Intertextuality: Interpretive Practice and Textual Strategy

Critical Studies in Media Communication Vol. 17, No.4, December 2000, pp. 429-446

Brian Ott and Cameron Walter

0- In contemporarymedia scholarship, the conceptof intertextuality is used to descrihe hoth an interpretivepractice of audiencesand a stylistic device consciouslyemployed by producersof media. This study examines how thefrequent, scholarlyconflation ofthese two conceptionshas weakened the theoretical usefolness of hoth perspectives.Turning to the view of intertextuality as s!Jlistic device, the essay identifies parodic allusion, creative appropriation, and self-reflexive reference as three distinct intertextual strategies. It concludesby consideringthe ways audiencesuse these devicesto define their identities and ordertheir experiences.

VER the course of the past three and television shows had increasingly O decades, the post-structuralist no begun quoting and referencing other tion of intertextuality has rapidly ac popular cultural artifacts. Seeking to quired intellectual currency among me describe this phenomenon, critics dia scholars. Ironically, the rise of this both academic (Campbell & Freed, concept was initiated and then fueled 1993; Collins, 1992) and popular (Bark, by two somewhat divergent forces. In 1998; Griffin, 1998)-adopted the term the early 1970s, media scholars-draw intertextuality. The centering of the ing upon the critique of the "Author audience as a site of textual production God" by semoticians and literary theo and the expanding role of intentional rists such as Barthes (1988), Derrida allusion in media has contributed to (1976), and Kristeva (1986a, 1986b) and continues to animate a largely un began theorizing the notion of the "ac noticed duality in the use of the con tive audience." In this tradition, inter cept. I Hence, in current practice, me textuality served as a descriptor for the dia scholars employ the term general process by which audiences intertextuality to describe two ex create meaning. Then, in the early tremely different phenomena.2 1980s, media critics observed that films Television critic John Fiske, for in stance, uses intertextuality to describe the way audiencesunconsciously create Brian Oll is Assistant Professorof Media Stud meaning by utilizing their vast knowl ies in the Department ofSpeech Communication edge of cultural codes learned from at ColoradoState University, Fort Collins, CO 80523. Cameron Walter is an undergraduate other texts to read a particular text. For student in the same departmtnt. An earlier Fiske (1987, 1989), intertextuality is a version of this paper was presented at the postmodem sensibility shared by audi Western States Communication Association ences-a reading formation that con Conventionin February2000. ceives of texts as fragments in a larger

INTERTEXTUALlTY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC orr AND WALTER web of textuality. "The theory of inter In contrast to Fiske, Collins conceives This essay reflects an effort to flesh account for the way readers/audiences textuality," he writes, "proposes that of intertextuality as inherent to some out the differences between these two come to meaning and experience the anyone text is necessarily read in rela texts, strategically included by the pro conceptions, and to restore the term's world. tionship to others and that a range of ducer, and referring to specific other hermeneutic value. To accomplish this One premise widely shared by liter textual knowledges is brought to bear texts. goal, this essay begins by looking at the ary theorists is that intertextuality rep upon it. These relations do not take the The two preceding examples sug dual legacy of intertextuality and its resents a clear shift in thinking about who form of specific allusions from one text gest that intertextuality has been used adoption by media scholars. Then this creates texts. In describing intertextual to another and there is no need for to describe both an interpretive prac essay focuses more closely on the con ity, Barthes argues that audiences, not readers to be familiar with specific texts tice unconsciously exercised by audi ception of "intertextuality as textual authors, write (i.e., construct) texts: to read intertextually" (1987, p. 108). ences living in a postmodern land strategy" by arguing for three distinct types, parodic allusion, creative appro We know now a text is not a line of words Though readingintertextually does not scape and a textual strategy consciously releasing a single "theolOgical" meaning require specific textual knowledges, incorporated by media producers that priation, and self-reflexive reference. The final portion of the essay explores (the "message" of the Author-God) but a there are nonetheless some texts that invites audiences to make specific lat multidimensional space in which a variety make specific allusions, that invite read eral associations between texts. Inter the "symbolic equipment" (Burke, of writings, none of them original, blend ers to exercise specialized knowledge, textuality has come to describe both 1973) that audiences might derive from and clash. The text is a tissue of quotations and this too has been termed intertex the general practice of decoding and a the various intertextual strategies uti drawn from innumerable centers of cul tuality. specific strategy of encoding. Unfortu lized by media producers. ture .... [A text) is made of multiple writ In this latter formulation, intertextu nately, media scholars rarely make this ings, drawn from many cultures and enter ality is not something audiences do, distinction, and as the term has spread ing into mutual relations of dialogue, Intertextuality as parody, and contestation, but there is one but something authors do. Far from in popularity, its dual legacy and mean Interpretive Practice place where this multiplicity is focused and being a consequence of the death of ing have increasingly been conflated in the work of practicing critics. that place is the reader, not as was hitherto the author (as the first version would The view of "intertextuality as inter said, the author. (1988, pp. 146, 148) suggest), intertextuality is an identifi James Goodwin's (1994) study of the pretive practice" represents a direct able stylistic device consciously em films of Akira Kurosawa affords a prime challenge to the modernist and formal For Barthes, the reader affords the ployed by the author or in the case of example of this conflation. Citing ist notions of 'authorial originality' and space upon which a web of textual media texts by the producer, to invite a Kristeva and Barthes, Goodwin argues 'influence' (Hawkes, 1977). "The inter quotations (i.e., a text) is inscribed; particular audience response.3Jim Col at the outset of his book that, "the textual in which every text is held," consequently, the "unity of a text lies lins (1992) highlights this perspective concept of intertextuality designates a writes Barthes, "is not to be confused not in its origin but in its destination" in his discussion of television's post multidimensional relation throu~h with some origin of the text: to try to (1980, p. 148). Moreover, a text as modem elements: which a particular text is intelligible [to find the 'sources', the 'influences' of a constituted by a reader is always fleet readers] in terms of other texts" (p. 9). work, is to fall in with the myth of ing, never finished once and for all. The foregrounding of intertextual refer In the pages that follow, he consis filiation; the citations which go to make Since a text exists within an endlessly ences has become a marker of "quality tently describes the concept as an inter up a text are anonymous, untrace expanding matrix of intertextual pro television." ... Jane Feuer has traced this pretive practice of audiences. When he able ... they are guotations without duction, readers continually bring new self-conscious intertextuality as it devel begins his criticism of Kurosawa's films, inverted commas" (1988, p. 160). De texts to bear upon their readings of that oped in the MTM style, but more recently, however, he shifts the term's focus from spite subSCribing to this view, several text. The reader who returns to an as "quality television" has developed across audience to author. "Intertextual cin scholars (Makaryk, 1995; Payne, 1996) essay or book she has read in the past production companies and networks, the ema," he writes, "is reserved in the will find that that text no longer exists, explicit referencing has played a vital role have paradoxically identified Julia that the rereading has been a rewriting. in situating a given program in relation to present study for films and the work of Kristeva as the "source" of the term other forms of quality and nonquality pro cineasts that exhibit conscious, marked, intertextuality and then traced its "de Intertextuality for Barthes, then, de grams. During the 1990 fall season, for or dominant uses of intertextuality ... velopment" in subsequent writers. scribes the textual 'infinitude' upon example, Michael and Hope of ABC's thir intertextual structures of the director's Rather than rehearse and hence per which readers unconsciously draw to tysomethingreferred to watching L. A. Law, own design" (p. 16). To the extent that petuate this narrative yet again, this momentarily give meaning to a text. while on NBC's L. A. Law, attorney Anne these two conceptions involve very dif section identifies some of the key simi This view describes how audiences pro Kelsey spoke of wanting to get home and ferent rhetorical processes, their confla larities and dissimilarities in how the duce readings (i.e., texts) that are al watch thirtysomething because it was "re tion undermines the explanatory force concept has been used by a number of ways unique and non-unique. Since sponsible television." (p. 334) of intertextuality as a theoretical tool. different literary and media theorists to every reader possesses different textual 432 433

INTERTEXTUAUTY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT AND WALTER knowledges, they necessarily produce only in relation to the whole web of reading practices, Fiske significantly about The A -Teamon how viewers inter individualized readings. However to textuality. To identify a text is to clas confines the heterogeneity and infinity pret the show. This view of intertextu the extent that audiences share cul sify it as generically akin to some texts ofintertextuality. Fiske's restricted con ality deflects attention away from how tures, which is another way of saying and not others, to read/write it through ception is evident in both his descrip even the letter "A" in the program's they share texts, they bring some com cultural codes and interpretive conven tion of how television programs are title draws upon an intertextual milieu mon textual knowledges to bear upon tions learned from other texts. The intertextually constructed by audiences that includes, but is in no way limited text construction.4 media critic who discusses Ally McBeal and how popular culture, in general, is to, the popular phrases "Grade A egg" Julia Kristeva conceives of textuality as a recognizable text has to some ex read intertextually: and "A *1," the use of "A" to desig in much the same way as Barthes by tent already read it through the genre nate superior student work, the letter's arguing that "any text is constructed as of Situation-comedy, which is based in We can envisage these intertextual rela placement at the beginning of the al tions on two dimensions, the horizontal a mosaic of quotations; any text is the tum on a textual knowledge of non and the vertical. Horizontal relations are phabet, or the designation outcast by absorption and transfonnation of [other situation-comedies. While the act of those between primary texts that are more the letter "A" in Hawthorne's Scarlet texts]" (1986b, p. 37). Texts are neither reading is one of cultural/ideological or less explicitly linked, usually along the Letter. Audiences write the multitude self-contained, nor individually au (re)production then, it is also fraught axes of genre, character, or content. Verti of ways the letter "A" has been used thored; they are endlessly penneated with heterogeneity and contradiction. cal intertextuality is that between a pri within the larger culture into the text of by a social ensemble which is itself a The infinity of intertextuality ensures mary text, such as a television program or the show. The letter "A" in the show's textual ensemble. In elaborating on that a text will always be plural, un series, and other texts of a different type title, then, may infonn the perception this endless penneation-this intennin stable, and contradictory. that refer explicitly to it. These may be that the A-Team's actions are both posi gling of sign systems-Kristeva, like While numerous media scholars secondary texts such as studio publicity, tive ("A+" work) and marginal (The Barthes, locates text construction with have adopted and employed the con journalistic features, or criticism, or ter Scarlet Letter). To begin to appreciate the audience. She defines intertextual cept of intertextuality to describe the tiary texts produced by the viewers them the significance of the play of textuality selves in the form ofletters to the press or, ity as a fundamental process in the way audiences read media texts within more importantly, of gossip and conversa in reading, one need only consider work of the unconscious in which sev the larger web of media culture, few tion. (1987, p. lO8) how the text would have been written/ eral sign-systems are transposed into have recognized or accepted the full perceived differently by viewers had it Popular culture circulates intertextually, been titled The C-Team.5 Thus, while another (1986a, p. 111). According to implications or possibilities of the con among what I have called primary texts Kristeva, "The notion of intertextuality cept as set forth by Barthes and (the original commodities-Madonna her Fiske describes intertextuality as an in replaces that of intersubjectivity" Kristeva. "Most scholars," notes self or a pair of jeans), secondary texts that terpretive practice of audiences, he sig (1986b, p. 37)-the theory that had for Makaryk, "who use the term have de refer to them directly (advertisements, press nificantly limits the endless play of merly seen the reading of a text as a veloped a 'restricted' intertextuality stories, criticism), and tertiary texts that are textuality that animates that practice. "subject-to-subject exchange between which focuses on the relations between in the constant process of everyday life The danger in limiting analysis of me author-source and reader-receiver" several texts. Ironically, this may in (conversation [about the primary text]). dia texts to explicitly linked texts is (Payne, 1996, p. 259). For Kristeva (and volve little more than the philolOgical (1989, p. 124) that it obscures and erases the more it is suspected for Barthes as well, tradition of influence tracing which the Rather than exploring how text con subconscious and therefore ideological though he is far less explicit about it), tenn sought to displace" (1995, p. 569). struction is informed by the whole textual linkages audiences make. intertextuality is a wholly ideological On the surface, for instance, Fiske ap range of textuality, Fiske limits intertex In addition to diluting the concept of process. pears to be consistent with the perspec tual reading to a few "primary texts" intertextuality as interpretive practice, Text generation entails the simulta tives articulated by Barthes and that are "explicitly linked" and to other Fiske at times conflates it with the no neous accentuation, condensation, and Kristeva arguing that "because of their texts that refer "explicitly" or "di tion of "intertextuality as textual strat intenningling of culturally created sign incompleteness, all popular texts have rectly" to the primary texts. The uncon egy" described in the introduction to systems. Audiences create texts by, at leaky boundaries; they flow into every scious processes and implicit links that this essay. To illustrate this point, it is once, isolating them from other texts day life. Distinctions among texts are infonn Barthes' and Kristeva's outlook necessary to quote Fiske's reading of and opening them to the endless play as invalid as the distinctions between are ignored. Madonna's music video Material Girl of textuality (Derrida, 1976; Scholes, text and life. Popular culture can only For Fiske, an intertextual reading of at length: 1989). To identify a specific text is to be studied intertextually, for it exists a television show such as The A-Team Madonna's music video Material Girl pro impose boundaries (such as, but not only in this intertextual circulation" (1983-87) entails examining the "influ vides us with a case in point: it is a parody limited to, genre and fonn) upon it (1989, p. 126). However, when he de ence" of studio publicity, gossip, popu of Marilyn Monroe's song and dance num boundaries that are made meaningful tails the precise nature of intertextual lar criticism, and journalistic features ber "Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend" in 434 435

INTERTEXTUALITY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC orr AND WALTER the movie GentlemenPreftr Blondes:such an tice of text construction undertaken by relatively recent phenomenon, a distin forms of textual incorporation simply allusion to a specific text is not an example audiences. That certain texts, and not guishing attribute of postrnodern texts. cannot be explained as blank parody; of intertextuality for its effectiveness de others, make explicit and intentional The term most widely adopted by me therefore, categories to add to pastiche pends upon specific, not generalized, tex allusions to specific other texts is a dia critics to describe the intertextual that demonstrate how popular culture tual knowledge .... The video's intertextu process far different than the one de character of postmodern texts or con equips audiences to make sense of their ality refers rather to our culture's image scribed by Barthes. Though distinct, temporary media is what Jameson world and themselves are needed. To bank of the sexy blonde star who plays the two processes are not mutually ex (1994) refers to as "pastiche." correct for these difficulties, in the sec with men's desires for her and turns it to tion that follows three intertextual de her advantage. It is an elusive image, simi clusive. In concert with Barthes and The use of pastiche to describe the lar to Barthes's notion of myth, to which Kristeva, that audiences always read/ intertextual nature of contemporary vices are identified. Madonna and Marilyn Monroe contribute write all texts intertextuaUy is accept media is troubling on at least two counts These categories were generated equally and from which they draw equally. able. However some texts also deploy however. At present, media theorists while producing an educational video The meanings of Material Girl depend upon intertextuality as a stylistic device in a employ pastiche as a blanket term to for use in Media Studies courses at its allusion to GentlemenPrefer Blondes and manner that shapes how audiences ex describe a whole range of intertextual Colorado State University. Using an upon its intertextuality with all texts that perience those texts. This process is strategies. In the process, they obfus Avid non-linear editing system (Media contribute to and draw upon the meaning termed "intertextuality as textual strat cate the differences among several sty Suite Pro 3.0), a series of clips from of "the blonde" in our culture. (1987, p. 108) egy" and the follOWing section ex listic devices-devices that perform television shows and films that made In this example, Fiske goes to great plores the various ways it has been highly distinct rhetorical functions. In specific allusions to other media texts lengths to stress that Madonna's parody structured by media producers. addition to applying the term too broadly, were spliced together. The primary texts with the specific texts that they of Marilyn Monroe is not an instance many cultural critics (Rose, 1993; Sto alluded to were inter-cut and orga of intertextuality. Gesturing to Barthes, Intertextuality as rey, 1998), and Jameson in particular, nized into categories based upon the he argues that it requires no specific Textual Strategy view pastiche as the failure of art-as an nature of the allusions that they made. textual knowledge to read the video aesthetic practice that is entirely depth While the concept of intertextuality less, superficial, and uncritical. Three identifiable, though overlap intertextually. While agreeing with Fiske as textual strategy is most commonly ping, categories emerged: parodic allu that no such knowledge is required to used in media studies, it is not entirely Pastiche is, like parody, the imitation of a sion, creative appropriation, and self read intertextually in general, it is curi absent from literary theory. Morson peculiar mask, speech in a dead language: reflexive reference. Though each of ous that he selects a text that makes a (1981), for instance, classifies literary but it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, these intertextual strategies is unique, specific, intentional intertextual refer figures such as imitation and parody as without any of parody's ulterior motives, they are often combined and inter ence to stress this point. The recogni "intertextual utterances" (p. 108-9). amputated of the satiric impulse, devoid of mingled. None of the strategies are laughter and of any conviction that along tion of the specific reference to Gentle Gerard Gennette (1982) also conceives entirely new, but they are finding their men Prefer Blondes adds an additional side the abnormal tongue you have mo of intertextuality as a stylistic device by mentarily borrowed, some healthy linguis way into popular culture with a new "layer" of meaning to the readings of arguing that it reflects one of five pos intensity and frequency. To illustrate viewers who "catch" the reference. tic normality still exists. Pastiche is thus sible "transtextual" relations a text may blank parody. (Jameson, 1994, p. 17) the expanding scope of these devices, Fiske further conflates the two views have with others. For Gennette, it re examples from a number of different of intertextuality in UnderstandingPopu fers specifically to the presence of one Jameson's definition of pastiche re mass media are offered. lar Culture when he suggests that pop text in another by means of quotation, duces intertextuality to a neutral prac ular texts are somehow more inter plagiarism, or allusion. Though the tice of compilation-one shorn of any Parodic Allusion textual than the "highly crafted, term intertextuality is largely absent in critical engagement. As such, it fails to completed, and self-sufficient" texts the work of Bakhtin (1984), Eco (1984), account for the ways that some texts Parodic allusion describes a stylistic found in "universities, museums, and and Rose (1993), the concepts of rework others into their substance, how device in which one text incorporates a art galleries" (1989, p. 123). Such a "double-voiced words," the "already juxtaposition speaks comically, how au caricature of another, most often, popu claim implies, in direct contrast to said," and "montage" provide alterna diences are transformed into sites of lar cultural text. The parodic text imi Barthes' view of intertextuality as inter tives for describing the way some texts critical commentary, how textual inclu tates or exaggerates prominent or rep pretive practice, that intertextuality is incorporate others. Despite their di sions function to oppose or celebrate resentative features of the "original" inherent and unique to some texts. Re verse terminological preferences, each the texts they steal from, and how the text and incorporates those features as call that Barthes argues all texts are of these authors seem to agree that the compilation of different styles may de part of its own textuality.6 Though pa read intertextually by all audiences; in frequency and intensity with which liberately be used to create a new style. rodic allusion is similar to the ancient tertextuality describes the general prac- texts make intertextual utterances is a As Goodwin (1991) contends, some literary device of parody, it differs in 436 437

INTERTEXTUALlTI DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT AND WALTER two important ways. Whereas the aim As a stylistic device strategically uti shower sequence in Psycho(1960) shot ments, the type of commentary that of parody is to comment critically lized by producers of mass mediated for-shot. By 1987, the device was so inclusion renders ranges from critique and/or comically on the original text texts, parodic allusion tends to mani central to Brooks' style that he squeezed to celebration. Technological develop usually by drawing attention to unspo fest itself across the work of certain 20 parodic references to film and televi ments in digital media have added sig ken norms (Morson, 1981; Rose, 1993), artists/auteurs. Since 1983, Weird Al sion into Spacehalls(1987).9 The degree nificantly to the growth of creative in parodic allusion offers no commentary Yankovic has been parodying the work to which Brooks uses parodic allusion clusion as a stylistic device in the past two on the original text. 7 Rather, it seeks to of popular music artists such as Ma in cinema is equaled if not exceeded, decades. The introduction of inexpen amuse through juxtaposition-a goal donna, Huey Lewis and the News, and however, in the television industry by sive digital samplers in the music indus that is enhanced by the reader's recog Cyndi Lauper. While much of his early Simpsons (1989) creator Matt Groen try, for instance, fueled the emergence nition of the parodic gesture. The audi musical endeavors were more strictly ing. In each 30-minute episode, The of an entire musical genre, hip-hop, ence is, in effect, transformed into the parody, the eleventh track on his Dare Simpsons regularly incorporates 15-20 which is marked by creative appropria site of critical commentary; they are to Be Stupid (1985) album was a signifi parodic allusions, ranging from Citizen tion. Since inclusion often involves judged worthy by the text and subse cant step in the direction of parodic Kane (1941) and Michael Dukakis' 1988 copyrighted material, its use as stylistic quently themselves if they possess suffi allusion. Unlike his previous work, presidential campaign to Married With device has spawned a number of law cient cultural knowledge to recognize which featured unusual lyrics set to the Children (1987-98) and the 0.]. Simp suits concerned with intellectual prop the popular references. tune of chart-topping popular singles, son Bronco chase. While The Simpsons erty rights and freedom of expression. Because these two devices have dif track eleven-"Hooked on Polkas" clearly held the pole position on inter One of the more famous cases in ferent aims, the manner in which they incorporated the lyrics of twelve popu textual references when it debuted ten volves the self-proclaimed media are executed also differs. Parody tends lar artists in one polka melody.s A year years ago, recent programs such as hacker band Negativland "who appro to be a self-contained text that is mean later, Yankovic released Polka Party Comedy Central's South Park (1997) priate material from the airwaves and ingful in isolation. Further, because (1986), an album whose title track con and Fox's The Family Guy (1999-) are elsewhere to provoke and provide parody counterposes the parodic text tinued this style. Though "Polka Party," every bit as aggressive in their allu pointed commentary on the culture sions to popular culture. with the original in a way intended to which excerpts songs such as Peter industry's machinations" (Negativland). discredit the original, the parodic text Gabriel's "Sledgehammer" and Phil In 1991, Negativland and SST records claims "semantic authority" over the Collins' "Sussudio," is humorous re Creative Appropriation were sued over the band's single, "The original (Morson, 1981, p. 109). Da gardless of one's ability to identify the or Inclusion Letter 'U' and the Numeral '2'," which daist parodies of other artistic move specific texts it refers to, exercising Inclusion refers to a stylistic device sampled U2's music, interviews with ments, for instance, elevated them such cultural knowledge fosters feel in which one text appropriates and band members, and a particularly foul selves over those movements by ings of superiority and belonging. Since integrates a fragment of another text. mouthed off-air moment from DJ Ca commenting critically on the preten not all listeners will recognize the allu Whereas parodic allusion creates an sey Casem. Though Negativland was sion of artists and the conventional sions, successful identification of pa approximation or copy of the original ultimately forced to pay legal fees and responses of audiences. Parodic allu rodic references allows readers to mark text based upon its defining features, damages totaling more than $90,000, sion, by contrast, makes no such claim themselves as musically literate and to inclusion actually reproduces a portion their single illustrates how the stylistic to superiority over the original text nor identify themselves as part of a selec of the original text. In some, though device of inclusion can function rhetori is it generally a self-contained text. The tive community (i.e., "true" Weird Al not all, instances, the appropriated frag cally as a mode of critique. By combin reference to other texts characteristic fans). Indeed, the pleasure of recogni ment is altered either through visual ing textual fragments in a manner that of parodic allusion' are woven into the tion is often directly proportional to editing or audio mixing. The aim of invited a rereading of the band U2, fabric of a larger text or narrative. the difficulty of identifying the allusion. inclusion also differs from parodic allu Negativland denunciated what they Moreover, because parodic allusion At present, parodic allusion is a much sion; inclusion frequently comments saw as "the self-righteous and compla quizzes the audience's cultural knowl more pervasive stylistic device in tele on the text that it steals from or on that cent image-world of the polite pop of edge, the larger text usually contains a vision and film than in music. Nearly text's role in the larger culture. 10 "Each the [U2] stars" (guoted in Herman & collage of allusions. As with any test, all of Mel Brooks' films, for instance, act of appropriation," writes Nunn Sloop, 1998, p. 7). Other bands.. such the more questions (i.e., allusions) that feature the device prominently. In only (1997), "is a commentary on the work as the New York trio De La Soul and one gets, the greater the sense of accom 94 minutes, High Anxiety (1977) spoofs to which it refers and on the form . . . as the British based Ruthless Rap Assas plishment. Textual collages featuring twelve of Alfred Hitchcock's films, in a whole" (p. 1). Depending upon how sins, have undertaken inclusion as a parodic allusion are rapidly taking hold cluding a newspaper delivery by an a fragment is juxtaposed with other means to condemn specific cultural in a variety of mass media. agitated bellhop that mirrors the fragments and the nature of those frag- practices and social injustices. De La 438 439

INTERTEXTUAUTY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT AND WALTER

Soul exercises sampling to attack the (1944) and The Postman Always Rings which one text refers to another text as ping-to get paid. Their dialogue dis macho and materialistic mentality of Twice (1946). As reviews of the film a means of commenting on its own plays a self-awareness of their position contemporary rap on their Stakes Is make clear though, the tone of the "cultural status, function, and history, within a system of commodity produc High (1996) album, while the Ruthless appropriations is favorable. The Inter as well as on the conditions of its circu tion, but does so without reference to Rap Assassins, argues Storey (1998), net Movie Data Base describes Dead lation and reception" (Collins, 1995, p. another particular media text "Gangsta, use the device to critique the everyday Man Don't Wear Plaid as a "celebration 335). These self-aware references do Gangsta" by contrast draws attention racism of British society: of the black-and-white movies of the not caricature another text as do pa to its modes of production by gesturing 1940's and 50's," (Dead Man) and The [The Ruthless Rap Assassins) would cer rodic allusions nor do they appropriate to "Paid in Full." N.W.A.'s intertextual Austin Chroniclehails it as "a tribute to an actual fragment of another text as allusion locates the reality of gang tainly rejectJameson's claim that their work the wonderful memories these films is an example of postmodem pastiche. do creative inclusions. Self-reflexive ref related violence as their motivation for Their intertextual play of quotations is not created in a generation" (Martini, erences are often subtle gestures that to rapping, thereby critiquing the view the result of aesthetic exhaustion, but the 1998}.11 Perhaps the best example of be appreciated require specific knowl that rap is solely a commodity form. telling combination of found fragments creative inclusion functioning as trib edge of the text's production history, While films such as John McTier from a cultural repertoire which by and ute, however, was the HBO series the character's previous credits, or man's Last Action Hero (1993) and Doug large denies their existence. These are . .. Dream On (1990-96), which emerged popular reviews. Liman's Swingers(1996) are littered with fragments combined to damn those who as a vehicle to showcase pre-1960 foot Gangsta rap affords an inherently self-reflexive references, two scenes have sought to deny them a voice within age from television's "Golden Age."12 self-reflexive form that involves MCs from Wes Craven's surprise horror-hit British culture. (pp. 191-2) The show, which follows the daily inter narrating and documenting their expe Scream (1996) illustrate the cinematic For bands such as De La Soul and the actions of book editor Martin Tupper, riences in the rap culture. The frequent use of this device. When Casey's par Assassins, the creative juxtaposition of illustrates Tupper's innermost thoughts coastal jabs made infamous by rappers ents arrive home and realize that some fragments through inclusion reflects a and feelings with snippets from old TV Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. thing is amiss, Casey's father instructs comedies, dramas, and variety shows. 13 new postmodern artistic style. Though in the early 90s, for instance, provide her mother to "go down the street to In some cases then, creative appropria as the Negativland case demonstrates, the referent for Dr. Dre's song, "East the Mackenzie's house." As serious hor tion functions to celebrate and pro the legal system has been slow to legiti CoastlWest Coast Killas." With lyrics ror fans would likely know, the line is a mote the texts from which it steals. mate creative appropriation as a valid such as "The most scandalous, cut the direct quotation fromJohn Carpenter's artistic practice. bad apple, we can handle this/Coast horror-classic Halloween (1978). This The film and television industries Self-Reflexive Reference trippin goin on throughout the busi intertextual reference accents the pre have largely avoided the legal pitfalls In literature, self-reflexivity describes ness/East Coast West Coast anybody dictable and formulaic quality of hor associated with creative appropriation a mode of writing that deliberately killerl/I don't give a fuck where you ror films by reminding viewers of their by obtaining the pertinent copyright draws attention to its fictional nature from I'ma Killa Hill-er/I got crews on recycled nature. Similarly, in the scene permissions before incorporating me b): commenting on its own activities. both sides together/Deeper than the that precedes the film's final kill-fest, dia fragments into their texts. One no "lSjelf-reflexivity," observes Campbell ocean and down for whatever," MC the remaining characters assemble to table side effect of this approach has and Freed (1993), "destroys our suspen B-Real critiques the divisive state of view Halloween. As they watch, the been a shift in tone toward the quoted sion of disbelief in the magic of the rap while deterritorializing himself. A character of Randy describes the film's material. Since copyright owners have moment .. . it tweaks our anticipation more direct reference to a specific text generic conventions, conventions that the final say regarding their material, and cynicism by adding a whole new presents itself in the N.W.A. song director Craven deliberately tampers they consider the nature of the use level of self-centered amusement" (p. "Gangsta, Gangsta" on their album with in the conclusion of Scream.Again, before granting permission. As a re 80).Jane Austen's comment (as narra Straight Outta Compton (1988). Devoted the intertextual reference highlights the sult, intertextual gestures involving in tor) that the problems confronting the N.W.A. fans recognize that the chorus, formulaic quality of horror films, but it clusion tend to be much more positive protagonist must soon be resolved be "Gangsta! Gangsta! That's what they're also elevates Scream over other horror in the film and television industries cause Northanger Abbey has only a few yellin/It's not about salary, it's all about films by demonstrating an awareness than those in the music industry. In his pages left is self-reflexive; it reminds reality," refers to the title track on Eric of (and ultimately breaking) the con tale of private eye Rigby Reardon, Carl the reader that the hero is simply a B. and Rakim's album Paid in Full ventions that inform it. Reiner's Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid character in a fictional book. Self (1987) released the previous year. "Paid A final example of self-reflexive ref (1982) appropriates and splices to reflexive references represent an inter in Full" begins with Eric B. and Rakim erence comes from the Fox television gether clips from 17 noir films includ textual version of this literary mode.14 discussing their relation to their record program Ally McBeal (1997-). In Sep ing classics such as ·Double Indemnity They describe a stylistic device in label and their motivation for rap- tember 1998, the New York Daily News 440 441

INTERTEXTUAUlY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT AND WALTER described McBeal star Calista Flock tion, and self-reflexive reference. These ences per show" (p. 235). To catch the can culture change, so too do the ways hart as "waiflike" and speculated that three intertextual devices tend to work majority of intertextual gestures in that audiences engage and interpret she was "getting even skinnier." In the in tandem, and are characteristic of Scream is to mark one's identity as a them. The collage-like, participatory weeks that followed, an array of na what Campbell and Freed (1993) term horror-film buff, in Straight Outta Comp nature of intertextual media fosters an tional newspapers and weekly maga "postmodern" texts. The concern then is ton as gangsta rap buff, and in Spacehalls aggregative rather than sequential way zines picked up the story and began with how audiences engage and use post as a science-fiction buff. of seeing and knowing. Instead of pro speculating about whether or not Flock modern texts. The view of media as sym Because of the Internet, the game of cessing data as a finite set of causal hart was anorexic. On 14 December bolic system (Brummett, 1985; Burke, intertextuality is not only a marker of relations, audiences favor a spatial ori 1998, Ally McBeal slyly attacked the 1973; Croteau & Hoynes, 1997; Rush cultural identity, but also an opportu entation in which everything is related public rumors concerning its feature koff, 1996) affords a productive way to nity to participate in community. All of to everything elseY Unlike rigidly lin character in the episode "Making Spir approach this question. This perspec the media texts examined in the previ ear texts in which meaning is intri its Bright." As Ally crosses the office, tive suggests that audiences find in me ous section of this essay have enor cately tied to sequence, highly intertex she accidentally bumps into assistant dia texts the symbolic resources (i.e., mous Internet followings. Fans gather tual forms can be entered at almost any district attorney Helen Grable from mental equipment) for confronting and online (and in the case of television, point (Soja, 1989, p. 2). This non another David Kelley program The addressing the cultural anxieties, con often while the program is in progress) linearity corresponds closely to hyper Practice. Helen blatantly sizes Ally up cerns, and demands of their everyday to share their intertextual observa text logic (Landow, 1997) and equips before insincerely saying, 'Just admir lives. tions, exchange "insider" information audiences to surf-to piece together ing your outfit." As Helen leaves, she In Information Anxiety, Richard Wur about production history, and discuss meaning from a discontinuous set of adds, "Maybe you should eat a cookie," man (1989) documents the widespread related media texts. 15The same is de fragments (Rushkoff, 1996, pp. 49-50). to which Ally sarcastically retorts, feelings of the alienation and fragmen cidedly not the case with less intertex With the total of all printed knowledge "Maybe we could share it." Through tation that pervade contemporary tual forms such as CBS's Dr. Qginn, doubling every eight years (Wurman, this exchange, the character of Ally youth culture. Since identity has al Medicine Woman (1993-98) and Cost 1989, p. 35), the logic and practice of McBeal responds to public rumors ini ways been closely tied to self-location, ner's film Dances with Wolves (1990). surfing are becoming increasingly vital tiated in the Daily News about actress Collins {1995} posits that such feelings Intertextual media encourage viewers to locating, retrieving, and processing Calista Flockhart. As the reference of displacement may largely be the to identify with others in a manner that desired information. Through the rou highlights the fictional status of the result of radical changes in how we less consciously intertextual media do tine consumption and use of intertex show, it also applauds loyal viewers for experience time and space-changes not. In addition to fostering commu tual media, audiences are constituted getting the joke. The use of self-reflex brought on by the rise of the new as "sophisticated bricoleurs" (Storey, ivity, Williams (1988) notes, "at once nity, intertextual devices frequently breaks up the audience's willing suspen information technolOgies. E-mail.in contribute to a sense of self-satisfac 1998, p. 194). The fan-related Web sites sion of disbelief by reminding them stant messaging, simulations, and vir tion. Historically, popular art forms that flourish around consciously inter that they are watching television and tual environments reflect only a few of such as television have been dispar textual media are themselves constructed reinforces their connection with the the technological innovations that have aged by critics (Postman, 1985) who from the shards of culture, and recent show through the feeling that this is a tampered with traditional views of time characterize them as "mindless enter research in the area of remote control joke being shared by audience and and space. While simply living in a tainment" and a "waste oftime."16 The use (Bellamy & Walker, 1996) suggests character" (p. 92). particular physical place may no longer self-reflexivity of intertextual TV, how that television viewing may be a com furnish the sense of community and ever, serves "to distance these pro plex act of text construction for many self that it once did, the media provide grams from the stigmatized medium young people. IS Rather than consuming Return of the Audience resources for building coherent, if mu and to announce that they are superior texts as unified wholes, audiences piece In mapping the concepts of intertex table, identities (see Kellner, 1995). The to the typical trash available on TV" together fragments of texts to meet tuality as interpretive practice and inter intertextual allusions found in postrnod (Bianculli, 1992, p. 15). Thus, intertex their individual psychological needs. textuality as textual strategy, this discus ern texts allow viewers to exercise spe tual media afford a guilt-free interac Intertextual media also appear to sion has largely driven audience and cialized knowledge and to mark their tion with "higher" art while congratu foster an "ironic senSibility" by equip text apart. This section reflects an effort membership in particular cultures. "To lating viewers for getting the joke. ping audiences with a heightened to reinfuse the two, and to consider belong to the MST 3K [MysteryScience The epistemological implications of awareness of the way texts inflect ge more closely the nature of the interac Theater 300~culture," notes Rushkoff intertextual media are as dramatic as nerically, culturally, and politically tion audiences have with texts marked (1996), "is to understand at least a ma those associated with identity. As the upon other texts. While all audiences by parodic allusion, creative appropria- jority of the literally hundreds of refer- prevailing symbolic forms in Ameri- read intertextually, audiences who 442 443 INTERTEXTUAUTY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT AND WALTER spend significant time with texts char lished as three distinct, if related, inter of previous literature. Our aim is to give a sense of both how these conceptions developed, and why acterized by intertextuality as a stylistic textual devices. While these postmod they developed when they did. Perhaps the theory of the 'active audience' came to replace previous device develop a more self-conscious ern features of media are not entirely conceptions of audience activity not because it was a more accurate descriptor of what audiences intertextual reading formation. Audi new, their status as utterly conven have always done,but because it is a more accurate descriptor of what audiences have more recently ences who regularly engage with inter done. We are suggesting that as the nature of texts themselves have changed, the way audiences tional modes of expression is. This tax read texts has changed as well. textual devices not only become more onomy of intertextual devices is by no sophisticated at reading them, but also 2Schirato and Yell (1996) define intertextuality as "the process of making sense of texts in means comprehensive, however, and reference to their relations with other texts" (p. 92), and as "the different culturalliteracies we bring more sophisticated at deploying them. 19 scholars need to research other forms to any reading of a text" (p. 217). By contrast, Suleiman (1990) defines intertextuality as "the such as parody and non-reflexive refer presence, either explicit (as in direct quotation, identified as such) or implicit (as in allusion, Conclusion ence as well. The third section of the parody, imitation) of one text in another" (p. 219). The former refers to something audiencesdo, and the latter refers to something authorsdo. This essay has examined the two very essay speculated about the symbolic equipment audiences derive from their lAs Barry Brummett demonstrates, the notion of intertextuality as stylistic device is not limited disparate ways that media scholars em to media texts. "Afrocentric culture," according to Brummett, "expects that texts will borrow from ploy the concept of intertextuality and interaction with highly intertextual me other texts freely, using a strategy called inlerlexluality. Critics should be on the lookout for that explored how both uses suffer when dia and scholars need to examine more strategy .... For example, much of the speaking of Martin Luther King,Jr., was intertextual. He they are unknowingly conflated. In in closely how the function of an intertex wove into a speech many brief passages from the Bible, proverbs, maxims, and his other speeches" vestigating the features of intertextual tual stylistic device may vary from me (1994, p. 151). ity as interpretive practice, this essay dium to medium. Such a study could 'For a more detailed discussion of how discursive communities shape the practice of reading sought to expand the way media critics clarify what appears to be a disjunction intertextually, see Porter (1986). conceptualize the reading formations in tone between how creative appro 5ABC's farcical western F Troop (1965-67) proVides another example of how meaning is of audiences. The lifetime of unconscious priation is used in the music industry, informed by a vast array of textual knowledges. No doubt the many meanings of the letter "F" contributed to the perception of the cavalrymen on this series as bumbling and inept. textual baggage audiences bring to their and in the film and television indus reading of mediated texts is more cen tries. Morley (1993, pp. 207) and 6We are using the term "original" as a way to distinguish the parodic text from the parodied text Chesebro Bertelsen (1996) argue and have inscribed the term in quotation marks to indicate that the parodied text (consistent with a tral to the process of meaning construc and view of intertextuality as interpretive practice) is itself comprised of other texts. tion than explicitly linked secondary compellingly that technologies influ 7In literary theory, works of fiction that comment or reOect upon another text are labeled texts such as journalistic features or ence how audiences use media, and "meta-fictional" while texts that incorporate other texts through imitation or quotation are termed tertiary texts such as gossip. Reading future scholarship ought to pay careful "intertextual." In contemporary theory, parody is conceptualized as both meta-fictional and intertextually is an ideological process, attention to how medium and form intertextual (Rose, 1993, pp. 99, 282-283). We are arguing that parodic allusion lacks the but more research is needed to under interinanimate one another.2o meta-fictional dimension_ stand how audiences internalize tex The post-structuralist concept of in sPopular references include Euday Bowman's "12111Street Rag," 'lZ Top's "Sharp Dressed tual ideologies and how those ideolo tertextuality significantly stands to aid Man," Tina Turner's "What's Love Got to Do With It," Hall and Oates' "Method of Modem gies are activated by texts during the media scholars in their quest to under Love," Yes' "Owner of a Lonely Heart," Duran Duran's "ReOex," Nena's "99 Luftbalons," Kenny Loggins' "Footloose," Twisted Sister's "We're Not Gonna Take It," Quiet Riot's "Mental Health," reading process. One particularly inter stand the complex interaction of au Frankie Goes to Hollywood's "Relax," and TheJacksons' "State of Shock." esting and valuable research area might thor, text, and audience. It expands the 9Media references include It Happened One Night (1934), The Wkard ofOz (1939), Dumbo (1941), involve looking at how individual read way critics think of the practice of read OneFroggy Evening (1955), 17u Bridge Over the River Kwai (1957), Lawrenceof Arabia (1962), Fantastic ers reconcile the competing ideologies ing, and enhances understanding of Voyage(1966), Star Trek (1966), Planet of the Apes (1968),2001: A Space Odyssey(1968),jaws (1975), activated by reading a text. postmodern popular culture and its role Star Wars (1977), Fantasy Island (1978), Alien (1979), 17u Empire Strikes Back (1980), The Hitchhiker's In probing the notion of intertextual in the social world. It is a valuable Guide to the Galaxy (1981), Return oftheJedi (1983), The Transformers(1984), Transformers:17u Movie ity as motivated textual strategy, pa theoretical tool-provided that media (1986), and Max Headroom(1987). rodic allusion, creative inclusion, and scholars are precise about how they IOCreative appropriation is a prominent strategy in feminist art and is frequently used to self-reflexive reference were estab- are employing it. 0 illustrate the patriarchal ideology of the text from which it steals (see especially Suleiman, 1990). Ms. magazine provides an excellent example of the use of this strategy in media. Each month, the magazine publishes reader-submitted items in a section titled "No Comment." The "No Com ment" feature exposes the sexism of the submitted items simply by placing them in a new context Notes that invites an oppositional reading. For a more extended explanation, see Croteau and Hoynes (1997, pp. 252-254). IWe regard it as more than coincidence that the centering of the audience as a site of textual IIOne of the most novel uses of creative appropriation occurs in Steven Soderbergh's The Limey production and the expanding role of intentional allusion in media have developed concurrently. (1999). In this film, Oashbacks to the main character Wilson (Terrence Stamp) in his youth are Indeed, this perception informs the organization of our essay and the, at times, extensive account accomplished by incorporating clips from Ken Loach's POOT Cow (1967), in which a then much 444 445 AND WALTER INTERTEXTUAUTY DECEMBER 2000 CSMC OTT younger Terrence Stamp played a petty hood named Wilson. Creative appropriation in this case Barthes, R. (1988). Image, music, text (S. Heath, Trans.). New York: The Noonday Press. (Original functions not only as tribute, but also as a device that imbues the protagonist with historical depth. work published 1977). We are indebted to Karen Huck for this example. Bellamy, R., & Walker,j. (1996). Televisionand Ihe remotecontrol: GrtU..ingon a vasl wasteland. New 12According to Bianculli (1996), "[Dream On] was commissioned by MCA as a clever way to York: Guilford. recycle some of the other wise unused stuff in its vaults" (p. 95). Executive producer,John Landis, Bianculli, D. (1992). Telelileracy: Taking televisionseriously . New York: Continuum. estimates that the writers had over 800 half-hours worth of MCA shows upon which to draw. See "Dream On Inspiration." Retrieved June 16, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http:// Bianculli, D. (1996). Dictionary ofteleliteracy: Television:r500 biggesthits, misses,and events.New York: www.mca.com/tv/dreamon/landis_interview.htm!. Continuum. 13Appropriations include programs such as the Jane H;man Show (1955-58), G. E. Theater Brummett, B. (1985). Electric literature as equipment for living: Haunted house films. Critical (1953-62), AlcolaPremiere (1961-63), and FordStartime (1959-60). Studies in Mass Communication,2, 247-261. I'We recognize that the term "self-reflexive" is redundant since "reflexive" implies self Brummett, B. (1994). Rhetoric in popular culture. New York: St. Martin's Press. awareness. But in keeping with the current literature, we have decided to use this label anyway. Burke, K. (1973). The philosophy of literary form: Studies in symbolicaction . Berkeley: University of 15This exchange of information is closely tied to prestige. "Within the informational economy of California Press. the net, knowledge equals prestige, reputation, power. Knowledge gains currency through Campbell, R., & Freed, R. (1993). "We know it when we see it" : Postmodernism and television. circulation on the net, and so there is a compulsion to be the first to circulate new information and Television QJJarterly,26, 75-87. to be among the first to posses it" Genkins, 1995, p. 59}. Chesebro,j., & Bertelsen, D. (1996) . Analyzing media: Communication technologiesas symbolicand l6'fhe perception of television's "simple-mindedness" is reflected in the characterization of cognitive systems.New York: Guilford Press. viewers as "couch potatoes." Pedagogically, this perception is reinforced in formal educational spheres where reading is still taught, valued, and rewarded over viewing and surfing. Indeed, Collins, j. (1992). Television and postmodernism. In R. Allen (Ed.), Channels of discourse,reas literacy continues to be linked almost exclusively to literature in elementary education. Given the sembled: Televisionand contemporarycriticism (2nd ed., pp. 325-353). Chapel Hill: University of low social value attributed to media, heavy media use is a significant source of guilt in contempo North Carolina Press. rary culture. Self-reflexive forms work to resolve this guilt distancing themselves from forms by Collins,j. (1995). Architecturesof excess : Cultural lift in the informationage . New York: Routledge. that are unaware of their technical conventions and modes of appeal. Croteau, D., & Hoynes, W. (1997). Media/society:Industries, images,and audiences. Thous.and Oaks: 17A good example of this logic is the introduction of fractals in mathematics. Pine Forge Press. 18Research indicates that when young viewers lose interest in a television program they use the "Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid," http://us.imdb .comlTitle?0083798, accessed 16 June 1999. remote control device to fashion their own program, flipping back and forth between multiple shows (Bellamy & Walker, 1996, pp. 107-115). "Dead Men Plaid," http://weeklywire.comm, accessed 16June 1999. 19Many of the fan-related Web sites dedicated to Comedy Central's South Park, for example, Derrida,j. (1976) . Ofgrammatology(G. Spivak, Trans.). Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press. feature Original, self-produced parodies of other media using the characters of the show. At (Original work published 1967). www.sweet.com. users can download high-resolution movie poster parodies such as The Fat Red Eco, U. (1984). The name ofthe rose. New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich. Line, Saving Private McCormick,and Park Trek. At www.infinicorp.comlbabylonparkl. users can read elaborate narratives concerning South Park characters that parody the show BabylonS. The Fink, M. (1998, September 20). They got skin and bones to pick with Calista. New York Daily News. fan-related Web pages for other highly intertextual media also frequently feature products that Fiske,j. (1987). Televisionculture . New York: Routledge. illustrate exceptional skill at creating parody. Fiske,j. (1989). Understandingpopular culture. Boston: Unwin Hyman. 20We are compelled by both Burke's (1973) contention that symbolic forms (satire, parody, and tragedy, for instance) function as equipment for living, as stylistic medicines for confronting the Genette, G . (1982). 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Dorothy had a good heart and it 262-263) Suleiman, S. (1990). Subversiveintent: Gender,politics, and the avant-garde.Cambridge : Harvard was in the right place, which is why I University Press. suppose she won out over the evil witch. Novelist Terry McMillan's account White, M. (1992). IdeolOgical analysis and television. In R Allen (Ed.), Channels of discourse, I've learned that one, too ... . So I think I of the impact of The WiQlrd of0<. on her reassembled:Television and contemporarycriticism (2nd ed., pp. 161-202). Chapel Hill: University of life speaks to a familiar fonn of human North Carolina Press. experience. Many people can remem Williams,]. (1998). When you care enough to watch the very best: The mystique of moonlighting. Stephen Dine Young is an Assistant Professor in ber at least one movie that has tran Journal ofPopular Film and Television,16, 90-100. the PsychologyDepartment at Hanover College, scended cinema's mundane ability to Wurman, R. (1989). Informationanxiety . New York: Doubleday. Hanover, IN, 47243. An earlier version of this entertain and left a deeper, lasting im paper was presented at the 7996 Annual Con pression. Those experiences in which ReceivedJuly 1, 1999 vention of the American Psychological Associa art fonns such as film transfonn mem Accepted August 31, 1999 tion. This article was drawn from a dissertation completed at the Francis L. Hiatt School of bers of the audience will be the focus of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Clark this study. University, under the direction of Bernard Relatively few scholarly works on Kaplan. art take transfonnation to be the central