Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts: the Case of Shakespeare's

Kathrin Bethke Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts: The Case of Shakespeare’s Sonnets

Abstract: In More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor, George Lakoff and Mark Turner argue that poetic metaphors are simply variations and extensions of basic conceptual metaphors that structure everyday language. Based on examples from William Shakespeare’s sonnet sequence, this article reconsiders the question of poetic metaphor with a particular focus on the function of emotion metaphors in literary texts. Poetic metaphors of emotion, this study argues, can capture affective states that have no stable place in the English emotion lexicon, such as the feeling of “heaviness” described in Shakespeare’s sonnet 50 or the feeling of “worthlessness” described in sonnet 87. Even though poetic metaphors may be derived from basic conceptual metaphors, they can potentially function as absolute metaphors that make historically as well as culturally remote affective states accessible to the intellect.

Keywords: conceptual metaphor, embodiment, emotion, metaphor, prosody, Shakespeare, sonnet

1 Emotion metaphors as absolute metaphors

What is the function of metaphors in the representation and description of affective phenomena? How do emotion metaphors work when they are part of a literary text? And is there, in fact, any difference between the emotion concepts we use in our everyday language and poetic metaphors of emotion? Scholars from the field of cognitive linguistics have argued that metaphors are not just “a matter of word play,” but that they are an integral part of the human conceptual system (Lakoff and Turner 1989, 50; Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Zoltán Kövecses has shown in numerous studies that conceptual metaphors are frequently used in everyday discourses of emotions (Kövecses 1988, 1990, 2000). Lakoff and Turner have also argued that there is usually no qualitative difference between metaphorical expressions in literary texts and ordinary language: poetic metaphors are in most cases variations or extensions of the same basic concepts that structure our everyday language, they claim (1989, 9). The present study reconsiders the question of poetic metaphor with a special focus on figurative descriptions of affective states. Based on examples from William Shakespeare’s 1609 sonnet sequence, it argues that literary texts encode

Open Access. © 2021 Kathrin Bethke, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110642032-002 16 Kathrin Bethke a historically specific knowledge of affect by means of their figurative language. Even though the conceptual metaphors that structure these poems might be basic and conventional, the way they are blended and extended makes them capable of capturing subtle and often nameless affective states: Shakespeare’s sonnets frequently describe affective phenomena that no longer occupy a stable place in the English emotion lexicon. Sonnet 50, for example, thematizes the feeling of “heaviness”, which, throughout the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, was used as a synonym for sadness and was thus associated with melancholia.1 Sonnet 87 portrays, in a cascade of metaphors from the source domains of law and trade, the sudden drop in self-esteem after being rejected by a lover. While the word “heaviness” was used widely as a signifier for an emotional state in Shakespeare’s time, it is difficult, if not impossible, to find in the catalogue of available emotion words a proper label for the emotion portrayed in sonnet 87. In texts like these, emotion metaphors become “absolute metaphors.”2 They have the capacity of not just illustrating, but actually creating nuances of emotions or affective dispositions that are either not registered in our emotion lexicon at all, or that have become marginal over time. Considering the metaphorical structure of these poems, as well as the way their figurative language interacts with their sound structure and metrical peculiarities, will show that poetic metaphors have the power of making accessible the intricate facets of emotional states that belong to historically or culturally removed affect cultures. Connected to the argument of this case study, then, is the larger argument that literary texts can serve as storage spaces of a knowledge of affect that is neither covered entirely by folk theories of emotion (as they are expressed in everyday concepts) nor by scientific discourses of emotion in any given period.

2 Theoretical perspectives on metaphor and emotion

The theoretical history of emotion metaphors is as old as the theory of metaphor itself:

1 The Sonnets are cited following The Norton Shakespeare (Shakespeare 2008). 2 The concept of “absolute metaphors” as “translations” that “resist being converted back into authenticity and logicality” was introduced in 1960 by Hans Blumenberg in Paradigms of a Met- aphorology (2010, 3). Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts 17

Let us begin then, with the commonest and by far the most beautiful of tropes, namely metaphor, the Greek term for our translatio. It is not merely so natural a turn of speech that it is often employed unconsciously or by uneducated persons […]. It adds to the copious- ness of language by the interchange of words and by borrowing, and finally succeeds in accomplishing the supremely difficult task of giving a name to everything. (Quintilian 1922, 8.6.4–5; emphasis in original)

This passage from Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria mentions two characteristics of figurative speech that overlap with the core arguments of conceptual metaphor theory. Firstly, Quintilian draws attention to the fact that metaphor is not an exclusively ornamental feature of refined speech but that we use metaphorical concepts frequently in our everyday language – without even noticing. Secondly, he argues that figurative language is able to fill lexical gaps, that it provides linguistic expressions wherever the so-called verbum proprium is missing: “A noun or a verb is transferred from the place to which it properly belongs to another where there is either no literal term or the transferred is better than the literal” (Quintilian 1922, 8.6.5; emphasis in original). His examples suggest that the field of human emotions and affective dispositions is one in which metaphor’s capacity to supplement our lexical system is needed most: “We speak of a hard or rough man,” he says, because there is “no literal term for these temperaments” (Quin- tilian 1922, 8.6.6; emphasis in original). The same is true for the description of the following affective states: “we say that a man is kindled to anger (‘incensum irae’) or on fire with greed (‘inflammatum cupiditatae’) or that he has fallen into error (‘lapsum errore’)” because none of these processes can be rendered better “in its own word (‘verbum proprium’) than in those we import from elsewhere” (Quintilian 1922, 8.6.7; emphasis in original). George Lakoff and his collaborators have amended and expanded Quintil- ian’s substitution theory of metaphor by insisting that metaphorical processes are not in fact based on the exchange of words or lexical positions but rather rely on the transfer of concepts and image schemas in order to make abstract phenomena accessible to our intellect in the first place. Metaphors, they argue, have a cognitive as well as an epistemological function, and structure the entire conceptual system on which our perception of the world is based: “human thought processes are largely metaphorical,” they claim (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 6). Their theory of conceptual metaphor can be summarized as follows:

In general it can be suggested that a conceptual metaphor consists of a source and a target domain and that the source domain is, at least in the everyday cases, typically better under- stood and more concrete than the target domain. (Kövecses 2008, 381) 18 Kathrin Bethke

The process of exchanging and replacing words from a paradigm of signifiers connected by similarity, as it is described by Quintilian, now becomes a process of conceptual mapping. According to Lakoff and Turner, the mapping process transfers properties and knowledge, as well as structures and relations, that belong to the concrete source domain to the abstract target domain, thereby connecting and blending both conceptual domains with one another, or even creating and inventing features of the target domain by building new properties and structures into it (Lakoff and Turner 1989, 54, 67). Like Quintilian, the Hungarian scholar of linguistics Zoltán Kövecses has shown that conceptual metaphors also pervade everyday language about emotions. He has identified the basic concepts from which conventional expressions regarding various emotions are derived. In his notation each conceptual metaphor is rendered in capitals and followed by examples of its linguistic actualiza- tion in italics:

LOVE IS A NUTRIENT: I am starved for love. […] LOVE IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER: She was overflowing with love. LOVE IS FIRE: I am burning with love. LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE: I’m putting more into this than you are. […] LOVE IS A NATURAL FORCE: She swept me off my feet. LOVE IS AN OPPONENT: She tried to fight her feelings of love. […] LOVE IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR: She was completely ruled by love. (Kövecses 2000, 26)

Although the capitalized concept of “LOVE” suggests that all these examples target the same phenomenon, it has to be noted that each of them actually addresses one specific aspect or component of the emotion. Phrases like “burning with love” or “being starved for love” are not descriptive of love in general; they actually target the physiological symptoms associated with a very specific kind of romantic love, whereas the phrase “she was completely ruled by love” targets the problem of emotion regulation. “Each metaphor provides structure for comprehending a different aspect of the target domain,” Lakoff and Turner argue (1989, 53). This function of emotion metaphors is congruent with Klaus Scherer’s “component process model of emotion,” according to which each emotion episode comprises at least five different features, or stages, starting with a “cognitive component” named appraisal and a “neurophysiological component” consisting of neurological processes as well as physiological symptoms that manifest themselves in the body. Furthermore, each emotion has a “motivational component” that determines a person’s “action tendencies” in response to a stimulus; and then there are facial and vocal expressions, which make up the so-called “motor-expression component” (Scherer 2005, 698). Finally, emotions have a “subjective feeling component,” which determines the actual phenomenological experience of the emotion Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts 19 episode (Scherer 2005, 699). Scherer’s model conceives of emotions as complex multifaceted processes that involve all parts of the human organism. It can be used as a heuristic concept in the analysis of historical emotion discourses – even though these may be based on different theoretical premises, explanations, and terminologies. But what exactly distinguishes basic conceptual metaphors from the figurative language used in Shakespeare’s poetry? Based on an analysis of different conceptualizations of death in poems by John Donne, Emily Dickinson, and others, Lakoff and Turner have argued that even the most intricate poetic metaphors are usually simply extensions or elaborations of basic conceptual metaphors (Lakoff and Turner 1989, 53–55). According to their study, the inventiveness one might attribute to poetic modes of figuration is not grounded in the discovery of new conceptual domains that would allow for original metaphorical expressions. Instead, invention resides in the creative linguistic variation of metaphorical concepts that are already there. By looking at different conceptualizations of love in Shakespeare’s Sonnets, this hypothesis can be tested.

3 Conceptualizations of love in Shakespeare’s Sonnets

My love is strengthened, though more weak in seeming. I love not less, though less the show appear. That love is merchandized whose rich esteeming The owner’s tongue doth publish everywhere. (102.1–4)

Upon first glance, this accumulation of metaphorical descriptions of love appears as though it can be divided into, and reduced tidily to, different basic conceptual metaphors:

LOVE IS A LIVING ORGANISM: My love is strengthened […] LOVE IS A SUBSTANCE: I love not less […] LOVE IS A COMMODITY: That love is merchandized […] LOVE IS A TREASURE: […] whose rich esteeming LOVE IS A SECRET: The owner’s tongue doth publish everywhere.

Understanding the theoretical implications of this passage from sonnet 102 with regard to the emotion in question, however, requires reading these basic conceptual metaphors in combination: in the first two lines, the speaker of the poem suggests that there might be a discrepancy between the visible signs of his affec- 20 Kathrin Bethke tions and their actual intensity. Claiming such an incongruence between reality and appearance demands conceptualizing the abstract feeling of love as something that has physical properties, namely power (“My love is strengthened”) and quantity (“I love not less”). While the beginning of the stanza is concerned with the semiotics of affect, the following lines thematize the display rules of emotion as well as the regulative effect of verbalizing a feeling. The poem shifts from the source domain of the physical world to the world of finance and suggests that love is a treasure, the value of which would be compromised and cheapened by broadcasting it. The basic metaphors in the passage may not be original, but in this particular combination they capture a familiar, yet barely explicable phenomenon: the intensity and integrity of a tender feeling can be enhanced as well as protected by a certain amount of discretion. According to Lakoff and Turner, poetic metaphors are distinguished from basic conceptual metaphors in the way they extend, elaborate, accumulate, or compose conventional metaphorical concepts (1989, 53–55, 67–70). The effect of these strategies is often one of defamiliarization, meaning that “authors call upon our knowledge of basic conceptual metaphors in order to manipulate them in unusual ways” (Lakoff and Turner 1989, 54). This is precisely what happens in the following passage:

Your love and pity doth th’impression fill Which vulgar scandal stamped upon my brow; For what care I who calls me well or ill, So you o’ergreen my bad, my good allow? (112.1–4)

These lines are based on the same conventional basic concepts as those in the previous example: LOVE IS A SUBSTANCE and LOVE IS A LIVING ORGANISM, in this case a plant. However, the passage activates different aspects of the source domain: the metaphor highlights not the variable quantity but the special consist- ency of the substance of love. Love is imagined to be the plaster of Paris that evens out the scars and wrinkles that a personified “vulgar scandal” has imprinted on the speaker’s face. Traditionally, the purpose of a personification or prosopopoeia is to give a face to something abstract or absent, which this example literally does. As opponents of “scandal,” “love” and “pity” can be read as corresponding per- sonifications that work, like make-up artists, on the speaker’s face to even out the external traces of his inward pain. In line four of the quotation, however, the ambiguous metaphor undergoes another metamorphosis as love’s plaster is now transformed into a plant that overgrows both the scandalous “impressions” on the speaker’s face and the rumours they have inspired. The following extract contains a similar multiple blend: Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts 21

Sweet love renew thy force. Be it not said Thy edge should blunter be than appetite, Which but today by feeding is allayed, Tomorrow sharpened in his former might. (56.1–4)

The basic concepts that structure this passage are merged artfully into a complex triple blend. The first line suggests, quite conventionally, that LOVE IS AN EXTERNAL POWER. The following line opposes romantic love and sexual desire (“appetite”) as well as merging the two concepts LOVE IS HUNGER and LOVE IS A BLADE. The speaker wishes that his amorous affection may remain just as keen and urgent as his baser yearnings. The association between love and the physical sensation of hunger might actually be descriptive of the way love can manifest itself in a physical symptom that resembles a stomach pain. The concept of the blade specifies the phenomenological qualities of that pain, which might feel blunt or sharp. It activates the source domain of the body in order to convey the phenomenological qualities of love and thus an intensity that, in this particular case, is actually welcomed by the speaker: “Sweet love renew thy force.” By invit- ing the sharp pain of physical appetite, and by resisting its appeasement through “feeding,” the poem extends the conventional LOVE IS HUNGER metaphor in a rather unexpected and unconventional way. The particular mode of figuration used in this sonnet is called embodiment and has been investigated by, among others, Raymond Gibbs, who argues that “embodiment is central to understanding emotional experience” (2006, 243).3 The interesting paradox regarding embodied emotion concepts is that they might be used as metaphors that invoke physical sensations in order to convey the more abstract aspect of what Klaus Scherer calls the “subjective feeling component” of emotion (2005, 698), just as they might target its concrete physiological symptoms – which would technically turn them into metonymies.

4 Sonnet 50 and the feeling of heaviness

Embodied emotion concepts, regardless of whether they target the phenomenological aspects of an emotion or its “subjective feeling component,” draw attention to a difficult theoretical question regarding emotion metaphors in general: do such metaphors address only our conceptual understanding of an emotion, or do

3 The special role of the source domain of the body in conceptual metaphors has also been investigated by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Johnson 1987, 2007). 22 Kathrin Bethke they somehow make it accessible on a phenomenological level as well? Raymond Gibbs has argued that embodied metaphors are particularly well suited to conceptualizing emotions because they activate the mnemonic system of the body as a supplement to the cognitive processing of verbal information (2006, 273). Shakespeare’s sonnet 50 testifies to the advantages of metaphorical embodiment by expanding and elaborating an embodied concept that was temporarily lexicalized as a common emotion word during the Renaissance:

How heavy do I journey on the way, When what I seek – my weary travel’s end – Doth teach that ease and that repose to say “Thus far the miles are measured from thy friend.” (50.1–4)

This poem, which describes the speaker’s departure from his beloved, uses the physical sensation of “heaviness” to conceptualize the mental feeling of “heaviness.” In the first stanza, the word “heavy” is identified as a synonym for sadness and weariness by the context: travel is difficult because the only comfort the speaker can expect at his journey’s end is the exact knowledge of how far away his beloved actually is. A quick search of Ian Lancashire’s Lexicons of Early Modern English database (2018) shows that the words “heavy” and “heaviness” are frequently listed as syn- onyms for mental states such as sorrow and sadness, anguish, and “ponderity” (e. g. Blount 1969 [1656], s. v. “ponderity”). A dictionary attributed to Geoffrey the Grammarian (and cited here according to an anonymous reprint) distinguishes three kinds of “heuyenesse” with its entries on “heuynesse in herte,” “heuynesse of slepe,” and “heuynesse of weight” (Promptorium Parvulorum 1968 [1499]). There is no distinction between heaviness as a physical attribute of bodies that have mass and the metaphorical application of the term to psychological states in these entries. Thomas Blount’s Glossographia lists heaviness as the primary symptom of melancholia:

Melancholy is by Phisitians reckoned for one of the four humors of mans body, and resembles the Earth, as Choler doth the fire; Blood the air; Phleme the water. It is said to be the grossest of all four, which, if it abound too much, causeth heaviness and sadness of mind. (Blount 1969 [1656], s. v. “melancholy”)

Shakespeare’s poem highlights and exposes the physical origins of this widely used emotion word:

The beast that bears me, tired with my woe Plods dully on to bear that weight in me. (50.5–6) Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts 23

Even though the speaker’s heaviness is clearly identified as emotional baggage (he speaks about his “woe” which is localized “in me”), it has a physical impact on his surroundings: the speaker’s mind is so heavy that the horse that carries him is unable to move any further.

The bloody spur cannot provoke him on That sometimes anger thrusts into his hide, Which heavily he answers with a groan More sharp to me than spurring to his side. (50.9–12)

As the poem continues, but the speaker’s journey does not, another conceptual agent comes into play: a personified anger transfers the speaker’s emotional state brutally onto the animal. Eventually, the horse becomes just as “heavy” as its master and ejects a “heavy groan,” which, in turn, is conceptualized as a vocal spur that causes a sharp pain in the speaker’s mind:

For that same groan doth put this in my mind: My grief lies onward and my joy behind. (50.13–14)

In contrast to the examples given earlier, this poem not only creates multiple blends that project the physical onto the abstract and vice versa. It also creates an entire desperate scene in order to convey the affective state of hopeless despair and mental paralysis that is characteristic of melancholia. T. S. Eliot has famously described similar scenes in his Hamlet essay, which can be read as a theory of embodiment avant la lettre:

The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an “objective correlative”: in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must termi- nate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. (Eliot 1975, 48; emphasis in original)

Exemplary passages from the Sonnets have shown that Shakespeare combines and blends basic conceptual metaphors in extremely intricate ways, and that this mode of conceptualizing emotions is particularly efficient when he uses the source domain of the body to do so. The use of embodied metaphors appears to be at once consistent with the psychophysiological explanation of the passions in the Renaissance and current theories of embodiment that consider the physical experience of the world as one of the most capable instruments for communicat- ing emotional experience. 24 Kathrin Bethke

5 Sonnet 87 and the feeling of worthlessness

Finally, I want to consider a poem that describes a complex affective state for which it is hard to find a label in the English emotion lexicon – it literally creates an “objective correlative” for something which provisionally could be termed the “feeling of worthlessness.” Unlike the previous examples, this poem does not make use of embodied metaphors. Instead, it exploits a set of source domains one would hardly associate with the experience of intense emotions, namely the semantic fields of trade, finance, and bookkeeping. Nevertheless, it is one of the most beautiful and moving poems of the sequence.

Farewell – thou art too dear for my possessing, And like enough thou know’st thy estimate, The charter of thy worth gives thee releasing; My bonds in thee are all determinate. For how do I hold thee but by thy granting? And for that riches where is my deserving? The cause of this fair gift in me is wanting, And so my patent back again is swerving. Thy self thou gav’st, thy own worth then not knowing, Or me to whom thou gav’st it else mistaking; So thy great gift, upon misprision growing, Comes home again, on better judgement making. Thus have I had thee, as a dream doth flatter, In sleep a king, but waking no such matter. (87.1–14)

This poem stands out from the rest of Shakespeare’s Sonnets in several ways. Unlike the majority of the poems that express a hopeless devotion to an aloof and self-sufficient young man of exquisite beauty, sonnet 87 presupposes the temporary fulfilment of the speaker’s desire and marks at the same time, and only two- thirds of the way through the sequence, the end of this liaison. The separation has not come about through any decision or action of the addressee. The speaker himself is convinced that his beloved has committed a clerical error (“misprision”) in his emotional reckoning and that he himself no longer fulfils the requirements of the contract or bond connecting them. Whatever relationship existed between them, he concludes, must therefore be terminated. The poem contains twenty-two nouns, eighteen of which have a financial or legal connotation. The first stanza invokes the microeconomic technique of double-entry bookkeeping and the complementary discipline of arithmetic. One part of the double-entry system, aside from a memorial and a double ledger, was the inventory – a meticulous list of items and possessions that, in sum, constituted the net worth of an estate. The speaker’s reference to the beloved’s “charter of […] Emotion Metaphors and Literary Texts 25 worth” suggests an inventory of his qualities whose final balance exceeds his own worth and thus “releases” him from all obligation. By mentioning the metaphor of the “bond,” the poem invokes the discourse of usury and money-lending, thereby suggesting that a love relationship is a temporary business connection. Whatever passes between two lovers must be eventually repaid with interest, at least according to the speaker’s reasoning, which is unable to accommodate the paradoxical logic of the gift and insists on balanced amorous accounts instead. What exactly is the emotional equivalent of the disturbingly profane business venture that constitutes the relationship described here? On a conceptual level, the poem illustrates the emotion component of cognitive appraisal: it activates the source domain of finance and reckoning, and literally performs an economic appraisal of the self, thereby suggesting that there is an inherent connection between affect and the concept of value. However, unlike the previous poems, this one does not actually name the feeling it is discussing. Aside from a wistful “farewell” in the first line, nothing in the extremely logical calculation conducted by the poem indicates the speaker’s emotional response to the inevitable conse- quence of his reckoning. Nevertheless, the profanity of economic calculation is undermined by the poem’s remarkable sound structure and prosodic features. Whatever affective state is objectively correlated on the level of figuration is also encoded on a phenomenological level in the stylistic configuration of the poem. How does it achieve this effect? The poem’s most significant and distinctive feature is its unusual set of rhymes: as one of only two poems in the entire sequence, it has – with the excep- tion of one masculine line in the first stanza – feminine endings throughout. In addition to their phonetic resemblance as rhyme-fellows, these rhymes are pho- netically cross-connected as homeoteleuta by way of their unstressed endings in the syllable “-ing.” The consonance of the feminine cadences in twelve out of fourteen lines creates a tremendous homogeneity of sound that evens out completely the extreme structural imbalance created by the single masculine rhyme in the first quatrain. It also compensates for the imperfect rhyme between “possessing” and “releasing” in stanza 1. In terms of metre, sonnet 87 displays, upon first glance, an unusual regular- ity: the metrical stresses prescribed by the pentameter line coincide through large parts of the poem with the natural word accents. However, there are two significant disruptions of the iambic pattern in lines 5 and 13. The first hemistichs of these two lines, “how do I hold thee” and “Thus have I had thee,” contain a dactyl and a trochee, and thus follow the metrical pattern of the adonic, the conclud- ing line of the Sapphic ode stanza. They can be isolated as metrical hypograms that create the latent presence of a number of intertexts evoked by the Sapphic signature line. By way of these intertexts, the adonic is pre-coded with a specific 26 Kathrin Bethke affect scenario similar to that described in the sonnet. In Sappho’s fragments, for example, the adonic line is used in poetic complaints to Aphrodite about a restless infatuation as well as for the expression of grief over the demise of the beautiful youth (Sappho 2002, 168). It is thus the metrical signature of a very specific sen- timent. Sonnet 87 uses conceptual metaphors from the source domains of finance and reckoning to describe the appraisal structure of a particular emotion that applies the concept of value to the self. But the phenomenal qualities of that feeling only become accessible through the phenomenal qualities of the non-conceptual ele- ments of poetic language.

6 Conclusion

Using examples from Shakespeare’s sonnet sequence, it has been shown that poetic metaphors of emotion may be derived from basic conceptual structures, but that the communication of complex affective states depends on the combination and variation of those conceptual metaphors. Furthermore, conceptual metaphors are not universal; metaphors derived from the source domain of the body, in particular, can have historically variable functions as emotion metaphors. Addi- tionally, it has become clear that emotion concepts, once they are correlated with the phenomenality of the poetic text, can invoke subtle affective states that would not be accessible to us by way of mere conceptualization.

Works cited

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Kathrin Bethke is an assistant professor of English Literature at the University of Kiel. She is interested in the history and theory of emotions and is currently com- pleting her dissertation on William Shakespeare’s use of economic metaphors in the conceptualization of affective states. She has held scholarships from the DRS (Dahlem Research School) and the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) for research stays at Stanford University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.