at once universally adopted because it rendered detail with great precision that rivalled that of the daguerreotype. It reigned supreme for more than 30 years and greatly increased the popularity of photography, despite the fact that it was unequally sensitive to different colours of the spectrum.

At first the positive prints made from the glass plate negatives were produced by Talbot’s salt paper method, but from the mid-1850s on they were made on albumen paper. Introduced in 1850 by Louis-Désiré Blanquart-Evrard, albumen paper is a slow printing- out paper (i.e., paper that produces a visible image on direct exposure, without chemical development) that had been coated with egg white before being sensitized. The egg white gave the paper a glossy surface that improved the definition of the image.

A new style of portrait utilizing albumen paper, introduced in Paris by André-Adolphe- Eugène Disdériin 1854, was universally popular in the 1860s. It came to be called the carte-de-visite because the size of the mounted albumen print (4 by 2.5 inches [10.2 by 6 cm]) corresponded to that of a calling card. Disdéri used a four-lens camera to produce eight negatives on a single glass plate. Each picture could be separately posed, or several exposures of the same pose could be made at once. The principal advantage of the system was its economy: to make eight portraits the photographer needed to sensitize only a single sheet of glass and make one print, which was then cut up into separate

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pictures. At first cartes-de-visite almost invariably showed the subjects standing. Over time, backgrounds became ornate: furniture and such architectural fragments as papier- mâché columns and arches were introduced, and heavy-fringed velvet drapes were hung within range of the camera. With the advent of the cabinet-size (6.5 by 4 inches [16.5 by 10.2 cm]) picture in 1866, the decorative strategies of the photographer became yet more pronounced, so that in 1871 a photographer wrote: “One good, plain background, disrobed of castles, piazzas, columns, curtains and what not, well worked, will suit every condition of life.”

The new wet collodion process was also used to produce positive images on glass called ambrotypes, which were simply underexposed or bleached negatives that appeared positive when placed against a dark coating or backing. In pose and lighting, these popular portraits were similar to daguerreotypes in sizes and were enclosed in similar types of cases. They did not approach the brilliancy of the daguerreotype, however.

Tintypes, first known as ferrotypes or melainotypes, were cheap variations of theambrotype. Instead of being placed on glass, the collodion emulsion was coated on thin iron sheets that were enamelled black. At first they were presented in cases, surrounded by narrow gilt frames, but by the 1860s this elaborate presentation had been abandoned, and the metal sheets were simply inserted in paper envelopes, each with a cutout window the size of the image. Easy to make and inexpensive to purchase, tintypes were popular among soldiers in the Civil War and remained a form of folk art throughout the 19th century. Poses of sitters in tintypes were often informal and sometimes humorous. Because they were cheap and easy to produce, tintypes became a popular form of street photography well into the 20th century. Street-corner photographers, often equipped with a donkey, were common in European countries.

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRY PLATE In the 1870s many attempts were made to find a dry substitute for wet collodion so that plates could be prepared in advance and developed long after exposure, which would thereby eliminate the need for a portable darkroom. In 1871 Richard Leach Maddox, an English physician, suggested suspending silver bromide in a gelatin emulsion, an idea that led, in 1878, to the introduction of factory-produced dry plates coated with gelatin containing silver salts. This event marked the beginning of the modern era of photography.

Gelatin plates were about 60 times more sensitive than collodion plates. The increased speed freed the camera from the tripod, and a great variety of small hand-held cameras became available at relatively low cost, allowing photographers to take instantaneous snapshots. Of these, the most popular was the Kodak camera, introduced by George Eastman in 1888. Its simplicity greatly accelerated the growth of amateur photography, especially among women, to whom much of the Kodak advertising was addressed. In place of glass plates, the camera contained a roll of flexible negative material sufficient for taking 100 circular pictures, each roughly 2.5 inches (6 cm) in diameter. After the last negative was exposed, the entire camera was sent to one of the Eastman factories (Rochester, New York, or Harrow, Middlesex, England), where the roll was processed and printed; “You Press the Button, We Do the Rest” was Eastman’s description of the Kodak system. At first Eastman’s so-called “American film” was used in the camera; this film was

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paper based, and the gelatin layer containing the image was stripped away after development and fixing and transferred to a transparent support. In 1889 this was replaced by film on a transparent plastic base of nitrocellulose that had been invented in 1887 by the Reverend Hannibal Goodwin of Newark, New Jersey.

PHOTOGRAPHY OF MOVEMENT A few years before the introduction of the dry plate, the world was amazed by the photographs of horses taken by Eadweard Muybridge in California. To take these photographs, Muybridge used a series of 12 to 24 cameras arranged side by side opposite a reflecting screen. The shutters of the cameras were released by the breaking of their attached threads as the horse dashed by. Through this technique, Muybridge secured sets of sequential photographs of successive phases of the walk, the trot, and the gallop. When the pictures were published internationally in the popular and scientific press, they demonstrated that the positions of the animal’s legs differed from those in traditional hand- drawn representations. To prove that his photographs were accurate, Muybridge projected them upon a screen one after the other with a lantern-slide projector he had built for the purpose; the result was the world’s firstmotion-picture presentation. This memorable event took place at the San Francisco Art Association in 1880.

Muybridge, whose early studies were made with wet plates, continued his motion studies for some 20 years. With the new gelatin plates, he was able to improve his technique greatly, and in 1884–85, at the invitation of the University of Pennsylvania, he produced 781 sequential photographs of many kinds of animals as well as men and women engaged in a wide variety of activities. He was aided in this project by painter Thomas Eakins, who also made motion studies.

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Muybridge’s photographic analysis of movement coincided with studies by French physiologist Étienne- Jules Marey to develop chronophotography. Whereas Muybridge had employed a battery of cameras to record detailed, separate images of successive stages of movement, Marey used only one, recording an entire sequence of movement on a single plate. With Marey’s method, the images of various phases of motion sometimes overlapped, but it was easier to see and understand the flow of movement. Marey was also able to record higher speeds at shorter intervals than Muybridge. Both his and Muybridge’s work greatly contributed to the field of motion study and to the development of the motion picture.

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT COLOUR Photography’s transmutation of nature’s colours into various shades of black and white had been considered a drawback of the process from its inception. To remedy this, many portrait photographers employed artists who hand-tinted daguerreotypes and calotypes. Artists also painted in oils over albumen portraits on canvas. Franz von Lenbach in Munich, for example, was among the many who projected onto canvas an image that had been made light-sensitive, whereupon he painted freely over it. In Japan, where hand- coloured woodcuts had a great tradition and labour was cheap, some firms from the 1870s onward sold photographs of scenic views and daily life that had been delicately hand-tinted. In the 1880s photochromes, colour prints made from hand-coloured photographs, became fashionable, and they remained popular until they were gradually replaced in the first decades of the 20th century by Autochrome plates. RIGHT: The coloured starch grains in an Autochrome plate, greatly enlarged.

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Establishing Genres

PORTRAITURE From the medium’s beginnings, the portrait became one of photography’s most popular genres. Some early practitioners such as Southworth and Hawes and Hill and Adamson broke new ground through the artistry they achieved in their portraits. Outside such mastery, however, portraiture throughout the world generally took on the form of uninspired daguerreotypes, tintypes, cartes-de-visite, and ambrotypes, and most portraitists relied heavily on accessories and retouching. Such conventions were broken by several important subsequent photographers, notably Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, a Parisian writer, editor, and caricaturist who used the pseudonym of Nadar; Étienne Carjat, likewise a Parisian caricaturist; and Julia Margaret Cameron.

Nadar took up photography in 1853 as a means of making studies of the features of prominent Frenchmen for inclusion in a large caricature lithograph, the “Panthéon Nadar.” He posed his sitters against plain backgrounds and bathed them with diffused daylight, which brought out every detail of their faces and dress. He knew most of them, and the powers of observation he had developed as a caricaturist led him to recognize their salient features, which he recorded directly, without the exaggeration that he put in his drawings. When Nadar’s photographs were first exhibited, they won great praise in the Gazette des Beaux Arts, then the leading art magazine in France.

Carjat depicted the prominent Parisian artists, actors, writers, musicians, and politicians of his day. These portraits display dignity and distinction like those of Nadar, his contemporary and rival, but with a sometimes startling level of intensity in the sitters’ gazes.

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Cameron took up photography as a pastime in 1864. Using the wet-plate process, she made portraits of such celebrated Victorians of her acquaintance as Sir John F.W. Herschel, George Frederick Watts, Thomas Carlyle, Charles Darwin, and Alfred, Lord Tennyson. For her portraits, a number of which were shown at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867, Cameron used a lens with the extreme focal length of 30 inches (76.2 cm) to obtain large close- ups. This lens required such long exposures that the subjects frequently moved. The lack of optical definition and this accidental blurring was criticized by the photographic establishment, yet the power of her work won her praise among artists. This can be explained only by the intensity of her vision. “When I have had these men before my camera,” she wrote about her portraits of great figures, my whole soul has endeavoured to do its duty toward them in recording faithfully the greatness of the inner man as well as the features of the outer man. The photograph thus obtained has almost been the embodiment of a prayer.

Besides these memorable portraits, Cameron produced a large number of allegorical studies, as well as images of children and young women in costume, acting out biblical scenes or themes based on the poetry of her hero, Tennyson. In making these pictures— which some today find weak and sentimental—she was influenced by the Pre-Raphaelite painters, who portrayed similar themes in their work.

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PHOTOJOURNALISM From the outset, photography served the press. Within weeks after the French government’s announcement of the process in 1839, magazines were publishing woodcuts or lithographs with the byline “from a daguerreotype.” In fact, the two earliest illustrated weeklies The Illustrated London News, which started in May 1842, and L’Illustration, based in Paris from its first issue in March 1843—owe their origin to the same cultural forces that made possible the invention of photography. Early reproductions generally carried little of the conviction of the original photograph, however.

Photography as an adjunct of war reportage began when Roger Fenton sailed from London to the Crimea to photograph the war between England, Russia, and Turkey in 1855. He was sent to provide visual evidence to counter the caustic written reports dispatched by William Russell, war correspondent for The Times of London, criticizing military mismanagement and the inadequate, unsanitary living conditions of the soldiers. Despite the difficulties of developing wet-collodion plates with impure water, in high temperatures, and under enemy fire, during his four-month stay Fenton produced 360 photographs, the first large-scale camera documentation of a war. Crimean War imagery

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was also captured by British photographer James Robertson, who later traveled to India with an associate, Felice Beato, to record the aftermath of the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58. When the Civil War broke out in the United States, Mathew B. Brady, a New York City daguerreotypist and portraitist, conceived the bold plan of making a photographic record of the hostilities. When told the government could not finance such an undertaking, he invested his own savings in the project, expecting to recover his outlay by selling thousands of prints. Brady and his crew of about 20 photographers—among them Alexander Gardner and Timothy H. O’Sullivan, who both left his employ in the midst of hostilities—produced an amazing record of the battlefield. At his New York gallery, Brady showed pictures of the dead at Antietam. The New York Times reported on October 20, 1862:

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Mr. Brady has done something to bring home to us the terrible reality and earnestness of war. If he has not brought bodies and laid them in our dooryards and along the streets, he has done something very like it.…It seems somewhat singular that the same sun that looked down on the faces of the slain, blistering them, blotting out from the bodies all semblance to humanity, and hastening corruption, should have thus caught their features upon canvas, and given them perpetuity for ever. But so it is.

Throughout the remainder of the 19th century, intermittent conflicts in Asia and Africa arising from imperialist ambitions were documented by photographers working for news media and for companies that manufactured stereographs. For the most part, war images were accepted as truthful depictions of painful events. However, after images of the

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Communard uprising in Paris in 1871 were shown to have been doctored, the veracity of such camera documentation no longer could be taken for granted.

Regular use of photographs in magazines began with the perfection of the halftone process, which allowed the camera image to be printed at the same time as the type and thereby reduced the cost of reproduction. The first newspaper halftone in the United States appeared in 1888, and shortly thereafter newspapers turned to photography for reporting topical events, making the profession of newspaper illustrator obsolete. Although technical advances improved reproduction quality, apart from impressive examples of combat photography, the subjects and styles of early journalistic photography were generally unimaginative and dull.

DOCUMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHY - LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURAL

From the earliest days of the medium, landscape, architecture, and monuments were appealing subjects for photographers. This sort of photography, which was collected by artists, scientists, and travellers, was impelled by several factors. In Europe one powerful factor was the manoeuvrings among western European powers for control of portions of North Africa and Asia. From the late 1850s through the 1870s, British photographers were particularly active in recording the natural landscape and monuments of the empire’s domains: Francis Frith worked in Egypt and Asia Minor, producing three albums of well- composed images; Samuel Bourne photographed throughout India (with a retinue of equipment bearers); John Thomson produced a descriptive record of life and landscape in China; and French photographer Maxime Du Camp traveled to Egypt with Gustave Flaubert on a government commission to record landscape and monuments.

Both for patriotic reasons and as a commodity for travellers, photographers also were active in recording the landscape of western Europe in the 1850s and ’60s. Important British photographers included Roger Fenton, who worked in England and Wales; Charles Clifford, who worked in Spain; Robert Macpherson, who photographed Rome; and George Washington Wilson, who photographed Scotland. French photographer Adolphe Braun

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recorded the landscape around his native Alsace, as well as the mountainous terrain of the French Savoy, as did the brothers Louis-Auguste and Auguste-Rosalie Bisson. Herman Krone in Germany and Giacchino Altobelli and Carlo Ponti in Italy were also intent on recording the beauties of their regional landscapes.

Photographs of specific historical buildings were made for a number of purposes: to satisfy antiquarian curiosity, to provide information for restoration, to supply artists with material on which to base paintings, or to effect preservation efforts. Practically from photography’s inception, such documentation was commissioned by public and private authorities. In western Europe and the United States, photographs captured the building of the industrial infrastructure, from bridges to railroad lines, from opera houses to public places to monumental statuary. In the early 1850s Philip Henry Delamotte was hired to document the progress of the construction of the Crystal Place in London, and a few years later Robert Howlett depicted the building of the Great Eastern transatlantic steamship (pictured left). Alfred and John Bool and Henry Dixon worked for the Society for Photographing Old London, recording historical buildings and relics. In the 1850s the French government commissioned several photographers to document historical buildings. Working with cameras making photographs as large as 20 by 29 inches (51 by 74 cm), Henri Le Secq, Charles Marville, and Charles Nègreproduced remarkable calotypes of the cathedrals of Notre-Dame (Paris), Chartres, and Amiens, as well as other structures that were being restored after centuries of neglect. An establishment was set up in Lille, France, by Blanquart-Evrard at which these paper negatives could be printed in bulk.

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In the United States explorations of the lands beyond the Great Plains led to the apogee of landscape photography during the period. Before the Civil War, relatively few exceptional images of the Western landscape had been made. In the postwar era railroad companies and government commissions included photographers among their teams sent to determine mineral deposits, rights of way, and other conditions that would be suitable for settlement. Of the photographers confronting the spectacular landscape of the American West in the 1870s and ’80s, William Henry Jackson, O’Sullivan, and Carleton Watkins produced particularly notable work. Both O’Sullivan, who helped survey Nevada and New Mexico, and Watkins, who worked in California and Oregon, were able to convey through their work a sense of the untamed and extraordinary quality of the Western landscape. As a testament to the power of his images, Jackson’s photographs of the Grand Canyon and the Yellowstone River were influential in getting public land set aside for Yellowstone National Park. The work these and other photographers of the American West produced usually was made available in several sizes and formats, from stereographic images to mammoth-sized works.

Click this link to view more of Jackson’s photographs of the Grand Canyon and the Yellowstone River: https://www.nps.gov/features/yell/slidefile/history/jacksonphotos/Page-1.htm

Landscapes in places outside the United States and Europe were usually portrayed by European photographers during this period. However, exceptions included the Chinese photographer Afong Lai and the Brazilian photographer Marc Ferrez, both of whom produced excellent views of their native countries. In particular, Lai’s serene compositions reflected the conventions of the long-standing tradition of Chinese landscape painting.

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SOCIAL DOCUMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHY The recognition of the power of photography to persuade and inform led to a form of documentary photography known as social documentation, or social photography. The origins of the genre can be traced to the classic sociological study issued by Henry Mayhew in 1851, London Labour and the London Poor, although this was illustrated with drawings partly copied from daguerreotypes by Richard Beard and not actual photos. A later effort, Street Life in London (1877), by Adolphe Smith and John Thomson, included facsimile reproductions of Thomson’s photographs and produced a much more persuasive picture of life among London’s working class. Thomson’s images were reproduced by Woodburytype, a process that resulted in exact, permanent prints but was costly because it required hand mounting for each individual print. This pursuit was continued by John Barnardo, who, beginning in the 1870s, photographed homeless children in London for the purpose of both record keeping and fund-raising and thus fulfilled the double objectives of social documentation: capturing theoretically objective description and arousing sympathy. The “before” and “after” images used by Barnardo to demonstrate the efficacy of social intervention became a convention in social documentation. It was taken up to good effect by the Indian photographer Raja Lala Deen Dayal, especially in his documentation of the good works undertaken by the nizam of Hyderabad in the late 19th century. In 1877 Thomas Annan began a project in Edinburgh in which he used the camera to record the need for new housing for the working poor. He concentrated mainly on the derelict buildings and sewerage systems rather than on the inhabitants; eventually the images were collected for their artistic merit rather than their social use.

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Social documentation became more focused in the work of Jacob A. Riis, a police reporter in New York City in the 1880s who spent about four years depicting slum life. Employing cameramen at first, Riis eventually learned the rudiments of the medium so that he could himself portray the living and working conditions of immigrants whose social circumstances, he believed, led to crime and dissolution. Reproduced by the recently developed halftone process, the photographs and drawings based on them illustrated How the Other Half Lives (1890), Riis’s first book about immigrant life. They also were turned into positive transparencies—slides—to illustrate Riis’s lectures, which were aimed at a largely middle-class audience, some of whom were said to have fainted at the sight of the conditions the images documented. Able to convince the progressive reformers of the time of the need for change, Riis’s work was instrumental in effecting slum-clearance projects in New York.

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In European countries especially, there was also an awakened interest in documenting social customs during this period. Sometimes this meant recording those European customs that were being replaced by advancing industrialization. This interest led to the establishment of photographic archives, such as the National Photographic Record Association, set up in the mid-1890s by Benjamin Stone, a British member of Parliament. Left to the city of Birmingham, the collection included photographs taken by Stone and others of vanishing local customs. Other times this led to an interest in the particularities of dress and custom of those living in distant regions. William Carrick, a Scotsman, portrayed daily life in Russia. In addition to portraying nature and artifacts, John Thomson, Felice Beato, and Samuel Bourne also depicted indigenous peoples in China and India. In 1888 the journal National Geographic, which produced photographic accounts of cultures throughout the world, was established.

Sir Benjamin Stone, Solar Eclipse Station, Paracuru, Brazil, 1893

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Photography As Art

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS Photographic societies—made up of both professionals and amateurs enticed by the popularity of the collodion process—began to form in the mid-19th century, giving rise to the consideration of photography as an aesthetic medium. In 1853 the Photographic Society, parent of the present Royal Photographic Society, was formed in London, and in the following year the Société Française de Photographie was founded in Paris. Toward the end of the 19th century, similar societies appeared in German-speaking countries, eastern Europe, and India. Some were designed to promote photography generally, while others emphasized only artistic expression. Along with these organizations, journals promoting photography as art also appeared.

At the first meeting of the Photographic Society, the president, Sir Charles Eastlake (who was then also president of the Royal Academy), invited the miniature painter Sir William Newton to read the paper “Upon Photography in an Artistic View” (Journal of the Photographic Society, 1853). Newton’s argument was that photographs could be useful so long as they were taken “in accordance [as far as it is possible] with the acknowledged principles of Fine Art.” One way the photographer could make his results more like works of art, Newton suggested, was to throw the subject slightly out of focus. He also recommended liberal retouching. (Eastlake’s wife, Lady Eastlake, née Elizabeth Rigby, was one of the first to write lucidly about the artistic problems of collodion/albumen photography.) In response to this desire to create photographs that would fit an established conception of what “art” should be, several photographers began to combine several negatives to make one print. These consisted of compositions that were considered too complicated to be photographed in a straightforward manner and thus pushed photography beyond its so-called mechanical capabilities. A famous example of this style was by O.G. Rejlander, a Swede who had studied art in Rome and was practicing photography in England. He joined 30 negatives to produce a 31-by-16-inch (79-by-41- cm) print entitled

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The Two Ways of Life (1857) (pictured above), an allegory showing the way of the blessed led through good works and the way of the damned through vice. Rejlander, who described the technique in detail in photographic journals, stated that his purpose was to prove to artists the aesthetic possibilities of photography, which they had generally denied. The photograph was shown in the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857 and was purchased by Queen Victoria for Prince Albert.

Rejlander’s technique stimulated Henry Peach Robinson, a professional photographer who had been trained as an artist, to produce similar combination prints. He achieved fame with a five-negative print, Fading Away, produced in 1858. The subject, a dying girl, was considered by critics as too painful a subject to be represented by photography. Perhaps the implied authenticity of the camera bothered them, since painters had long presented subjects of a far more sensitive nature.

Robinson became an articulate member of the Photographic Society, and his teaching was even more influential than his photography. In 1869 the first of many editions and translations of his book, Pictorial Effect in Photography, was published. Robinson borrowed compositional formulas from a handbook on painting, claiming that use of them would bring artistic success. He stressed the importance of balance and the opposition of

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light against dark. At the core of his argument was the assumption that rules set up for one art form could be applied to another.

So long as photographers maintained that the way to photography as art was the emulation of painting, art critics were reluctant to admit the new medium to an independent aesthetic position. Portraits, when done as sensitively and as directly as those produced by Hill and Adamson, Nadar, and Cameron, won praise. But sentimental genre scenes, posed and arranged for the camera and lacking the truthfulness thought to be characteristic of photography, were the subject of considerable controversy. This debate would reach a crescendo at the end of the century.

NATURALISTIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Opposing the strategies advocated by Robinson, in the 1880s the English physician and photographer Peter Henry Emerson proposed that photographs should reflect nature, offer “the illusion of truth,” and be produced without using retouching techniques, recombining multiple prints, or utilizing staged settings, models, and costumes. He believed that the unique qualities of tone, texture, and light inherent in photography made it a unique art form, making any embellishments used for the sake of “art” unnecessary. This is not to say his own photographs were purely documentary—in fact, his work in some ways mimicked the artistic effects of the Barbizon school and Impressionist painting—but they eschewed the manipulated artistic effects of his contemporaries. Emerson’s views, known as naturalistic photography, gained a considerable audience through his widely read 1889 publication entitled Naturalistic Photography and through numerous articles that appeared in photography journals throughout the 1890s.

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PICTORIALISM AND THE LINKED RING The ideas of Newton, Rejlander, Robinson, and Emerson—while seemingly varied—all pursued the same goal: to gain acceptance for photography as a legitimate art form. These efforts to gain acceptance were all encompassed within Pictorialism, a movement that had been afoot for some time and that crystallized in the 1890s and early 1900s, when it was promoted through a series of international exhibiting groups. In 1892 the Brotherhood of the Linked Ring was founded in Britain by Robinson, George Davison, a leader of the Art Nouveau movement, and others dissatisfied with the scientific bias of the London Photographic Society. The group held annual exhibitions, which they called salons. While the members’ work varied from naturalism to staged scenes to manipulated prints, by the turn of the century it was their united belief that “through the Salon the Linked Ring has clearly demonstrated that pictorial photography is able to stand alone and that it has a future entirely apart from that which is purely mechanical.” Similar Pictorialist groups formed in other countries. These included the Photo-Club of Paris, the Trifolium of Austria, and like associations in Germany and Italy. Unity of purpose enabled members to exchange ideas and images with those who had similar outlooks in other countries.

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Timeline

It was not until the early 19th Century that photography actually came into being. From here, things happened quite rapidly. Those that kept up and embraced new ideas and technology grew and prospered. Sadly, there were casualties along the way, including Kodak and Agfa.

Let’s look at the next period of the evolution of photography through a timeline:

1900: Kodak Brownie box roll-film camera introduced.

1902: Alfred Stieglitz organizes "Photo Secessionist" show in New York City

1906: Availability of panchromatic black and white film and therefore high quality colour separation colour photography. J.P. Morgan finances Edward Curtis to document the traditional culture of the North American Indian.

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1907: First commercial colour film, the Autochrome plates, manufactured by Lumiere brothers in France

1909: Lewis Hine hired by US National Child Labour Committee to photograph children working mills.

1914: Oscar Barnack, employed by German microscope manufacturer Leitz, develops camera using the modern 24x36mm frame and sprocketed 35mm movie film.

1917: Nippon Kogaku K.K., which will eventually become Nikon, established in Tokyo.

1921: Man Ray begins making photograms ("rayographs") by placing objects on photographic paper and exposing the shadow cast by a distant light bulb; Eugene Atget, aged 64, assigned to photograph the brothels of Paris

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1924: Leitz markets a derivative of Barnack's camera commercially as the "Leica", the first high quality 35mm camera.

1925: André Kertész moves from his native Hungary to Paris, where he begins an 11- year project photographing street life

1928: Albert Renger-Patzsch publishes The World is Beautiful, close-ups emphasizing the form of natural and man-made objects; Rollei introduces the Rolleiflex twin-lens reflex producing a 6x6 cm image on rollfilm.; Karl Blossfeldt publishes Art Forms in Nature

1931: Development of strobe photography by Harold ("Doc") Edgerton at MIT

1932: Inception of Technicolor for movies, where three black and white negatives were made in the same camera under different filters; Ansel Adams, Imogen Cunningham,

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Willard Van Dyke, Edward Weston, et al, form Group f/64 dedicated to "straight photographic thought and production".; Henri Cartier-Bresson buys a Leica and begins a 60-year career photographing people; On March 14, George Eastman, aged 77, writes suicide note--"My work is done. Why wait?"--and shoots himself.

1933: Brassaï publishes Paris de nuit

1934: Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. is founded in Japan.

1935: At Kodak Research Laboratories, Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes, building upon past colour photography research, create a film with three different colour-sensitive emulsion layers, and which incorporates dye couplers in the processing chemicals. This eliminates the previous problem of dyes migrating between layers. Godowsky’s and Mannes’ invention is Kodachrome film. Kodak introduces Ciné-Kodak Kodachrome Safety film, for 16mm motion pictures, which is sharp and colour-accurate. Its only drawback is that it is difficult to develop; only Kodak labs process it.

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1936: Development of Kodachrome, the first colour multi-layered 35mm still colour film and 8mm home movie film; development of Exakta, pioneering 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera. Agfa introduces Agfacolor-Neu transparency film, which has colour couplers within the film that do not transfer between layers.

World War II - Development of multi-layer colour negative films, Margaret Bourke- White, Robert Capa, Carl Mydans, and W. Eugene Smith cover the war for LIFE magazine.

1937: Kodak introduces the 16mm Sound Kodascope Special Projector for films with sound and the Kodaslide Projector, the first slide projector for showing 2 x 2” glass- mounted slides. The Polaroid Corporation is founded by Edwin Herbert Land in Massachusetts. Kodak introduces 35mm glass slide mounts.

1939: Kodak introduces 35mm cardboard Kodaslide mounts and the Ready-Mount service, which mounts slides after they are processed and returns them to the consumer. Kodak introduces Kodaslide Projector Model 2, for home use. In Oregon, William Gruber invents the View-Master, and collaborates with Harold Graves, President of Sawyer’s Photographic Services, to market it. Introduced at the New York World’s Fair, it uses Kodachrome slide images, which appear in three dimensions through the viewer.

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1941: Kodak introduces a colour printing service for Minicolour prints from Kodachrome slides and Kotavachrome prints from Kodachrome sheet film transparencies.

1942: Kodak introduces Kodacolor colour negative film, for making colour prints. This film is entirely different from the Kodacolor movie film introduced earlier. Daiwa Kogyo, Ltd. (renamed Suwa Seikosha Co., Ltd. via a merger in 1959) is founded in Japan.

1946: Kodak introduces Ektachrome transparency sheet film, the first colour film that could be processed by any photographer. Kodak introduces the Dye Transfer Process for making colour prints from three-colour separation negatives

1947: Kodak introduces Ektachrome colour transparency roll film. Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David Seymour start the photographer-owned Magnum picture agency.

1948: The National Geographic Society, with permission from Eastman Kodak, names Kodachrome Basin State Park, an area near Bryce Canyon National Park in Utah.

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1948: Hasselblad in Sweden offers its first medium-format SLR for commercial sale;

Pentax in Japan introduces the automatic diaphragm; Polaroid sells instant black and white film

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1949: East German Zeiss develops the Contax S, first SLR with an unreversed image in a pentaprism viewfinder

1950: Kodak installs its first of many Colorama Display transparencies (18 x 60 feet) in Grand Central Station, New York City. The series continues to be on display until 1990.

1955: Kodak sells Kodachrome and Kodacolor films without processing included in the purchase price, which allows other labs to process its film. Edward Steichen curates Family of Man exhibit at New York's Museum of Modern Art

1958: Kodak introduces the Cavalcade Projector, Model 500, a completely automatic colour slide projector.

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1959: Kodak introduces Ektachrome colour slide film, the fastest colour film at this time.

Nikon F was introduced.

1960: Garry Winogrand begins photographing women on the streets of New York City.

1961: Shinshu Seiki Co., Ltd. is founded in Japan. Kodak introduces ASA 25 Kodachrome II film, with improved colour, greater light sensitivity, and finer grain than original Kodachrome. Kodak introduces the Kodak Carousel Projector, which uses a round tray to accommodate 80 slides.

1962: Ciba acquires Société Lumière.

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1963: Polaroid introduces Polacolor Type 48, the first instant colour film.; Instamatic released by Kodak; First purpose-built underwater camera introduced, the Nikonos; Ciba introduces the Cibachrome silver dye-bleach process for making prints from colour transparencies.

1964: The Kodak Pavilion at the New York World’s Fair exhibits the largest outdoor colour prints ever displayed. Leopold Mannes dies at age 64.

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1965: Fuji Photo Film USA, Inc. is established in New York, NY.

Kodak develops the Super 8 film format for home movies and releases cartridge-loaded Kodachrome II film for Super 8 cameras.

1968: Scitex Corporation, Ltd. is founded in Israel;

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Shinshu Seiki Co., Ltd. introduces the EP-101, the smallest digital mini-printer, and the first in what will become the Epson line of printers.

1969: Ciba acquires Ilford. 1970: William Wegman begins photographing his Weimaraner, Man Ray. 1971: J.R. Geigy Ltd., merges with Ciba to form Ciba Geigy, Ltd. in Switzerland.

Polaroid’s Big Shot Land camera, which only takes flash colour portraits is released.

Kodak introduces Ektachrome 160 Movie Film (Type A), light sensitive enough for shooting in existing light.

1972: Polaroid introduces the SX-70 Land Camera, the first single-lens reflex camera for instant colour prints.

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110-format cameras introduced by Kodak with a 13x17mm frame.

Kodak releases Kodachrome-X film, in a newly available 110-size cartridge.

1973: Paul Simon releases a song called “Kodachrome” on his There Goes Rhymin’ Simon album.

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C-41 colour negative process introduced, replacing C-22

1974: Kodachrome ASA 25 and 64 slide films, with improved colour, are introduced. Kodachrome 40 films (Type A) for 8mm, 16mm, and Super 8 motion pictures are introduced.

1975: Polaroid announces Polacolor 2 (Type 108) colour film, which peels apart and produces a colour negative and instant colour print.

Nicholas Nixon takes his first annual photograph of his wife and her sisters: "The Brown Sisters"; Steve Sasson at

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1975: Kodak makes a working prototype of a digital camera - the first working CCD- based digital still camera. Ironically, many attribute Kodak’s downfall to their reluctance to enter the digital camera market.

Image above: Steven Sasson holds the prototype digital camera he built in 1975 at the Eastman Kodak Co. headquarters in Rochester, N.Y. It recorded a black-and-white image on a digital cassette tape. http://www.seattlepi.com/business/article/Kodak-engineer-had-revolutionary-idea-the-first-1182624.php

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1976: Fujifilm introduces the first ASA 400 colour negative film, Fujicolor FII400. First solo show of colour photographs at the Museum of Modern Art, William Eggleston's Guide.

Canon builds the AE-1 SLR camera with a built-in micro- computer is introduced.

1977: Polaroid Corporation introduces the 20x24” camera and 20x24 Polacolor film, which produces 20x24” instant colour prints; Cindy Sherman begins work on Untitled Film Stills, completed in 1980; Jan Groover begins exploring kitchen utensils; George Eastman and Edwin Herbert Land are inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. The CR-45NM, the world's first nonmydriatic retinal camera, is introduced by Canon. The K-35 series of lenses for cinematography wins an Academy Award from the U.S. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

1978: Hiroshi Sugimoto begins work on seascapes; Polaroid introduces Polavision, an instant colour motion picture system, which produces 2 ½ minute self-developing films.

1979: Canon Singapore Pte. Ltd. is established.

1980: Elsa Dorfman begins making portraits with the 20x24" Polaroid. Eastman Kodak Company turns 100.

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Fujifilm introduces A-250 colour negative motion picture film, the fastest at this time.

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1982: Sony demonstrates Mavica "still video" camera; Kodak introduces disc cameras and film; Kodak releases Kodacolor VR 100 film, with new T-grain emulsion technology; Shinshu Seiki Co., Ltd. changes its name to Epson Corporation.

1983: Kodak introduces disk camera, using an 8x11mm frame (the same as in the Minox spy camera); Leopold Godowsky Jr. dies at age 82.; Creo is founded in British Columbia, Canada.

1984: Epson Corporation introduces the SQ- 2000, the first commercial Epson inkjet printer;

Kodak introduces videotape cassettes in 8mm, Beta, and VHS formats;

Fujifilm introduces the first ASA 1600 color negative film, Fujicolor HR1600; Fujifilm introduces Fujicolor AX color motion picture film, the fastest at this time.

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1985: Minolta markets the world's first autofocus SLR system (called "Maxxum" in the US);

Iris Graphics, Inc. is founded in Bedford, MA.;

Daiwa Kogyo Ltd. merges with Epson Corporation to become Seiko Epson Corporation.

Polaroid introduces a line of colour transparency films, called Polaroid Professional Chrome.

Agfa introduces Agfachrome CT100 color slide film.

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1988: Sally Mann begins publishing nude photos of her children

1987: The popular Canon EOS system introduced, with new all- electronic lens mount and a range of EF Lenses

Iris Graphics, Inc. introduces its 3000 series of digital color inkjet large format proofers, which print with a varying dot size to achieve a high perceived print resolution.

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1987: (continued) Kodak introduces the Kodak Fling, its first one-time use camera, loaded with Kodacolor 110 film.

Fuji introduces its first one-time use camera.

PhotoMac photo editing software, the first 24-bit professional photography imaging software available for personal use on a Macintosh computer, is introduced.

The Polaroid Corporation turns 50.

1988: Kodak releases the Ektapress Gold series of color negative films, made specifically for the photo-journalist market.

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1989: Kodak introduces the Kodak XL 7700 digital continuous tone printer, the Kodak Weekend, an all-weather, one-time use camera and the Kodak Fun Saver, a panoramic one-time use camera.

1990: Adobe Photoshop released.

Scitex Corporation acquires Iris Graphics, Inc.;

Kodak announces the development of a Photo CD system for viewing photographic images on televisions.

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1991: Kodak launches the DCS-100 1.3 megapixel camera, the first commercially available digital SLR camera (based on a Nikon F3 body).

Edwin Herbert Land, founder of The Polaroid Corporation, dies at age 81.

1992: Canon, Fuji, Kodak, Minolta, and Nikon jointly begin to develop the Advanced Photographic System (APS). Cibachrome prints are now known as Ilfochrome prints.

Kodak introduces PhotoCD

1993: Founding of photo.net, an early Internet online community;

Sebastiao Salgado publishes Workers; Mary Ellen Mark publishes book documenting life in an Indian circus;

Nikon releases the Coolscan, a 35mm film scanner;

Adobe Photoshop 1.0 for MS-DOS/Windows computers is released.

Canon and IBM Japan, Ltd. jointly develop the world's first notebook-size personal computer with a built-in printer.

Canon introduces the EOS REBEL XS (EOS 500 in other regions), a lightweight, compact SLR camera with built-in flash.

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1994: Seiko Epson introduces the Epson Stylus Colour, the first high-image quality, colour inkjet printer. The Polaroid SprintScan 35, a slide and negative scanner, is introduced. 1995: Material World, by Peter Menzel published. 1996: The Advanced Photographic System (APS) of cameras and film is released.

DUE TO THE SIGNIFICANCE OF APS, WE WILL LOOK AT IT IN MORE DETAIL: SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System

Advanced Photo System (APS) is a now discontinued film format for still photography first produced in 1996. It was marketed by Eastman Kodak under the brand name Advantix, by FujiFilm under the name Nexia, by Agfa under the name Futura and by Konica as Centuria. The film is 24 mm wide, and has three image formats:

H for "High Definition" (30.2 × 16.7 mm; aspect ratio 16:9; 4×7" print) C for "Classic" (25.1 × 16.7 mm; aspect ratio 3:2; 4×6" print) P for "Panoramic" (30.2 × 9.5 mm; aspect ratio 3:1; 4×11" print)

The "C" and "P" formats are formed by cropping. The full image is recorded on the film, and an image recorded in one aspect ratio can be reprinted in another. The "C" format has an equivalent aspect ratio to a 135 film image. Most APS cameras (with the exception of some disposable cameras) can record all three formats; the format selection is indicated on the film by a series of exposed squares alongside the image area or recorded on the magnetic coating depending on the camera. In the absence of an operator-specified format, the machine printing an APS roll will use these indicators to determine the output format of each print.

The film is on a polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) base, and is housed in a single-spool 39 mm long plastic cartridge. The basic diameter is 21 mm, while it measures 30 mm at the slot where the film exits. The slot is protected by a lightproof door. It is available in 40, 25 and 15 exposure lengths. The film surface has a transparent magnetic coating, and the

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camera uses this information exchange (IX) system for recording information about each exposure. The camera handles winding and rewinding automatically. A major distinction of APS film was the ability to record information other than the image. This information exchange was most commonly used for print aspect ratio, but could also be used to record the date and time that the photograph was taken, store a caption, and record exposure data such as shutter speed and aperture setting. This information could be read by the photo printing equipment to determine the print aspect ratio, print information on the back (or, rarely, the front) of the photograph, or to improve print quality.

Two methods for storing information on the film were employed: "magnetic IX" and "optical IX". Optical IX was employed on less expensive cameras and disposable cameras, and employed a light source to expose a small section of the film, outside of the image negative area. This method was limited to determining the print aspect ratio of the finished print.

Magnetic IX was used in the more expensive cameras and allowed for more information exchange. Most cameras with magnetic IX automatically recorded the exposure date and time on the magnetic layer, with more advanced models allowing the user to specify a predetermined caption to be printed on the photo or record the exposure settings, as well as determine print aspect ratio. Magnetic IX caused some problems for photo processors, who found their magnetic reading heads had to be cleaned frequently, or that their equipment's ability to print this information was limited.

Unlike 135 film, processed (developed) APS film is stored in the original cartridge. For identification, every roll of APS film has a six-digit ID code on the label, which is also stored magnetically and is visible on either end of the processed negative. This ID is usually printed on the back of every individual print. This ID was designed to be an additional convenience both for the photoprocessor (who can easily match each strip of processed film with its cartridge, and each cartridge to a particular customer's order) and for the consumer, who can easily locate the correct cartridge if reprints are desired.

To facilitate automatic processing of film, a unique DX number is assigned to the different types of film.

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APS film is typically processed by using a small machine to transfer the exposed APS film from the original cartridge to a reloadable one, then re-attached to the original cartridge and rewound using another machine after processing.

Cameras The format was introduced in 1996 by Kodak, Fujifilm, Minolta, Nikon, Canon and others. APS was mainly used for point and shoot amateur cameras, although some SLR systems were also created: Canon EOS IX, Minolta Vectis, Nikon Pronea with Nikon IX lenses. Of these the Canon EOS IX and the Nikon Pronea could use the existing 35 mm SLR lenses, whereas Minolta opted to create a new lens line-up later shared with an early digital SLR. Nikon developed the IX series of lens that were lighter and had a smaller image circle (similar to the Nikon DX format used since 2004). Although the Nikon IX series of lenses were not compatible with the Nikon 35 mm SLR, lenses for the Nikon 35 mm SLR were compatible with the Nikon Pronea. Using existing lenses meant that the field of view was reduced by around 1.6×, but had the advantage of a larger lens selection. Creating a new lens system on the other hand gave the possibility of creating smaller and lighter lenses as that had a smaller image circle to cover. APS SLR cameras were too expensive for the high-end amateur market when they first appeared, and professional photographers stuck with 35 mm cameras, which offered greater image quality and resolution.

Presently the terms APS-C and APS-H are most often used in reference to various makes of digital SLR that contain imaging sensors that are (very) roughly equivalent to their respective film dimensions given above (see Crop factor). Concurrently to their APS SLR film cameras, some manufacturers released lenses intended for use on APS film cameras - such as the Canon EF 22-55mm - which had a wider field of view to account for the relative-to-35mm crop factor. Some of these lenses have survived and are now marketed towards use on "APS" digital SLRs for the same reason. In reference to digital cameras, APS may also mean active pixel sensor, a type of CMOS image sensor.

The Advanced Photo System was an attempt of a major upgrade of photographic technology for amateurs, but was soon overtaken by the popularity of digital photography.

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Despite the added features, APS never really caught on with professional photographers because of the significantly smaller film area (58% of 135 film). Color slide film, popular with professional photographers, proved unpopular in APS format and was soon discontinued (although chromogenic black-and-white IX240 film continued to be produced). Color print film was normally available only in a limited selection of film speeds and color formats. These developments, combined with the fact that auto-loading 35mm cameras could be made almost as compact, as convenient, and as inexpensive as APS- format cameras, prevented APS from attaining greater popularity.

APS cameras were mostly produced in compact fully automatic form for the consumer point and shoot camera market. However, within five years of APS' 1996 launch, the rapidly falling prices and increasing quality of compact digital cameras had reached a critical point that saw them quickly adopted by the mainstream, and APS camera sales plummeted.

In January 2004, Kodak announced it was ceasing APS camera production. Both Fuji and Kodak, the last two manufacturers of APS film, discontinued production in 2011.

SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Photo_System

1996: Polaroid introduces its first digital camera, the PDC 2000.

Imacon of Denmark releases the FlexTight Precision I scanner.

1997: Rob Silvers publishes Photomosaics; Seiko Epson introduces the Epson Stylus Photo inkjet printer, with six coloured inks and Micro Piezo imaging technology.

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1999: Nikon D1 SLR, 2.74 megapixel for $6000, first ground-up DSLR design by a leading manufacturer.

2000: Polaroid introduces the i-Zone Pocket camera and sticker film.

Creo acquires the prepress divisions of Scitex Corporation, Ltd., to form CreoScitex, which is shortened to Creo by 2002.

The Polaroid SprintScan 45 Ultra multi-format film scanner is introduced.

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2000: (Continued). The world's first wireless camera phone, the J-SH04, is introduced for commercial consumption (made by Sharp Corporation and released by J-Phone).

2001: Polaroid goes bankrupt

2002: Kodak introduces the Kodak 8500 digital photo printer, a photo-quality, thermal desktop printer.

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2002: (Cotinued) Seiko Epson introduces the Epson Stylus Photo 950/960 inkjet printer, which has the highest resolution at the time of 2,880 dpi.

Kodak takes Kodachrome 25 off the market.

Canon launches the EOS 1Ds 11 megapixel camera, the first digital 35mm SLR with full-frame sensor.

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2003: Four-Thirds standard for compact digital SLRs introduced with the Olympus E-1; Canon Digital Rebel introduced for less than $1000

2004: Kodak ceases production of film cameras. Kodak announces it will no longer sell reloadable 35mm cameras in North America and Western Europe by 2005.

On 22nd October, 2004, the very last slide projector rolls off the Kodak assembly line and is donated to the Smithsonian Institution at a ceremony at the George Eastman House in Rochester, NY, on November 18. Two others from the last production run are donated to the George Eastman House.

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2005: AgfaPhoto files for bankruptcy. Production of Agfa brand consumer films ends.

Canon EOS 5D, first consumer-priced full-frame digital SLR, with a 24x36mm CMOS sensor for $3000;

Portraits by Rineke Dijkstra

Epson releases the Epson Stylus Pro 9800 44-inch professional wide-format printer, with new 8-color UltraChrome K3 ink technology and a resolution of 2880 x 1440 dpi.

Kodak acquires Creo.

On May 9, 2005, Kodak takes Kodachrome Super 8 film off the market. Laboratory development of this film is available until 2007.

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On May 14, 2005, Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes are inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for inventing Kodachrome film. Their patent number was 1,997,493.

2006: Sony absorb Konica/Minolta; Dalsa produces 111 megapixel CCD sensor, the highest resolution at its time. www.AusPhotography.net.au is founded. Pentax go back to the K naming standard releasing the K10D and K100D

2007: Adobe release Lightroom,

Nikon release D40X and D300,

Canon 1Ds Mk III.

2008: Apple release the iPhone 3g with camera;

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Canon Release the 5D mk II; Pentax release the K20D, K200D and K-m;

Polaroid announces it is discontinuing the production of all instant film products, citing the rise of digital imaging technology.

Panasonic Lumix G1, the first DSLM camera (where M is for 'mirrorless').

Steve Parish awarded an OA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Parish

October The Impossible Project saved the last Polaroid production plant for integral instant film in Enschede (NL) and started to invent and produce totally new instant film materials for traditional Polaroid cameras.

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2009: Kodak cease production of Kodachrome film, this is a significant milestone in the global transition to digital photography; In January, Kodak post a quarterly loss and plan to cut up to 4,500 jobs;

Leica introduce the M9, the first 24x36mm rangefinder camera; Pentax release the K-7 & K-x both with HD video; Nikon release the D300s & D3s both with HD video; Canon release the 7D with HD video; Sony release the A850; Technology convergence is significant with the availability of HD video on DSLR cameras and advances in phone camera technologies; Patriarch Partners LLC won an auction for Polaroid Corporation's assets including the company's name, intellectual property, and photography collection.

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November www.AusPhotography.net.au introduces an automated competition system, a first for photography forums.

2010: Pentax release the 645D 40Mpx medium format DSLR, a first for the big 5 (CNPSO); Adobe release Photoshop CS5 and Lightroom V3; Polaroid partner with Lady Gaga, appointing her as Creative Director for the company; Sony release the A55 with fixed, pellicle-type semi-translucent mirror, Electronic viewfinder with 1.44 million dot resolution; Canon announce an APS-H CMOS 120Mpx sensor. Many new models released by manufacturers inc. Pentax K-r, K-5; Nikon D7000; Canon 60D; Sony A55, A33. In Japan 40% of new camera sales are EVIL technology. The last Kodachrome processing shop stops.

2011: Sigma release the 15.4MP SD1 with Foveon Sensor. (an image sensor for digital cameras, designed by Foveon, Inc. (now part of Sigma Corporation) and manufactured by Dongbu Electronics. It uses an array of photosites, each of which consists of three vertically stacked photodiodes, organized in a two-dimensional grid.) Pentax are acquired by Ricoh. Pentax release the Q camera. Hasselblad are acquired by Ventizz Capital Fund. AusPhotography relocates to a dedicated virtual server. Kodak plan to restructure and put patents up for sale, also sue Apple and others re: phone cameras. Nikon release the 1 series EVIL cameras. Various camera and computer manufacturers are affected by various natural disasters including the Japansese earthquake, tsunami & consequential Fukushima nuclear incident, and Thailand floods.

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2012: Nikon release the D4 and D800; The 75th million Nikkor lens is shipped. Canon release 5DmkIII; 1D X; 6D. Pentax Release K-01 APS-C mirrorless K mount camera; K5II/s. January 19, 2012, Eastman Kodak Company and its U.S. subsidiaries filed voluntary petitions for Chapter 11. Apple & Google partner in a bidding war for Kodak patents. Canon release the EOS-1D C. Leica announces 'M' 24MP live view full-frame CMOS rangefinder with movies.

2013: Pentax announces the HD Pextax DA 560mm F5.6 ED AW. Nikkor Celebrates its 80th Anniversary. Nikkor 800mm f/5.6E FL ED VR released. Steve McCurry published the last roll of Kodachrome. Kodak Ends Production Of Acetate Film Base Kodak exit Chapter 11 in a restructured form and relist on the NYSE. Ricoh/Pentax release the K-3 the first DSLR with an in-camera switchable micro-vibrate anti-aliasing filter.

2014: Pentax release the 645z 51Mpx CMOS Medium Format camera. Panasonic Lumix GH4, the first still photography camera with 4k video

2015: Pentax announce a 35mm sensor camera and new pixel shift technology. Dedicated camera sales decline primarily due to improved smart device cameras and the diminishing level of improvement between camera models.

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2016 onwards: You can see by the last 1o years just how quickly innovation is coming the the world of photography. This is not set to stop any time soon, and we have a whole host of new things coming our way, including: SOURCE: https://www.format.com/magazine/resources/photography/new-photography-innovations-ces-2016

The Light L6 Camera

It uses a new approach to folded optics design to pack DSLR quality into a slim and streamlined camera body. It’s like having a camera body, zoom, and prime lenses right in your pocket.

This pocket-sized point-and-shoot has 16 different lenses (five 35mm, five 70mm and six 150mm lenses) each with 13 megapixels and multiple sensors, all working together to create exposures at different focal lengths, with the end result being high resolution DSLR-quality photographs.

There’s an algorithm somewhere in there that blends those individual images together. All that and it shoots 4K video, too. With a combined 52 megapixels, you can even edit your photos right after you take them using the 5-inch touchscreen.

Polaroid Snap+

Polaroid Snap+ is a click-and- print camera. With an integrated printer, you can print full color 2x3” prints (and stickers) in under a minute when an image is captured—along with filter options in black and white, color, and vintage sepia, even an option to print with the classic Polaroid boarder, to add a bit of retro flare to your series.

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Not to mention advancements in the GoPro world of action cameras.

Nikon KeyMission 360

Nikon officially announced their foray into the action camera market with the KeyMission 360. It has image sensors and lenses on both sides of the device to create 360-degree video in 4K and will be the first consumer-friendly VR camera.

The Nikon KeyMission 360 is built for action with a rugged waterproof housing (up to depths of 100 feet) and able to withstand up to a 6-foot drop.

360fly

Housed in a faceted, spherical casing, the 360fly shoots 360- degree panoramic 4K video, with no stitching—perfect if you want to create cohesive Virtual Reality experiences. Imagine what you can capture by mounting this to your bike, or helmet?

With built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity, you can upload your 360 videos directly to your smartphone, Facebook and YouTube. What’s even cooler is when your video is saved or uploaded, it has a cardboard-enabled view allowing easy transfer to a Virtual Reality headset for a truly immersive experience.

Pairing the 360fly with their 360fly drone can really take your photography to the next level.

Follow this link to check out format magazine’s full article: 10 Incredible Photogrpahy Innovations from COS 2016 https://www.format.com/magazine/resources/photography/new-photography- innovations-ces-2016

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PART 2: THE HUMAN FACTOR

Throughout time, there have been so many individuals who have played a part in the evolution of photography. While part 1 considered the pioneers and their achievements in the development of processes and technology, others have influenced the direction and quality of photography through their personal talent and innovation have captured the extraordinary and documented the times and happenings around the world.

With the advent of the internet, the world is now a much smaller place. With the click of a mouse, we can see what is happening and join the conversation on the other side of the world. This alone has raised the significance and need for photography to a far greater height than ever considered possible. There is an ever growing demand for quality photography and the influence photography now has on the modern world is something that needs to be both appreciated and respected.

So many photographers both past and present have contributed and/or continue to contribute to the development of the industry. Unfortunately we cannot include everyone, so we have gone with a cross section of past and current photographers. Each in their own way has influenced their particular field of photography.

NOTE: HYPERLINKS HAVE BEEN INCLUDED TO SOME OF THE PHOTOGRAPHER’S WEBSITES FOR FURTHER READING IF YOU ARE INTERESTED.

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Ansel Adams Photographer

20 February 1902 to 22 April 1984

Ansel Easton Adams was an American photographer and environmentalist. His black-and-white landscape photographs of the American West, especially Yosemite National Park, have been widely reproduced on calendars, posters, books, and the internet.

“At one with the power of the American landscape, and renowned for the patient skill and timeless beauty of his work, photographer Ansel Adams has been a visionary in his efforts to preserve this country’s wild and scenic areas, both on film and on Earth. Drawn to the beauty of nature’s monuments, he is regarded by environmentalists as a monument himself, and by photographers as a national institution. It is through his foresight and fortitude that so much of America has been saved for future Americans.”

President James E. Carter Presenting Ansel Adams with the Presidential Medal of Freedom

WEBSITE: http://anseladams.com/ IMAGE SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel_Adams BIO COURTESY OF: http://anseladams.com/; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel_Adams

FAMOUS QUOTES:

“You don't take a photograph, you make it.”

“There are no rules for good photographs, there are only good photographs.”

“When words become unclear, I shall focus with photographs. When images become inadequate, I shall be content with silence.”

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Henri Cartier-Bresson Photographer

22 August 1908 – 3 August 2004

Henri Cartier-Bresson was a French humanist photographer considered a master of candid photography, and an early user of 35 mm film. He pioneered the genre of street photography, and conceived of photography as capturing a decisive moment. Wikipedia

Artwork: Tours de Notre Dame (Towers of Notre Dame), more Movies: Reunion, Life Belongs to Us, Spain Will Live

FAMOUS QUOTES:

“To me, photography is the simultaneous recognition, in a fraction of a second, of the significance of an event.”

“Photography is an immediate reaction, drawing is a meditation.”

“In photography, the smallest thing can be a great subject. The little, human detail can become a Leitmotiv.”

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Dorothea Lange Photographer

26 May 1895 – 11 October 1965

Dorothea Lange was an American documentary photographer and photojournalist, best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration.

Source: Wikipedia Period: Social realism Awards: Guggenheim Fellowship for Creative Arts, US & Canada

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Robert Capa Photographer 22 October 1913 – 25 May 1954

Robert Capa was a Hungarian war photographer and photo journalist, arguably the greatest combat and adventure photographer in history. Capa fled political repression in Hungary when he was a teenager, moving to Berlin, where he enrolled in college.

Source: Wikipedia Awards: World Press Photo Award for General News

FAMOUS QUOTES:

“If your pictures aren't good enough, you aren't close enough.” “The pictures are there. You just have to take them.” “I hope to stay unemployed as a war photographer till the end of my life.” “For a war correspondent to miss an invasion is like refusing a date with Lana Turner.”

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Helmut Newton Photographer

31 October 1920 – 23 January 2004

Helmut Newton was a German-Australian photographer. He was a "prolific, widely imitated fashion photographer whose provocative, erotically charged black-and-white photos were a mainstay of Vogue and other publications." While born in Berlin, Germany, he dies in West Hollywood, California, United States. Source: Wikipedia

WEBSITE: http://www.helmutnewton.com/

Helmut’s Bio makes for interesting reading: http://www.helmut-newton.com/helmut_newton/biography/

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André Kertész Photographer

2 July 1894 – 28 September 1985

André Kertész, born Kertész Andor, was a Hungarian-born photographer known for his ground-breaking contributions to photographic composition and the photo essay. In the early years of his career, his then-unorthodox camera angles and style prevented his work from gaining wider recognition. Kertész never felt that he had gained the worldwide recognition he deserved. Today he is considered one of the seminal figures of photojournalism. The Estate of André Kertész is represented by Bruce Silverstein Gallery New York, NY

Expected by his family to work as a stockbroker, Kertész pursued photography independently as an autodidact, and his early work was published primarily in magazines, a major market in those years. This continued until much later in his life, when Kertész stopped accepting commissions. He served briefly in World War I and moved to Paris in 1925, then the artistic capital of the world, against the wishes of his family. In Paris he worked for France's first illustrated magazine called VU. Involved with many young immigrant artists and the Dada movement, he achieved critical and commercial success.

Due to German persecution of the Jews and the threat of World War II, Kertész decided to emigrate to the United States in 1936, where he had to rebuild his reputation through commissioned work. In the 1940s and 1950s, he stopped working for magazines and began to achieve greater international success. His career is generally divided into four periods, based on where he was working and his work was most prominently known. They are called the Hungarian period, the French period, the American period and, toward the end of his life, the International period.

BIO and Images Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Kert%C3%A9sz

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Sally Mann Photographer

Sally Mann (born in Lexington, Virginia, 1951) is one of America’s most renowned photographers. She has received numerous awards, including NEA, NEH, and Guggenheim Foundation grants, and her work is held by major institutions internationally. Her many books include At Twelve (1988), Immediate Family (1992), Still Time (1994), What Remains (2003), Deep South (2005), Proud Flesh (2009), The Flesh and the Spirit (2010) and Remembered Light (2016). In 2001 Mann was named “America’s Best Photographer” by Time magazine. A 1994 documentary about her work, Blood Ties, was nominated for an Academy Award and the 2006 feature film What Remains was nominated for an Emmy Award in 2008. Her bestselling memoir, Hold Still (Little, Brown, 2015), received universal critical acclaim, and was named a finalist for the National Book Award. In 2016 Hold Still won the Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence in Nonfiction. Mann is represented by Gagosian Gallery, New York. She lives in Virginia.

“Few photographers of any time or place have matched Sally Mann’s steadiness of simple eyesight, her serene technical brilliance, and the clearly communicated eloquence she derives from her subjects, human and otherwise – subjects observed with an ardor that is all but indistinguishable from love.” — Reynolds Price, TIME

IMAGE SOURCES: Google images BIO COURTESY OF: http://sallymann.com/ PROFILE IMAGE SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Mann WEBSITE: http://sallymann.com/

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Mario Testino Photographer Mario Testino (was born on October 30, 1954) is a Peruvian fashion photographer. His work has been featured in magazines such as Vogue and Vanity Fair. One of fashion's most sought-after snappers, Mario Testino was born in 1954 in Lima, Peru. He came to London in 1976, took a flat in an abandoned hospital near Trafalgar Square, and began selling portfolios (for £25, including hair and make-up) to wannabe models. Today he is best known for his highly polished, exotically bright ad campaigns and his exquisitely styled photographs of the couture scene all of which carry a deceptive air of nonchalance. Now at the top of his profession, Testino has shot Madonna for Versace as well as photographing the late Diana, Princess of Wales for her famous Vanity Fair cover in 1997. His popularity with designers and fashion editors stems as much from his professionalism and good nature as his unerring ability to take beautiful pictures which sell clothes. KNOWN FOR: Fashion photography, Portrait photography, Creative director, Philanthropy Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Testino IMAGE SOURCE: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers

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Steve McCurry Photographer Steve McCurry was born on February 24, 1950 in Pennsylvania, attended Penn State University. Steve McCurry (born February 24, 1950) is an American photojournalist best known for his photograph, "Afghan Girl" that originally appeared in National Geographic magazine. He originally planned to study cinematography and filmmaking, but ended up getting a degree in theatre arts and graduating in 1974. He became interested in photography when he started taking pictures for the Penn State newspaper, The Daily Collegian. After working at Today's Post in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania for two years, he left for India to freelance. It was here that McCurry learned to watch and wait on life. “If you wait,” he realized, “people will forget your camera and the soul will drift up into view.”

WEBSITE: http://stevemccurry.com/ IMAGE SOURCE: google images

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Timothy Hogan Photographer Timothy Hogan is an award-winning still-life photographer based in Los Angeles, California. Well known for his lighting mastery and uniquely precise still-life images, Hogan shoots worldwide for an array of international brands and advertising agencies in the beverage, technology, fragrance and design industries. These clients repeatedly seek Timothy out for his dramatic imagery and collaborative, problem-solving nature - especially when it comes to anything shiny. A maker and inventor since childhood, Timothy's history of taking things apart yields a unique ability to create elegant solutions to even the most complex image requests. This, coupled with support from the best producers, retouchers and studios in the business allows Timothy and his team to forge long-lasting relationships that produce incredible results for each client. .

Timothy spent 12 years in New York City before relocating to Los Angeles in 2011. He resides in Santa Monica and is currently developing his craft as a furniture and product designer to compliment his photography skills. He is one of two Hasselblad Ambassadors in the United States and is developing a line of artwork.

WEBSITE: timothy-hogan.com IMAGE SOURCE: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers BIO COURTESY OF: http://www.timothy-hogan.com/about

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Christian Aslund Photographer

Christian Aslund is a photographer based in Stockholm, Sweden. He was a winner in a Professional Campaign. Honkey Kong - an advertising campaign for the sneaker brand Jim Rickey, shot on location in Hong Kong. A 2d platform game tribute. Images were shot from skyscrapers toward the ground, using a telephoto lens to make the image as flat as possible to make it look like a platform game. Christian Åslund is also a photojournalist working for newspapers, magazines and NGO's, documenting environmental and social issues.

WEBSITE: christian.se IMAGE SOURCES: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers; www.christian.se/ BIO COURTESY OF: christian.se

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Jeremy Coward Photographer At his core, Jeremy is an artist. Starting out as a painter first, Jeremy fell in love with the creative process. He then went on to study graphic design in college and founded his own graphic design company, Pixelgrazer, in 2001. Jeremy really only began taking pictures to bring texture into his design work. But before he knew it, he realized that photography was his true passion. So in April of 2005, Jeremy switched over to it full time and he has never looked back. In a relatively short amount of time, Jeremy earned the respect of artists, photographers, and celebrities alike. Now hailed as one of the trailblazers in the industry, Jeremy sees photography as a natural extension of his passion for the arts. Jeremy has taken portraits of many familiar names such as Taylor Swift, Kelly Clarkson, Tim Tebow, The Kardashians, Sting, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Heidi Klum, Gwyneth Paltrow, The Civil Wars, Emma Stone, Courtney Cox, and Ryan Seacrest, just to name a few. His clients, mostly entertainment based, include ABC, FOX, A&E, F/X, Discovery Channel, ESPN, People, US Weekly, VIBE, E!, Universal Records, Sony Records and Warner Brothers Records. His work has been published in Rolling Stone, ESPN Magazine, People Magazine, USA Today, Fast Company, NYTimes, TIME, Nylon and more.

WEBSITE: http://jeremycowart.com/ IMAGE SOURCES: http://jeremycowart.com/portfolio/ BIO COURTESY OF: http://jeremycowart.com/

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Annie Leibovitz Photographer Anna-Lou "Annie" Leibovitz is an American portrait photographer. She was born on 2nd October 1949. She photographed John Lennon on the day he was assassinated, and her work was used on two record albums by Joan Armatrading. Arguably the most famous portrait photographer working today, Leibovitz has photographed many of the world’s major celebrities, often in elaborate and imaginative set-ups. When Leibovitz returned to the United States in 1970, she started her career as staff photographer, working for the just launched Rolling Stone magazine. In 1973, publisher Jann Wenner named Leibovitz chief photographer of Rolling Stone, a job she would hold for 10 years. Leibovitz worked for the magazine until 1983, and her intimate photographs of celebrities helped define the Rolling Stone look. She sought intimate moments with her subjects, who "open their hearts and souls and lives to you." She was awarded The Royal Photographic Society's Centenary Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS) in recognition of a sustained, significant contribution to the art of photography in 2009.

IMAGE SOURCES: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers BIO COURTESY OF: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Leibovitz PROFILE IMAGE SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Leibovitz

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David LaChapelle Photographer

David LaChapelle is known internationally for his exceptional talent in combining a unique hyper-realistic aesthetic with profound social messages. His career began in the 1980’s when he began showing his artwork in New York galleries. His work caught the eye of Andy Warhol, who offered him his first job as a photographer at Interview Magazine. His photographs of celebrities in Interview garnered positive attention, and lbefore long he was shooting for a variety of top editorial publications and creating some of the most memorable advertising campaigns of his generation. David LaChapelle is also known as a director of documentaries, and a video artist whose colourful, smooth and extroverted style is filled with sensuality, fantasy, and dark adventure, packed with accessible popular images, and communicates with a wide and variegated audience. His images have appeared on the covers of scores of leading fashion and entertainment magazines, and LaChapelle himself has played a pivotal role in the promotion of prestigious brands, such as Diesel, Nokia, Tommy Hilfiger, etc.

IMAGE SOURCES: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers BIO COURTESY OF: http://davidlachapelle.com/ PROFILE IMAGE SOURCE: http://davidlachapelle.com/

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Nicholas Samaras Photographer

Nicholas Samaras is one of the most passionate and committed underwater photographers. His love and dedication to sea and its creatures in combination with his characteristic effort to bring out to surface the beauty of the marine world with a unique aesthetics, established him in a very short period of time both in Greece and abroad. His first attempt to participate in an international underwater photography competition held in 2006 (DAN EUROPE PHOTO CONTEST) was a success. This award answered all questions that he had, about the quality of his work and the forced him to continue efforts to be widely recognized in the field of underwater photography. From 2006 until today many awards in underwater photography competitions and festivals followed in Greece and abroad, including, NELOS International Underwater Photo & Film Festival, Festival Mondial De L'Image Sous Marine, Scuba Diving Magazine International Annual Contest (USA), Greek National Underwater Photography Championship, Annual Contest underwaterphotography.com, International Underwater Photography Contest ''CITTA' DI VENEZIA 2010'', PELAGOS Festival etc Facebook.com/Nicholas.Samaras.UWPhotography

IMAGE SOURCES: Google images BIO COURTESY OF: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers PROFILE IMAGE SOURCE: Google images

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Anne Geddes Photographer Anne Geddes, MNZM (born 13 September 1956) is an Australian-born photographer, clothing designer and businesswoman who now lives and works in New Zealand. She is known for her stylized depictions of babies and motherhood. Typical images show babies or young children dressed as fairies and fairytale creatures, flowers, or small animals. She has described herself as "a baby freak. Geddes became a photographer at age 25. She had always had an interest in babies in general, but the schools she attended did not offer photography classes. She chose babies as her subject because of her love of them. "I had seen the way children and babies were generally being photographed. It just didn't seem realistic to me that people took their children along to photographic studios all dressed in their Sunday best, photographs that didn't really show the personality of the child." Geddes believes that "emotional content is an image's most important element" and that people are drawn to her work because of its simplicity and personality. prefers the black-and-white scheme because she feels that colour distracts from the image and the natural beauty of life.

WEBSITE: annegeddes.com IMAGE SOURCES: annegeddes.com BIO COURTESY OF: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers

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Mareen Fischinger Photographer

Mareen Fischinger is passionate about everything involving photography. She has made award-winning photographs for advertising campaigns and corporate communication, has shot a large body of work available as ‘stock’ photography via gettyimages, and explores experimental technical and conceptual possibilities of photography in her fine arts series. Her images, like that of Potsdamer Platz in Berlin, look fragmented and deformed as though taken from a superordinate perspective that can document multiple angles at one time while maintaining the same vantage point. The way in which the images stage the subject, piece together the subject like a boxy mosaic, and make reality look both new and voluminous, recalls Cubist experiments.

WEBSITE: mareenfischinger.com IMAGE SOURCES: mareenfischinger.com BIO COURTESY OF: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers

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Andrea Gjestvang Photographer

Andrea Gjestvang (b. 1981) is a Norwegian photographer based between Berlin and Oslo. For the past years, she has been focusing on the northern parts of the world, where she explores the intimate life and persistence of people living in remote and inaccessible environments. Her work has a strong political view on the social and anthropological issues related to globalization, identity and cultural uniqueness. Over the years, Andrea has been awarded several prizes, including Picture of the Year Norway 2012, and the prestigious L’Iris d’Or /Sony World Photography Awards Photographer of the Year 2013. Her work has been supported by grants provided by the Norwegian Freedom of Speech Foundation. In 2012 She launched her first book (En dag ihistorien).

WEBSITE: http://andreagjestvang.com/ IMAGE SOURCES: http://andreagjestvang.com/ BIO COURTESY OF: andreagjestvang.com/about-2/bio

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Florian Ritter Photographer Florian Ritter is from Frankfurt, Germany. Known for his landscape & travel photography, he worked and lived around the world before settling in Shanghai in 2009. He offers studio, portraiture, corporate & still life photography services. As a freelance creative director he worked on international ad campaigns, corporate design, illustrations and web design concepts for clients like Adidas, Remy Martin, Haier, UK Pavilion, FinnAir, Ikea & Opel.

Quote: “BETTER TO REGRET A WRONG DECISION THAN NOT MAKING ONE AT ALL”

WEBSITE: http://www.pflock.com/ IMAGE SOURCES: http://www.pflock.com/ BIO COURTESY OF: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers

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Michael Kenna Photographer

Michael Kenna (born 1953) is an English photographer best known for his black & white landscapes. He has received the following awards: Honorary Master of Arts (Brooks Institute, Santa Barbara, California, USA, 2003), Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters (Ministry of Culture, France, 2000), Golden Saffron Award, (Consuegra, Spain, 1996), Institute for Aesthetic Development Award (Pasadena, California, USA, 1989), Art in Public Buildings Award (California Arts Council Commission, Sacramento, California, USA, 1987), Imogen Cunningham Award (San Francisco, California, USA, 1981).

WEBSITE: michaelkenna.net IMAGE SOURCES: michaelkenna.net BIO COURTESY OF: http://webneel.com/famous-photographers

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PART 3: THE IMPACT ON SOCIETY

The impact and influence photography has had on society is extreme.

We live in a totally visual-driven world. What we see influences how we think, what we feel, where we go, what we do, what we eat, who we vote for, where and how we shop, where we holiday, how we communicate, how we work and the list goes on.

This has not always been the case. Prior to the development of photography and the print media, our world still revolved around what we could see and hear, but what we could see was only around our general area and what we heard was often censored by governments, others in positions of power or those who were well resourced or connected. Public opinion was easily swayed, falsities spread quickly and mis-information circulated with gay abandon.

The taking, printing and distribution of media containing images was the first time much of the populas got a glimpse of the real world. It was from there that things began to change.

Images from the battlefields showed the real horrors of war. First images from Ethiopia showed us the extent of famine and the utter despair in parts of the world far, far away. There are so many instances where photography has provided eyes to the world. Rather than talk about individual instances, we have chosen to include here some of the more significant images taken throughout the course of our history that have in one way or another, made an impression.

This is by no means a comprehensive list. There are many more we could have included and there will likely be many more to come that would also warrant inclusion.

From here on in, we will let the images do the talking.

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Milk Drop Coronet Harold Edgerton 1957 Before Harold Edgerton rigged a milk dropper next to a timer and a camera of his own invention, it was virtually impossible to take a good photo in the dark without bulky equipment. It was similarly futile to try to photograph a fleeting moment. But in the 1950s at his lab at MIT, Edgerton started tinkering with a process that would change the future of photography. There the electrical-engineering professor combined high-tech strobe lights with camera shutter motors to capture moments imperceptible to the naked eye. Milk Drop Coronet, his revolutionary stop-motion photograph, freezes the impact of a drop of milk on a table, a crown of liquid discernible to the camera for only a millisecond. The picture proved that photography could advance human understanding of the physical world, and the technology Edgerton used to take it laid the foundation for the modern electronic flash. http://100photos.time.com/photos/harold-edgerton-milk-drop

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The Burning Monk Malcolm Browne 1963

In June 1963, most Americans couldn’t find Vietnam on a map. But there was no forgetting that war-torn Southeast Asian nation after Associated Press photographer Malcolm Browne captured the image of Thich Quang Duc immolating himself on a Saigon street. Browne had been given a heads-up that something was going to happen to protest the treatment of Buddhists by the regime of President Ngo Dinh Diem. Once there he watched as two monks doused the seated elderly man with gasoline. “I realized at that moment exactly what was happening, and began to take pictures a few seconds apart,” he wrote soon after. His Pulitzer Prize–winning photo of the seemingly serene monk sitting lotus style as he is enveloped in flames became the first iconic image to emerge from a quagmire that would soon pull in America. Quang Duc’s act of martyrdom became a sign of the volatility of his nation, and President Kennedy later commented, “No news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one.” Browne’s photo forced people to question the U.S.’s association with Diem’s government, and soon resulted in the Administration’s decision not to interfere with a coup that November. http://100photos.time.com/photos/malcolm-browne-burning-monk

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Muhammad Ali vs. Sonny Liston Neil Leifer 1965 So much of great photography is being in the right spot at the right moment. That was what it was like for sports illustrated photographer Neil Leifer when he shot perhaps the greatest sports photo of the century. “I was obviously in the right seat, but what matters is I didn’t miss,” he later said. Leifer had taken that ringside spot in Lewiston, Maine, on May 25, 1965, as 23-year-old heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali squared off against 34-year-old Sonny Liston, the man he’d snatched the title from the previous year. One minute and 44 seconds into the first round, Ali’s right fist connected with Liston’s chin and Liston went down. http://100photos.time.com/photos/neil-leifer-muhammad-ali-sonny-liston

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Fetus 18 Weeks Lennart Nilsson 1965

When LIFE published Lennart Nilsson’s photo essay “Drama of Life Before Birth” in 1965, the issue was so popular that it sold out within days. And for good reason. Nilsson’s images publicly revealed for the first time what a developing fetus looks like, and in the process raised pointed new questions about when life begins. In the accompanying story, LIFE explained that all but one of the fetuses pictured were photographed outside the womb and had been removed—or aborted—“for a variety of medical reasons.” Nilsson had struck a deal with a hospital in Stockholm, whose doctors called him whenever a fetus was available to photograph. There, in a dedicated room with lights and lenses specially designed for the project, Nilsson arranged the fetuses so they appeared to be floating as if in the womb. http://100photos.time.com/photos/lennart-nilsson-fetus

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Black Power Salute John Dominis 1968 The Olympics are intended to be a celebration of global unity. But when the American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos ascended the medal stand at the 1968 Games in Mexico City, they were determined to shatter the illusion that all was right in the world. Just before “The Star-Spangled Banner” began to play, Smith, the gold medalist, and Carlos, the bronze winner, bowed their heads and raised black-gloved fists in the air. Their message could not have been clearer: Before we salute America, America must treat blacks as equal. “We knew that what we were going to do was far greater than any athletic feat,” Carlos later said. John Dominis, a quick-fingered life photographer known for capturing unexpected moments, shot a close- up that revealed another layer: Smith in black socks, his running shoes off, in a gesture meant to symbolize black poverty. Published in life, Dominis’ image turned the somber protest into an iconic emblem of the turbulent 1960s. http://100photos.time.com/photos/john-dominis-black-power-salute

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A Man on the Moon AKA The Visor Shot Taken by Neil Armstrong NASA 1969 http://100photos.time.com/photos/neil-armstrong-nasa-man-on-moon

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The Terror Of War Nick Ut 1972

The faces of collateral damage and friendly fire are generally not seen. This was not the case with 9-year- old Phan Thi Kim Phuc. On June 8, 1972, Associated Press photographer Nick Ut was outside Trang Bang, about 25 miles northwest of Saigon, when the South Vietnamese air force mistakenly dropped a load of napalm on the village. As the Vietnamese photographer took pictures of the carnage, he saw a group of children and soldiers along with a screaming naked girl running up the highway toward him. Ut wondered, Why doesn’t she have clothes? He then realized that she had been hit by napalm. “I took a lot of water and poured it on her body. She was screaming, ‘Too hot! Too hot!’” Ut took Kim Phuc to a hospital, where he learned that she might not survive the third-degree burns covering 30 percent of her body. So with the help of colleagues he got her transferred to an American facility for treatment that saved her life. Ut’s photo of the raw impact of conflict underscored that the war was doing more harm than good. It also sparked newsroom debates about running a photo with nudity, pushing many publications, including the New York Times, to override their policies. The photo quickly became a cultural shorthand for the atrocities of the Vietnam War and joined Malcolm Browne’s Burning Monk and Eddie Adams’ Saigon Execution as defining images of that brutal conflict. When President Richard Nixon wondered if the photo was fake, Ut commented, “The horror of the Vietnam War recorded by me did not have to be fixed.” In 1973 the Pulitzer committee agreed and awarded him its prize. That same year, America’s involvement in the war ended. http://100photos.time.com/photos/nick-ut-terror-war

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Michael Jordan Co Rentmeester 1984

It may be the most famous silhouette ever photographed. Shooting Michael Jordan for LIFE in 1984, Jacobus “Co” Rentmeester captured the basketball star soaring through the air for a dunk, legs split like a ballet dancer’s and left arm stretched to the stars. A beautiful image, but one unlikely to have endured had Nike not devised a logo for its young star that bore a striking resemblance to the photo. Seeking design inspiration for its first Air Jordan sneakers, Nike paid Rentmeester $150 for temporary use of his slides from the life shoot. Soon, “Jumpman” was etched onto shoes, clothing and bedroom walls around the world, eventually becoming one of the most popular commercial icons of all time. With Jumpman, Nike created the concept of athletes as valuable commercial properties unto themselves. The Air Jordan brand, which today features other superstar pitchmen, earned $3.2 billion in 2014. Rentmeester, meanwhile, has sued Nike for copyright infringement. No matter the outcome, it’s clear his image captures the ascendance of sports celebrity into a multibillion-dollar business, and it’s still taking off. http://100photos.time.com/photos/co-rentmeester-michael-jordan

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Tank Man Jeff Widener 1989

On the morning of June 5, 1989, photographer Jeff Widener was perched on a sixth-floor balcony of the Beijing Hotel. It was a day after the Tiananmen Square massacre, when Chinese troops attacked pro- democracy demonstrators camped on the plaza, and the Associated Press sent Widener to document the aftermath. As he photographed bloody victims, passersby on bicycles and the occasional scorched bus, a column of tanks began rolling out of the plaza. Widener lined up his lens just as a man carrying shopping bags stepped in front of the war machines, waving his arms and refusing to move.

The tanks tried to go around the man, but he stepped back into their path, climbing atop one briefly. Widener assumed the man would be killed, but the tanks held their fire. Eventually the man was whisked away, but not before Widener immortalized his singular act of resistance. Others also captured the scene, but Widener’s image was transmitted over the AP wire and appeared on front pages all over the world. Decades after Tank Man became a global hero, he remains unidentified. The anonymity makes the photograph all the more universal, a symbol of resistance to unjust regimes everywhere. http://100photos.time.com/photos/jeff-widener-tank-man

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Famine in Somalia Taken by James Nachtwey 1992

James Nachtwey couldn’t get an assignment in 1992 to document the spiraling famine in Somalia. Mogadishu had become engulfed in armed conflict as food prices soared and international assistance failed to keep pace. Yet few in the West took much notice, so the American photographer went on his own to Somalia, where he received support from the International Committee of the Red Cross. Nachtwey brought back a cache of haunting images, including this scene of a woman waiting to be taken to a feeding center in a wheelbarrow. After it was published as part of a cover feature in the New York Times Magazine, one reader wrote, “Dare we say that it doesn’t get any worse than this?” The world was similarly moved. The Red Cross said public support resulted in what was then its largest operation since World War II. One and a half million people were saved, the ICRC’s Jean-Daniel Tauxe told the Times, and “James’ pictures made the difference.” http://100photos.time.com/photos/james-nachtwey-famine-in-somalia

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Bosnia Ron Haviv 1992

It can take time for even the most shocking images to have an effect. The war in Bosnia had not yet begun when American Ron Haviv took this picture of a Serb kicking a Muslim woman who had been shot by Serb forces. Haviv had gained access to the Tigers, a brutal nationalist militia that had warned him not to photograph any killings. But Haviv was determined to document the cruelty he was witnessing and, in a split second, decided to risk it. TIME published the photo a week later, and the image of casual hatred ignited broad debate over the international response to the worsening conflict. Still, the war continued for more than three years, and Haviv—who was put on a hit list by the Tigers’ leader, Zeljko Raznatovic, or Arkan—was frustrated by the tepid reaction. Almost 100,000 people lost their lives. Before his assassination in 2000, Arkan was indicted for crimes against humanity. Haviv’s image was used as evidence against him and other perpetrators of what became known as ethnic cleansing. http://100photos.time.com/photos/ron-haviv-bosnia

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Starving Child and Vulture Kevin Carter 1993

Kevin Carter knew the stench of death. As a member of the Bang-Bang Club, a quartet of brave photographers who chronicled apartheid-era South Africa, he had seen more than his share of heartbreak. In 1993 he flew to Sudan to photograph the famine racking that land. Exhausted after a day of taking pictures in the village of Ayod, he headed out into the open bush. There he heard whimpering and came across an emaciated toddler who had collapsed on the way to a feeding center. As he took the child’s picture, a plump vulture landed nearby. Carter had reportedly been advised not to touch the victims because of disease, so instead of helping, he spent 20 minutes waiting in the hope that the stalking bird would open its wings. It did not. Carter scared the creature away and watched as the child continued toward the center. He then lit a cigarette, talked to God and wept. The New York Times ran the photo, and readers were eager to find out what happened to the child—and to criticize Carter for not coming to his subject’s aid. His image quickly became a wrenching case study in the debate over when photographers should intervene. Subsequent research seemed to reveal that the child did survive yet died 14 years later from malarial fever. Carter won a Pulitzer for his image, but the darkness of that bright day never lifted from him. In July 1994 he took his own life, writing, “I am haunted by the vivid memories of killings & corpses & anger & pain.” http://100photos.time.com/photos/kevin-carter-starving-child-vulture

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Falling Man Richard Drew 2001 The most widely seen images from 9/11 are of planes and towers, not people. Falling Man is different. The photo, taken by Richard Drew in the moments after the September 11, 2001, attacks, is one man’s distinct escape from the collapsing buildings, a symbol of individuality against the backdrop of faceless skyscrapers. On a day of mass tragedy, Falling Man is one of the only widely seen pictures that shows someone dying. The photo was published in newspapers around the U.S. in the days after the attacks, but backlash from readers forced it into temporary obscurity. It can be a difficult image to process, the man perfectly bisecting the iconic towers as he darts toward the earth like an arrow. Falling Man’s identity is still unknown, but he is believed to have been an employee at the Windows on the World restaurant, which sat atop the north tower. The true power of Falling Man, however, is less about who its subject was and more about what he became: a makeshift Unknown Soldier in an often unknown and uncertain war, suspended forever in history. http://100photos.time.com/photos/richard-drew-falling-man

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Iraqi Girl At Checkpoint Chris Hondros 2005

Moments before American photojournalist Chris Hondros took this picture of Samar Hassan, the little girl was in the backseat of her family’s car as they drove home from the Iraqi city of Tall ‘Afar. Now Samar was an orphan, her parents shot dead by U.S. soldiers who had opened fire because they feared the car might be carrying insurgents or a suicide bomber. It was January 2005, and the war in Iraq was at its most brutal. Such horrific accidents were not rare in that chaotic conflict, but they had never been documented in real time. Hondros, who worked for Getty Images, was embedded with the Army unit when the shooting happened. He transmitted his photographs immediately, and by the following day they were published around the world. The images led the U.S. military to revise its checkpoint procedures, but their greater effect was in compelling an already skeptical public to ask why American soldiers were killing the people they had ostensibly come to liberate and protect.

Hondros was killed during the civil war in Libya in 2011.

http://100photos.time.com/photos/chris-hondros-iraqi-girl-at-checkpoint

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Gorilla In The Congo Brent Stirton 2007

Senkwekwe the silverback mountain gorilla weighed at least 500 pounds when his carcass was strapped to a makeshift stretcher, and it took more than a dozen men to hoist it into the air. Brent Stirton captured the scene while in Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Senkwekwe and several other gorillas were shot dead as a violent conflict engulfed the park, where half the world’s critically endangered mountain gorillas live.

When Stirton photographed residents and park rangers respectfully carrying Senkwekwe out of the forest in 2007, the park was under siege by people illegally harvesting wood to be used in a charcoal industry that grew in the wake of the Rwandan genocide. In the photo, Senkwekwe looks huge but vaguely human, a reminder that conflict in Central Africa affects more than just the humans caught in its cross fire; it also touches the region’s environment and animal inhabitants. Three months after Stirton’s photograph was published in Newsweek, nine African countries—including Congo—signed a legally binding treaty to help protect the mountain gorillas in Virunga. http://100photos.time.com/photos/brent-stirton-gorilla-congo

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The Situation Room Pete Souza 2011

Official White House photographers document Presidents at play and at work, on the phone with world leaders and presiding over Oval Office meetings. But sometimes the unique access allows them to capture watershed moments that become our collective memory. On May 1, 2011, Pete Souza was inside the Situation Room as U.S. forces raided Osama bin Laden’s Pakistan compound and killed the terrorist leader. Yet Souza’s picture includes neither the raid nor bin Laden. Instead he captured those watching the secret operation in real time. President Barack Obama made the decision to launch the attack, but like everyone else in the room, he is a mere spectator to its execution. He stares, brow furrowed, at the raid unfolding on monitors. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton covers her mouth, waiting to see its outcome.

In a national address that evening from the White House, Obama announced that bin Laden had been killed. Photographs of the dead body have never been released, leaving Souza’s photo and the tension it captured as the only public image of the moment the war on terror notched its most important victory. http://100photos.time.com/photos/pete-souza-situation-room

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Oscars Selfie Bradley Cooper 2014

It was a moment made for the celebrity-saturated Internet age. In the middle of the 2014 Oscars, host Ellen DeGeneres waded into the crowd and corralled some of the world’s biggest stars to squeeze in for a selfie. As Bradley Cooper held the phone, Meryl Streep, Brad Pitt, Jennifer Lawrence and Kevin Spacey, among others, pressed their faces together and mugged. But it was what DeGeneres did next that turned a bit of Hollywood levity into a transformational image. After Cooper took the picture, DeGeneres immediately posted it on Twitter, where it was retweeted over 3 million times, more than any other photo in history.

It was also an enviable advertising coup for Samsung. DeGeneres used the company’s phone for the stunt, and the brand was prominently displayed in the program’s televised “selfie moment.” Samsung has been coy about the extent of the planning, but its public relations firm acknowledged its value could be as high as $1 billion. That would never have been the case were it not for the incredible speed and ease with which images can now spread around the world. http://100photos.time.com/photos/bradley-cooper-oscars-selfie

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Alan Kurdi Nilüfer Demir 2015

The war in Syria had been going on for more than four years when Alan Kurdi’s parents lifted the 3-year- old boy and his 5-year-old brother into an inflatable boat and set off from the Turkish coast for the Greek island of Kos, just three miles away. Within minutes of pushing off, a wave capsized the vessel, and the mother and both sons drowned. On the shore near the coastal town of Bodrum a few hours later, Nilufer Demir of the Dogan News Agency, came upon Alan, his face turned to one side and bottom elevated as if he were just asleep. “There was nothing left to do for him. There was nothing left to bring him back to life,” she said. So Demir raised her camera. "I thought, This is the only way I can express the scream of his silent body."

The resulting image became the defining photograph of an ongoing war that, by the time Demir pressed her shutter, had killed some 220,000 people. It was taken not in Syria, a country the world preferred to ignore, but on the doorstep of Europe, where its refugees were heading. Dressed for travel, the child lay between one world and another: waves had washed away any chalky brown dust that might locate him in a place foreign to Westerners’ experience. It was an experience the Kurdis sought for themselves, joining a migration fueled as much by aspiration as desperation. The family had already escaped bloodshed by making it across the land border to Turkey; the sea journey was in search of a better life, one that would

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

now become — at least for a few months — far more accessible for the hundreds of thousands traveling behind them.

Demir’s image whipped around social media within hours, accumulating potency with every share. News organizations were compelled to publish it—or publicly defend their decision not to. And European governments were suddenly compelled to open closed frontiers. Within a week, trainloads of Syrians were arriving in Germany to cheers, as a war lamented but not felt suddenly brimmed with emotions unlocked by a picture of one small, still form. http://100photos.time.com/photos/nilufer-demir-alan-kurdi

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Closer to Home

http://blacksaturdayfires.com/

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

CONCLUSION

It has been a very interesting, revealing and at times intense task pulling this module together. As you can appreciate, it is not possible to include everything. We have tried to bring you a cross section of information that gives you a good picture of the evolution of photography and the impact is has had on the world.

We have no doubt both will continue. Where too from here? We don’t know, but are certainly excited by the prospect.

The references listed below were a huge help in pulling this module together, and if you feel inclined, some make for excellent further reading.

REFERENCES https://www.britannica.com/technology/photography https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography https://petapixel.com/2015/05/23/20-first-photos-from-the-history-of-photography/ https://www.google.com.au/#q=famous+photographers http://webneel.com/famous-photographers https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology http://shutterstoppers.com/history-of-photography/ http://www.ayton.id.au/wiki/doku.php?id=photo:canoneoshistory http://www.vistaview360.com/cameras/nikon_dslr_history.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak_DCS http://anseladams.com/

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel_Adams http://www.helmutnewton.com/ http://www.helmut-newton.com/helmut_newton/biography/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Kert%C3%A9sz http://sallymann.com/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Mann https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Testino http://stevemccurry.com/ timothy-hogan.com christian.se http://jeremycowart.com/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Leibovitz http://davidlachapelle.com/ annegeddes.com http://webneel.com/famous-photographers http://andreagjestvang.com/ http://www.pflock.com/ michaelkenna.net google images

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

ASSIGNMENT E4

PART A: IN THEORY…..

1. Explain the rectilinear theory of light. Hint: Refer page 7

2. What was one of the biggest discoveries made by Claudet in 1841? Hint: Refer page 15

3. What event marked the beginning of the modern era of photography? Hint: Refer page 22

4. In what year was the journal – National Geographic established? Hint: Refer page 35

5. What was significant about the “Leica” camera? Hint: Refer page 42

6. What type of images is Ansel Adams famous for? Hint: Refer page 80

7. Vogue magazine used a number of provocative erotically charged black and

white images. Who took them? Hint: Refer page 84

8. What is Photographer Steve McCurry’s most famous image called? Hint: Refer page 88

9. Who photographed John Lennon on the day he was killed? Hint: Refer page 92

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

PART B: PHOTO ASSIGNMENT

To do this assignment, • Set your camera to M (manual) mode • Save your finished images as .JPG files

Remember to resample your images for upload with your assignment.

NOTE: In a classroom environment, your tutor is able to see what you are doing and has a good idea if you understand what you are learning. In an online environment, your tutor does not have this advantage, so this is done through the evaluation of your image “story”. This gives your tutor an insight into your thinking at the time of doing your tasks, the steps (if any) you took when problem solving and enables him/her to provide more meaningful assistance. For this reason, throughout your course, the image “story” you enter with each image is worth 50% of the mark for the task.

The theory and practical assessment for this assignment have been combined into 3 tasks as follows:

TASK 1

Part A: Choose a renowned photographer whose work you admire. Analyse his/her style and the techniques he/she favours. Summarise your research in an essay style answer.

Part B: Take an image that emulates your chosen photographer’s style. Include in your essay discussion the method you used and the results you achieved.

Resample your image and upload it with your assignment.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

TASK 2

Part A: Consider an image that has had an effect on you personally. Discuss the image, how, when and why you reacted to it in an essay style answer.

Part B: Take an image that either exemplifies this effect or is as a result of this effect. Include in your discussion the purpose for your image and or the reason behind it. Resize your image and upload it with your assignment.

Hint: Take an image that shows what has changed or what you have changed as a result of what you saw.

TASK 3 Challenge task

OPTION A: Advancement in any field comes from an individual or group taking the successes and failures of others, adding their own ideas and creating their own successes and failures. Now is your chance to be a pioneer. Take something to the next level. It can be a process, a technique, an aid of some kind. Work your idea through. If it works, that is a bonus. If it fails, you will have tried. Document your steps and results and back it up with an image.

OPTION B: Research three leading photographers in a genre of photography you are interested in. Analyse their work. Compare the different styles and techniques they use. Take an image that is uniquely yours but is inspired by what you have learnt.

EPH104 – THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Well done! You have now completed Module E4.

Assignments are marked within 5-7 working days.