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Exploring the Potential Health and Safety Issues of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana

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Exploring the Potential Health and Safety Issues of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING IN GHANA; A CASE STUDY by WILLIAM BUTLER MCWHORTER SETH APPIAH-OPOKU, COMMITTEE CHAIR JOSEPH WEBER STEVEN JONES A THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Department of Geography in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA 2017 Copyright William Butler McWhorter 2017 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining is a way of life for many individuals living in developing countries, especially Africa. This subsistence form of mining provides many households with an income to provide food and shelter for their families. Although done with good intentions, limited financial resources along with the lack of government capacity to properly regulate small-scale gold mining activities leads to hazardous working conditions that can be detrimental to both human health and the environment. By using a case study approach, this paper explores the current mining techniques being used in rural Ghana to identify the health and safety issues associated with small-scale gold mining and policy options to help streamline the mining process. Although the appropriate regulations exist, much of Ghana’s small-scale gold mining sector is pushed to operate informally which through financial shortcuts exposes miners and the surrounding community to health and safety risks. By identifying the issues at hand, we hope to promote more effective policies that streamline the small-scale gold mining process through active local government cooperation while creating a more sustainable environment and safe workplace for future generations. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am honored to have this opportunity to thank the many family, friends, faculty, and colleagues who have helped make this project possible. Thank you to Dr. Seth Appiah-Opoku, chairman of this thesis, for seeing potential in me and giving me the opportunity to work on this project along with facilitating fieldwork; without you, none of this would have been possible. Thank you to Dr. Joseph Weber and Dr. Steven Jones for all of their help and guidance throughout the process, and to all of the friends and faculty in the University of Alabama Geography Department. Thank you to Dr. Nicholas Kerr for the inspiration and motivation you provided. You sparked my interest in Africa and provided me with the opportunity to undertake research at the academic level early in my undergraduate career, and for this, I am forever grateful. Thank you most of all to Ricky McWhorter, Sherry McWhorter, Sara McWhorter, Ray McWhorter, Ruby McWhorter, Tommy Wayne McCullough, and Jane McCullough for many years of guidance and encouragement, without which none of this would have been possible. iii CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………............................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………... iii LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….. v LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………... vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………... 1 CHAPTER 2: CASE STUDY OF CURRENT ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING PROCESS IN GHANA………………………………...……………….8 CHAPTER 3: POTENTIAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING…………………………………………….... 14 CHAPTER 4: POLICY AND PROCEDURAL RECOMMENDATIONS…………………….. 19 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………...… 22 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………. 24 iv LIST OF TABLES 1. Legislation Governing Mining in Ghana…………………………………………………….. 4 2. Relevant Government Institutions…………………………………………………………… 5 3. Pontential Health and Safety Issues at Each Stage of the Observed ASGM Process……… 14 v LIST OF FIGURES 1. ASGM operation site used in case study……………………………………………………… 9 2. Major Gold Deposits in Ghana…………...…………………………………………………… 9 3. Gold Mining Shaft…………………………………………………………………………… 10 4. Potential Gold-Bearing Rock……………………………………………………………….... 10 5a. Hammer Mill………………………………………………………………………………... 12 5b. “Smoother” Mill…………………………………………………………………………….. 12 6a. Washing……………………………………………………………………………………... 12 6b. Sluicing……………………………………………………………………………………... 12 7. Observed Galamsey Gold Mining Process…………………………………………………... 12 vi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION According to the World Bank, Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining occurs in roughly 80 countries worldwide, most of which are developing countries, and employs over 13 million workers worldwide suggesting that upwards of 100 million people directly depend on small-scale mining compared to only 7 million in commercial mining (The World Bank 2013). Despite these operations resulting in relatively low yields, the small-scale sector helps to provide financial security to families in some of the most poverty-stricken regions of the world. Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining is defined by its use of rudimentary techniques to extract precious metals and can be undertaken legally or illegally. Due to a lack of monetary resources, many financial shortcuts are taken which when accompanied by the limited government capacity to regulate such activities can lead to hazardous working conditions that present health and safety concerns for miners and the surrounding community. To better analyze and understand the health and safety impacts associated with small-scale gold mining, we will be using a case study of a rural mining community in Ghana, West Africa. As a developing country, Ghana relies heavily on the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors for its financial security. In 2014, the industrial sector accounted for 26% of the total GDP, and of that, mining and quarrying played a substantial role (Ghana Statistical Service 2014). Ghana, historically referred to as the Gold Coast, is known for its abundance in gold-rich sediment producing upwards of 100 metric tons per year and is second in gold exports in Africa behind South Africa (USGS 2017). Gold mining in Ghana not only has economic impacts but has a firm cultural hold on its people dating back to the Ashanti Kingdom 1 which was known for its gold artifacts. Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) has been practiced for centuries in Ghana; however, it was not officially legal until the 1989 Small- Scale Mining Laws were enacted which formalized the sector and provided avenues for small- scale miners to sell its product (1989 Small-Scale Mining Laws). Despite being legal, bureaucratic hurdles exist that lead to many operations choosing to forgo licenses and work informally and partake in galamsey (a local Ghanaian term meaning illegal small-scale gold mining). This accompanied with the lack of government capacity to efficiently regulate gold mining activities leads to miners and workers being unnecessarily exposed to unsafe and unhealthy working conditions. This paper explores the health and safety impacts of Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana in an attempt to promote more efficient policies and practices to create a more sustainable environment and workplace for future generations. This is accomplished by (1) determining current galamsey gold mining techniques being used in rural Ghana, (2) determining health and safety issues associated with the techniques, and (3) recommending policies to help streamline the mining process to benefit both the local government and ASGM operations. The earliest records suggest that the peoples of Ghana mined gold for several centuries primarily through Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining before the Portuguese arrived in West Africa (Ofosu-Mensah 2011). Although an official worldwide definition does not exist, ASGM is defined by its use of rudimentary techniques to extract gold with relatively low yields (World Bank 2013). Unlike large commercial operations, ASGM is primarily subsistence mining and provides for upwards of one million families worldwide. Although gold mining has existed in Ghana for centuries, activities amplified in the 1980s with the implementation of Ghana’s Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). The World Bank saw this industrial sector as a way to attract foreign investment through the privatization of the gold mining industry in an attempt to 2 catalyze the economy and thus help to eradicate poverty. The SAP heavily favored commercial operations and ASGM activities were pushed aside and technically illegal until the 1989 Small- Scale Mining Laws were enacted (Hilson 2005). Potential international commercial operations were given large tracts of gold-rich land despite it being home to many communities, and individuals living in these tracts were relocated from their ancestral land. Despite all of the obstacles in place, ASGM continued informally, and extracted minerals were commonly smuggled to neighboring countries through a well-established black market. This was enriching neighboring countries such as Cote d’Ivoire who were exporting gold despite lacking significant gold deposits (Teschner 2012). Once Ghana realized the loss of revenue, they enacted the 1989 Small-Scale Mining Laws which made the small-scale sector formal and created a permit system while providing avenues for the sale and purchase of artisanally mined minerals. However, the process to obtain a permit is lengthy and requires many procedural and bureaucratic hurdles and can take upwards of 6-8 months for the registration process alone. Miners reported that fees were unreasonable and paperwork was excessive (Hilson 2003). Besides the 1983 Small Scale Mining Laws, most of the legislation and government institutions governing mining is geared toward
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