DOCUMENT RESIII E ED 026 366 24 TE 000 975 A Curriculum in Written Composition, K-3: A Guide for Teaching. Georgia Univ., Athens. English Curriculum Study Center. Spons Agency-Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. Bureau of Research. Bureau No- BR -5 -0.565 Pub Date 68 Contract-OEC-4 -10-017 Note- 308p. Available from-English Curriculum Study Center, 312 Baldwin Hall, Univ. of Georgia. Athens, Georgia 30601 ($3.75). EDRS Price MF-$1.25 HC-$1550 Descriptors-Business Correspondence, *Composition (Literary),CreativeWriting.DiachronicLinguistics. Dialects. Dictionaries, *Elementzry Education, English, *English Instruction, Figurative Language, Instructional Materials, Language Usage, Letters (Correspondence), Morphology (Languages), Paragraph Composition, Poetry, Sentence Structure, Sequential Programs, *Teaching Guides, Teaching Methods Identifiers-*Project English, University of Georgia English Corriculum Study Cen Thisteaching guide for written composition in grades K-3 contains (1) a statement of objectives for a curriculum in composition. (2) sequence charts which relate subject content for each grade to basic understandings about composition. (3) illustrations of ways in which the ordinary experiences of children can become the bases for compositions. and (4) units for teaching specific skills. The units for each of the four grades are "Structuring a Composition," "Paragraph Development." "informal Correspondence: PersonalLetters," "Formal Correspondence: Business Letters; "Stories and Plays: "Poetry as a Writing Form; "Factual Reporting," "Definiton; Tigurative Language." "The Dictionary," "History of the English Language." "Morphology," "Sentence Structure," and "Usacie and Dialect." (Each of these units is also published as an individual bulletin for grades K-6. Price lists for the bulletins may bo obtained from Prof. Mary Tingle, 312 Baldwin Hall, Univ. of Georgia, Athens. Ga. 30601.) (JS) A CURRICULUMIN
WRITTEN COMPOSITION K 3
A Guid forTeaching
ENGUSH CURRICULUMSTUDY CENTER
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA,ATHENS, GEORGIA U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION &WEiFARE OFFICE Of EDUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE
PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINAENGIT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS
STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENTOFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION
POSITION OR POLICY.
A CURRICULUMIN WRITTENCOMPOSITION
K-3
1
1 A Guide forTeaching
ENGLISH CURRICULUM STUDY CENTER
University of Georgia,Athens, Georgia This study was done in theEnglish Curriculum Study Center of the University ofGeorgia. The Curriculum Study Center reported herein wassupported through the Cooperative Research Program of theOffice of Education U. S. Department of Health,Education, and Wei:ire.
The English Curriculum StudyCenter
The University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia
1968 PERSONNEL OF THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM STUDY CENTER
COORDINATING STAFF
Rachel S. Sutton, Co-Director J. W. Richard Lindemann Mary J. Tingle, Co-Director (Co-Director, 1963-1964) Sue W. Cromartie William J. Free (1964-1965) Emeliza Swain Jane Appleby (1965-1968) L. Ramon Veal Warren G. Findley
CONSULTANTS
Dorothea McCarthy Alvina Burrows Walter Loban Hulda Grobman Arthur H. Livermore Kellogg Hunt Margaret Early Ralph Tyler Ruth Strickland J. N. Hook
GRADUATE RESEARCH ASSISTANTS
Edieann F. Biesbrock (1967-1968)1 Virginia Howard (1964-1966) Alice Christmas (1963-1965) nellie Maze (1965-1967) Carmie T. Cochrane (1963-1964) Marilyn Mathews (1967-1968) Marya DuBose (1965-1968) Frances Middleton (1967-199) Cornelia C. Eldridge (1964-1965) Editha B. Mills (1966-1967) June Ewing (1963-1966) James Monday (1965-1966) Joanne Fudv (1967) Rhoda Newman (1964-1965) Jessie Post Gough (1964-1965) Pamela Roffman (1966-1967) Emily B. Gregory (1963-1964) Nan Tomlinson (1965-1966) Ethel Harris (1963-1964) Audrey Walker (1966-1968) Emmaline Hendricksen (1963-1964) Lavinia Wood (1966-1967) Rose Nell Horne (1964-1965)
1In cooperation with the Research and Development Center in Educational Stimulation at the University of Georgia. I COOPE.ATING SCHOOLS
Alps Road School Athens, Georgia
Centerville Elementary School Seneca, South Carolina
Doerun Elementary School Doerun, Georgia
Franklin Elementary School Franklin, North Carolina
Herman W. Hess ElementarySchool Savannah, Georgia
Lake Park Elementary School Albany, Georgia
Ocilla Elementary School Ocilla, Georgia
Oglethorpe County Elementary School Lexington, Georgia
The Savannah Country DaySchool Savannah, Georgia
Spring Street Elementary School Atlanta, Geo:gia
Trinity School Columbus, Georgia TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
vii INTRODUCTION
OBJECTI1MS FOR A CURRICULUM IN WRITTENCOMPOSITION 1
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM IN WRITTENCOMPOSITION 2
14 ILLUSTRATIVE EXPERIENCES IN COMPOSING
Kindergarten 14 First Grade 17 Second Grade 20 Third Grade 24
THE STRUCTURE OF WRITTENCOMPOSITION 28
Structuring a Composition 29
Kindergarten 29 First Grade 32 Second Grade 36 Third Grade 41
Paragraph Development 45
Kindergarten 45 First Grade 48 Second Grade 52 Third Grade 55
CHOICE OF A FORM FOR THE CONTENTOF A COMPOSITION 58
Informal Correspondence: Personal Letters 59
Kindergarten 59 First Grade 59 Second Grade 63 Third Grade 66
Formal Correspondence: Business Letters 73
Kindergarten 73 First Grade 75 Second Grade 78 Third Grade 81
86 Stories and Plays
Kindergarten 86 First Grade 90 Second Grade 93 Third Grade 100
Poetry as a Writing Form 105
Kindergarten 105 First Grade 105 Second Grade 110 Third Grade 119 vi
Page
Factual Reporting 124
Kindergarten 124 First Grade 126 Second Grade 129 Third Grade 131
THE DEVELCPMENT OF VOCABULARY 133
Definition 134
Kindergarten 134 First Grade 134 Second Grade 138 Third Grade 145
Figurative Language 150
Kindergarten 150 Fir-9i: Grade 150 Second Grade 158 Third Grade 162
The Dictionary 166
Kindergarten 166 First Grade 168 Second Grade 171 Third Grade 174
History of the English Language 178
Kindergarten 178 First Grade 178 Second Grade 181 Third Grade 184
History of the English Language: Supplementary 189 Information
209 LANGUAGE: STRUCTURE AND USAGE
210 Morphology
:andergarten210 First Grade 212 Second Grade 217 Third Grade 228
Sentence Structure 235
Kindergarten 235 First Grade 237 Second Grade 241 Third Grade 246
The English Sentence: Supplementary Information 249
Usage and Dialect 262
Kindergarten262 First Grade 262 Second Grade 267 Third Grade 271
Usage: Supplementary Information . 277
Dialect: Supplementary Information 288 INTRODUCTION
for a curriculum inwritten The materials thathave been developed school are comprisedof five composition in the primaryand elementary
Curriculum in WrittenComposition, major volumes: Foundations for a K-3; A Cur-iculum inWritten K-6; A Curriculum inWritten Composition, Written Composition, 4-6; The Useof Literary Modelsin Improving
Cognate Aspects ofWritten Composi- Composition K-6; and Research in tion. Composition, K-3; and The two volumes, ACurriculum in Written
4-6, are guides forteaching. A Curriculum inWritten Composition, curriculum in written Each contains a statementof objectives for a content for eachgrade to composition, a sequencechart which relates
illustrative experiencesin basic understandingsabout composition, specifics that arerelated composing, and gradedmaterials for teaching
to growth ofcompetency in writing. in the guidesrelates to six The organizationof the materials
for WrittenComposition, (2) The major areas: (1) sources of Content Choice of Form forthe Content Sitructure of WrittenComposition, (3) The
of Vocabulary,(5) Language: of a Composition,(4) The Development Observed in Writing. Structure and Usage,(6) Conventions outlined in chartform, The content of eachof the guides is Reading the chart, "Content of a Curriculumin WrittenComposition." experiences accompanying horizontally, one sees acontinuum of learning
unit extends fromkindergarten each concept andskill. Each continuum or
vii viii
through grade six. Teachers are urged to move back andforth on any one continuum to find the contentsuitable to the readiness level of the particular students.
Reading the chart vertically, one finds alisting of the varied concepts and skills developed to some extent ateach grade level. The items within the listings are interrelated componentsof the complex composing process, therefore the order oflisting is arbitrary.Within one grade level the orderof arranging new experiences in compo_Atioa or in examining the nature andconventions of language is determined by the writing requirements of the individual orof the group at any specific time.
The section entitled "IllustrativeExperiences in Composing" sug- gests ways in which the ordinaryexperiences of children become the basis for composing.
The graded materials for teachingspecifics that are related to
composition contain objectives and examplesof learning experiences which lead to competencies required as thestudent grows in maturity
in writing. Sample learning experiences presented areillustrations
only; they are beginning points forteachers' thinking and planning.
Teachers arrange learning experiences consistentwith the requirements
of their awn particular groups ofchildren.
Opportunities for writing may be described inthree ways: (1)
ongoing, (2) occasional, and (3) unexpected rareopportunities. The
ongoing opportunities are those whichnormally and regularly occur
throughout the school day: writing problem situations and their solu-
tions in arithmetic or science activities,writing a play in social
studies, writing today's news or listingtoday's helpers Occasional opportmeaties for mrsting amertsimon:ssuch as these: letters to a
the s LZI C lassmate , a SVOrryabout dba..:Ime! imm hdippmuings ar a trip to fire station , di:aril:los dr is science dispilay . Unexpected
events which give rare oppor-t_uniti.es±or &Yr- Arme dame- infirequent aid) zest and variety toljfr. Aquilemeder sparkling raindrops dis-
c'wered just oursiser aLiudzs.:. =se Eirsc sanal1. af the season, the
ireoldumn al the school ions Roarimme,. imomm, plays, factual reports
may stem from Timefiie
Au imaginative 12Pacient artasmor tanumerahLe apportune variety moments fnr rhildmen's Ammitim Israartirml: teacher- mai slr_zi ns
in the types of mil:isms monma-rampiiirett from children- The teacher
of writ- oho is both iloggioarisee awegrzazatt:CaL. toterocames varied types
ing ori:th matiety 1233e amAsettincesE_ Mbamdmmos safl fluid illustrative
examples of marled aritimaeopartismaam Elia the =Went of thisbook.
of lan- OppartimEtims±arr miammistmatiw tbenature an& structure
for variety in types of guage are aspaentilail axme rhme apportumittes
beE develape& ia many ways , at orldodzig_ CompeTas abort Jams/amp
oppar time AMMEmas ar lilz=rimieref3610113E..Lamipage af Literature and
Saw a Ship A- cni.laren's own aElit=tiMZ- IMEEdthig rer
+lig,' a icizaeiwarmen lasaciam-=Ere& tathe ward thee, an
old wand smith= used mos, want- reprEacemi dWe immat lEs. A second
He said he grade popil meparizee lizez±i 'Zahn maks fUnny. .
'might cianld Bp ' Mie ssa=sa=. eemptairmithat. Sohn' s Language was not
unusual and funny but tbat Inas aciesaknag ddAELect tha4 . was somewhat
that not all people agar 13h.imztt . Theme teachers recognized
about Language to the appact imm! aamemam larmasawa=py ref:at:Low commercts
normal everts of rale uitw.- xE dme incidents can become an entry about language. into more concentratedexperiences with concepts K-6 and Use Foundations for a Curriculumin Written Composition,
K-6 provide materials of Literary Modelsfor Improving Composition, materials that expand the guidesand can profitably beused as reference Composition groups with them. Use of Literary Modelsfor Immo:King, for Grades FourthrougL material for Kindergartenthrough Grade Three and
Six and identifiesspecifics related tocomposition. Composition is included Research in CognateAspects of Written
information and also toemphasize with curriculummaterials to provide
composition. Needed research the necessity forcontinuous research in directly in contactwith the can be initiatedby teachers who are and who have veryreal motiva- problems of teachingand of evaluation
tions for findingsolutions to theseproblems. OBJECTIVES FOR A CURRICULUM IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
Objectives for a curriculumin written compositionOfine signifi-
through cant behaviors which anindividual develops as he progresses an educational programwhich interprets them inclassroom activities.
As the learner proceedsfrom kindergarten throughschool, he
...draws upon himself and his worldfor the content of his writing
... usesin his writing acontinuously expanding expressive vocabulary
revising, ...uses easily andflexibly, in hit: writing and the structure of the Englishlanguage
...perceives relationships among aspectsof his experience and uses language to expressand to shape the concept system by which he ordershis experience and represents his woild
...develops an understanding oflanguage as a social institu- tiontrecognizes the role ofwritten language in society, and accepts the responsibilityof writing in keeping with this role
...writes effectively at levelsof competency commensurate with his level of ability
...acquires habits of independencein the process of writing
... usesappropriate conventionsassociated with the writing act 2
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
THE STRUCTURE OF WRITTEN KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE COMPOSITION
Understandings to be Developed Related Content
Each composition is prepared for Purpose and audience: relation to a purpose and for an audience. message
Different purposes may be com- Recognition of purposes bined in a single composition in support of a major purpose.
The purpose and audience determine Selection of letter as form to the choice of topic, language, achieve purpose and form.
A composition is a unit of ex- Organization: time sequence pression which has an identi- Paragraph: recognition of form, fiable structure. introduction of term
The choice and arrangement of Accuracy in description appropriate language is the Sequence and completeness in means by which the writer narration attains accuracy of expression, establishes the level of generali- zation, and varies the level of usage. 3
IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
SECOND GRADE THIRD GRADE
Related Content Related Content
Variety of purposes require varied Increase in variety of purposes content: Comparison of content with varied to report, to record, to amuse, audiences and purposes to inform, to persuade Consideration of author's purposes
Division into units according Simple outline as plan for to meaning: paragraphing paragraphs Organization: time sequence and sentences order of importance Consideration of unity in compo- Unity within a paragraph sitions
Accuracy in describing a variety Planning presentations for visitors of sensory stimuli and movements Recognition of lack of accuracy Selection of exact and concrete in compositions terms 4
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
SOURCES OF CONTENT FOR WRITTEN KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE COMPOSITION
Understandings to be Developed Related Content
Everything that a person has ex- Response to sensory stimuli: perienced, thought, or felt is shapes, colors, movement, sounds, a source of content for compo- textures, tastes sition. Sensitivity to objects and events as important to self Awareness of self as related to others
Through reading, listening, and Conversations with others, reading observing, a person can learn by others or self, reports of about and participate in ex- others' experiences periences that he has not had Sensitivity of others' reaction to and cannot have directly. experience Observation of others in actual activities, and through pictures and audio-visual representation Recognition of language as part of experience
Li Through imagination a person can Imagination self-initiated extend his experiences. Enjoyment of imaginative experienc- ing Response to leads from others to- ward imaginative experiences
1 5
IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
SECOND GRADE THIRD GRADE
Related Content Related Content
Seeking and respondingverbally Seeking and responding verbally stimuli to sensory sLimuli to interrelated sensory Manipulation of objects and events Awareness of systems of relations important to self among objects and events Awareness and initiationof re- Consciousness of his place in lationships to others systems of interrelationships among persons
Seeking conversations withothers Managing conversations to enhance as means ofexperiencing experiencing Sensitivity to others' reactions Generalization about others' reactions as like ordifferent from self to experiences visual Seeking reading and visual re- Conscious use of reading and presentation as experiencing representation to extend and en- Awareness of importance ofobser- hance experience vation to extend experience Observation used to formulate pre- Use of oral and writtenlanguage dictions and generalizations and change to extend and clarifyexperience Use of language to extend experience for self and others
Verbalization of imaginative Distinction between suitable uses imagin- experiences of direct, vicarious, and Enjoyment of others' reportof ative experiences imaginative experiences Selection of imaginative experiences Verbal and active response for appropriate uses experiences to teacher's leads to Enjoyment of imaginative for their own value toself imagination 6
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
THE CHOICE OF FORM FOR THECONTENT KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE OF A COMPOSITION
Understandings to be Developed Related Content
There is a variety of forms inwhich Letters content is commonly expressed. Distinction between formal and friendly letters Use of business letters to order goods Personal letters
Stories and Plays Time sequence Relation to time and space Description of characters
poetry Choral reading Recognition of rhythm in language Group composing of poetry
Factual Reporting Distinction between facts and imagination Reporting facts from observation Purpose determines choice of content 7 IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
SECOND GRADE THIRD GRADE
Related Content Related Content
business Letters Letters: Distinction between purposesof Requisite specifies in business business and friendlyletters letters Terminology for parts of letter Form of business letter letter Self-evaluation in letter-writing Function of each part of Letters: personal Mastery of form, use ofchecklist Emphasis on improving content Distinction between twokinds of letters: purpose, audience,form
Stories and plays Stories and Plays Relation of content tohistorical Time sequence in narration Interrelationships between time, period Time and setting related tomood characters, and mood Development of charactersde- of story: night, day, holidays fiction, Place related to mood of story rived from real life, Realistic characterization imagination
Poetry Poetry Awareness of nature of poetry Awareness of nature of poetry listen- through reading aloudand through reading aloud and through listening ing Differences between form of Identification of rhythm poetry and prose Recognition of vivid language Distinctive qualities of poetry: Composition of poetry vivid language, rhythm
Factual Reporting Factual Reportinik Distinction between factand Reports of experiments Use of reference materialsin opinion Notetaking and outlining as reporting Explanations and directions preparation for report 8
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
KINDERGARTEN AND FIRSTGRADE THE DEVELOPMENT OFVOCABULAK,
Related Content Understandings to beDeveloped
Meanings of words arederived Definition Informal definitions offamiliar from the context inwhich they words are used. Meaning from phoneticand con- textual clues Classification of words bymeaning Dramatization andillustration as means ofdefining
Definition Words and combinationsof words Use of words atspecific and may symbolizevarying degrees of concrete level generality,
Fi:urative language Words and combinationsof words Description may havefigurative as well as Recognition ofpersonification literal meanings. Interpretations of comparisons
Use of dictionary The dictionary is onesource of Introduction of picturediction- help in understandingword ary. meaning.
knowing the History of English Language Words have histories; Recognition that words are history of a wordenhances its symbols meaning and increasesthe under- standi,.g ofsubtleties of its use. 9
IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
SECOND GRADE THIRD GRADE
Related Content Related Content
Definition Definition Stating a definition Classification of words: Illustrating a definition in meaning classes Classification by meaning class in levels of abstraction: Synonyms specific to general Figurative or literal meaning Definition of derived words
Definition Definition from specific to Abstraction: from specific to Abstraction: general general
Figurative language Figurative language Description using similarities Introduction of terms: and differences figurative and literal Exaggeration used for effect Introduction of simile Recognition of personification
Use of dictionary Use of dictionary Arrangement of alphabeticalorder Syllabication and primary accent by initial letter Prefixes and derived words Introduction of root words as Alphabetize to second or third means of defining letter Pronunciation guides
History of English jaanguam History of English Language Recognition of multiple meanings Addition of words to English CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
LANGUAGE: STRUCTURE AND USAGE KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE
Understandings to be Developed Related Content
Language is symbolic. Conventions Beginning formation of symbols Written language is a graphic symbolization of the spoken language
Language is arbitrary; it is a Sentence structure system of set patterns in which Recognition of sentence through relationships are indicated by oral and written signals various kinds of structural Distinction between statement signals. and question Combination of short sentences Extension of sentences Morphology Use of prefix -un Plural of nouns with inflection -s Past tense of verbs with inflection -ed
Language is changing. Histoy of English Language Recognition that language is changing
Language has dialects. Usage and dialect Recognition of variations in dialect within the community
Usage is determined by the Usage and dialect acceptability of the chosen Recognition of language suitable language to the group with in varied situations which it is used.
12
CONTENT OF A CURRICULUM
KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE CONVENTIONS OBSERVED INWRITING
Understandings to be Developed Related Content
The conventions of written Form of address in letters expression are practicesagreed upon in languagecommunities to facilitate communicationthrough written language.
Periods or question marks at end Punctuation is a partialrepresenta- tion in writtenlanguage of the of sentences. stress, pitch, andjuncture of the spoken language.
Spelling as needed incomposition Spelling as an arrangementof letters Growing list of selectedwords of the alphabet to representthe studied from graded text sounds of a word.
At beginning of sentence Capital letters areplaced according In heading and closeof letters to conventionalrules to signal importance. 13
IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION
SECOND GRADE THIRD GRADE
Related Content Related Content
Indention at the beginning of Address on envelope paragraph Form of business letters
Periods or question marks at Punctuation end of sentences Terminal punctuation for statements Commas in heading and close commands, questions of letter Comma and colon in letter Period after abbreviation Apostrophe in contractions and possessives
Spelling as needed in composition Spelling as needed in composition Growing list of selected words Growing list of selected words studied from graded text studied from graded list Habit of checking all writing for correct spelling
At beginning of sentence At beginning of sentence Name of month At beginning of line of poetry For the word I Name of person, street, school, For titles such as Mr., Miss, town Mrs. Titles such as book, story, poem ILLUSTRATIVE EXPERIENCES IN COMPOSING RELATED TO CONTENT OF LANGUAGE CURRICULUM
Kindergarten
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: A pet rabbit has been brought Source of content: to the classroom. His cage is placed in observation of animal a position for easy viewing. Children Purpose: to report are asked to watch the rabbit over a observations accurately period of time in order to find out these Form: factual report things: (1) how the rabbit looks, (2) Readers: the composers, what it eats (carrots, lettuce, candy, for permanent record meat, etc. are in the cage), and (3) what Organization: division kinds of noises rabbits make. into paragraphs based on meanings, shown by inden- Dtvelopment: The teacher guides children tion, unity within parts in composing a factual report about the rabbit. She writes it on chart paper as contributions are given. In talking about writing the report the teacher suggests that it be written in three parts. The first part will tell the way the rabbit looks. The second will tell about his eating. The third will tell about his quietness or noisiness. Children illustrate the report. The teacher suggests that the report be kept to use in comparing other animals to rabbits. 15
Kindergarten
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: Nursery rhymes have been read Source of content: previous and dramatized many times in the past. experience, plans for event Unfamiliar words have been discussed. Purpose: to see plans in writing, to make record of Development: The teacher suggests plan- experience ning a party for parents to show them what Form: outline of plans, children do with nursery rhymes. She report.of event in narrative elicits, in an organized manner, plans for Readers: Pupils themselves the party and lists the plans in outline see their words as teacher form: writes and reads them 1. People to invite: pothers, fathers, Organization: (1) The and Mrs. Newcomb (the librarian) people who will come, list- 2. Rhymes to dramatize: Illustrative ed as one unit of the party pictures signifying selected rhymes plan (2) rhymes for drama- make this "list."Names of children tization as a second unit of who are (a) "announcers and explain- the plan (3) third unit of ers" and (b) actors are posted beside the planning, refreshments each picture; as: Historx_of Language:words of interest to children to [Bobby I Margaret I be discussed for visitors
Vocabulary: categories (actor) (announcer (Jack be according to meaning: and explain- Nimble) chocolate cookies, coconut er of words) cookies, and lemon cookies specific items in the large Words to explain: Rhymes: category of food termed cookies; the term lemonade nimble, candlestick "Jack be Nimble" the name of one item in a merry, soul "Old King Cole" large category termed cupboard, bare "Old Mother Hubbard" drinks; cookies and lemonade II pieman, fair "Simple Simon in a large group of items fetch, pail, crown "Jack and Jill" called refreshments.
3. Things to serve cookies: chocolate, coconut, and lemon; lemonade
Follow-up: The day after the party, the teacher leads the children into writing (dictating) an account of the party for the classroom newspaper, a mimeographed sheet of kindergarten events sent occa- sionally to parents, to the library, to other classrooms, and to theprincipal's office. 16
Kindergarten
Expe:ience in Composing Related Content
Source of content: personal Situation: A rainy day. experience Development: Children are asked tolook at the rain, the wayit runs down the window panes, the way itlooks when it hits the ground, etc., and tolisten to it. They put on raincoatsand go outside to feel the rain and to seeit more closely. to express feeling After personal experiencewith the Purpose: rain, children areled into writing other pupils (dictating) a story about itto give to Readers: the library for others toread. The Form: Narrative,figurative teacher records statementsand phrases as and/or literal language. they are given. Description leads tolater Later, the teacherasks children to listen to their statementsand tell her concept modification. whether the statement isabout how the Classification of statements rain looks (these arechecked with red according to meaning chalk), hov the rainsounds (checked with blue),or howthe rain feels as itfalls on people(checked with yellow). Organization: small units The teacher explainsthat she will re- (sentences) grouped into write their story puttingthe like ideas larger units (paragraphs) together. Children are asked tcdraw pictures about the rain toillustrate the story. ILLUSTRATIVE EXPERIENCES INCOMPOSING RELATED TO CONTENT OF LANGUAGECURRICULUM
First Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Source of content: experi- Situation: Experimentation with water ment Development: to keep a record 1. Two squares of cloth ofthe same size purpose: and material are put into water. After they are thoroughly wet oneis Readers: writers use in hung in a cool place, theother in a future warm, dry place.A description of the procedures is written and arecord is Form: Factual reporting, kept of the length ofdrying tine of sequence of events,precision each. in language 2. Two rectangles of the samesize are drawn on the chalkboard. Each is Organization: Three dampened thoroughly. One is fanned, different reports are written. the other not. A description is Each report has two parts or written of the proceduresand a paragraphs. The first part record is kept of the dryingtime of tells what was done, the sec- found each. ond part tells what was 3. Two squares of cloth ofthe same size out. and material are thoroughly wet. One is spread out on a flatsurface. The other is folded severaltimes and placed beside the first. A record is kept of the procedures usedin the experiment and the dryingtime of the folded and unfolded cloth. Morphology: prefix un-
Follow-up: The records of experimenta- tion are used to determinedesirable con- ditions for rapid dryingof cloth. A summary listing ismade and used as refer- ence as needed(When caps and coats are wet, when classroomdusting cloths or paint cloths arewashed, etc.). First Grade
Experience in Composing, Related Content
Situation: Introduction of astudy of Source of content: drawing the community. together personal knowledge Form: listing items Development: Discussion is guided so Readers: writers themselves that these concepts are developed: words 1. Fathers (and motheri)work to make Nature of language: money to use inbuying things for stand for things. General their families: food, clothes, terms (food, etc.)signify houses, etc. meaning categories. Items 2. Other people need ourfathers' or within the categories have mothers' work: the doctor cures sick specific names. people; the postman brings mail;the policeman helps drivers; etc. Morphology: inflection s'; compound words (postman, 3. People who work for each othermake a community(town, city). Everybody etc.) works for his family andfor others. That is what a communityis--people Organization of ideas into depending on each other. units
During the discussion theteacher Narration (dictated or written records contributions in twocategories, by children) numbers 1 and 2 above. The concept list- ed as number 3 above growsfrom summariz- Paragraphing: unifying ideas ing the ideas in numbers1 and 2. of similar content From the recorded statements,the children write a story(or stories) to mail along with a letter to acity official inviting him to visit andtalk about city workers. Ideas listed under numberI are kept together in a paragraph. Thcse list- ed under number 2 make asecond paragraph. The last paragraph containsthe summariz- ing ideas.
Follow-up: Children write a letter to the Form: personal letter, story mayor (or othercity official) inviting him to visit their roomand tell them more Reader: mayor about their town, what thepeople at the City Hall do for the town. Children's Purpose of writing: to stories are mailed withthe letter. acquaint the mayor with what children already know about the community, to invite him to visit the class. 19
First Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: The children have seen a film Source of content: vicarious about animals of the zoo. experience
Development: Children are encouraged to Form: imaginative writing, discuss the animals seen in the film-- narration (oral or written); their size, habits, etc. unifying thoughts into story The teacher suggests that children write (or record on tape) and illustrate Purpose: to entertain stories, "If I had a pet elephant (tiger, kangaroo, etc.)...," to give to a kin- Readers: other children dergarten or another first grade as a surprise present. The story should in- clude a description of the particular pet which would belong to the writer. The story should tell something funny or strange which the pet did. 20
ILLUSTRATIVE EXPERIENCES IN COMPOSING RELATED TO CONTENT OF LANGUAGE CURRICULUM
Second Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: The class has been involved in Source of content: discussing persons in school and community observation and question- who help others in specified ways. They ing of other persons; have drawn pictures of several of these, personal relationships have conversed with some, and have written within groups letters asking to visit at the place of Form: factual report work, and have made visits. illustrated
Development: As they plan for a summary Purpose: to record in- activity, it is suggested that they make teresting facts about a booklet to include a written accountof people for pleasure and the work done by each to help other people information of writers and illustrations showing each at work. Readers: the class They wish to make it a part of their room library. As the plans develop, there is Purpose added: to ex- the desire expressed to present each worker press appreciation to with his "story" and picture. Several others by recognizing children choose each worker and it is their work. agreed that each will draw a picture and Reader: the worker compose a "story". Later they will choose which will be placed in their book and which sent to the worker. The teacher develops on the board, from contributions by the pupils, a set of Organization: plan for topics they might wish to cover: writing, simple outline What he does in his job Where he does it What tools or equipment he uses Who it is that he helps Conventions: spelling As children write, the teacher helps them as needed with spelling as they ask, by writing the Vocabulary: words classi- word on the board for the child. As words fied in meaning classes are requested, she places all thatfit into four columns headed by the topics used as an outline of the composition. Each child Preliminary audience: in a group reads his story to the others. group members and teacher They help each other to make improvements or corrections. The teacher is available for help to any group. One pupil in each group is chosen to read his story tothe class. As several read, it is obvious 21
Interdependentrelation- that each helperhelps each other one. ships in community,school, Pupils see a parallel.in a family where and family each has his ownrelationship to others, and helps each otherone his own way.
from this ex- Follow-up: A development perience in discussionand in individual compositions focuses onthe writer's own contribution as a memberof a family, a member of a class group,a memberof a small work group,and a member of the larger school family. 22
Second Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: Pupils have many experiences Sources of content: direct to tell drawing upon the sensesof sight experience with sense of and hearing. Occasionally they comment touch on smells and taste, andless frequently they describe impressions gained through the sense of touch. The teacher initiates discussion of how various surfaces feel. Children feel surfaces in the room and try to describe the feeling. The teacher calls attention to the tendency to de- scribe by naming another object similar Description by comparison to the touch--a plastic tablesurface contrasted with description "feels like glass". Another tendency is by use of precise terms to name the material touchedrather than describing it--"this is metal", "this is Description by naming rather cloth". To emphasize this tendency, the than by use of precise terms pupil is blindfolded and asked to describe what he touches. If he names the material, Distinction between reporting he tries to describe what it is about the what is sense impression and feeling of the surface which makes him guessing (inferring) what know what the material is. the surface is A pupil feels a leaf of a plant inthe Figurative language: room and describes it as"smooth and cool (1) used to overcome and green". Others quickly ask how he limitations of the vocab- knows it is green. In attempting an ulary answer, the pupils describeit as alive (2) use of word describing and growing, and compare the feel ofthe impression as though from leaf with that of an apple or a grape. different sense Others euggest that a person's skinalso (3) use of worddescribing feels "alive" but "warm andfriendly." emotional reaction associ- ated with a similar sense Development: The teacher suggests that impression the sentences pupils have used allhave a Sentence pattern: all alike similar "tune" or pattern: Form: poetry The glass feels smooth andcool. Ptxpose: their own enjoy- The coat feels soft and rough. ment of rhythmic language The wall feels hard andbumpy. The similar pattern gives a rhythm to the sentences that sounds like poetry. Pupils select from their statements several that can be relatedin a poetic way. They read the group aloud andde- cide to make some variety byadding de- scriptive words to some sentences. The Audience: the composers arrangement is pleasing tothem and is themselves left on the board to read forseveral days. I v./ v. ...V V v.. ::s - -
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Third Grade Related Content Experience inComposing Source of content: reading read stories Situation: Children have natural and observation about animalsshowing their characteristics aswell as somestories spinals. Form: Dramatization includingpersonification of stories, simu- They have actedout sone of lating the movementsand appearance activity, they the animal. As a final real char- visit the zoo,and note many acteristics ofunusual animals. to present Intended eventual Development: The class decides first grade first grade. They Audience: a programand invite the portrayed and Purpose: ultimately, select severalanimals to be animal. enjoyment andinformation a groupof Childrenchoose each act as of first graders One of each groupis selected to helping to design Purpose for writing: the animal, the group presenta- Each pupil inthe planning for oral and procurecostuming. about the animal, tion groupwrites a script outline as selecting and Organization: and the teacherhelps in aad writing; make a suitablescript, base for plans combining parts to suitability Sone animals are apprai3al of to accompanythe action. human Characteristics to purpose; pictured as having combining each partof including conversation. Effec- the scriut script; maintainingunity tive words aresought todescribe movements is used to Figurativelanguage:- and appearance. The dictionary Severalpersonification find apprupriatedescriptive terms. combination of Vocabulary: appropriate animals arepresented with a selected to re- selection ofvivid words words and music,the music and feeling of present thedistinct rhythm rhythmic quick movement Poetic qualities: movement ofthe animal--the to music walk of the language related of the rabbit,the lumbering The combinationof action, bear, etc. Preliminary audience: class is rehearsed,and changes words, and music language: oral Several groups tape Nature of made as suitable. language inrelation to theirrehearsal as a meansof findingneeded presentation is over, written. changes. When the reaction of the Effectiveness tested the classconsiders the reation. the pleasure against audience audience andfeels pride in shown by the youngerchildren.
1/. Third Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Situation: The class has regularlyre- Form: Factual recording corded the weather each dayon a chart, of observation using colors and symbols to show basic Eventually: Factual changes. A discussion of theseasons of reporting the year suggests thatthe weather changes gradually from one season to another. Source of content: direct Pupils recognize that theirchart shows observation of and interest this gradual changeand suggest a compari- in natural phenomena son among several days to show the Audience: not designated, coming of spring. They selecta Gate in record for awn information each of the months of February, March, and Purpose: to discover facts, April. to satisfy own curiosity
Development: The teacher leads thegroup Organization: What are the as they list items to be recorded: length eviderces of the changesto of daylight; hours of sunshine or clouds; be observed? Answerto time and amount of rain or snow; the this question becomesa appearance of the landscape and of growing simple listing, butmore things; the temperature of the air, of the oLganization is addedas a water in the lake, and of surfacessuch as basis for dividing the brick, wood, and soil;the presence and observations among the activities of bird and insects. group.
Each pupil selectsa type of observation, and the resulting groups plan a sheet whichOrganization of tasks will include a record of observationson accomplished by written plan. the topic. The teacher asks eachgroup Organization: outline plan what the plan includes and makes a master evolves from details of plan on a chart to ensure that all evi- each part. dences are covered by thegroup plans.
The description ofthe weather on the selected date inFebruary is planned to include a description of each group's Specific descriptions, findings. The plan of eachgroup in- reporting objectively cludes: the aspect observed,method and timing of observations,the findings, and a summary statement or generalization. As the plans for observing evolve, need Vocabulary: technical for technical words isobvious. Refer- words found in reference, ence works are found and studied, and a dictionary; glossarypre- list of words is developed by the class. pared; defining technical Terms are discussed andnew ones added terms as work progresses. Many compound words History and ierivation 26
and words with ahistory in are found Organization from several languages oth?r thanEnglish. reports On the February date,careful records Audience: class are keptby each group. The combined re- port is read tothe class. As the month passes, it isread and re-readby groups and individuals. On the dates in March and in April,similar records arekept, Organization: compiling and soon after theApril date, the data from varietyof sources final comparison iswritten. It is en- into one record;comparing titled How Comes. The class is saria records; summarizingin a pleased with theaccomplishment and composition arranges onesection of a bulletinboard to include theobservation record, the summary recordfor each of theobserva- tion days, andthe final papercomparing the dates. writing Children,enjoying the spring Source of content: Follow-up: of one form leads touse of find many songs and poemsexpressing their same contentin a different own reaction tothe season. They decide form. to see whatkind of poem they canmake Form: poetry from the data oftheir report. Purpose: enjoyment 27
Third Grade
Experience in Composing Related Content
Source of content: Situation: Pupils report success in gaining skill in variousplay activities emotional reaction to own in gym, home, and playground. Such re- experience ports have been heardwith respect and pleasure by class and teacher. The feel- Purpose: Fbcus on indivi- ing of pride in accomplishment is seen as dual experience reinforces valuable and worthy of reinforcementfor emotional reaction and understanding of self. all. This is especially noticeable inthe more adequate behaviorof some children who have less success in theschool tasks than others.
Development: The teacher suggests that all people feel pride in learning some- thing new and difficultand continue to get this pleasure from skillsof various kinds. Pupils name some of their accom- plishments: catching a softball, skinning the cat, chinning thebar, swimming, riding the bicycle,throwing a ball accurately. One girl reports learn- ing to sew on a machine, andothers report work skills: using the lawn mower, raking leaves, washing clothes, setting atable, fixing breakfast, making a fire.
The class discusses the processof mastering a skill, includingwatching some- one else, gettingthe "feel" of an instru- ment and the movement,making trial after trial, each being closer to thedesired result, judging how to improve,having someone else watchand make suggestions, to express pride and finally succeeding inreaching the Purpose: in mastering a skill; to goal. Each pupil selects a skillhe has gained and writes a paper onLearning to describe the process and Ride a Bicycle, etc. Each pupil is given the feelings as the skill a chance to readhis paper to the class. is practiced This reading becomes sopersonal that the class who also reader is interrupted byhis hearers who Audience: wish to contrast their similarexperiences. participate 7
THE STRUCTURE OF WRITTENCOMPOSITION
I i STRUCTURING A COMPOSITION
Kindergarten
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
T.V. ...has heard stories,seen movies, programs.
in talking toothers ...has had experience about his interests.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
contributions to theactivities of class ...value his own verbal and to play groups.
of events innarration. ...become aware of sequence
...recognize purpose incommunication.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES to the activitiesof class 1. To value personalverbal contributions and to play groups.
in the classroom manyopportunities Example: The teacher provides of for free conversationthrough the existence
for small groups (1) Play-house arrangement readily available (2) A table of picturebooks that are teacher put especially (3) A Surprise Table onwhich children and
interesting objectsthey want to share
odds and ends oflumber, cloth, spools, (4) A box of miscellaneous from which children colored yarn, bottles, scrapsof colored paper
29 30
may chooseand use anythingthey want
paper and crayons. (5) An easel and paint or freely to each other, toask The children areencouraged to talk The teacher questions, and to engagein activities witheach other. in ways that supportand observes and participatesin their activities extend theirself-initiated languageexperiences. for each child to bethe focus Example: Provide opportunities to the entire groupthrough such of attention whilehe tells something situations as he brings to show tothe (1) Showing and tellingabout some object
class
(2) Retelling familiar stories
(3) Taking the lead in a game
he has done (4) Telling about something discussion about plansfor a class activity. (5) Participating in group
of sequence of eventsin narration. I2. To become aware familiar stories thathave clearly Example: The children retell "The Three Bears,""Cinderella" or defined sequencesof events, as
"Little Red RidingHood." experiences in whichthey Example: The childrenrelate personal the incidents and must choose the sequencein which they arrange
from teacher orother children, thespeaker details. Through questions listeners wanted toknow. learns what he hasomitted that the well-written storiesread Example: The childrenlisten to many story with thechildren, the teacher by the teacher. In talking about a "What happened next?" asks such questions as"What happened first?"
"What happened after 31
in conversation. I3. To recognize purpose something relates from hispersonal experiences Example: A child he found when his daddy, ahappy surprise amusing--a jokehe played on points out thathe he made. The teacher he went home, afunny mistake for fun. told the classsomething just has entertainedthe class, has such things as Example: A child explains rabbit (1) How he takes careof his pet bean seeds (2) What happenedwhen he planted telephone pole infront of hishouse (3) How the men put upa the street (4) What a person mustdo before he crosses the class fact that thechild has given The teacher commentson the did not know class knowssomething they information andthat now the
before. invitation plan a thank-youletter or an Example: The children "Why The teacher posesthe question, which the teacherwill write. "What will we haveto say ifthe letter are wewriting thisletter?"
does what we wantit to?" and the teacherreviews the purpose When the letteris completed, the purpose to be surethat it serves the contentswith the children
they intendedit to serve. STRUCTURING A COMPOSITION
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...values his ability to makeverbal contri- butions in class and playsituations.
... canmaintain the proper sequenceof events in a familiar narrative.
... canrelate an incident of personal experience.
... can seea relationshipbetween purpose and content of a communication.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
which he ...become aware of the value ofhis own experiences from draws his language activities.
...expand experiences throughexploration of his environment.
affects choice of content. ...recognize that purpose of communication
...develop ability to maintainappropriate sequence in narration.
...write short compositionsindependently.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
experience 1. To become aware of thevalue of his own background of as a source of contentfor writing.
Example: The children discuss thethings they have and do in
(mother, father, postman, pets); common: (1) same kinds of associates
(2) go to similar places(church, grocery store, school,movies);
32 33
(3) do similar things (eat,sleep, play). The child learns, through talking about the experienceshe has that are similar tothose of h5s peers and histeacher that he is like them andthat he has as much to talk about as anyone. Provide time for children totalk about such things as the following:
Bedtime at my house
Foods I like
Getting ready to come toschool
My little (or big) brother or sister
Example: The children listen to orread stories about everyday
life of other children andtalk about how thosechildren are similar
to themselves.
Example: The children develop awarenessof the uniqueness of their different from others: personal experiences throughseeing how they are like any one else's (1) personal appearance,(2) parents do not look
(4) parents, (3) differentpreferences in movies or T.V. programs, things that different preferences inclothes and foods, (5) special occasions, personal have happened to them(surprises, mishaps, special
behavior). through exploration of hisenvironment. I2. To expand his experiences opportunities for children toexpand Example: The teacher provides
their awareness of thingswith which they arealready familiar:
(1) Listen to footsteps, rain,wind
rocks, very carefully tonotice parts; (2) Look at leaves, insects, still then look at them under amagnifying glass to find out
more abouttheir structure. 34
(3) Taste popcorn, a lemon, butter, and notice differences in tastes
and in the way they feel in the mouth.
(4) Feel a piece of velvet, sandpaper, a piece of bread.
(5) Smell perfume, onion, peppermit candy.
The children try to describe the sensations: (1) with words whose
literal meanings are applicable: sweet, sour, rough, fragrant, (2) with figurative language.
Example: The children look about them for articles which are
described by common adjectives:
round slender
square crooked
solid tall
hollow long
short
They discuss the fact that such words can be applied to a wide range
of objects, all of which are not the same size.
I3. To recognize that purpose for communication affects choice of content.
Example: The children plan communications for clearly defined
purposes:
(1) To invite parents to school performance or PTA meeting
(2) To thank a person for a kindness or a favor (a mother for
bringing cookies, the janitor for keeping the room
clean, the visitor who told stories to the class)
In each case the children discuss the pertinent information that
must be given to accomplish the purpose and help theteacher phrase
the communication or they prepare materials individually.
4. To develop ability to maintain appropriate sequence of events in narration. amaartunities to retellstories !maw le: The.:Lilsteer. move marry dt tile authorprovides a whichtheyhave ileima nEr Mane - children a chance to well-develope se:wen:meinImaes la-VWEE tio: weLL arganimi- experience rite1-4.1 I irivy fl tJF7.tisatL
appwantlurit:ies farchildren to tell Ttsaor le: Sire 12eacism- irocrumieE helning thew recognize of tiseir mor experittizta /Jae ?prI:sosie of
witich drey occurred_A child parts cr1 theexperienmeage =he 331711EC e went an apicnic Sunday," savs, "roe wentT.DSeeriM2112111111:111, Me teacher then isable to and re I ar,es the expermemme=r Agi.
briTc bow he got ready to say, "Johnrole us Timm =dekaaaient ftj
dizE viten he garthere;" or to go, what hedin nc rise asw,m1E-ail= pertinent detail.s in area- askRisestiJDOSThai amorrzname jj r suityrtyt-
savable sapience_ that all thechildren in her rle: _Alms j 2ess:nsm-iiiE Cle3=iii.11
szziry-,, she maytell it in no appar- class aretirIT:011101.1y iThw
I i1her when she Ils a part out ent other,askingTie riLadmer nor
of proper arder iiiiiewearbEntly . 5- To NitriteSill= 1211111133rtilDICEE
lust the experienceof telling stories Exinixile: Atter a:niacinem :lame. ressnnahLy fluent, encouragethen in oral language-with Mil:tie arm
wisir ta. At the beginningthis lifr±r-e as -such rffTire :izarz7t-
if this st:ory_ isincluded in a class may hearav a _sentae
air bulletinboard the child stm-v hook, sentnoser ant
QUITideas in writtenfora klessins to /mei time .4=ws- xE .7A:tin& his
for others reMeille- STRUCTURING A COMPOSITION
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...values h!s awn experiences as the source of conteEt for writing andspeaking.
...extends his experiences throughreading and observation.
...recognizes relation of purpose tocontent-
appropriate sequence of . . can maintain details in a simple story.
... canwrite independently storiesthat are several sentences in length.
OBJECTIVES
The child will participation, observation and ...extend his experiences through reading.
and choice of contentof ...recognize relation between purpose composition.
..increase ability to expressideas accurately.
...organize material intosuitable units of expression.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES observation, and 1. To extend experiencesthrough participation, reading.
children participate in suchactivities Example: In the classroom the
as:
(1) Rearranging the furniture
36 37
(2) Preparing sandwiches, popping popcorn, cooking candy
(3) Cleaning bookshelves
(4) Washing paint brushes
(5) Planting pot flowers
After each experience the children talk about such things as:
(1) How does it feel to push, pull, or lift somethingheavy?
(2) What does popcorn feel like?
(3) What kind of sound does it mlke when it is poured intothe pan?
(4) How does it sound when it is popping?How does it smell?
(5) How does dust make your hands feel?
(6) How does the water look when the paint brushes are first putin?
What happens when many brushes have been washed?
(7) How does soil feel?How does it look before it is wet?After
it is wet?
Such experiences help children to bring to aconscious level the
specifics of common experiences and to transpose the experiencesinto
verbal symbols.
Example: The teacher reads to the class or provides opportunities
for children to read to the class stories in whichcharacters have
experiences similar to their own. They note the way the author makes
the reader see or feel ordinary experiences.
Example: The class reads stories in whichcharacters'have experi-
ences which they have not hadand talk about such points as:
(1) How does a King feel?
(2) How would it feel to be turned into a frog?How does the world
look to a frog?
(3) If you could work magic what would you do? 38
To recognize the relation between purpose andchoice of content of composition.
Example: Plan a composition for each of thefollowing purposes:
(1) To amuse--a joke, a funny personalexperience
(2) To inform--directions, factual information
(3) To persuade--reasons for doingsomething
Read the completed compositions inclass and point out the differences in the content required to supporteach purpose.
Example: Examine purposes of authors of stories and poemsthrough such questions as:
(1) How do you think hewanted to make us feel? What doeshe say
to make us sad?
(2) What do you think he wants usto see?How does Le make us see it?
(3) Why did the author say
I3. To increase ability to expressideas.
Example: List common nouns and verbs andselect words that are more exact.
The man went down the street
minister walked
hitchhiker ran
policeman rode
milkman staggered
teacher strolled
clown skipped
Ask a child to go from Example: Put the word went on the board.
his desk to the door andmake the statement, "John went tothe door."
Ask the class if there isanother word to tell what hedid. The word
will probably be walked. List the word on the boardunder went. 39
Ask if that is the only way anyone canget to the door. As various
chiidren demonstrate different waysand the class supplies the appro-
priate words, add these to the list.
Such words as the following will appear assubstitutes for went:
walked limped
hopped staggered
skipped danced
crawled ran
Discuss the appropriateness of these termsfor varying circumstances.
When would a person ordinarily 1.o.e tothe door?Crawl? Skip?
Example: Expand expressions through use offigurative language.
a ball of fur. A kitten is like a frisky squirrel.
Ia little clown.
a silver ball. The moon is like I round hole in thesky.
A tree is like 1 a big umbrella.
a snake. A water hose is like a rope.
la wheel with A doughnut is like 'nothing in it.
14. To organize material into suitableunits of expression.
Example: The children write compositions in any waythat seems
appropriate to them. Each child reads his composition tothe class for
the interest others may find in it.
After they have been read for interest,they are read a second time
for improvement. The children listen to each one todetermine (1)
whether or not the writer has stayed onhis subject, (2) whether or not
the meaning is clear,(3) whether itis interesting. 40
ideas which havebeen The children helpidentify the different whether or not theideas are presented in eacncomposition and decide points out especially grouped in appropriate ways. Finally, the teacher
good. well-written sentences andindicates why they are STRUCTURING ACOMPOSITION
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
experienc,ps for ...draws upon his own content ofcomposition and is interested in newexperiences.
...seesrelationship between purpose and choice of content
language ...can expresshis ideas in that is reasonablyaccurate and specific. composition is a ...recognizes that a unit composedof parts.
OBJECTIVES
The child will participation, background ofexperiences through ...continue to expand observation,and reading.
express ideasaccurately andeffectively. ...increase ability to and audience. of choice ofcontent to purpose ...recognize relation
form for content. ...choose appropriate paragraph designates amit of thought: ...recognize that a
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
background of experiencesthrough participation, 1. To expand observationoand reading.
for a specific purpose: To collect Example: Plan a field trip schoolyard, tocollect samples of samples of leavesfrom plants in
41 42 different kinds of soil, to see how the walls of a new building are made, to see relics of the past now in a museum.
Relate the purpose of the trip to work that children are doing in
school and to their need for information beyond that available in school.
The planning of the trip leads the children to anticipate experiences
through
(1) determining purpose of the trip
(2) phrasing questions to which they want answers
(3) defining the ways this information can probably be found
(4) assumingindividual responsibilities for getting certain information.
Upon their return from the trip, the children discuss what they learned
and write simple factual reports of what they learned. Reference materials
are available for checking accuracy of facts or supplying additional
information.
Example: The teacher provides frequent opportunities for children
to tell about or ask questions about interesting things they have done
or seen.
This kind of experience contributes to the child's belief in the
significance of his own experiences and curiosities.
2. To increase ability to express ideas accurately and effectively.
Example: The teacher provides time for children to talk about
what they are planning to write. After general discussion, she asks
one child to tell his story; then points out the parts and the sequence
he has used, writes on the board a simple outline of the story so the
children can see the plan. Encourage each child to try to think of the
plan for his story before he writes it. 43
Example: As children read papers to theclass, the teacher listens
for incomplete or poorlyworded sentences ana makes notesof these.
After the readings are over,she puts the incomplete orpoorly worded
sentences on the boardand asks for the children'shelp in completing
or improving them.
and 3. To recognize the relationof choice of content to purpose audience.
Example: The teacher provides manysituations in which children
talk (1) to each other innatural conversational situations,(2) to
individual the group in structuredsituations, (3) tc the teacher or an
and to a part of the class group. In these situations they begin to
recognize that they have things totell that ...Aterest otherpeople and
to feel the satisfactionof getting a response from anaudience. in their own group, Example: As the children begin to feel at ease wider range the teacher provides occasionswhen the audience includes a
of individuals than those in theclass by inviting to classsuch persons
as:
tell; (1) The principal--to hear(a) stories the children choose to
(b) descriptions of how thechildren help with the classroom
routine; (c) what the childrenlike best about the school;
(d) questions the children want toask.
(2) Mothers--to hear stories thechildren tell.
(3) The janitor--to hear thechildren's comments of appreciation
about how he cares for their roomand suggestions they want to
make.
children like about the (4) A lunchroom worker--tohear what
services she provides. 44
(5) The bus driver--to hear what thechildren appreciate about what
he does for them.
In preparation for each visitthe children consider what each
visitor will probably be mostinterested in hearing about and what
they will say to him.
I4. To choose appropriate form for content.
Example: As the children determine their purposeand audience,
they decide upon the form theircommunication will take. For example:
Purpose Audience Form
To express a mother friendly letter appreciation
To inform the class factual report or an announcement
To entertain the class narrative or play
To request the principal a formal letter
To describe a classmate conversation
To invite the mayor a businessletter
To recognize that a paragraphdesignates a unit of thought. 1 5.
Example: Show children printed materialand identify paragraphs
by the way they are spaced on the page. Read a paragraph and decide
what it is about. Check to see if every sentence inthe paragraph
relates to the main idea. Read paragraphs in whichthere is one sen-
tence which does notrelate to the main idea; find it.
Susan is my best friend.When I had the measles shecalled
me every day totell me what happened at school. She plays with
me, and we neverfuss. When I want to go swimming,she always
wants to go too. There is a big tree in frontof her house.
Let children read each other's papers to seeif they can find sentences
that do not belong. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Kindergarten
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...speaks in sentences.
...tells about a subjectby using two or more sentenceswhich are related.
4tr
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...perceive an incident as aunit.
familiar story in more than onesentence. ...relate an incident or in recounting an incident orstory. ...recognise sequence of events
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To perceive an incident as aunit. 1 the child Example: The sharing periodprovides a valuable tine for yesterday to relate aninteresting experience thathe had after school The teacher points out any ex- or at thebreakfast table thismorning. has related hisexperience, traneous materialbrought in after the child he has said pertains leading the child tounderstand that not everything
to his experience. short, simple stories, eachinvolving Example: The teacher invents Two such stories aretold a separateincident and differentcharacters. stories to the children oneafter the other. The teacher prefaces the
45 46
by saying, "Today I am going to tell you two stories. The first is
about ...." Before telling the second story, she says, "The second story
I am going to tell you is about...." After finishing the second story,
the teacher asks, "How many stories did I tell you? Who would like to
tell the first one again?" This enables the child to recognize the
separate stories and the particular events recounted in each story.The
other children listen to see if the child who retells the story includes
all the incidents belonging to that story.
I2. To relate an incident or familiar story in more than one sentence.
Example: Both teachers and children have favorite stories that they
enjoy reading and having read to them, such as Mother Goose rhymes, The
Tale of Peter Rabbit, The Three Little Pigs, and The Three Bears.
The teacher shows the children a picture from a story with which
they are familiar and asks a child to tell the incident to which the
picture refers. Class members listen to see if he tells all that the
picture includes, or more of the story than the picture represents.
3. To recognize sequence of events.
Example! After the teacher is certain that all the children in her
class are thoroughly familiar with a story, she tells it in "scrambled"
order, asking the children to determine what happens first, second, etc.
Some children may nearly memorize stories which include repetitive material in a series of incidents (Three Little Pigs., etc.), and they
enjoy "correcting" an adult on the order of incidents or the order of
the parts of the repetitive refrain.
Example: At the end of the day the teacher asks the children to
tell what they did in school that day, beginning with the first event 47
the tine they occurred. of the day, and keepingthe events in order of
clearly shown in many seriesof pictures Example: Sequence in time is pictures separated similar to comic strips. Children are given such
of occurrence and totell and Asked to arrangethem in order of time the story from thisarrangement. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
tells about an experience or relates an incident or familiar story in related sentences.
perceives an incident as a unit.
...recognizes the sequence of events in order of time.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
experience the use of written language as a record of his own oral expression.
recognize the division into units in written language, the signals that divide the units, and their correspondence to the units of meaning in his oral expression.
...recognize the form of a paragraph ard associate it with the word paragraph.
,..employ written composition for a variety of purposes, especially in his dictation as the teacher writes.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To experience the use of written language as a record of his own oral expression.
Example: The teacher places labels on many objects and areas in the classroom, so that children are aware that printed names "say" the same
48 49
words they use to name objects. A simple development from these usual
ways of introducing the written language is writing on chalkboard or
chart what the child says. Many types of material may be so used:
names of the children who are assigned certain duties, such as giving
out and taking up materials; plans for the day's activities; oral reports
of interesting events in the child's life.
2. To recognize the division into units in written language, the signals that divide the units, and their correspondence to the units of meaning in his oral expression. 1
EXample: As the child tells his story, the teacher writes on a chart
what he is saying. She uses a capital at the beginning of each sentence
and a period at the end. This experience and similar divisions in read-
ing raterials may be sufficient to keep the child aware that these de-
vices signal a unit of his language.Attention may be directed to these
signals in various ways, especially vhen a child reads his own story
from the chart.
Example: Lists of names, words, or phrases written on the board
by the teacher illustrate another type of signal that shows separation
between units of language by putting one to a line and numbering each.
Example: For direct teaching, a familiar story is selected, read,
and discussed. The teacher calls attention to the natural division into
several parts and records the name of each part on the board.One pupil
volunteers to tell the first part, another the second, etc.
*.e EXample: The teacher recalls that the class has within the week
visited the libriry to become familiar with the collection of books ...
suitable for their use, and suggests that the story of this experience
could be written on a chart. She suggests three parts for the story:
planning the visit, visiting the library, and checking out books. As 50
the children dictate to the teacher, she arrangesthe story in three paragraphs to represent the three parts of the repurt.
3. To recugnize the form of a paragra0 and associateit with the word paragrapn.
Example: When the teacher or children write, the teachercalls attention to the indentation used to indicate a newparagraph, which
is begun because the meaning changes at this point.
Example: In using reading materials the teacher uses the words
sentence and .aaragra_sA to designate these units. Pupils gradually
attach meaning to the words as they recognize how theseunits are
shown in print.
4. To employ written composition for a variety of purposes, especially in his dictation as the teacher writes.
Example: The teacher plans some regular activity to include dic-
tation by the class as she records, such as the"News of the Day" and
letters of appreciation or of invitation.
Example: The teacher is alert to opportunities for individual
children to dictate to her or to some other person who may be available.
For example, a boy reporto having helped his father plant agarden of
vegetables. The teacher suggests that later in the day she will help
him write the story which he can illustrate. The story is read and
his picture is shown to the class,and both are posted on the bulletin
board.
k9mEle: Some children who find it difficult tocontribute to
class discussion are given opportunities to havespecial attention from
an older child, volunteersfrom the community, or teacher's aides. The
helper may find a variety of ways to encourage thechild to talk---read- 51
the school grounds ing or telling stories,playing games, moving around
As the child is able to conversemore to find interestingobjects, etc.
easily, the helper writesdown what he tells.
I
I
I PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
tells about an experience orrelates an incident or story in related sentences and sees his oral expressionrecorded in written language.
perceives an incident as a unitand recognizes relationship to the unitsof written language.
recognizes the signals thatdivide units of written language as correspondingto units of meaning in his experienceand in his oral expression.
recognizes sequence of eventsin order of time and employs this order as one wayof organizing his oral expression.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
employ written composition for a variety of purposes.
use sentence and paragraphunitsin his writing and employ appropriate signals for indicating each.
refer to meaning as the basis ofdivition of written material into sentencesand paragraphs.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
I1. To employ written composition for avariety of purposes.
52 53
Example: Group compositions dictated to the teacher are important
as means of using writtenlanguage for a variety of purposes without the
handicap of slow and laborious writing by the young child. The variety
of uses can be experienced through the teacher's help inrecording. As
individual pupils gain skill in writing, they are given the opportunity
to write as well as to contribute to group compositions. Purposes in-
clude: reports of real events in the life of the child;records of
common experiences of the class;plans for activities of the class; re-
ports of activities; imaginative stories by individuals; records ofin-
dividual reading; reactions to stories read by or to the pupils; letters
and notices to parents; letters of request, invitation, and appreciation.
Many of these purposes can be achieved by a single copy - onchart
or board - written by the teacher. Others require that each pupil make
a copy from the original.
2. To use sentence and paragraph units in his writing and to employ signals to indicate each.
Example: When the children write, the teacher comments on their
use of sentences and paragraphs, points outeffective use, and leads
the children in determining ways to improve them. The teacher will
provide sufficient experience for each pupil to gain the understandings.
3. To refer to his meaning as the basis of division of written material into sentences and paragraphs. I
Example: The class discusses safety in waiting for and boarding
the school bus, riding the bus, and leaving the bus. The teacher has
written on the board the ideas contributed by the children.
Tlie teacher helps the children identify the different points they
are going to discuss. As they talk shelists the main points on the 54 chalkboard in a simple outline. It will probably appear as
1. How we behave while we wait for the bus
2. How we behave on the bus
3. How we behave when we get off the bus
Each child writes his own statemetvc of behavior on thebus; these are read by the children for discussion of ideas and organization.
Example: A pupil tells a story of a picnic with aneighbor's family.
When he has finished, the teacher asks how many parts his storyhad. He and the class discuss parts: packing a lunch, the ride to the lake, the swim, the lunch, and the trip home.
Numerous examples like these are used to encourage thechildren to recognize parts of a composition as units of meaning. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
the basis of ...refers to his meaning as division of material intosentences and paragraphs.
of or- ...employs time order as one way ganizing his oral expression.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
divide his written compositioninto sentences and paragraphs as units of meaning. organize his oral ... usesequence ofimportance as a basis by which to or writtencompositions.
skill in hand- ...continue to broaden his useof written language as writing increases.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
paragraphs as 1. To divide his wTittencomposition into sentences and units of meaning.
Example: As the class plans with theteacher a composition to be
written, they discuss the contentto be included and thenumber of units
It appears to include. The teacher makes a simpleoutline on the chalk-
board as the children discussthe ideas. The children write the compo-
sitions and read them to theclass. As each child reads, the teacher
55 56 and class listen for division into parts and asks, when hehas finished
reading, how many paragraphs he has.He names the content of each one.
If a name or topic is difficult to phrase, the teacher suggeststhe tonic;
and she helps him to examine the meaning to fiad better waysof groupinr
ideas or organizing his meaning.
2. To use a sequence of importance as a basis by which toorganize his oral and written language.
Example: The teacher reviews with the children the sequencethey
follow when they talk or write about such topics as "What We Did in
School Today" and shows that they generally follow a tine sequence,
telling what happened in the order in which it happened.
She then chooses a topic such as "My FavoriteHoliday" and asks hoar
they would begin a composition on such a subject. She records on the
chalkboard the first sentences several children say. She then discusses
with them what they would say next and develops with thenthe sequence
of reasons they might use. They find that they nay give the most in-
portant reason first and then lassimportant ones or nse less important
ones and move to the mostimportant one. The Children experiment with
variations of order of importance and tell their ideas tothe class.
3. To continue to broaden his use of written language ashis skill in handwritingincreases.
Example: As the pupil gains independence in writingand in ex-
pressing his ideas, he writes more frequently,and the teacher encourages
him to write for different purposes and in avariety of forms.As pur-
pose and form change, theorder of presentation and division into para-
graphs are also varied. These differences can be more easily grasped
if they are illustrated in the usual kindsof writing he already does
easily, with individual or group planning. 57
another class to visit the room Example: Letters inviting parents or already for an occasion such as adisplay, a program, or a party are familiar to the pupil.On such an occasion, theteacher suggests that
curiosity and the letter be writtenfor the purpose of arousing the and interest of the intendedvisitors. Discussion follows her lead The children suggest that theyhint at a "surprise" for thevisitors. agreed play they plan to present concernspioneer days, and one boy has that the to bring a toy horsehe had when he was younger. They belive first grade class would enjoy a"ride" on the horse as the play ends.
The letter is written toinvite the children to come. The final para- graph states that there is asurprise-- "something you willlike to do."
writing a letter The teacher calls attentionto the fact that they are occasion, but not only for the purposeof inviting the visitors to an that they will for the additional purposeof aroming their curiosity so
look forward with morepleasure to the occasion. CHOICE OF A FORM FOR THE CONTMT OF A COMPOSITION PERSONAL LETTERS
Kindergarten and First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...has experiences withpersonal letters to and from membersof the family.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
develop an understanding ofthe various purposes ofpersonal letters. writing. ... usethe personal letter asopportunity for imaginative
use the personalletter as social courtesy.
develop skill in usingconventional letter writingform.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To develop an understandingof the various purposes of personal letters. I
Example: Many occasions will naturallyarise in which the children They will want to communicate byletter with someone who is notpresent.
may dictate letters tothe teacher either individually or as agroup.
Groups nay decide what they wish to sayin the class letter. Each child
Late: in the nay copy the letterthat the teacher writes onthe board.
year each child mayte able to write his ownletter by himself.
59 60
Group or individual letters maybe sent expressing best wishes to
trips, invit- a sick child,requesting permission from parents to go on
ing the parents to come toschool, reporting to parents someinterest-
ing things that happened atschool, asking community helpers to come
to school or talk to thechildren, and thanking various personsfor
sharing their time and knowledgewith the children. Letters to the
principal or other classes andteachers may be written making arrange-
ments for specialvisits or sharing special endeavorsof the class.
I2. To use the friendly letter as anopportunity for imaginative writing.
EXample: Play "Make Believe". The children pretend to be all
kinds of things: a goat separatedfrom his friends because he has been
sold from the goat farm; alollypop selected from many othersin the
candy factory, wrapped andshipped to a candy store in another town;
taking him to a a bug crawling on aleaf just as the leaf blows away,
strange place.
Children are encouraged tothink and talk about the way the goat
would feel in his new home,the friends hevYuld make there,the ad-
ventures he wouldhave. Children pretend to be the goat(lollypop,
Children dic- bug, etc.) and writeletters home to his old friends. Later the letters tate the lettersand the teacher serves as secretary.
and typed and madeavailable for children to read.
To use the personalletter as a social courtesy. I3. individual or an organization Example: The students wish to thank an
for some gift orfavor to the group. There are many such occasions, as
the group. Any when the "roommothers" bring gifts or give parties for
one of these canbe used. 61
kindness displayed to Discussion led bythe teacheremphasizes the
should say 'thankyou' for the the class group. "Don't you think we
us?Will all of us seeJohnny's nice party thatJohnny's mother gave to thank herright away, so mother very soon?What is the best way that she knows weall enjoyed theparty?" the teacher, theteacher brings As the childrendictate a letter to letter as a form ofcourtesy. The in an informaldiscussion of this read it. One copy is letter is typed andmimeographed so that all can for the teacher selected, and all thepupils sign it. It is then ready
with him. to mailor forJohnny to take home letter writing form. I4. To develop skillin using conventional
initiated by the receivingof a letter from Example: An activity is or from a groupof pupils at their soneindividual known tothe pupils This letter isprojected grade level from soneother school or country. large chart by theteacher. The teacher or written onthe board or on a After the content isunderstood, assists wIth thereading of theletter.
made - -the physicalform of the further examinationof the letter is
letter is discussed. is placed at the topof the "The date that thisletter was written
understand the letter?To whom was the letter. How does this help us Who wrote theletter? How do weknow?" letter written? How can we tell? children. She uses a The teacher writes areply dictated by the that the class can seethe chart or chalkboard oroverhead projector so
form of tb.4: letter. large manuscriptmodels Models of letters onlarge room charts, material typed withthe primary placed on the board bythe teacher and
from models. typewriter greatlyfacilitate copying 62
Children are guided bythe teacher in making a"Letter Writing
their own letters by Reminder Chart."Children check the form of referring to the reminderchart. PERSONAL LETTERS
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...understands the purpose andpossi- bilities of the personalletter.
... usesthe personal letter as a social courtesy.
uses the conventionalform of personal letters.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
evaluate his performance in letter writing.
understand terminology used in reference tothe components of personal letters.
enjoy letters of famous people.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
I1. To evaluate one s performance in letterwriting.
Example: Children are encouraged to think of the recipientof the
letter and the quality of writing which makesfor easy reading. This
is done in a number of ways - -attractive chartswell displayed, neat
board work by the teacher, individual copies of groupcompositions,
copied on the primary typewriter, posters, etc.
63 64
deviations from Individual work with apupil often pinpoints certain
These are discussed andthe the model, characteristicto that student. pupil alerted to watchfor them. and Second grade students can use achart showing the components
for which to watch inthe construc- form of a letter. A chart of points
tion of a letter willhelp a pupil evaluatehis own work.
used in reference tothe components of 2. To understand terminology personal letters.
conventions of the form ofpersonal Example: The development of the presented In the pre- letters must continuefrom the rudimentary ideas the personal vious level. The more formal termsfor these divisions ot
letter--heading, salutation orgreeting, body of theletter, closing, be examined and signature may beintroduced. The terms themselves can questions as the for better understanding. Discussion arises from such Why is it called following: What does the heading of aletter tell? In what ways do these two a"heading"?Does salutation mean asalute? do we use the words have similarmeaning? In what other situations
word "body" to mean themain part of something? Is the complimentary to add your close another form ofcourtesy?Why is it very important
full signature?When could a first namebe signed?
Example: After the writing of anykind of letter, the children drawn in address envelopes for theletters. Lines are measured and divide into the main areas: pencil on the properside of the envelope to address, box number, nameof return address, nameof addressee, street of the state, andfinally the city, name orabbreviation of the name
is the zone number and zipcode number. Atter the proper address The teacher will written in ink, thepencil guide lines maybe erased. 65
in the singleexperi- be able to combinea numberof related activities
neatness ofhandwriting, use ofabbreviation, enceof letter writing: and correctaddress form.
letters of famouspeople. I3. To enjoy the
gathered from thelibrary some examples Example: The teacher has who correspondedwith children of of letters writtenby famous people letters of TheodoreRoosevelt to this age group. Suggestions are the Lincoln's to the littlegirl who his children, and aletter of Abraham
suggested he grow abeard. with the idea inmind that These letters areread to the pupils
characteristics of personsthat are not known many timesletters show
Bofh of the lettersmentioned, too, are very or understoodotherwise. forthe specificaudience. good examples offocusing the language reader for whom theletter The teacher stressesconsideration of the
following arediscussed: Who is is intended. Questions such as the what the writer is supposed to receivethis letter?Will he understari In what thingswould the reader saying?What kind of languageis used? show you the kindof person that the be interested?Does this letter used tell us somethingabout writer really was?How does the language about the writer? the person whoreceived the letter? or PERSONAL LETTERS
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...understands the value of neatness, legibility, and form to the reader.
uses punctuation and capitalization withkill appropriate to grade level.
... usesconventional form of personal letters, and understands purpose and value of this form.
...appreciates the personal letter as a creative expression of the writer and his relationship to the receiver.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...recognize opportunities for use of personal letters, voluntarily choose to write letters, and consider the relationships among the writer, the content, and the intended reader as basis for composing.
use consistently the form of the letter and the conventions of written language appropriate to his level of maturity and know- ledge.
...formulate simple rules for use as a check-list in improving his own letters and group letters written by the class.
... use personal letters in imaginative writing.
66 67
LEARNING EXPERIENCES personal letters, tovolun- To recognizeopportunities for use of 1. consider the relationships tarily choose towrite letters, and to reader as basis for among thewriter, the content,and intended composing. letters dictated tothe teacher Teachers foster thehabitual use of
expressing thanksfor favors, for by the group forinvitetions, for for other purposesof information asking permission,for greetings, and and independence inwriting, or courtesy. As children,9in more skill letters in the individuals may takethe responsibilityfor writing such
the activity mayarise from the name of theclass. The initiation of used to decide theessential group or theteacher. Group discussion is
intended reader. One or morepupils content accordingto purpose and write the letter, toread it to the may volunteer orbe selected to and to mail it. class for suggestionsfor improvement, invitation to thefirst grade to see Example: The class plans an Several children suggestthat the invitation a play or anart exhibit. what pupils wish towork on the letter, be by letter. The teacher asks class about whatis to be in- and some volunteer. They talk with the to preparethe final copy in cluded, and theychoose one of the group themselves. They manuscript so thatfirst graders canread the letter discuss the letterwith the class, decide with theteacher when they can illustrate the letter. They think that and ask if it issuitable to
The group thenplans several questions the class shoulddecide this. to each pupil chooses oneof these questions to pose tothe class, and
ask when they appearbefore the class. the letter and approvesthe plan The class discussesthe content of grade children and they hopethat the first to illustratethe invitation, The suggestionis made thatthe will be able to readthe letter. 68
words used must be those which first graders recognize. One of the con-
mittee members suggests using an illustration as a means of assuring
that word meanings are clear.
When the letter is written by conference of the group and illustrated
by three pictures, it is presented to the class and read aloud by a
pupil who has not worked on composing it. This gives the writs the
opportunity to test out their composition by the reactions of a real
reader. Changes can then be made to improve the message by judging what
it says to someone other than the writer.
Improvements are made, the final copy prepared, and the letter sent.
Example: A pupil is absent because of illness, and it is usual in
this class that a letter is written to anyone who is Iliac several days.
The teacher asks who would like to write the letter and who would read
it to help improve it, and plans when these two can accomplish the wmt.
It is planned that it be read to the class for improvement so that there
will be time to complete any changes needed before the day is over.
Such a plan can include a schedule so that the Children take turns
in writing such letters. Since this is a class function, the tLACher
can quite reasonably and honestly rake sure that each pupil getsthe
help he needs in completing the letter, whether from other class nen-
bers or from the teacher.
This occasion offers good opportunity to consider suitable content
in terms of writer, purpose, reader, and the circunstances--such as:
how long has he been absent, what would he be interested in, bow slid&
is he, how long is he likely to be away, etc..
2. To use consistently the form of the letter and the conventions of written language appropriate to his level of maturity and knowledge. I 69
Each letter written tobe received by a reader is anopportunity
language and the for the writer to examinethe conventions of written form of the letter itself.
.EXample: A letter is written tohis parents by each pupil report- the most ing a particular experiencein school that he has chosen as interesting of the week. Each pupil exChanges paperswith another for proof-reading.The teacher and the classmake a plan for evaluating chart-model dis- the work: (1) check the form of the letter against a played in the room, markingChanges to be made, (2) read the leiter aloud, concentrating on themeaning intended, judging a needfor commas or periods toclarify the meaning, (3) consider meaning in terms of paragraphs used or needed, (4) check capitalization, (5) chedk spell- ing, (6) judge need for improvedlegibility.
After the teams of two pupilshave made all improvements they can,
the teacher suggests that some maywish to read to the class theletter
he has been proofing for hispartner. While this sharing with the
class is for the purpose ofenjoyment of meaning, it couldresult in
other Changes in some papers.
A time is set aside formaking the final copies of theletters,
and the teacher encouragesconferences between partners orwith the
teadher as the finished copyis written.
in improving 3. To formulate simplerules for use as a check-list one's own letters and thosewritten by the class as a group.
tha Ekanple:Nbdels of the form of aletter have been displayed in
classroon since the pupilsstarted writing letters. Many pupils have 70 developed sone habitual ways of checking the form of letters against the model, and of checking the other conventions of writtenlanguage. The
teacher has been consistent in attention,first,towhat the paper con-
tains of meaning and what the writer intended as his message. To en-
courage those pupils who canindependently improve their writing, the
teacher initiates the idea of making a check-listshowing the order in
which they look for ways to improve a pieceof writing.
The pupils decide to make two charts, oneincluding those items per-
tinent to letter writing, another forchecking any type of writing.
The Check-list for Letters includes theplacement, form, capitali-
zation, and punctuation for the heading including the writer's address
and the date; the salutation; thecomplimentary close; and the signature.
The Check-list for Compositions includes: (1) Read aloud for mean-
ing. (2) Punctuate to aid meaning. (3) Consider paragraphs. /s each
about a single topic? (4) Check the use of capital letters in proper
names, beginning of sentences,titles. (5) Check spelling. (6) Judge
readability of writing. (7) Check other punctuation, such as abbrevi-
ations, initials, etc..
The teacher reviews these Check-lists atsubsequent writing periods,
and uses them as directions whenshe helps uith the writing of individ-
ual pupils.
4. To use personal letters inimaginative writing.
Example: Study has concentrated on communityworkers and their
work for several years, andseveral such workers have been recently
visited and observed. The teacher initiates conversation about the
fire-station just down the streetand asks that the class name all 7 1
As she listson theboard, several the kinds ofworkers they knowabout. as what theywould children claim one oranother of the typesof work like to do as an adult.
theylike mostand write The teacher suggeststhat each choose one
engaged inthat work. Imaginative a that he is an adult of what the workers writgin is thuscombined with firsthand knowledge
actually do. favorite Character It is suggestedthat pupils choose a
write a letter to sonereal person in a book, movie, orT.V program, and Giant-Killer writes tothe or anothercharacter. The giant in Jack, the
Jolly Green Giant.
encouraged to imagine anunusual change in Example: The pupils are than now exists.A climate, suCh as a muchcolder or warmer climate how their lives change letter is written to anabsent friend describing
with a change inclimate. motivating device verywell Example: Imagination can be used as a vehicle for imaginative in the third grade. Letters are used as a
current news, orfrom stories, well- writing. From social studies, and discussed. This dis- known or well-lovedcharacters are selected what kind of a person cussion covers evaluationsof the students as to finds some lettersfrom this character is. If possible, the teacher Then she suggeststhat real characters andreads them to theclass.
characters discussed. They write the pupils pretendthat they are the each other. letters to the pupilsin the next room, or to
students plan a unitaround an imaginary Example: The teacher and itinerary and select (or historic) pioneerjourney. They plan actual 72
represent each stop. They dscide positions on theschool grounds to
equipment needed onsuch a pioneerjourney. upon andbring to school school grounds and progressfrom station Each day they goout on the
nearly as possibleactual problems ofthe to station,experiencing as pioneers. individuals write As the unit progressestoward completion the telling of experiencesalong the letters to theirfamilies at home,
trail. FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE: BUSINESS LETTERS
Kindergarten,
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
into his home. ...is aware of mailcoming [--
OBJECTIVES
The child will communicate across begin to understandthat people can distance by writingletters. people he knows. realize that someletters come and go to
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
people can communicate acrossdistance by I. To understand that writing letters. [ is ready to order somespecial equip- Example: When the teacher children look at it in the ment for the class,she can have the what they want. catalogue and helpdecide if this is exactly She ahould Then she may talk overhow they are going to getit. expensive and the elicit the idea that atelephone call might be too On the other other person might not getdown all 'Ale information. will have all the hand, if the classwrites a letter, the person think they should information in frontof him. What do the children Does it have anidenti- say in theletter? What is the itemcalled? they want? Where should fication number?Are there additional parts
73 74
the manufacturer send it?How millthe class tell the maker that
it will be paid far?
The teacher 10.1.1 writp the letter the class dictates and show
it to then before htis mailed. Show them on a map where it is
going and how long it will probably be before they can expect the
equipment.
As a follow up, ask children to see from how far away comes some
mail to their homes.
2. To realize that some letters come and go to people he knows.
Example: Have children bring pieces of mail they have received,
such as birthday greetings, which they can share with the class.
Have them also talk about what mail comes to their home that
directly affects them, such as electric and fuel bills. Note that
these come from people they do not know.
Hake the simple distinction at this point that if a letter comes
from someone known, the chances are that it is a personal, friendly
letter. If from someone unknown, then it is probably a business
letter. BUSINESS LETTERS FORMALCORRESPONDENCE:
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child communicate understands thatpeople can ... writing letters. acrossdistance by and go realizes that someletters come to peoplehe knows.
OBJECTIVES
The childwill to someone he can receiveand send letters ...understand that usually involvinghis unknown to himfor specialreasons, wanting something. is used inbusiness writing. recognize thatformal language and why. is included onthe envelope ...recognize what j
LEARNING EXPERIENCES letters to someone that he canreceive and send 1. To understand usually involvinghis wanting unknown to himfor special reasons, something. the studies variouscommunity helpers, Example: As the class to send letter asking thechief of police children candictate a
someone tospeak to them. his his name, hisform of title, They will needto find the class,and what they wishhim to do for address. They discuss to be asked tovisit. They may wish the time andplace he will
invite him forlunch.
75 76
When the decisionshave been made, the teacherwrites on the
board or a chart aspupils dictate the message. She places the but it is formal heading on theletter, with little explanation,
read as an essential partof the letter.
The teacher will follow upby showing tbe finishedletter to
each child so that he canrealize his part in its creation. Then
3.) the class can discuas theenvelope. (See LEARNING EXPERIENCE
writing. 2. To recognize that formallanguage is used in business
things one might say to ,Example: Consider all the different
to address the police chief. Discuss why it is not appropriate
him by his first name, or tojoke in the message, or to signthe
letter "love". Help children to see thesituation as a business
one, thereforeusually more formal in the words chosen.
used. 3. To recognize what isincluded on the envelope and why it is
Example: Show class the envelope withthe school's printed
return address. Ask questions to bring aboutthe understanding that
the return address serves atleast two purposes: it helps the re-
ceiver know who haswritten him, and if the lettershould become Help child- lost, the post office willknow where to send it back.
ren realize thecourtesy of the correctaddress and return address and the postal to the receiver andits usefulness to the postman
system. payment Check their understandingof why letters are stamped:
and for the service ofdelivery. Discussion may result in interest
investigation of the postalsystem.
Mail the letter to the policechief and build anticipationof
children when they the reply by referring tothe letter, asking the 77
think it will come or what they might seeaddressed to them today.
Note: Of course the community helper may be anyindividual with whom
the children could experience the samekind of writing. The class
may want to invite a localauthor to speak to them about his books,
or a parent with a special talent orcollection to share that with
the class. FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE: BUSINESS LETTERS
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...understands that people, known and ullknown, can communicate across distance by writing letters.
...recognizes that business correspondence is for special reasons usually involving wanting something.
...recognizes that formal language is used in business letters.
...recognizes what is included on the envelope and why.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand that practical writing includes filling in forms as well as writing a business letter.
...understand that a business letter can go to an organization aswell as to an individual.
...understand that the individual may be known but the situation is business-like and requires a business letter.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand that practical writing includes filling in forms as well as writing a business letter.
Example: Instead of the teacher's filling out the personal
records of each child, mimeograph non-confidential portions for the
78 79
children to fill in. This will provide practice infollowing direc
ions and in knowing their ownaddresses, birth dates, etc. Help
them to realize that the orderof information usually desired is
name, address, birthdate. Some of this will carry over to correct
placement of name on their schoolwork.
Example: As children join schoolorganizations or the Cub
Scouts, Brownies, Blue Birds, etc.help them fill in information
blanks for themselves rather thansending them home. Parents and
teachers are persons forreference, but Sha do not need tolearn
these skills.
2. To understand that a businessletter can go to an organization as well as to an individual. [
Example: There are many occasions throughoutthe year when
the teacher would like to send awayfor free or inexpensive materials
for classroom use.
Below is a list of such suppliers. Wheu the occasion does come
up, have thechildren form small groups todecide how to order the
materials. The teacher makes the final copyof the letter showing
it to the children. All the aspects of this kind ofwriting are
reviewed. References
Miller, Bruce, Sources of Free andInexpensive Teaching Aids. Riverside, California, (P.O. Box 369)
Pepe, Thomas J. Free and Inexpensive EducationalAids. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
Sources of Free and InexpensiveEducational Materials la Field Enterprises. Chicago: Educational Division, Merchandise MartPlaza. 80
individual may be knoon bat the sitmatiosis 3. To understand that the business-like and requires abusiness letter.
Ekample: A child's father maybe engaged in sone husIness
relevant to a unit of study. The Children cas compose a re-
quest of a tour orinvite him to visit the class. The simple class
should do the writing withperhaps the particular emu asChair-
man to supply correcttitle and address.
Example: There may be various occasions tocommomicate lath
the principal about havingpermission to boild a certain Hadof
booth for Halloween, or take acertain field trip, or &request to
make a special display forthe hall. Children should he helped to
understand that having writtenpermission avoids nismsderstandings
in case someone else wants todo the same thing at the same time. FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE: BUSINESS LETTERS
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
people, known and ...understands that unknown, can communicateacross distance by writingletters.
recognizes thatbusiness correspondencr is for special reasons,usually in- volving wantingsomething.
recognizes thatformal language is used in businessletters.
recognizes what isincluded on the envelope and why.
understands thatbusiness correspondence includes filling informs as well as writing a letter.
ON.. understands that abusiness letter can to an go to anorganization as well as individual.
understands that theindividual may be known, but thesituation is business- like, and requires abusiness letter.
OBJECTIVES
The child will writing situationsthat call for identify manydifferent practical the same care asgiven businessletters. office that developed recognize that itis the needs ofthe post addresses and buyingstamps. present practicesfor writing in formal writing. understands what isrelevant to include
81 82
LEARNING EXPERIENCES that call different practicalwriting situations II1. To identify many for the same care asgiven business letters.
the class to somesmall group Example: Assign every child in that one will of not more thanfive children. Tell the committees of posters announcing be responsible eachweek for making a series The informationwill coming classroom eventsfor the next week. scheduled in science,social usually be factualconcerned with work These posters studies, math, reading,and other content areas. whole at the first ofthe could be presented bythe committee as a Making these weekor one eachday by a member of thecommittee. that are to the point. will reinforce theneed for clear statements the teacher Example: If there are Easterclassroom activities, each child his may wish tohide eggs, one perchild, and then give
find it. The teacher can set of detailedinstructions in order to finding their own by warn thechildren ahead of timeto anticipate the children to hide following the directions. She may encourage that she can recover something from her andmake up directions so
could take turnsdoing this. it quickly. Perhaps the small groups of the post officethat developed 2. To recognize thatit is the needs and buying stamps. present practicesfor writing addresses
the Post Office Example: Have small groupstalk about visiting Help them decidewhat they beyond just goingin to mail something. write the post master would like to see. Then they are ready to When they go, they may take along any to request aguided tour. mailing except for the personal correspondencewhich is ready for there and to findwhere to mail stamp in order tomake the purchase
it. 83
After their visit, providetime for the children todiscuss what
sketch of what happens impressed them. The children may present a the journey of an to a first classletter mailed in the same town,
air mail letter to adistant city, and the adventuresof a package
coming into their cityfor someone's birthday.
Help them to find outwhat they can do if the postoffice is
closed for the day andthey want to send a heavyletter but do not
office give the correct have stamps. The stamp machines in the post
stamps plus anychange which may be leftwhereas stamp machines in The private businesses keepthe change as part of their expenses.
post office alsoprovides a scale in order toknow how much postage
to put on the letter.
wtiting. 3. To understand what isrelevant to include in formal
of EXample;The children will havebeen using the proper form
understand the rationale of a businessletter, but they need to
courtesy in providinginformation for the receiverby including
particular items. Study a model letter anddiscuss the importance
of each part. Street address HEADING City, StateZip Code 1:Date
Name of person or company Street address INSIDE ADDRESS City, StateZip Code
Dear title andnamej SALUTATION
MESSAGE*
COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE (Yourstruly,
SIGNATURE fiourname 84
of the person If the children putthemselves in the place the first thing anyone getting the letter,then they can imagine The headinglets them wants to know iswho the letteris from.
whom. The complimentary know where, but thesignature tells from receiver with a goodfeeling about close is politeand leaves the
the sender. real need for formalcorrespondence ,Example: Whenever the next the understandingthat the arises, review theform and then develop
the point. letter should beshort, clear, and to relevant further,mimeograph a To develop theidea of what is that would includeall long, ramblingletter. Cut it into pieces divided into singlesentences. the proper partswith the message of scrambled sentences, Instruct the childrento take their sets They may not and try to constructthe clearestletter possible.
want to use allof the sentences yougive them. volunteers to sharetheir When they have donethis, ask for The compositionwill letters and see howmuch agreementthere is. be made aboutwhat content naturally vary, butthe distinction can
is included informal writing. and disz An example of aletter that mightbe mimeographed
tributed to thechildren is thefollowing: 85
1762 West Third Avenue Atlanta, Georgia 30301 June 20, 1968
Mr. Herman Porter Acme Lumber Company 4300 O'Farrell Road Atlanta, Georgia 30309
Dear Mr. Porter:
I just got a dog, and I wantto build a house forhim. My dad has the plansand will help me. Would you please deliver ninety feet of board,8" x 2", cut into three foot lengths? We will also needeighteen square feet of roofing paper and tendozen shingles. Jackie is going to have the best dog house in Atlanta.He is such a cute dog, just a young Beagle, andhe will love his new home. We will be home all daySaturday to receive thematerials. my father will pay youwhen the things are delivered. Thank you for your help.
Yours truly,
Michael Harris STORIES AND PLAYS
Kindergarten
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...is familiar with some stories and nursery rhymes.
...is familiar with cartoons, puppet shows, and dramatizations appearing on the television.
...understands time in terms of night and day, a short time and a long time.
...understands place differences in rela- tion to his own world and thepeople and activities in it.
...creates fantasies and engagesin role- playing.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...become aware of the importanceof the sequence of events in stories.
...become aware of the relationshipbetween time and mood in stories.
...learn to associate place with eventsin stories.
role- ...be able to describepeople through language and through playing.
LEARNING-EXPERIENCES
importance of the sequence of eventsin 1. To become aware of the stories.
Example: Tell the story of "Goldilocksand the Three Bears" and
discuss the relationshipof the sequence of the bears'discoveries of
86 87 Goldilocks' activi- things out of orderin their home tothe sequence of ties in thebears' house. eating porridge and (1) Then rearrange theorder of Goldilocks' should do sitting in thechairs and ask thechildren what the bears when they comehome. activities so that she napsbefore she (2) Rearrange Goldilocks' they think mighthappen when the eatE porridge;ask the children what
bears return. have heard the storyof "Snow White," Example: After the children the story if SnowWhite had thrown ask them what wouldhave happened to
the apple in thetrash can. field trip, discussthe order of Example: When the group goes on a both when planning thetrip with events for thetrip with the children, After the field tripis them and when talkingabout it afterwards. the journey and thendraws completed, the classdiscusses the steps of pictures may then be or paintspicturesto representthose steps; these scrapbook of the trip. used to make abulletin board, poster, or between time and moodin stories. I2. To become aware ofthe relationship recording cif Nynken,Blynken, and Nod"; Example: Read or play a which make them knowthat the allow the children totalk about the cues make them feel time setting of the poemis night. How does this poem
about night?
talk about the eventsat home in the Example: Ask the children to
day time and at night.
the people who come tothe house in the day (1) Make a scrapbook of children who come toplay, time, such as themilkman, the postman,
neighbors who come tohave coffee. 88
the activities of thefamily at night (2) What is different about and during the day.
with events in stories. I3. To associate place familiar to most of thechildren Example: List the places which are grandmother's (grocery store, post office,friend's house, the school, Tell stories about house); discuss what is"special" about each place.
different places. each and note thatdifferent things happen at Burton's The Little House,ask the Example: After reading Virginia city and the country children to talk about thedifferences between the
the little house tofeel and the characteristicsof each which cause
the way it does. through role-playing. I4. To describe peoplethrough language and help them learn how todescribe EXample: Work with the children to
familiar people in termsof distinguishingcharacteristics.
Grandmother--What color isher hair?Does she dressdifferently
that is a familycharac- from your mother?Does she have a feature Are her habits teristic (long nose,dark eyes, pointedchin)? to bed early, different from yoursor yourmother's (takes naps, goes
etc.)? for the children todraw-these After discussion of thisnature, arrange
they create, of thepeople they people or play theroles,in situations
have talked about. References
Burton, Virginia Lee. The Little House, illustrated by author. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1942.
Field, Eugene. Nynken, Blynken, and Nod" in Miriam BlantonHuber (ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. p. 92.
"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" in MiriamBlanton Huber !2d.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 281-284.
"The Three Bears" in Miriam Blanton Huber(ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition.New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 250-252. STORIES AND PLAYS
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...is familiar with some stories and nursery rhymes.
...is familiar with cartoons, puppet shows, and dramatizations appearing on the television.
...understands time in terms of night and day, and in terms of length of time.
...understands place differences in relation to his own world and the peopleand activities within it.
...creates fantasies and engages inrole- playing.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...become aware of the importance of sequenceof events in stories.
...become aware of the relationship betweentime and mood in stories.
...be able to see the significance ofplace in stories.
...be able to describe people throughlanguage and through role- playing.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
To become aware of the importanceof sequence of events in stories. 1 1.
Example: After reading a story with whichthe children are
familiar, relate the events in adifferent order and discuss theeffects
90 91
first of the of rearranging them. What would have happened if the three little pigs had builthis house out of brick?
key event from a story. Example: Explore the effects of removing a
If Cinderella's losing herslipper is removed from the story,how is
the story changed?
relationship between time and moodin stories. I2. To become aware of the
Example: Discuss the feelings about night inMyra Berry Brown's
First Night Away From Home.
Discuss the time aspects ofMyra Livingston's I'm Hiding. When
playing a game, such as "Hide andSeek," does it seem that a verylong
while passes before one isfound?
I3. To associate place with eventsin stories.
Example: After reading Beatrice DeRegniers' May I king A Friend?,
discuss the humor brought aboutby placing animals in a royalpalace;
emphasize that location is asimportant as the characters inbuilding
this story.
through role- 4. To be able to describepeople through language and playing. characteristics, such as Example: After class discussion of family
dark hair and eyes, height, etc.,each child dictates or writes a
sentence describing someonein his family.
Example: Compare cartoon representationswith photographs (Donald
Duck with photographs of aduck, Dagwood with photographof a man).
Discuss the ways in which the cartoonistmakes his drawings realistic
although they are not exactlylike the object. Using the descriptions
ask children to of family characteristicswhich the children have done,
draw pictures showing theparticular characteristics thatthey have
talked about. 92
Example: Ask the children to describe a postman, an astronaut, a teacher. Notice the characteristics that make then similarand those that make them different.
Allow the children to act as they think peoplewould in a given situation: How does a mother look when she is angry?Mu does she speak? How does the teacher speak when the class isnoisy? Vow dbes daddy look when he is sleepy?
References
Brown, Myra Berry. First Night Away From Home, illustrated by Elocothy Marino. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1960. de Regniers, Beatrice Schenk. NII king A Friend?, illustrated by Beni Montresor. New York: Atheneum, 1964.
Livingston, Myra Cohn. I'm Hiding, illustrated by Erik Elegvad. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961. STORIES AND PLAYS
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...is aware of the importanceof sequence of events in stories.
...understands that both time andplace influence events in stories andthe mood of stories.
...is able to noticecharacteristic features and mannerisms of familiarpeople.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
relationship between the time inwhich ...understand that there is a a story takesplace and the content and moodof the story.
relationship between theplace in which ...understand that there is a a storyhappens and the content andmood of the story.
;Je aware that charactersin a story may beptesented in different ways and that some are morelife-like than others.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES between the To develop understandingthat there is a relationship 1. and-mood of the time in which a storytakes place and the content story. time...," Example: Read several stories thatbegin "Once upon a
"Long ago...," etc., andask the children whatthese phrases mean.
begin in this What kinds of characters areusually in stories that
manner? How do these storiesusually end? Tortoise, Cinderella Fables and fairy talessuch as The Hare and the
93 94 or The Glass Slipper,Rumplestilskin, and Puss in Boots illustratethis point. Discussion should include characters(princesses, fairy god- mothers, talking animals,etc.), the magical elements of thestories, and the endings.
After discussion about "Once upon atime..." stories, ask the class
List to decide upon somecharacters for their own storyof this type. these on the board and ask thechildren to tell or write their awn stories, using these characters. Choose one of the stories todramatize and involve the class inplanning the presentation.
several stories, such as Example: Compare the time-settings of the
Marjorie Flack's Wait forWilliam, Carolyn Haywood's"B" Is For Betsy,
Moore's The Night Before Christmas,Marcia Brown's Once aMouse...A
Fable Cut in Wood. Help the children decide uponthe time of each
story and the ways inwhich the time is indicated. Do all of the
stories say when they takeplace?Do some of the stories happenin the story? modern times?Do the pictures provide aclue about the time of
How do the artists knowwhat kinds of pictures todraw?
be used to indicate that Example: Further studies of stories may
time does not have tobe stated as "196 ", or"long ago." around a For example, Gramatky's story,Little Toot, is centered
storm; the poem, TheNight Before Christmas,takes place on any How does the storm Chzistmas Eve; settingsof this sort provide a mood. reader? What words or make the tugboat feel?How does it affect the
expressions are used toaffect the reader?
After discussion abouttime-settings which createparticular create special feelings, ask the children tothink of some times which
mornings); then feelings in them (for instance,storms, night, spring it makes them have the children describe oneof these times and che way
feel. 95
Example: Examine several different works to see how long a period of time they cover:
(1) A biography which covers a life time. How long is a lifetime?
(2) A fictional story, such as Horton Hatches the Em. How long
does it take for the egg to hatch?
(3) A fairy tale, such as Sleeping Beauty. How long does the
heroine sleep?
(4) A story from the reading book. How long would it take for this
action to take place?
Do they all cover the same amount of time?Do they all state the extent
of the period of time taken up by the action?
2. To develop the understanding that there is a relationshipbetween the place-setting of a story and the content and mood of the story.
EXample: Read a story, such as Jerrold Beim's Shoeshine 1111, in
which the place-setting is vital to the story. Is this the only place
in which the events of the story could have happened? Whyis this a
good setting for these events?Could the events have happened in another
type of place?
Example: Read two stories in which the place-setting is important,
but treated in a somewhat different manner; e.g., RobertMcCloskey's
One Morning in Maine and Golden MacDonald's The LittleIsland. Compare
the kinds of things described. Are the same things emphasized in the
description of the island and in the description of the morning inMaine?
Discuss things that are unique in the local community andplan a
story around one of them.
Example: Compare Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Hanseland
Gretel. Both take place largely in a forest; in bothkf these stories,
the actiop begins outside of the forest and continuesinside of the 96
forest. What kinds of people inhabit the forest? Do the magical events happen outside of the forest?
Example: Sometimes stories are funny because characters or events
appear in places where they are notexpected; for instance, there are
several nursery rhymes in which this happens: "Peter, Peter, Pumpkin
Eater" and "There was an old woman who lived in a shoe...". Children
laugh when a dog comes into the school room because dogs do not go to
school. After thinking of other things that are humorous because of
the inappropriateness of the place-people relationship,choose one such
event and plan a short skit around it. Present the skit to an audience.
3. To develop awareness that characters in a story may bepresented in different ways and that some are more lifelike thanothers.
Example: Read several stories to examine the kinds of characters
appearing in the narrative, such as:
(1) Real people--biography or fictional biography, such as Ben and
Me;
(2) Children--fiction, such as Rosa-Too-Little, The DTagon in the
Clock Box;
(3) Adults--tiction, as Millions of Cats;
(4) Witches, dwarfs, fairy godmothers, etc.,--fairy tales, such as
Cinderella;
(5) Animals- fables, fairy tales, animal stories,such as The Hare
and the Tortoise, Finders Keepers.
Which kinds of characters are more like people thatthe children know?
Which are not?
Compare several descriptions of characters in stories.
(1) How is Cinderella described in the fairy tale?Does the story
tell such things as the color of her hair and eyes,of her height? Does 97 this matter? Write adescription of Cinderella. Compare the descriptions.
Does everyone think ofCinderella in the same way?
(2) How is Santa Clausdescribed in The Night BeforeChristmas?
Is he described in moredetail than is Cinderella?
Example: Read a description of acharacter from a familiar story Ask them to try to without telling the childrenwho is being described. How are draw the character fromthe description. Compare the pictures.
they alike?How are they different? References
Aesop. "The Hare and the Tortoise" in Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. p. 327.
Beim, Jerrold. Shoeshine Boy, illustrated by Louis Darling. New York: . William Morrow and Company, 1954.
Brown, Marcia. Once a Mouse...A Fable Cut in Wood, illustrated by author. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1961.
"Cinderella" in Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 289-292.
Craig, M. Jean. The Dragon in the Clock Box, illustrated by Kelley Oechsli. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1962.
Felt, Sue. Rosa-Too-Little, illustrated by author.New York: Double- day and Company, 1950.
Flack, Marjorie.Wait for William, illustrated by author and R. A Holberg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1935.
Gag, Wanda. Millions of Cats, illustrated by author. New York: Coward- MtCann, Inc., 1928.
Geisel, Theodor Seuss (Dr. Seuss). Horton Hatches theliga, illustrated by author. New York: Random House, 1940.
Gramatky, Hardie. Little Toot, illustrated by author. New York: G. P. Putnan's Sons, 1939.
"Hansel and Greter in Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.),Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 284-289.
Haywood, Carolyn. "B" Is for Betsy, illustrated by author. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1939.
Lawson, Robert. Ben and Me, illustrated by author. Boston: Little Blown and Company, 1939.
Lipkind, William. Finders Keepers, illustrated by NicolasMordvinoff. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951.
MtCloskey, Robert.One Morning in Maine, illustrated by author.New York: The Viking Press, 1952. 99
MacDonald, Golden (Rargaret WiseBrown). The Little Island, illustrated by Leonard Weisgard. New York: Doubleday and Company, 1946.
Moore, Clement C. "The Night Before Christmas" in Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 133-134.
"Puss in Boots" in Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.), Story andVerse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 306-309.
"Rumpelstiltskin" in May Hill Arbuthnot (ed.), TheArbuthnot Anthology of Children's Literature. Revised Edition. New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1961. pp. 60-62.
"Sleeping Beauty" in Miriam Blanton Huber(ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 296-298.
"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" in MiriamBlanton Huber (ed.), Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965. pp. 281-284. STORIES AND PLAYS
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...is aware of the importanceof sequence of events in stories.
...understands that there is arelationship between the time in which a storytakes place and the content andmood of the story.
...understands that there is arelationship between the place-settingof a story and the content and mood ofthe story.
...is aware that characters in astory may be presented in different waysand that some are morelifelike than others.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
takes ...understand several ways in whichthe time in which a story place is indicated.
the place-setting of a story ...understand several ways in which is indicated.
kinds of characters in stories ...understand that there are different and that these cnaracters maybe presented in different ways.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES in which the 1. To develop understandingthat there are several ways time in which a storytakes place is indicated.
narrative presented inthe Example: Review the aspects of time in
second grade: 101
(1) What kinds of stories takeplace "Once upon a time...?"
(2) Do stories which take place"in 1966..." or "During the Civil
War..." usually have magical happenings?Do they usually deal with
real people or with people whocould be real?
(3) If the action of a story takesplace "During a terrible storm..."
or "At night...,"does it sometimes involve the sorts ofthings that can
happen only at these times? Does the time influence the way the reader
feels about these events?
Talk about a special time of the year,such as Christmas. How do
you feel before Christmas?Do the days seem longer?Why? What special
things happen before Christmas?How do these make you feel?What is
special about Christmas Eve?How do you feel then? Does it pass as
quickly as any other night? Write aparagraph about a holiday that you
like, trying to include the events andfeelings that make it a special
time for you.
Example: If you wish to write a story whichhappens in 1967, but
you want your readers tohave to guess the time-setting, what are some
clues that you could put in the story?
(1) What were some important events whichhappened in 1967 that you
could refer to or include in your story?
(2) What were the styles of dress in 1967?
(3) What were the kinds of transportationused in 1967?
(4) Who were some important people living in_967?
2. To designate several ways in whichthe place-setting of a story is indicated.
Example: Review those aspects of place-settingwhich have been
studied earlier:
(1) What kinds of stories usually happen"In a far-off land...?" 102
(2) Are stories which take place "inMaine..." or "in New York City" more realistic than storieswhich take place "In a far-off land...?"
(3) What is the effect of putting characters in aplace where they
do not normally appear, such as tellingabout a giraffe who goes to see
the king?
Example: Talk about your favorite places, such as aspecial "play
place." Is this place special because of what youdo when you are there?
Is it a pretty place?Write a paragraph describing a favoriteplace;
be sure to include the details whichmake it special.
Example: Sometimes stories do not state theplace in which the
action happens; how do movies and T.V. programs indicate the place-
setting? List some things that let you know where a programis taking
place, such as the way in which the characterstalk (dialect), the kinds
of clothes worn by the characters, thebuildings (or lack of them), etc.
Think of some features of your area whichcould serve as clues that
a story's eventshappened there:
(1) What is the geography of your area?
(2) Are there any particular products,either industrial or agri-
cultural, which are produced in yourarea?
(3) What is the weather like?
3. To develop the understanding thatthere are different kinds of characters in stories and that these maybe presented in different ways.
Example: Review the kinds of characters thathave previously been
noted:
(1) Real people, as in biography
(2) People who could be real, as infiction
(3) People with special powers(elves, witches, fairy godmothers,
etc.) in fairy tales 103
in fiction (4) Animals,realistically presented, as if they werepeople (5) Animals whotalk and act as something about thelife of a Ilumple: Read a storythat tells the Lincoln byd'Aulaire. Then look in famous person,such as Abraham this perscn. Does the encyclopedia to seewhat you candiscover about fairly well withthe information information in thestory you read agree this is true? What does this in theencyclopedia?Why do you think people? suggest to youabout writingabout real upon fivequestions Divide the classinto groups;each grcup decides
These questionsshould glean important to ask theteacher about herlife. possible. Each group thentakes information and asmuch information as of the and writes abiographical sketch the answers tothese questions
teacher. fairy tales to seewhat kinds ofthings Example: Compare several fairy who have magicalpowers, such as you are toldabout the characters introduced anddescribed as "kind" or godmothers. Are they simply the story?Do you find any "wicked" or "jolly,"etc.?Do they talk in check in theencyclopedia? factual informationthat you could not introducedin the same In plays or movies,the characters are
there is no onewho says at thebeginning way as they arein stories; is a cowboyand he is a tough, mean of a "Western," "This is Bill; he bank." Nor does anyonesay of acharacter, hombre, who isgoing to rob a How, then, doesthe audiencelearn that "She is a beautifulprincess." bank? What would youdo if you were Bill is a cowboy orthat he robs a characters and askedto make aplay from them: given thefollowing list of beautiful if shedid not pout Jane, a princesswho would be
constantly make Jane stoppouting Hilda, Jane's motherwho tries to 104
Joe, a frog who is really a prince under a spell
Mergatroid, a dwarf with magic powers
Demonia, the wicked witch who turned Joe into a frog
(1) What kind of people would you choose for each part?
(2) Can you think of simple costumes or !mops to indicate their roles?
(3) Can you describe appropriate facial expressions, toneof voice, and manners of walking for these characters?
(4) Decide together upon a story which uses these characters.
(5) Decide upon appropriate speeches (lines) and actionsfor these characters to act out the story.
(6) Act out a scene or a whole play using thesecharacters-
References
d'Aulaire, Ingri and Edgar Parin. Abram" Lincoln, illustrated by authors. New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1957. POETRY AS A WRITINGFORM
Kindergarten andFirst Grade
1EXPECTED READINESS
The pupil
listening to ...has had experience poetry.
rhythm ...has hadexperience with in songs.
devised sounds ...has imitated or to suit anexperience.
OBJECTIVES
The pupil will
enjoy hearing poetryread.
identify simplerhythm in poetry.
express ideasin vividlanguage.
choral readingof poetry. ...participate in
Lcontribute to groupwriting of poetry.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
read. 11. To enjoyhearing poetry
Variety frequently reads poetryto children. Example: The teacher planned: rhyming andnon-rhyming, in types of poetryis purposefully verse, etc. Before the reading, a narrative poemsand noulensical discussed given. Unfamiliar words are background ofunderstanding is that meaning is nothidden. Illustration: before a poenis read so (5) sight well in CarlSandburg's "Slippery" The term"six month child"
CS 106
be explained within an introduction to the poem.
"This poem is about a wiggly, little baby, not even a yearold. He is just six months 014. The writer calls him a 'six monthchild',
Who has a baby at home?See if the baby in Mr. Sandburg's poem tslike your baby when he has just had ab-th."
2. To identify simple rhythm in poetry.
Example: The teacher leads children to tap, clap, orwalk to the rhythm of a poem. At first the tap is on the accented syllables or words only. Mother Goose rhymes such as "Star Bright" (3) andother simple rhymes such as "The Squirrel" (2) are goodselections for early experiences.
Later, loud taps are made on accented syllables andsoft taps on the unaccented. A suggested poen for this typerhythm is lfts. Peck-
Pigeon" (1).
3. To express ideas in vivid language.
Example: The teacher is sensitive to vivid language asit occurs
in children's speech and rewards it in some way. A smile of apprecia-
tion, a remark such as "You saidthat well, John. Your words make me
feel the cold wind," or writing thechild's statement on chart paper to
display in the room to be readagain and again--these kinds ofrewards
are ways of showingrespect to a pupil, waysof developing self-respect
and self-pride in languagewell used.
Example: A story by a first gradeboy offers opportunity to
encourage vivid languageand the opportunity to talk casuallyabout
poetic form at the same time. The story: 107
If I were A Kite Bari Maddox
If I were a kite which way would Igo?I don't know. Do you know? I wish you did.
"You have cap- The teacher says somethingof this nature to Bari, Your story tells it tured the feeling of afreely moving kite,Bari! Let's write it as apoem." well. This really soundslike poetry. this form: Re-written on chart paper,Bari's story appears in
If I Were A Kite Barri Maddox
If I were a kite Which way would Igo? I don't know. Do you know? I wish you did.
of poetry. 14. To participatein Choral reading
choral reading for youngchildren Example: Providing experience in The teacher reads may be doneby selecting poemswith simple refrains. children to say a certainpart the poem once ortwice, then asks the (4) is well suited with her. "The MysteriousCat" by Vachel Lindsay
for this. with choral reading. Example: The teacher leadspupils to experiment short poem such asAnnette Wynn't. Illustration: The teacher reads a enough for thechildren to learn it "The House Cat"(6) several ttaes, wTites the poem onthe board and say it withher. Later, the teacher and speak one word alittle louder than and asks,"If we read our poem If ve keep our voices very,very the others, whatword would itbe? vould be the softwords?Let's try it." soft for someother words, which
Read in unison. 108
13. To contribute to group writing of poetry.
Example: Involving pupils in group smiting may bedone after an
exciting sensory experience. The teacher elicits descriptive words,
phrases, or statements from pupils, recordsthem on the board and
rearranges them in the form of poetry.
After the children watch and caress a kitten theteacher asks,
"What is a kitten like?Hoy can we describe our kitten?"Such responses
as these are given:
He is soft. He purrs when he is happy. He is limber. His fur is yellow. And he has a pink tongue He meows when he's hungry. His claws are sharp. He scratches when he's mad. He likes to be fed. He likes to be petted and rubbed.
Looking at the responses of the children,the teather comments,
"We can make a poem out of the things yousaid."Later she copies the
statements, rearranginglines to achieve cadence. The poem, copied on
dhart paper and illustrated bychildren, is read to them again and
again and is called "ourpoem:"
Our Kitten
Our kitten is soft And limber, He is yellow And has a pink tongue.
He meows when he's hungry. He scratches when he's mad. He purrs when he's happy.
He likes to be petted And rubbed And fed. 109
References
from EleanorFarjeon, Over Farjeon, Eleanor. "Mrs. Peck-Pigeon" 1. Company. 1933. The GardenWall, J. P. Lippincott Author unknown. In Miriam Huber, MiriamBlanton. "The Squirrel," 2. Verse forChildren, ThirdEdition. Blanton Huber(ed.), Story and Macmillan Company. 1965. "To Market, ToMarket," in Miriam Mother Goose. "Star Bright" and 3. Verse forChildren, ThirdEdition, Blanton Huber(ed.), Story and Macmillan Company. 1965. Cat," in VachelLindsay, The Congo, Lindsay, Vachel. "The Mysterious 4. 1942. and Other Poems.Macmillan Company. Steel. "Slippery," in CarlSandburg, Smoke and 5. Sandburg, Carl. Harcourt, Braceand Company. 1920. Wnne, For Daysand "The House Cat,"in Annette 6. Wnne, Annette. Company. 1919, 1947. Days, J. P. Lippincott were writtenby dhildren andhave Poems not citedin the references not beenpublished previously. POETRY AS A WRITING FORM
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The pupil
...listens to poetry.
...experiments with language forvivid effect.
...identifies simple rhythm in poetry.
participates in choral leading of poetry.
...participates in group writing.
OBJECTIVES
The pupil will
...enjoy poetry.
...purposefully choose pictoriallanguage.
...expand experiences in choralreading of poetry.
040distinguish poetic form from proseform in literature.
...recognize poetic qualitiesin his own writing.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To enjoy poetry
Example: To encourage enjoymentof poetry, the teacher finds many
opportunities to read poetry tochildren. Selection of poems is made
sensitize children to to acquaint Childrenwith a variety of styles, to
hio 111
"run-on" sounds, "abrupt - sound patterns (rhyming,rhythm, alliteration, stop" sounds, etc.)9 and tosensitize them to expreasivevocabulary.
The prime purpose for readingis enjoyment. Only casual reference is
made to style, sound-patterns,etc. Children should frequently see a the words and the poem as it isread. It is important for them to see
lines as the teacher phrasesthem. Children are thus led to read poetry variation in form as as thoughts, not aslines. They are led to accept
(1) and they see many varieties. "Skipping Ropes" by Dorothy Aldis
"Merry-Go-Round" by Dorothy W. Baruch(2) are examples of variety in
line arrangement. led Example: Variety in sound patterns maybe found as children are
to compare the soundpatterns in poems. The regular and frequent
"stopping places" in VachelLindsay's "The Little Turtle"(7) are quite
different from the run-onthoughts in "The Hee byElizabeth Maddox
Roberts (9).
Attention may be called tothe fact that within one poemthere may
is "Wild be abrupt stops and run-onthoughts. An illustration of this
Animals" by Elizabeth Fleming(5).
The teacher sometimes Example: Children enjoy repetition in poetry. Illustrations calls attention torepeated initial sounds(alliteration).
occur in"Wild Animals" by ElizabethFleming (5) "The Falling Star" by SaraTeesdale (11) "The Sea Shell" by Amy Lowell(8)
teacher may play withrhyming. Example: Occasianally the pupils and the last word One person begins a statement,another finishes, making
rhyme with a previouslyused word. Illustrations.
I lost my ball in the 112
He ate so much cake he had a
These are called rhymes, not poems.The game is followed with a discussion of the fact that some write7s userhyme in poetry. The teacher reads a poem ( and calls itthat) in which rhyme is easy to hear. Read Robert Louis Stevenson'sIty Shadow." (10). Follow this with the reading of another poem, called a poemalso, in which there is no thyming. An illustration is "Mountains" by AnnNolan Clark (3). The teacher leads pupils to see that rhyme may or may notbe found in poetry.
2. To purposefully choose pictorial language.
Example: The teacher asks pupils to feel anobject inside a paper bag then describe the way it feels inone's hand and ask another to guess what it is. Objects may be such things as a stiffbristle brush, a glass marble, a pine cone, or afew links of chain.
Example: The teacher leads pupils to write'%irord pictures" of the weather on a rainy day, a very windy day, or a snowyday. Discuss such
things as these: What words or phrases can you think of todescribe
the way the clouds look?How does the wet ground feel to yourfeet when
you walk in such rain asthis? What do birds do in this kind of
weather?How does the postman or thetraffic policeman feel in such
rain?How does a mud-puddle lookwhen you step in it?How do your shoes
look?
Example: Ask children to describesuch things as these:
(1) Sounds we hear at night
(2) The way one looks when he gets outof bed in the morning
(3) The taste of a food one reallylikes 113
choral reading of poetry. 3. To expandexperiences in
selects a poemwhich Childrenthemselves can Example: The teacher Children and first, then allread it together. read. She reads it and try for Choral readingof the poem teacher discussvarying plans several methods: in unison, somelines slowly,others (a) Reading the whole poem more rapidly
some lines,low voices readingothers (b) High voices reading certain lines assolos, other One or morechildren reading (c) Chorus, responding to children readingremaining lines as a the soloist(s) to varietyin Choral reading Examples of poemswhich are adaptable Field (4). Fyleman (6) and"Doorbells" by Rachel are141ice" by Rose
poetic form from proseform in literature. 4. To distinguish
themselves and time" in whichpupils group Example,: Plan a "poetry
read poems toeach other. and a short poemwith punctuation Example: Mimeograph a short story Ask Children todecide included but withoutmargins andidentations. them decide. Discuss the"clues" which help which of theseis the poem. decision, read the twoselections If pupils havetrouble making the phrasing the words children hear theteacher's voice aloud. Let the
and soundingthe rhythm.
writing. poetic qualitiesin one's own 5. To recognize
will likelyresult elicits groupwritIng which Example: The teacher which provokes with a commonshpred experience in a poem. This is begun in After poppingand eating popcorn feeling and talking. Illustration: 114
"Suppose there was someone whohad the classroomthe teacher asks: describe it to him?How would you never seen popcorn. How would you The way it looks?" tell about the popping?The way it tastes? the board: As pupils talk, theteacher records their statements on "Little yellow seeds pop openand swell up." "They turn inside out and arewhite inside." "You put butter and salt on itand oh, it'sgood!" "You can hear them pop." "You can see them jumping anddancing." "They would jump out of the panif you moved thecover." "Popcorn is as white assnow." pop!" "Heat causes it to swell upand open. It goes pop! pop! "It looks like bumpy white mothballs." poppity "It tastes like popcorn. It's buttery and salty and tasting." She calls Later the teacher copiesthe statements in poetryform.
it "Our Poem":
Popcorn
Little yellow seeds Swell up, Pop open, And turn inside out When they are heated. You can hear them, Pop! pop! pop! You can see themdancing and jumping, Pop! pop! pop!
Popcorn is as white as snow, Like bumpy mothballs. It tastes like popcorn, Buttery, And salty, And poppity tasting. Oh! It's good.
the blinds to the topof the windows Example: The teacher raises "Let's write a poem about and asks pupils to"look at today." She says,
today. Who can think of abeginning?" 115
The teacher writes thoughts onthe board as they are given:
"Today is gray and cloudy."
"It is cold." things do you like to The teacher interrupts toask, "What kinds of do on a day like this?"
"I like to stay in the house."
"I like to watch T.V."
"I like to play withpuzzles."
"I like to play dolls."
"At home we make a fire in thefireplace on days like this. Daddy
T.V." reads the paper.Mama sews on buttons. Jeanie and I watch day'? 'A sewing The teacher asks,"Can we call this a T.V. watching
of the board: day'? 'A reading day'?" She re-writes on another part
Today is gray and cloudy. It is cold. It is a stay-in-the-houseday, A T.V.-watching day, A puzzle-working day, A reading day, A doll-playing day, A sewing day, A sit-by-the-fire day.
The teacher reads this to thepupils and elicits theirthinking
about it: "Do you think we have too many'A's' and too many 'day's'
in our poem?Let's read it together and see. Which ones can we leave
out?" Revise and elicit more thinkingfor an ending of the poem:
"Do we need another line or two totell our feelings about suchdays
as this? Do you like gray, cloudydays?"
"I like them, but not a lot ofthem."
"I like sunny days best, butthese are sort of good."
"Gray da7, are different from sunnydays. I miss the sun." 116
The teacher interrupts to suggest,"Let's read the whole poem swim and try these statements asendings. Let's see if amy ome of them seems to help the poeo end."
The pupils select an ending and a title.The fimal wersiam, copied on chart paper, appears in thisform:
Gray Day
Today is gray and cloudy. It is cold. It is a stay-in-the-house day, A T.V. -watching, Puzzle-working, Reading, Sewing, Doll-playing day, A sit-by-the-fire day.
I like gray days, But not a lot of them. I miss the sun.
Example: The teacher is sensitive to poetic elementsvadat appear in children's writing (rhythm, alliteration,personal feelings, etc.), and copies their prose as poetry. The tesCher points out Mum sha is doing: "This sounds like poetry! Let me *bow you bow to write this im the form of a poem."
Ricky's story "Outer Space" in the origins' wasthis:
Outer Space
Space is an empty place in theclouds.Space is a place of quietness. There is nothimg in it but four things we know of:1. Sun 2. Black Sky3. Stars 4. the Planets.
Re-written on chart paper,Ricky's story is called aroma
Space is an empty place In the clouds. Space is a place Of quietness. There is nothing in it But sun, 117
Black sky, Stars, And planets.
Example: The teacher re-writes prose as poetry when poeticelements are folnd in the prose. Misspelled words are corrected in the copying.
Changing the form from prose to poetry is not done todiscourage the writing of prose, nor to imply that poetry is"better" than prose. It
is done only to acquaint pupils with poetic form and with thepersonalized
expression of thoughts as they appear in poetry.
Terry's story of a mocking bird reflects his feelings, hie emotional
reaction. This is a characteristic of poetry and may well be rewritten
as a poem. The original story was this:
The Malkin Bird
The Malkin bird is my favorite bird. I like the bird becose it sing better than any other bird to me. If I was to be a bird I would be a Malkin bird. And I would bulid my nest by a worm hold in a chere tree. Any when my wife had babys I would get (up) late in the night to catch worms.
Re-written:
The Mockingbird
The mockingbird Is my favorite bird. I like it because it sings Better than any other bird To me.
If I were a bird I would be a mockingbird. I would build my nest By a worm hole In a cherry tree. When my wife had babies I would get up Late in the night To catth worms. 118
References
1. Aldis, Dorothy. "Skipping Ropes" in Dorothy Aldis, Everything and Anything. G. P. Putnam's Sons, as listed in Huber, Miriam B. (ed.) Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: Macmillan Company, 1965. p.87.
2. Baruch, Dorothy W. "Merry-Go-Round," in Dorothy W. Barudh, I Like Machinery, Harper and Brothers. 1933.
3. Clark, Ann Nolan. "Mountains," in Ann Nolan Clark, In /It Mother's House. Viking Press. 1941.
4. Field, Rachel. "Doorbells," in Rachel Field, The Pointed People. Macmillan Company. 1930.
5. Fleming, Elizabeth. "Wild Animals," in Elizabeth Fleming, Gammon and Spinach. W. Collins Sons and Co., Ltd., as listed in Huber, Miriam B. (ed.) Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: Macmillan Company, 1965. p.107.
6. Fyleman, Rose. "Mice" in Rose Fyleman, Fifty-One New Nursea Rhymes, Doubleday and Company, 1932.
7. Lindsay, Vachel. "The Little Turtle," in Vachel Lindsay, Golden Whales, Macmillan Company. 1948.
8. Lowell, Amy. "The Sea Shell," in Amy Lowell, A Dome of Many-Colored Glass, Houghton-Mifflin Company, as listed in Huber, Miriam B. (ed.) Story and Verse for Children. Third Edition. New York: Macmillan Company, 1965. p.135.
9. Roberts, Elizabeth Maddox. "The Hens," in Elizabeth Maddox Roberts, Under the Tree, Viking Press. 1930.
10. Stevenson, Robert Louis. "1My Shadow," in Robert Louis Stevenson, A Child's Garden of Verses, Grosset and Dunlop Co. 1957.
11. Teasdale, Sara. "The Falling Star," in Sara Teasdale, Stars To-night Macmillan Company. 1930.
Illustrations cited in the references werewritten by children and bavn not been previously published. POETRY AS A WRITINGFORM
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The pupil
...listens to poetry.
...purposefully usespictorial language.
reading of ...participates in choral poetry.
in ...distinguishes poetry from prose literature.
%as an initialunderstanding of poetry as a writingform.
OBJECTIVES
The pupil will
enjoy and appreciatepoetry.
use languagefor effect.
reading of poetry. ...participate in choral
qualities in his ownwriting. ...recognize poetic
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
appreciate poetry. 11. To enjoy and
available much poetrywhich the pupils Example: The teacher makes this, the teacherfinds frequemt themselves may read. In addition to acquaintance opportunities to readrottry to pupils,extending their
pupils arefrequently duplicated with variety inform. Poems read to
119 120
ar written on chart paper in order for children to see line arrangement,
capitalization, punctuation, internal rhyme, etc. as the poem is read.
A suggestion for variety in line arrangement is "There Once Wasa Puffin"
by Florence Page Jaques 0). A suggestion for illustrating unusual
arramgements for rhyme as well as variety in line arrangement is "The
Little Kitteme" by Eliza Lee Follen (1).
1-37-5-1e language for effect.
Example: The teacher plans experiences, and capitalizes on those
which occur, to stimulate mental and emotional reactions: An animal
(rabbit, ummkey, Chicken, raccoon-something other than thepets at home)
is brought to the f:lassroom for the day. It is watChed, touched, smelled,
listemed to, and talked about. Finally, after much Observation of the
mina, the children are asked to write about it and include in the
writing some word pictures so that those who read about the animal will
almost see it. Share the writing with another class group.
Example: Pose questions about things all Children know.Ask them
to write amsuers?
What is night like? Row do cornflakes feel f.n your mouth when you eat then? What is peanut butter like? How does it loOk? How does it taste? Now does it feel in your mouth? low does it feel to be sleepy?
Example: Take the class to the cafeteria just after lunch is over.
Listen to the sound* of dishwashing, of cleaning; watch the workers--do
they work quiCkly or slowly?Smell the smells. Can you smell the soap
suds?The left-over food?Find out how the tables, Chairs, and floor
look Just after lunch. 121
description of "cleaning Come back to theclassroom and write a up afterschool loath."
T. participste InChoral reading of poetry.
be read in Example: A slagle poen,read first by the teacher, nay voices for a many ways by theChildren.Experiment in grouping like for the "verse choir." Try solo parts,choosing different Children various solo parts. adaptable to many The poen "Jingle Jingle"by Zhenya Gay (2) is and try reeding arramgements.Children are encouraged to suggest
reodfag arramgements.
4. To recagnize poeticJpritit les in one's ownwriting.
4
writing of a pupil in theclass as a Example:The teacher um's the Astory is duplicated asit basis for discussianabout writing forms. been re-written in poetryform. was writtenoriginally and as it has differences between story The tufa?: discusseswith the children the
foes awl poetiry fomm asshoos la the two versions:
(a) The ortgimal story:
A Spring Story Edith Barnes
I was walking throughthe forest one day. I wasted to haw whowinwas. I asked a bird if she knew sprIrg was. I asked a bunny and asquirrel amd a deer.But they didn't know. I went an throughthe forest. I net a raccoon. Me said swims wasbeautiful. She bad flouers so smeet. ilth so manycolors you wouldn'tbelieve. She smelled so sweetmod fragrant. I samba& throughthe forest and toldthe bird, dee bow, the squirrel,mod the deer whospring was. 122
(b) Re-written in poetryform:
A Spring Story Edith Barnes
I was walking throughthe forest one dry. I wanted to know who Spring was. I asked a bird If she knew Who Spring was. I asked a bunny, And a squirrel, And a deer, But they didn't know.
I went on through the forest And met a raccoon. He said Spring wasbeautiful, With flowers so sweet, With so many colors You wouldn't believe. She smells sweet and fragrant.
I ran back through theforest And told the bird, And the bunny, And the squirrel, And the deer Who Spring was. 123
References The Kittens" in MaryHill Arbuthnot, Follen, ElizaLee. "The Little 1. Literature,Revised Edition, Arbuthnot Anthologyof Children's 1961. Scott, Foresmanand Company. Smells," in ZhenyaGay, Jingle "The World isFull of 2. Gay, Zhenya. lEgle, VikingPress. 1953. Puffin," in Child Life, Page. "There Once Was a 3. Jaques, Florence January, 1930. Child Life, Inc. references werewritten bychildren Illustrations notcited in the published. and have notbeen previously FACTUAL REPORTING
Kindergarten
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
knows a variety of facts and uses appropriate forms to state them.
distinguishes between fact and fantasy. 1
OBJECTIVES
The child will
develop ability to distinguish betweenfactual and imaginative representations.
develop the ability to report facts inchronological order.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To distinguish between factualand imaginative representations. [
Example: After reading several talking-beastfables and animal
stories to the class, discuss therealistic and imaginative elements in
the modes of action and communicationexhibited by the animal characters.
Illustrate the realistic basis for theanimals' use of speech through a
discussion of the non-linguistic communicationsystems used by such
life-forms as birds and bees. Compare an author's manipulationof such
events as the groundhog'shibernation or the snake's shedding itsskin
with descriptions of these events as they occurin nature.
124 125
Example: Make a collection of picturesand illustrations of animals engaged in variousactivities and decidewhether or not the actions represented areplausible.
2. To develop the ability to reportfacts in chronological order.
Example: As children discuss the eventsof a field trip or other
class project, emphasize theorder in which these eventaoccurred. On
a chart ot flannelboard, arrange sequentiallypictures representing
each step. arranging for mid- ficlEpil: Before beginning such activities as
morning lunch or preparingfor recess, discuss the stepsinvolved and
the need for carrying them outin order.
of pictures or car- Example: Ask the children to arrange a group
toons in a story sequenceand tell the story. FACTUAL REPORTING
Grade One
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
distinguishes between fact and fantasy.
reports facts In chronologicalorder when suitable to his purpose.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...extend his ability to distinguishbetween fact and fantasy.
prepare factual reports,oral and written, of his ownexperiences.
...plan observations for the purpose ofreporting facts.
...allow his purpose for writing todetermine material to be included or omitted.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To extend ability to distinguishbetween fact and fantasy.
[
Example: Read to the class And to ThinkThat I Saw It On Mulberry.
Street by Dr. Seuss. What did the child reallysee?What did he
Why? imagine? Do you think the adult who heardthis story believed it?
Example: In stories read and heard,the children select the imagi-
nary ones and extendtheir enjoyment of the fancifulthrough dramatiza-
tion, artwork, or simple costuming,and through identifying thehumorous
elements introduced through imagination.
126 1'111 1;111111 1111 11$: WI;awl 1 iilv 1 1!°h' ii't'd l 01110011;"\hi! 110A1Fip 101,0,1%11111111111! 111 ii 128
possible their observations.
Plant some in Example,: Plan a simple experimentwith seeds.
unfertilised soil, some infertilized. Observe the differences in
growth at planned intervals andrecord on charts.
the 4. TO decide what to include oromit in a report according te purpose for writing.
family to Example: On the week-end a Childtakes a trip with his centered the mountains and tells aboutthe trip. The factual content is
decide upon the bear andthe cubs he say. The children help him to
report and to shorten upon the part ofthe experience for the written
the account of the trip andhis other experiences. FACTUAL REPORTING
Grade 'No
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...distinguishes betweenfact and fantasy.
reports facts inchronological order whensuitable.
reports his ownexperiences in oral orwritten form.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
experiments in simplifiedproblem-solving ...begin to report science form. questions. 000begin to use sources tofind answers to his sample directions and ..begin to followexplanations and to give explanations.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES problem-solving form. 1. To report scienceexperiments in simplified [ tightly covered Example: Place an uncoveredjar of water and a Children can observe jar of water, containingequal amounts, where the the expected thea over a period of twoweeks. Have the children state
the actual resultswith the outcome of theexperiment, then compare questions as a guide insetting expected results.Use the following
up and inreporting the experiment:
1. What do we want toknow?
129 2. what do we know?
3. What can we do to find out?
4. What happened?
5. What did we find out?
6. What did we learn from this?
7. What else would we like tofind out?
2. To use sources to find answers toquestions.
Example: When children have questions in science orother areas have them use several texts in theclassroom to check answers. Give specific questions that can be answeredfrom reading.
3. To follow directions and to givesimple explanations and directions.
Example: Have the children give directions tothe cafeteria or to the library noting carefully the sequencein which a stranger will need the information.
Example: Have the children explain how toadd or subtract as they are working a problem onthe board. Have them read a word problem and tell how to solve this problem.
Example: Give directions for such activities aspreparing paint mixtures, completing an assignment, orbeginning a-new project to be
carried out by the children as a group orindividually.
Example: In a game situation, give severaldirections at one time
to be accomplished bythe individual. For example, the child may be
directed to put a book on thefloor, carry a pencil to the teacher,
write his name on the chalkboard,and then return to his desk. FACTUAL REPORTING
Grade Three
EXPECTED REA2INESS
The child
... canreport sonefactual material in written form.
knows how to use somesources tofind answers to hisquestions.
directions and explanations ...follows simple and can give simpledirections andexplanation'.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
understanding by useof problwa-molving ...continue to develop techniques.
opinions and ideasfrom facts. ...begin to distinguish
outlines for writingstories and reports. ...begin to stake simple
...develop a simpleform of note-taking.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
understanding by useof problem-solvingtechmiques. 1. To extend
experiments amd Exaaplv Have childrenperform simple science want to know,what IUwe write these up underheadings of: Wat I happened, what I learned,what elme I what I can do tofind out, what
would like to know.
131 132
opinioms from fact. 12. TO distinguish
Snake" from NT., Skip,andLizby Example: Bead "The Garter from Our Small Native Ismemorde Eberle; themreadeibe Garter Snake" discuss which isfactual kkimals by SeibertSmedigar.Nave the children
mod which is altered tomake a good story. Let the childrenfind out how 'haloes: Study the weather report. Is this a factuntil it happens? the weather mompredicts the weather.
Is it a valuedopimiom? Why?
stories and reports. 13. lomat simpleoutlines for writing
under Learning Experiences,Objective 1 Example: Vie the questions
reports composedby the group. as an outlimefor several factual Amboy to the& out Example: Use outlineform for a chart to
bsWks fran the library.
for playing asimple game like Is. or Example: Outlime directioms
Nide mad SeWk.
note-taking. 14. To develop asimple form of
listen as you readparagraphs aboot a Example: Nave the children Branley. Nave sWhject as TheSus: Ow NearestStar by FranklynN. units. From Os state theiris idea of eathparagraph or of larger the information. these Wimple moteshave them relate THE DEVEWPMENT OFVOCABULARY DEFINITION
Kindergarten and rirst Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
understands that a word standsfor something.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
understand that words havemeanings which can be told to others.
define by dramatizations andillustrations accompanied by verbal explanations.
categorize, grouping familiarwords accorling to meanings.
recognize that figurative useof language ee,ances meaning.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
have meanings that can be told toothers. I1. To understand that words
Example: In classroom conversation, theteacher frequently asks the
question, "What do you mean bythat?" and listens to the answer. She
encourages pupils toask the same question.
Example: Before reading a story to pupils, theteacher explains
the meanings of unfamiliarwords to the children.
Example: After reading a story, select one or twowords whose mean-
ings may be found from the context. Ask such questions as these: "Do
you remember this partof the story? 'As che rain seeps into the warm
earth seeds begin togrow.' What do you think the word seepsmeans?"
134 135
illustrations accompaniedby verbal 2. To define bydramatization and explanations.
another, "What is a Example: Play "What isit?" One student asks explain as though ball (box, bicycle,etc.)?"The answering pupil must
the questioner had neverseen a ball. "I have just Example: Play a game pretending tobe a foreigner. I don't know all of your moved here from Japan(Germany, India, etc.).
the word a. (down,into, across, etc.)?" language. What do you mean by in some way, but he mustalso The respondingpupil may show his meaning
tell his meaning. meaning (and calls Example: Play Nord Hunt." The teacher gives a the word which signifiesthe it a meaning). Pupils try to think of
shiny around redfruit? (apple) meaning: What is the word for a
What is the word for stepsthat go from one floor of ahouse to
What is the word that means akind another? (stairway or stairsteps) for dessert? of food, baked in the oven,covered with icing, and eaten
(cake)
words according to meaning. I3. To categorize familiar
kinder- Emample: Using pictures of objects, orreal objects, the grade asks pupils to sort these garten teacher orteacher of early first pile, pictures of trees in in certain ways: pictures of foods in one fourth stack, another, homes in another,buildings other than homes in a
etc. asks EMample: Toward the end of the yearthe first grade teacher
the board. Re- pupils to categorizeword-cards or words written on (1) Words that mean arrange the wordsunder such headings asthese:
play; (2) Words that meanschool work. 136
jump hop run tag read skip draw music write count dodge ball science
Example: Group the words or phrases under these headings:
(1) Words for things which mean la; (2) Words for things that mean down. over under tree roots above bottom of the sea the sky below tree top housetop floor sidewalk ground
kummle: Using a variety of colorful pictures of foods(meats, vegetables, desserts, etc.), the teacher asks children toselect all the foods which may be eaten as desserts and namethem so that she can make a list. She writes cookies, pie, cake, ice creametc., as child- ren identify pictures by name. Above the list the teacher writes the word desserts and leads children into adiscussion of that word, ex- plaining that it means any one of the itemslisted. She asks, "If your
4other says at dinner, 'Now I will bring yourdessert,' will you know just what she is going to bring?"
Suppose you were eating out, in a restaurant, and yousaid to the waiter, "I would like a dessert, please," what do youthink the waiter
would bring? Discuss the things the waiter might bringand stress the
fact that they are all desserts. Then discuss ways to be more specific
in asking for what you want. Play with the idea of ordering a piece
of pie, leading pupils to see that thisis less general then the term
dessert, but this term refers to manykinds of pie. A waiter would
likely ask, "What kind of pie?"
Dramatize eating in a restaurant. Pupils order what they want;
the waiter brings them picturesof the foods ordered. 137
4. To recognize that figurativelanguage enhances meaning. t
Example: After reading a story such as"The Three Little Pigs,"
discuss the story, asking such questions asthese: "Can pigs really
talk? Can a pig reallybuild a house?" Elicit discussion leading
pupils to conclude that writersoften depart from the boundaries of
reality in order to make a good story.
Continue discussion with ;Theidea that we do this, too, in our
talking. Ask pupils if they have everheard anyone say, "It is as cold
"I'm so tired I'm as icetoday." "If I ate another bite I wouldpop!"
about to die," etc.
Write on the board two statements: "It is as cold as ice today."
"It is very cold today."
Discuss the two ways of talkingabout coldnessione is true; one
is not really true but makes usfeel coldncss. DEFINITION
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...understands that words have meanings which can be told to others.
defines by dramatizations or illus- trations accompanied by verbal ex- planations.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
define by veraalizing and illustrating theverbalization.
recognize a word as a member of a meaning class: categorize; match simple synonyms; select suitable meaningsfor simple homonyms; identify non-members of a category.
recognize levels of abstraction.
distinguish between figurative and literallanguage.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To define familiar words by verbalizing andillustrating. 1
Example: The teacher asks a specific questionrequiring definitions
of something recently experienced: uWhat is a magnet?" Pupils' answers
are written on theboard. Discussion follows about the relevancy of
answers given. The teacher concludes with this statement: "Let's write
the meaning of tne word magnet."On another part of the chalkboard she
writes the word magnet and a simple but accuratedefinition derived from
138
140
Aere are the items all mixed up together, piled onthe floor. How
do you sort them? pie milk beans bread cake ham ice cream crackers bread peas potatoes lettuce onions bacon steak pork chops beef roast sherbet popsicles cookies turnips carrots rolls doughnuts cheese butter lamb chops chicken tomatoes corn hamburgers hotdogs
Discuss lists and generalize about"classes of food."
Example: Play with a word such as ,grow.Decide on a definition
for the word. Make a list of things that grow(peas, trees, boys,
girls, etc.).
Pose a problem: A boy and a tree are not alike, how canthey be in the
same list?Elicit discussion about the fact that themeaning of the
term (grow) caused allthese words to fit together.
Example: Write two short lists of words onboard. Pupils draw lines
to connect words that meanthe sane thin:
happy quick fast large sad unhappy big glad
On another part of the boardthe teacher writes these paired words
together, as
happy fast sad big glad quick unhappy large
Then she asks pupils to helpher add to the lists. She reads a
statement such as this,"Betty was pleased with her present," and asks
in which list will theword pleased be placed.
"The river was so swift he had troublerowing his boat upstream."
In which list should theword swift be written? 141
"I saw a huge bear walkingin the woods."In which list should I write the word hulo?
After several experiencesof selecting from contexts words to classify with those alreadylisted (after the lists have grownlonger), decide with the pupils namesfor the lists:Words that mean (a good feeling); words that mean(quick action); words that mean(sadness); words that mean (bigness). Remark that we have made meaning,classes of words.
Example: Match words and meanings see a body of water sea land at the side of a river bank a number, oneless than three bank a word showingdirection to a place to keep money two to look body of Select one meaning todiscuss as a meaning class, such as(0
water)? water) What other words can wewrite which mean (a body of
The teacher lists on theboard sea, ocean, lake, etc., asshe and
the pupils supply them. The teacher asks,"Why can't the word see
belong to this meaningclass?"
3. To recognize levels ofabstraction.
Example: The teacher reads a postcard which she pretends has cone
from the grandfather of oneof the pupils: "Dear John, I am having a
good time in New York. I have bought you a present. I hope you will
like it. Love, Grandfather."
Discuss whth pupils thekinds of things the present maybe: Is
it a toy? Is it something towear?What is it?What kinds of things the board may be calledpremEts?The teacher lists all suggestions on
and points out that all maybe presents. Pupils conclude that the word 142
which have names of their present may standfor many, many things own. "Dear John, I forgot to tell you The teacher readsanother card: believe you what kind of presentI am bringing. It is a toy which I Love, Grandfather." will like. I am still enjoyingNew York City. of toys which Now, the children areled into a discussion of types "Toys."Pupils might be brought. The teacher makes alist, labeling it but it are led to seethat the word toysrefers to many things, too,
is not as inclusive asthe word present. It is one class of presents. "Dear John, I am having A third card is readfrom Grandfather: I will be trouble packing your toy. I decided to mail thewheels.
home next Monday. Love, Grandfather." asks all those which The teacher reads thelist of toys and a puiLl Discussion along with thisreveals have wheels. Other words are erased. which name toys withwheels." the fact that"Now, we have a class of words "Dear John, I have de- The teacher reads afourth and final card: of cided to stay in NewYork a few more days. I am mailing the rest
your skateboard. Love, Grandfather." Children are led to see Finally we know whatJohn's present is!
stands for only one kindof that the term skateboardis a word which
toy, a specific term. for the terms present, toy, The next day theteacher has word cards
She asks a pupil to arrangethem in a toy with wheels,and skateboard. skateboard and nothing way toshow first, the wordthat designates a skateboard and other toyswhich else; second, theword that indicates designate a skateboard,all move on wheels;third, the word which can last, the word which can wheeled toys, and all toysof any kind; and 143 designate a skateboard, allwheelei toys, all toys of any kind, and anything else which could begiven to a person.
Discuss with children the idea that somewords stand for ninny things, a large class ofthings. Other words stand for things within thatclass.
Example: The teacher says: "I want a child to stand up.All the people in this room who are childrenplease stand up.
"All the children who are Orls please come tothe front of the room. The boys may sit down.
"All the girls who are named Julie Adamsplease come to me.The rest of the girls may sitdown.
"Now, let's think about these words: children, Orls, Julie" (Wate these on the board). "How many people in here can be called Children'?
Count them. How many can be called Orls? Countthem. How many are
called Julie Adams? Count this one." Write total numbersby the words
as: children-32; girls-18; Julie-1.
'Let's think about something:Which vord means tha largest grouping?.
Why?"
"Which word means the smallest grouping?Why?
"How many times were you counted,Julie?"
Draw a symbol of thirty-twochildren in the room.
Children Girls Julie 144
Then ask soaeone to draw a ring around 18 of them to show the girl-
children. Ask someone to circle one of the symbols which will stand for
Julie.
Conclude with the idea that some words are "big enough in meaning,"
or 'general enough," (give both terms) to include many thing3; other words are 'less big in meaning," "less general"; and some words are
"very small in meaning" or "very specific" in meaning--they mean only ome particular person or one particular object.
I4. To distinguish between figurative and literal language.
bowie: Read a story such as "The Elves and the Shoemaker." After readimg amd enjoying the whole story, re-read one of two selected pass- ages: "His commainicewas clear and his heart was light amidst all his
troubles; so he went peaceably to bed, left his cares to heaven, and fell
asleep."
"Then they dressed themselves in the twinkling of an eye..."
Ask such questions as, "What did writer mean when he said that the
shoemaker's heart was 'light'?Did his heart weigh less?Do you think
this was the writer's way of saying that the shoemaker was not worried?"
"Did the elves really and truly dress themselves as quickly as a
'twinkling of an eye'? Why did the writer say this?"
Discuss and draw conclusions about writers or story tellers often
saytmg things that did not really happen, but they say these things in
order to give some kind of picture to a reader. DEFINITION
Third Grade
EIPWIED NEADBIESS 1 The child
mmderstamds thatwords have meanings vialcb cam be told tootbers.
..defines by verbaldescription with illmstration ordramatization.
matebes simple synonyms.
...matches bmowm wordwith simple defildtiom.
categorizes km=words.
Idemtifies mom-memberof a category.
matches simplebomonyns with their defimitioms.
matcbes simple antonyms.
OBJECTIWES
The cfaild will illustration or defime by verbalization,with little need for dramatization.
recogmize a. word as amember of a meaningclass.
recogmize levels ofabstraction in wordmeaning.
meaning. distimpavb betweenfigurative and literal
of a simple derivedword if the rootword ...determine tbe meaning Is known.
145 146
LEMMING EXPERIENCES
I1. To develop word definitions.
Example: With the teacher's help, the pnpilsformulate definitions for words contacted in various curriculum areas(hibernate mIgrate citizen etc.).
Example: After reading a story to the pupils,select a few words to discuss and define.What do you think the word palacemeans? Hoy is it different from an ordinary house?What does the word magic mean?
Pupils, vith the teacher's help, formulatedefinitions for these words.
I2. To recognize words as members or a meaningclass.
Example: The words below refer to measurementof some kind. Arrange
them under three headings: Time Measurement, Linear Measurement,and
Liquid Measurement. Wird list: pint, hour, Quarto inch, 'anon,
mile, Alm, year, etc. After the categorizing has been doneand discussion
is going on, the teacher explainsthat all of these vords belong to one
large meaning class or group(measurement), and that within the large
class there are smaller, more specificmeaning classes (time measurement,
linear maasurement, etc.).
Example: From objects on hand for a tactileexperience, establish
the meaning of the word texture.Later, ask the pupils to categorize
words according to texture. Label one category Rough, another Smooth.
Word list: sandpaper, apple, orange, silk cloth,rubber ball, pine tree
bark, etc.
Follow with discussion and generalizationsabout the meaning class
represented by the word texture, thatboth rough-feeling and smooth-
feeling objects have texture. 147
of abstraction in word meaning. 13. To recognize levels
Ask pupils what kinds Example: Write the word Amonthe board.
(breeds) of dogs they haveand list these. Select one breed (e.g. bull-
dog) and have those who ownbulldogs tell what theirdogs' names are;
list the names. The lists will looksomething like this:
dog terrier Pal airdale Buster bulldog Prince mongrel etc. collie etc.
parti- Discuss with pupils thefact that Buster, Joe's dog, is one
bulldog is larger in cular bulldog. Buster stands for one, the term
meaning; it can refer to anybulldog.
Elicit from pupils a discussioncomparing the meanings of the
terms bulldog and doso Lead them to see that dog. is a moreinclusive
term; it represents alarger meaning class.
Re-write the terms in thisorder and add places for two moreMeaning
classes: Buster-bulldog-dog- -
Call attention to the fact that thesmallest meaning class is now
written first.Pose another problem: Do you think the word mt would
fit into this series of words? Does this term represent a larger, more
inclusive, group than does the termcloa? Why?What other kinds of pets
might a person have? Draw conclusions about the placementof the term
series, and write it in thefirst blank space.
Introduce the term animal. Discuss its membership in the meaning
class represented by the seriesof words. Decide on the placement of
this term in the series. Conclude with the idea that the wordanimal
is broad in meaning; itincludes wild animals as well as pets:therefore, 148
it is placed in the positionwhich will show that its meaningincludes
all those preceding it plusother things, too. Write the word animal
in the last space.
Example: Rearrange the words in the list below toelm order of
meaning. Write the most specific word first, etc.
(1) story, "Three Billy Goats Gruff," animal story.
(2) strawberry ice cream, dessert, ice cream, food
(3) automobile, Ford, Ford V-8, a meansof transportation
F-47.--77distinguish between figurative and literal meaning.
Example: After reading a selection from"Rapunzel" discuss figur-
ative language contained in it: "Rapunzel was a winsome child, with
long tresses, as fine as spungold."
Why do you think the writerdescribed Rapunzel's hair "as fine as
spun gold"?What did the writer mean?
"The pretty bird is no longer in her nest,and she'll sing no more."
Why do you think the witchreferred to Rapunzel as"the pretty bird"?
What did the witch mean whenshe said,"She'd sing nomore"?
force, compare with pupils Example,: Using weather as a motivating
two ways the weathermight be described:
weather reporter might (1) Literally--very exact and truthful as a
describe it: The weather is warm, with temperatureranging from 80
degrees to 85 degrees. Sunny skies will change tocloudiness with
possible showers.
The weather today (2) Figuratively--drawing pictures withwords: happy is as warm as ababy's hand. Now the skies are as smiling as a
baby's face--before the day is overthe baby's tears will fall. 149
appropriate times to usefigura- Discuss and drawconclusions about tive or literallanguage. written bothfiguratively and literally. Example: Compare statements for using each: Generalize aboutappropriate times played well, but lostin the last inning. (1) The baseball team
its heart out andfell in the last try. (2) The team played
slow as Christmas infinishing his bread-and- (1) The boy was as butter job. work. (2) The boy was slowin finishing his shone brightly inthe dark night. (1) The lights ofthe oncoming car
like two fiery eyesshining in thedarkness. (2) The car approached "literal language." Discuss the terms"figurative language" and
Decide how these termsgot their names. derived from rootwords. 5. To determinemeaning of words
word in thefollowing words: Unhappy, Example: Identify the root
unhooked, unkind,afire, detour, etc. Then decide what themeaning is after Decide what the rootwords mean. illustrate the meaningsof paired the prefix isadded. Draw pictures to word), tour and detour,etc. words (root wordand derived prefixes exemplified. Discuss and generalizeabout meanings of FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Kindergarten and First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...listens to stories told by the teacher.
... listens to stories read by the teacher.
...looks at illustrations in books.
...understands simple verbal descriptions.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...listen for figurative language.
...interpret effective comparisons made through language.
.. develop skill in verbal description.
...recognize some types of personification in literature.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To increase listening skills.
Example: The sharing period is developed into an activity which involves the speaker and the listener. First, the speaker considers his audience and how he wants them to respond. The material to be shared is better if children have an opportunity to plan it ahead.
Each row may have a day which is their sharing day. The children give clues about their topics before their particular sharing This stimulates the potential listener's curiosity enough that he will look
150 tP4 152 passage that recurs throughout the poem, or story.
I2. To interpret effective comparisons.
Example: During the pleasure reading period, there are included books which are particularly rich in verbal and visualillustrations.
Children discuss the characteristics that make the bookappealing to
them. The discussion brings Jut points about thecolors, types, and
sizes of the visual illustrations, and thedescriptive power of the words
used by the author to paint his verbal pictures. The reading list might
include:
(1) Mother Goose Rhymes
(2) The Tale of Peter Rabbit--Beatrix Potter
(3) Curious George--Hans A. Rey
(4) The Story about !InaMarjorie Flack
(5) Millions of Cats--Wanda Gig
(6) Appropriate Dr. Seuss books
(7) The First Book of Poetry--selected byIsabel J. Peterson
(8) A Child's Garden of Verse--R. L.Stevenson
(9) Just So Stories--Rudyard Kipling
(10) Gone is Gone--WandaGig
(11) Angus and the DucksMarjorieFlack
(12) Ask Mr. BearMarjorie Flack
Example: Many varied types of visualillustrations are examined by
the children. Types of illustrations and sourcesof examples of each
might include:
(1) Pen and ink sketches--Winnie-The-Pooh,A. A. Milne, illustrated
by E. H. Shepard.
(2) Water color--Time of Wonder, RobertMcCloskey
(3) WoodcutsOnc2 A Mouse, Marcia Brown 153
(4) Charcoal--Dr. Seuss books
(5) Lithographs--George Washington byIngri and Edgar Parin
d'Aulaire
I3. To develop skill in verbaldescription.
Example: When concentrating upondevelopment of this skill, the
child recognizes that he usesverbal descriptions many times eachday,
especially in his informal conversationswith his classmates, his family,
etc. For example, when he describes tohis mother the dog that wandered
onto the playground at recess or when he tellshis best friend about
the big bughe found crawling on the steps.
This is an excellent place to emphasizebooks that are especially
noted for their verbal descriptions as aprelude to activities which
help develop the child's skill indescription. Some especially well-
suited books for this task are:
(1) Just So Stories--Rudyard Kipling
(2) Dr. Seuss Books
(3) Sparkle and Spin.--Ann Rand
(4) White Snow Bright Snow--AlvinTresselt
(5) Rhymes, and Verses--Walter de la Mare
Example: Children develop skill in descriptionby beginning with
fairly common or familiar items, such asobjects in the classroom,
their pets, and their favorite toys. From this point they gradually
broaden their field of selection toless familiar or less common items.
Play the game "I Have Something in MySack." In a large box put
several brightly colored, variouslyshaped or textured objects, each
in a separate sack. The child chooses a sack,peeks in, and describes
his object to the class. The child who guessescorrectly then chooses
a sack from the box andthe game continues. 154
Example: Children describe sounds they have heard on their wayto and from school, while they werefishing at the lake, or while they were walking with a friend downtown.
Example: Suggest several topics which the childrendescribe orally
and/or in written work. Explain to the child that his ideas areimpor-
tant; what he thinks should bethe basis for his description. Possible
suggestions are:
(1) a snowstorm, rainstorm, tornado, or hurricane
(2) the beach or favorite "swimminghole"
(3) the best place to fish
(4) a favorite hiding place
(5) the child's conception of fair play,honesty, respect, etc.
(6) how ice feels
(7) how lemon tastes
Example: Partial sentences are listed on theboard for the children
to complete, such as:
as soft as
as loud as
as happy as
as long as
The wind
The airplane
Rain splashed
To recognize some types ofpersonification in literature. 1 4.
Example: Before finding examples ofpersonification in literature,
the child becomes aware of howoften personification is used in every-
day speech. For example, when an adult says,"She won't start this
morning." he is probably referring tohis car; when mother burnsher 155 finger on the iron and srs, "Oh, you stupidiron!" she doesn't really mean that the ironis stupid; or when a child shares anexperience and gives her dog credit for "talking"he is making use of personification_
From here ii. is an easy step to lookfor more examples in favorite
stories and poems.
Stories such as The Three LittlePigs, The Three Bears, The Tale of
Peter Rabbit, and Uncle Remus Stories serve asinitial sources for this
activity. 156
References
Brown, Marcia. Once a Mouse, illustrated by author. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1961- d'Aulaire, Ingri and Edgar Parin.George Washington, illustrated by authors- Nev York:Doubleday, 1936. de Ia Mare, Walter.Rhymes and Verses, illustrated by Elinore Blaisdell. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1947.
Flack, Marjorie. Angus and the Ducks, illustrated by author.New York:Doubleday, 1930.
Flack, Marjorie.Ask Mk. Bear, illustrated by author. New York: Macmillan, 1932.
Flack, Marjorie.The Story about Ileg, illustrated by Kurt Wiese. New York: Viking Press, 1933-
Gag, Wanda. Gone is Gone, retold and illustrated by Wanda Gag.New York: Coward-McCann, 1935-
Gag, Wanda.Millions of Cats, illustrated by author. New York: Coward-McCann, 1928.
Harris, Joel Chandler- Brer Rabbit, Stories from Uncle Remus, adapted by Margaret Wish Brown with the A. B. Frost pictures redrawn for reproduction by Victor Dowling.New York: Harper and Row, 1941.
Kipling, Rudyard. Just So Stories, illustrated by Joseph M. Gleeson. New York:Doubleday, 1912-
MeCloskey, Robert Time of Wonder, illustrated by author. New York: Viking Press, 1957-
Milne, A. A.Winnie-the-Pooh, illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard.New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1926-
Mather Goose or The Old Nursery lithymes, illustrated by Kate Greenaway. NewYork: Frederick Warne, n.d.
Peterson, Isabel J. (ed.). The First Book of Poetry, illustrated by Kathleen Elgin. New York: Franklin Watts, 1954.
Patter, Beatrix. The Tale of Peter Rabbit, illustrated by author. New York: Frederick Warne, 1903. 157
Mama, Am amd Paul_ Sparkle and Spin, illustrated by authors. New York:Rarcourt, Brace and World, 1957.
Rey, AL A_Carious CCosrge, illustrated by author. Boston: Houghton MUfflim Compaay, 1941-
Segss, Br_The Cat ia the Hat, illustrated by author. New York: Rankin 1Fause, 1947_
Stegemsom, Robert Louis_ A Child's Garden of Verses, illustratedby Jessie gillcuz Smith_New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905.
'The /Nrce Mears im Miriam Blanton Huber (ed.) Storyand Verse for Claildrem- Tkird Edition. New York: Macmillan, 1965, pp. 250- 252-
'Me Tierce Little Pigs" in Miriam Blanton Huber(ed.) Story apd Verse for Childrem_ Third Edition. New York: Macmillan, Poi, pp. 26a-262_
nesselt, Alvim_White Snow, Bright Snow, illustrated byRoger Rawoisim-NewrYork: Lothrup, Lee and Shepard Co., 1947. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...listens to oral discourse with attention to meaning.
recognizes and appreciates different methods of illustration, both visualand verbal.
... usessimple description in verbal commu- nication.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
use similarities anddifferences of objects and people as aids in verbal description.
use personification indescription and refer to it by the term personification.
recognize and use for effect exaggerativeexpressions in everyday speech.
appreciate the technique of exaggerationused by writers to produce vivid imagery.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES and people 1. To learn to use similaritiesand differences of objects as aids inverbal description. I children Example: As an aid to verbaldescription of people, the
draw pictures of their brothersand sisters or friends_ The purpose of
these drawings is to seehow many ways these people arealike and how
many ways they aredifferent.When the pictures arecompleted, they
158 159
they come to realize discuss the similaritiesand differences so that
drawn, some can be describedbetter that not every characteristiccan be
in words. the picture. The They try to make averbal description to accompany Someone has drawn his teacher gives examples toillustrate the purpose. brother is always hun- brother at a table eating abig meal because the verbally by saying,"My gry. This characteristiccould be illustrated familiar to most brother always wolfs hisfood down," an expression
"wolfs" add to the picture? children. What does the word show his picture and toread Each child is giventhe opportunity to interesting things his verbal description. Children think of the most about, chimney- about the persons theydescribe: butterflies flitting describe the differences top tall, lizardlazy, etc. They may choose to peach from a lemon; one sunny,the between siblings: as different as a
other stormy. differences The point is to gobeyond the obvioussimilarities and
other things around uswhich of sex, hair and eyecolor to the use of
make us aware of new waysof seeing the familiar.
and refer to it bythe term 2. To use personificationin description personification. uses ofpersonification in Example: The teacher illustrates some about the inky sky asthe everyday speech, e.g.,The lightning leaped thunder really per- thunder struck again andagain. Can lightning and
legs with which toleap about, form these actions?Does lightning have We have spoken asthough they do or thunder armswith which to strike? actions only living for so long that it may seemso, but these are interesting and vividpic- things can perform. However, we get a most the idea in a rich ture in mind when wehear these words which convey
the trees?Does the wind way. Does the wind whistle orroar through 160
pictures have a mouth to form thesesounds?What two different visual do we see from the use ofthose words? When would onechoose whistle
They rather than roar?The children think ofexamples of their own. find brief passages fromtheir library books that usepersonification to share with theclass. The teacher uses the term,personification, and shows how the word isbased on the word personand is related to its meaning. in every- 3. To recognize and use foreffect exaggerative expressions day speech.
Example: In order to help childrenbecome aware of the exaggera- tive expressions they usein everyday speech, the teacherobserves some
them on the of these expressions duringthe "Sharing Period" and notes board to discuss with theclass afterwards. Someone may have been to
Or some other may the zoo and reports thathe saw a snake a milelong!
of mention his birthday coming soonand hope he will get a houseful
interesting presents! In discussing these, theteacher recognizes the
way this is said,and elicits from theclass that these expressions are The discussion not literal. Could they be?Then why are they used? used as makes the distinction between afalsehood and the expressions used by examples of obvious exaggerations. This expressive speech is audience know the speaker to impress theaudience, and both speaker and
that, although the description maynot actually bepossible, it empha-
sizes the meaning byexaggeration.
scrapbook of such exaggerative Example: The children start a
expressions that he uses andthose used by othersaround him or in
especially good source. literature. Television commercials are an building this kind of They become alert to newand different ways of
word picture. 161
4. To appreciate the technique ofexaggeration used by writers to produce vivid imagery.
Example: At every opportunity the teachercalls attention to exag-
geration in stories she reads to theclass. The children discuss how
the idea could have been expressedliterally and how the literal would
have changed the sense and effect of the story. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
... usesfigures of speech that show similarities and differences in verbal descriptions.
...recognizes and consciously uses exaggeration in speech and writing.
...recognizes that personification and exaggera- tion are used in literature for special effects.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand the terms "literal" and "figurative" language.
...enjoy using and appreciates other's use of figurative language in oral and written composition.
...recognize similes in literature and use them in speech and writing.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand the terms "literal" and "figurative" language.
Example: The teacher explains to the pupils the distinction between
literal language and figurative language. She illustrates by examples
of writing that require the statement of actual fact and these that use both factual reporting and figurative language. The students collect examples of writing and arrange them on an attractive bulletin board, grouping the samples in the two categories. This bulletin board remains
162 4.4
tb 164
Example: Children prepare and present a newscast and weather report.
They consider what type of language must be used here? Why?The class requests that they be allowed to post news items on the hall bulletin board.
Example: Pupils discuss commercials observed on T. V.What kinds of language are used in these?Find some good examples of each of these: personification, exaggeration, and comparisons. They prepare some com- mercials about hypothetical products, using pictures and diagrams to accompany the written or verbal scripts.
3. To recognize similes in literature, and to use them in speech and writing.
Example: The teacher reads to the class Robert Louis Stevensons' poem "Travel". They select the various mental images he presents-- parrot, cockatoo, goat, mosque and minaret, bazaar, Great Wall of China, jungle, crocodile, palms, etc. They examine the ways in which he draws
these picture for the reader.
The pupils use art media, including vivid colors, to illustrate
their ideas of the things Stevenson was describing.
Example: Discuss some familiar similes--as brave as a lion; as quiet as a mouse; as light as a feather; etc. Children may collect pictures of animals and objects signified in these similes. They are
encouraged to suggest other attributes of the same animals and objects which might also be used in comparison.
Throughout the day as a child hears or reads a simile, he writes it
on an index card and drops it in a box, the"Treasure Chest."He writes
his name on the card. If the simile is one used by a classmate he gives
credit to the classmate (John said, "I'm as tired as limppudding.")
At the end of the week the card collection is checked to find who uses similes? Who recognizes similes? Refetences
Rise and Go" Stevenson, Robert Louis. "Travel" or "I Should Like to Third in Miriam Blanton Huber(ed.) Story, and Verse forChildren. Edition. New York: Macmillan, 1965, pp. 137-138. DICTIONARY
Kindergarten i EXPECTED READINESS
The child
... namesfamiliar objects, real or pictured, and actions performed or seen.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand that a word stands for something.
...understand that a dictionary is a book which supplies information about words.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
I1. To show that a word stands for something
Example: The principal objects in the classroom are labeled and
the children say the words and use the objects.
Example: Children play a game called "What Did I Do?" A child
performs some action, such as jumping, andasks, %That did I do?" Other
pupils give a word for the action. The teacher writes the word on the
board.
I2. To show that a dictionary containsinformation about words.
Example: Picture dictionaries are brought in for pupils toexplore.
A gamc "Who Can Find theWord?" is played. The teacher shows a page,
names an object,and asks the children to find the picture ofthe object
and the word that names it.
166 167
Example: After reading a story to thechildren, the teacher uses a regular dictionary to locatewords that she thought might beunfamiliar
dictionary helps to estab, to her class. The immediate use of a regular
lish understanding of theusefulness of dictionaries The dictionary on
the teachas desk isavailable to pupils who wish tolook at it. DICTIONARY
First Grade
!EXPECTED READINESS
The child
understands that a word stands for something.
understands that a dictionary is a book of information about words.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
develop facility in locating words in a picturedictionary.
identify simple antonyms.
identify simple synonyms.
learns the names of the letters in the alphabet.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To locate and use words from a picturedictionary or word cards.
Example: Children help to make word-picture cards orpicture dic-
tionaries of their own as certain words areneeded.
EXample: In a social studies unit on the community,the children
dram or find pictures of the policeman, thefireman, etc. The pictures
are drawn or pasted on cardswith the appropriate words. Cards are
stored in a box labeled "Words for People." Tneword box is easily
accessible to pupils.
Example: In a science lesson pupils draw orfind pictures to illus-
trate the words used to signifythe topics being studied, such as stars,
168 169
under a moon, Sferimg, Syne, summer,winter, etc. These cards are stored
Pupils use these cards label such as "Words thatTell About the World." to belly wititspelling in their writing. by guiding lEmample: The teacher introducesthe picture dictionary pupils may find tme pulpits" investigationof it and explaining the ways
it msefsl- The teacher calls out a Play a game, "Who CanWrite the Word?" and someone is word_ Pmpils locate the word inthe picture dictionary,
asked to write it n theboard. Others check his work.
2_ To itlemtify amtoayms.
!Sample: Children play a gamecalled "Word Opposites." The teacher
word that means jestthe /rams a surd amdcalls on a pupil to supply a The game may be apposite_Suck words as Load, hot, are used. What is cold?" played in a different way:One pupil says "Fire ishot.
amd calls mpon another to answerhis question. This pupil, in turn,
and question involving makes a statement andasks a question, statement
apposite meamimrs. draw lines !Sample: Two word lists may begiven and pupils asked to
rammectimg the opposites orantonyms.
3- To identify symoayms.
.1Rgggs: Me teacher writes asentence on the boardsuch as "Tommy
word might be used insteadof is a ssall boy." andthen asks what other
Ohm pupils suggest a wordsuch as little, she writesthe two
and again selected womds, small and little. Other sentences are written, Mary was words are paired withsuitable substitute words. Examples: Our plants have Alad to see bier gramdmother. John ran home quickly.
blooms am dimen.
meaning. Example: PUpiIs pair word cardsthat have the same 170
Example: In writing dictated stories or charts the teacher asks the class to substitute a better word or another word in specific instances.
Example: A colorful picture is displayed. Pupils are asked to think of words to describe the picture. These words are listed on the board.
Then, pupils are asked to think of new words to substitute for the words
in the first list. The new words are written with red chalk beside the original words. Later, the class looks in the teacher's dictionary for more words.
I4. To learn the names of letters in the alphabet.
Example: Experiences in learning manuscript writing provide oppor- tunities for learning the names of letters.However, additional opportu- nities for learning and using letter names may be planned. The teacher asks all the children who have an 1 in their names to go to the library table; those who have the letter r in their names vill go to the board, etc.
Example: Choose a "Letter for the Day." A letter is chosen, and a pupil writes it with colored crayon on chart paper. Throughout the day as pupils find or think of words beginning with that letter they write them an the chart. A variation of this idea may be homework. Pupils choose an alphabet letter card to carry home.At home, the pupil looks in newspaper advertisements for words containing his letter. The adver- tisements are brought to school with assigned letters underlined or circled.
Example: Play a game, "What Is the Name of My Alphabet Letter?"
Upper and lower case letters are written clearly in large manuscript, one to a card: /M/ /m / /A / /a I. Cards are placed face-down in a box.
A pupil draws a card, looks at it, and copies the letter on the board, then asks a classmate to give the name. DICTIONARY
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
dictionary is a bookof ...understands that a information about words.
and synonyms. ...identifies simple antonyms
the letters in the ...knows the names of alphabet.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...learn to alphabetizeby initial letter.
word and is able toidentify root words. ...understand the term root
limited number ofsymbols as keys in ...understand and use a determining wordpronunciation.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1-177i77;rn to alphabetize by initialletter. box a letter-card;then Example: Each pupil drawsfrom an alphabet according to theirletter- the pupils arrangethemselves alphabetically alphabets may is more thantwenty-six, two cards. When the class size of small letters. Pupils go to be used, one ofcapital letters and one
recess or tolunch in the arrangedorder.
be used, thepicture symbolizing Example: Letter-picture cards may of cards letter a, etc. From the collection a wordbeginning with the then cards which showsomething to eat, a pupil maybe asked to choose
171 172
arrange these cards in alphabetical order in the chalkboard tray; choose
cards which show something to wear, then alphabetize, etc.
Example: Fill in the missing letters in such lists as m, n, 9 P;
d f, g; s, t, u, ; etc.
Example: Play game "I am Letter H. What Letter Follows Me?"
I2. To understand and identify root words.
Example: The teacher copies on the board selected sentences for
pupils' written work. She asks pupils to identify words that are composed
of a root word and a suffix. These words are underlined. The pupils
then look in a picture dictionary to find out whether the word balls (an
underlined word from a pupils' writing) is given. Other underlined words
are hunted in dictionaries. The discovery is made that only the root
word is given. A discussion leads to the conclusion that knowing a root
word is necessary when using a dictionary.
Example: List words such as the following on the board: cla,
walk, slow, rain, etc. In another column list several common inflections
and suffixes. The pupils match the words having similar endings. The
pupils then attempt to list and match words and endings as an independent
exercise.
I3. To learn to use a pronunciation key.
Example: The utility of pronunciation guides is frequently brought
about in the reading class as the teacher uses some appropriate system
of marking to identify vowel sounds in the vocabulary being studied. If
the symbols used in the dictionary are similar to those used in the
reading materials, extensive use may be made of the dictionary. If they I
are different, this fact is noted with the children and the useof the
symbols in the dictionary will be delayed until the presentation of a
second system of markings will not be confusing. 173
Example: In the spelling lesson pupils maybe asked to draw a ring around the letters which soundlike their letter names or tounderline the words in which the letter c representsthe sound usually represented by the letter k, etc.
The teacher is alert to theneed for pupils to recognize that pronun- ciation guides are not always the same,but that, if one knows the key, the guide is useful. DICTIONARY
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS MS
The child All ...understands that a dictionary is a book of information about words.
=IL ... identifies simple antonyms and synonyms.
...alphabetizes by initial letter. 0
...understands and identifies root words in simple inflected words.
...understands and uses a pronunciation guide.
...understands and uses some suffixes and inflections.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
.. gain an understanding of syllabication and primary accent.
...gain an understanding of prefixes.
... useglossaries in textbooks.
...alphabetize to second and third letter.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES l. To understand syllabication and primary accent.
Example: Understanding of syllabication and accent is brought about, first, through hearing word parts. The teacher asks pupils to listen to her pronounce a word and watch her tap the word parts. She demon- strated with such words as baseball, yesterday, run, street, funny,
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170
dictionaries and show how words listed. Select some words not in their
to find the meaningof such words by locatingthe root word in the
dictionary.
Ex:mple: To call attention to prefixesthe teacher asks questions
such as those listed below. As she asks the questions,she writes the
emphasized word on the bcard:
What would you do to correct thesituation if
you bought anuntrained dog?
you bought unbakedrolls?
your shoe becameuntied?
your hands wereunwashed?
What will you do if
you refill yourglass?
you renew yourlibrary book?
you rebuildsomething?
you refurnish aroom?
you repay somemoney?
prefixes After the questions are answered,draw a line separating the
from the root words. Elicit discussion from pupilsabout meanings of
words with and withoutprefixes.
I3. To learn to use a glossary. book is intro- Example: Textbook glossaries are explained as a new
duced to the pupils and as theyexamine the parts of thebaok. The
teacher explains the glossary as a sourceof help in understandingword
frequently as needs meanings and pronunciations. The glossary is used
arise in the lessons in whichthe textbook is used.
4. To alphabetize to second and thirdletter.
Example: Pretend that you are in a restaurant. You order the 177
salad, rice, cake, and carrots. following foods: ham, rolls, milk, soup, What food did you The waiter br.ngs yourfood in alphabetical order_ have first?Next? etc.
Example: Pretend that you are adetective. You are in the homeof
around, in vases, underthe a suspectedrobber. You find notes all the notes; they pillows, and in the sugarbowl. At first you can't read
You try writing the notesin seem to be writtenin a code of some sort. Here are the notes: alphabetical order tolocate the stolen goods.
(1.) Window dazzling under inumbrella diamonds.
(2.) Chest Japanese cedarbag holds behindjewels huge.
(3.) Zylophones two airconditioner unusual areabove.
(4.) Puppet's over moneyturban purple market. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Kindergarten and First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...knows names of familiar objects and actions.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand that words are arbitrary sounds which have been agreed upon to symbolize things.
...understand that words may denote action.
...understand that language is changed.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand that names or words are arbitrary sounds which have been agreed upon to symbolize things.
Example: Read stories about and show pictures of make-believe animals. (Example, Dr. Seuss stories) Pupils model make-believe ani- mals from clay and make up names for the animals; for example, lado, kona.
Write one of the Animal names on the board and casually say some-
thing of this nature: "That really is a strange animal! I will have
to think how to write its name. You called it a 'la- y-do,- ' didn't you?
Those two sounds are written this way, lado (writes on board). Now we have a new word that people have not used before. Randy made it up!
Every time we use this word we will be talking about Randy's animal."
178 179
Encourage pupils to tell stories about their animals, telling where the animal might live, what it might eat, how big it will become, etc.
Record the stories to read again.
Example: Through use of name-labels attached to chairs, explain that each time we see or hear the word "chair" we know that it means a place to sit, because people have agreed to use this word when they are
talking about this thing. Write labels for other objects in the room
as children call out names and let children attachlabels to objects_
Example: Collect labels from grocery items. Identify objects
designated by these names: Lux, Ivory, Corn Flakes. Play game: 'What
is it?"
I2. To understand that words may denote action.
Example: The class can evolve an awkward dance and a smoot=1 dance_
Names for the dances can be suggested by the manner in which they
are done, e.g., "calumping" for the awkward dance, "seloring" for the
smooth dance. Such words illustrate the fact that individual sounds
which are abrupt and staccato with stops may be combined into brittle,
harsh words such as "calumping."On the other hand, words may have
sounds that are soft and smooth, with continuants such as in "seloring-"
Discuss the application of the sounds heard in "cPlImping" and in
seloring" to the dance movements. Real words for cont7ast rIlf be
"bump" and "glide."
The poem "Our Washing Machine," by Patricia Hubbell illustrates
this point extremely well.
I3. To understand that language is changed.
Example: Read nursery rhymes to pupils and callattention so sone
word or words which are seldom, if ever, used today. Read "Old Mother 180
Hubbard went to the cupboard," and explain that cupboard is an old word, frequently used long ago and sometimes used today as the name of the place where dishes and food are kept. Elicit from pupils the more frequently used current name of such storage places (cabinet).
After reading "Pease porridge hot, pease porridge cold," ask if anyone has ever eaten porridge. Explain that this is an old name for a thick cream soup.
Notice in other poems such words as: fetch thy thee wilt thou doth quoth a-sailing a-courting
REFERENCES lubbell, Patricia. "Our Washing Machine," in Lillian Hollowell (ed.) A Book of Children's Literature, Third Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966, p. 467.
"Old Mother Hubbard," in M. B. Huber (ed.) Story and Verse for Children. j Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1965, p. 227. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Secomt Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
child
lioderstands that Language is an arbi- trary systen of symbolicsounds through wieldy people communicate-
___model-stands that words may denote actiom-
_--recognizes that Language changes over a period of time. Ibr
Ilre child will
eztemd his mmderstanding that (1) laagmage is an arbitrary systemof symbolic sounds. (2) lamgmage is changed over a periodof time.
WRUNG EXPEXIF.110ES
1_ Ta eztemd the understanding thatlanguage is an arbitrary system af symbolic sounds. I Example: Play a game, "Secret Language."Let the pupils re-name
familiar objects La the classroom. Books m.,y be called hilos, desks
maw be called tinges, etc. As pupils make up words, writethem on cards
to attach ta the objectsignified. Use these "words" in classroom
ramversatioa: "Put your hilos in your inses."
Talk about way wecannot use nonsense wordswhen we leave the
rlassroow- Discuss confusions which will result in conversation with
people who do'mot know about the agreementmade to use words differently.
181 182
Point out that every word that is created at some time torepresent some thing and its common acceptancewithin a speech community caused it to become part of our language.
Example: Call pupils' attention to the fact that, as theymade up words, the words werefirst spoken. The word on the labeling card could not have been written before the sounds in thewore were made.
Lead pupils to discover that writing is a way of puttingdown sounds and that groups of letters are used to represent sounds.
Introduce the idea that our language has a long history: that peoples long ago talked before they figured outhow to write, and that we are lucky--a systemof talking (language) and a system of writing were agreed upon long before we were born. Elicit pupil discussion and
generalizations about reasons for needingthese systems and about how dependent we are upon them today.
2. To extend his understanding that languageis changed over a period of time.
Example: In the study of telling time the wordo'clock may be
discussed. Tell the pupils that this word was at one time aphrase,
"of the clock."Through the years it has been shortened.An analogy
to the known contraction"I've" (I have) may be made.Write the time
that school begins, lunch time,and the time school closes in the"old"
and the "new" ways.
Example: In addressing envelopes during aletter-writing experience,
call attention to titles of courtesy. Miss is a shortened form of an
older word Mistress. Mr. is the abbreviated form of Mister. An older
word for Mister is Master.
Tell the students to pretend thatthey are living a long +Ante ago,
as far back as200 years. Nrite a letter to a friend. I the greeting 183
1 Fold write 'Deare Mistress or 'Deare Master the paper and seal with adrop of wax."
transportation discuss the Example: In a social studies unit on
lead pupils Wright Brothers"flyingmachine". In talking about this,
to see that the nameof such a machine was laterchanged to aeroplane
(probably from the Greek aerophanos,wandering in air). This term,
toa, has been changed toits present formairplane.
The general curriculumoffers countless otheropportunities for history of words. experiences to remark on ordraw conclusions about the
understanding that Plan for these opportunities,always leading to the
our language has along and interesting history. hISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
...understands that language is an arbitrary system of symbolic sounds through which people communicate.
...understands that words may denote action.
...understands that language is changed over a period of time.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand that the language system includes stresspatterns which help to give meaning to utterances and that some stresspatterns have changed over the years.
...understand something of the history and purposeof our graphic system.
...understand that language is changed over aperiod of time through the addition of words from otherlanguages.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand that the language systemincludes stress patterns which help to give meaning to utterancesand that some stress patterns have changed over the years.
Example: Read a familiar nursery rhyme or poem topupils and ask
them to listen for stresses oremphasized sounds. As the rhyme or poem
is read a second time the pupils tap orclap in accompaniment to the
stress pattern. At play period pupils bounce a ball orjump rope in
184 185 rhythm with some familiar rhyme or song,bouncing the ball harder or jumping higher on the stressed sounds.
Example: Introduce questions to focus attention onvariation in meaning as stress patterns change:
Have you ever seen a housefly? Have you ever seen a house fly?
Have you ever seen a catfish? Have you ever seen a cat fish?
Have you ever seen a milkshake? Have you ever seen milk shake?
Pupils draw pictures to illustrate thedifferent meanings indicated
by the two stress patterns.
Pupils figure out how such words ashousefly, catfish, and milkshake
came to be. Discuss the fact that through the years newwords have been
made by putting old words together. The new word has a different mean-
ing and, frequently, a different stresspattern, but it keeps some
relation to the old words.
Example: A tape of pupils' voices,recorded during sharing time or
a class discussion, maybe played. As pupils listen to their own voices,
the teacher asks them tolisten for stress patterns or "the waythe voice
goes."A few of the utterances may bere-played and transcribed on the
board. Pupils and teacher together decidehow the utterance should be
punctuated.
history and purpose of our graphic 2. To understand something of the system.
1 Example: Show on charts familiar symbolssuch as these:
Ask pupils to explain the meaningof these symbols and ask why they are
used. Discussion leads to an understandingof the practicality of 186 permanent symbols with understood meanings.
With this introduction, discuss the fact that long ago people found out they needed to write down some of the things which were said. They needed a way of keeping their ideas and a way of passing them on to other people. Symbols were first made for whole ideas. This may be illus- trated with reproductions of cave paintings or with Indian symbols.
Lead pupils to see the cumbersomeness of a different graphic symbol for every idea. The Sequoia story and the Cherokees' writing illustrate the development of an alphabet.
Ask pupils to pretend they have found a good hunting ground and write messages to send to their families. A message, "Good hunting," is transcribed in two ways: first, in symbolic drawings; second,inthe written words of our language. A comparison of the two ways of trans- cribing is made, including time used in transcribing the messageand clarity of the message to the reader.
Copy some pupil's written message, "Good hunting," on theboard and ask, "How did you know the way to write this?"Lead pupils to see that our graphic system is a wayof representing sounds, that the sound /g/ is represented by a letter z, etc. Through discussion lead to the understanding that by using the same few graphic symbols(letters of
the alphabet), in different combinations, we can represent manysounds or write many, many different words.
Ask a pupil to write our 26 graphic symbols(alphabet) on the board.
Then ask such questions as these: Who can select from these symbols the
ones to show the symbolsfor the sounds in the word meat? In team?
In use? In sue?
A discussion following leads to further understandingand discovery
that the sounds of words determine not only theselection of the 187
representative graphic symbols but the order and combinations ofthose
symbols.
Throughout the learning experience,plan commentsto lead to the
understanding that writing is a part of the history ofour language.
3. To uncle:stand that language is changed. 1
E-ample: From a current events lesson such wordsas astronaut,
fallout, or countdown may be selected. Suggest to pupils that they ask
their fathers or grandfathers if they knew these words whenthey were
small boys. If not, why? Lead to the understanding that new words
are made as new needs for them come about.
Example: From a social studies lesson on pioneers the term linsey-
woolsey may be discussed. Explain that as people stopped weaving their
cloth at home, this term was seldom needed,so it has almost dropped
out of our vocabulary from lack of use.
Example: In reading to the pupils stories from children's litera-
ture, discuss some of the words which are now archaic.The following
are from "Jack and the Robbers": "hit got loose from me," "they were
goin' te Kill me today, get shet of me."The word hit is archaic, now
dialect, it; shet is a dialect form of shed, archaic word comparable
to the current word rid.
Example: From pupils' own writing select one ortwo words for
investigating historical change:
The Little Kittens
Wayne's cat had some kittens. They are so fluffy. She
had five but one of them died. It was a gray one. Now they
are two gray ones a; two black ones. They are all Pershen.
Read the child's story and comment onsome of the words he used.
The word gray was once spelledg-r-e-y and is still spelled that way in 188
England. In America we usually spell it g-r-a-y,although we may spell it either way and be correct. This is one of the English words which is in the process of change inAmerican English.
Another word in the story, Persian, has aninteresting history. We borrowed that word from the old countrycalled Persia. The name of that
country is now Iran. It is believed that the breed of cats wecall
Persian were brought to other countriesfrom Persia. People called them
"Persian cats" just because they came from Persia. Suppose we sent some
kind of cat to Iran. Do you think they would call it an'American Cat'
or a 'United StatesCat'?Discussion le.is to the conclusion that somewords
in our language are names ofthings brought from other countries. We
add to our language, and thischanges it as we use these names.
REFERENCES
"Jack and the Robbers," in M. H. Arbuthnot(comp.) The Arbuthnot Anthology of Children's Literature,Revised Edition, Vol. 2, Chicago: Scott, Foresrl:m and Company, 1961, pp.194-6. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The history of the Englishlanguage has, among others,been con- cerned with two areas ofinterest: (1) similarity of English to other language and (2) changes in the Englishlanguage over periods of time.
The question of relationshipsamong languagesoften evoked by student's encountering such similarwords as praesidens(Lt.), presidente languages (Sp.), and president is not new;certain correspondences among
similarities have been noted for centuries. The explanation of these has derived from thefindings of comparativelinguistic scholarship. William Jones and Begun in the eighteenth centuryby such men as Sir grammatical Franz Bopp, this comparativestudy of the sound structures, indicated that such features, and word-stocks ofdifferent languages has English are related languages as Italian, Greek,Sanskrit, German, and the languages through a common ancestor. Indeed, common features among Balto-Slavic, Armenian, of the Indo-Iranian,Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, members of Albanian, and Germanic gtoupsallow them to be designated as
1 a family oflanguages, called Indo-European.
Although there are no extantwritten records of theIndo-European
reconstruct it with reason- source language,scholars have been able to studies of the able accuracy by using datagathered from comparative
1For a discussion of earlyscholarship in comparativelinguistics, of the English Language see Thomas Pyles,The Origins and Development (New York, 1964), pp. 71-74.
189 190 languages of the family. In addition to reconstructing the language itself, scholars have been able to postulate the location ofthe Indo-
European homeland and certain features of its culture: this is doneby studying the core of :ognate words, or words similar in structureand meaning, common to all of the languages of the family. For example, all of the languages contain words corresponding to mother andfather, so it is reasonable to assume theprinciples of fomily organization
2 which those words indicate as part of Indo-Europeanculture. Similarly, words designating the fauna and flora of northernEurope are present
in all of the languages, whereas wordsindicating those forms of life
indigenous to Asia and the Mediterranean are not;fcr this reason,
scholars have established the location sof theIndo-European hom?iand
3 as near present-dayLithuania.
Although relating the languages of theIndo-European family to a
common origin accounts for manyexisting similarities among languages,
this does not explain the existence ofdifferences in the languages.
The explanation lies in the applicationof two linguistic principles:
that language is changed and that linguisticchanges tend to vary among
separate groups of speakers. In other words, when groups of speakers
become dispersed, as happened in the Indo-Europeantribal migrations
around the third millenium P.C.,dialects, or speech differences which
are not prohibitive tointer-group communication, develop. If different
groups of speakers remainrelatively isolated, then speech diversities
eventually become so great that communication acrossdialect lines is
2 Ibid., p. 78.
3Paul Thieme, "The Indo-EuropeanLanguage," Scientific American, CXLIX (October, 1958), 63-74. 191
no longer possible; atthis point, the dialects may be classified as
separate languages. Repetition of this process yields manylanguages,
each of which differs from its predecessorsbut retains similarities
relating it to them.
Among those characteristics distinguishing thelanguages of the
significance to the i Germanic group are two which are of particular i i development of the English language. One of these is the early fixa-
tion of stress upon the first syllableof a word (or upon the root
syllable of a word preceded by prefixes). Because unstressed syllables,
particularly final syllables and endings, areoften weakened or lo3t
in the spoken language, this earlyfixing of stress upon the first
syllable of a word is a major factor cont-ributing tothe change of
English from a synthetic language (OldEnglish) to an analytic language
(Modern English). Indeed, the weakening of final syllablesis a phenom-
enon still occurring inspAcen English. In addition to the fixation
of stress, the development of a weak, orconsonantal, verb system is an
important feature in the development ofEnglish. This means that, in
addition to indicating change in verb tenseby internal vowel changes,
as ride, rode, ridden,English employs the addition of thedental
suffixes,[d] and N, to designate the preterit and past participle. The Old English Period (449-1100)
Old English, the name given by philologists to thelanguage spoken in England during the period extending from 449 to1100, has four major dialects; the distribution of the dialects reflects thesettlements made by the various Teutonic tribes who, during thetifth century, over-
4 ran the British Celts andsettled in England. Northumbrian, spoken in the region north of the Humber River, and Mercian,spoken in the area between the Humber and the Thames, are the dialects of theAngles, who came from what are nowGermany and Denmark. Similarly, Kentish is the dialect of the Jutes, who settled in the southeastern partof England,
and West Saxon is the dialect of the Saxons, whoinhabited the south- western portion of the country. The majority of extant Old English
literature is written in the West Saxon dialect:
Her Attelstan cing eorla drihten, In that year AEthelstan King (of) earls lord
beorna beaggifa, and his brottor eac, I (of) men ring-giver and his brother also
Eadmund aekeling, ealdorlangne tir 1 Edmund prince long-lasting glory
gesloggen aet sake sweorda ecggum gained by fightingat war (of) swords (with) edges ..I
embe Brunnanburh; bordweall clufan, Around Brunanburghwall of shields split
4 Remnants of the language of the early BritishCelts (the Britons, Scots, and Picts) are evident in names of places,such as Thames, Esk, Dover, and Wye.
192 193
heowan heatoolinda hamora lifum hewnwar-lindens (of) hammers(with) leavings
eaforan Edweardes; swa him gemkele waes children (of) Edward so (to) them fighting was
fram cneomagum'met hie aet campe oft concerning kinsmen that they at battle often
wi laora gehwane land ealgodan, against (of) foes each land defended
hord and hamas. 5 treasure and homes.
lord The translation follows: 'In that year, AEthelstan the King, rlf earls, ring-giver of men,and his brother also,Edmund the prince,
edges of swords gained long-lasting gloryby fighting at war with the
wall of shields, around Brunanburgh; thechildren of Edward split the
(i.e., swords); so the hewn war-lindens, withthe leaving of hammers they at battle it was fitting to them,concerning their kinsman that often defended the land, thetreasure and theirhomes, against each of foes.'
The preceding passage istaken from one of the greatOld English
patriotic war poems,"The Battle of Brunanburgh." The word order of
this is be- the passage differs somewhatfrom that of Modern English;
in which word rela- cause Old Englishis a synthetic language, or one
tionships are indicatedprimarily by means ofinflectional endings
rather than by word orderand function words.For example, the noun
eorla is glossed 'ofearls' because the inflectionalending, -a,
indicates that it is genitiveplural.
The alphabet used duringthe Old English periodis the Roman
5This passage is takne from"The Battle of Brunanburgh"in Old English Handbook, ed. MarjorieAnderson and BlancheWilliams, (Cambridge, glossary Mass., 1963), p. 253. The translation hasbeen made from the in that work. 194 alphabet used today with the addition of a few runes, Germanic characters retained to represent sounds for which there are no symbols in the
Roman alphabet. The graphemes representing the consonant sounds in Old
English are as follows: b, c, d, f, g, 5, h, 1, m, n, p, r, s, t, 1:11,
p, x. The runes1 and5are used interchangeably to represent the initial sounds in there (intervocalically) and think (initially);+ is a rune used in manuscripts for w, and is used interchangeably with g. With the following exceptions, the remaining symbols represent the sounds attributed to them in Modern English: c represents the sound
[k],as in cat; f represents the sound[f],as in fat, in initial position and NI as in voice, intervocalically; s represents the sound
[s],as in Sue, in initial position and the sound[z],as in zero, between vowels; g (or 5) indicates either the sound of modern consonant-
tal or that of the German gutteral g; x represents the soundEk] , as in exhibition. The Old English long vowels are 5, as in father; as in fairy; e, as in obey; I, as in the final syllable of machine; 5, as in note; a, as in boot; j, as in German Schiller. The short vowels, a, ae, e,i, o, u, and y, are pronounced as in artistic, cat, get, pick, dog, pull, and Miinster (German), respectively. The diphthongs, ea, eb, ie, To, are falling diphthongs, i.e., the first element of the diphthong
6 is accented.
Reference to the Old English alphabet makes it possible for the modern reader to recognize much of the vocabulary in the passage quoted above in spite of the changes which have since taken place.For example, cing is recognizable as the predecessor of king if it is remembered
6MarjorieAnderson and Blanche Williams, ed., Old English Handbook (Cambridge, Mass., 1935), pp. 10-11. 195
The pronunciation of fwEv] that c in 0. E. has thesound J. between two vowels allowsthe relationship betweenO. E. clufan and
that eo in heowan N. E. cloven to bediscerned; similarly, knowing vowels and syllables tend is a falling diphthongand that unstressed O. E. heowan becomes N. E.hewn. to be lost allowsthe reader to see how
Indeed, many words in the passage,such as brobor (brother), waes
(swords), are easily (was), hamas (homes), oft (often), and sweorda related to their modern counterparts.
in spelling to It may be noticed thatseveral words seem similar of the Modern English words but are notglossed with the common meaning
undergone similar Modern English word. These are words which have of these change of meaning. W6 (against) and hard (treasure) are two certain contexts, words; Modern English withstill may mean 'against' in
as,' etc. Thus but may also mean'alongside of,' 'in the same direction
with has retained itsOld English meaning butalso has acquired other Likewise, meanings which wereoriginally expressed by differentwords. often a 'collec- hoard may refer to treasurebut has come to mean more
utility for safekeeping or tion or amassment ofanything of value or
future use'; thus themodern idiom is "a hoardof treasure" because
the word has become moregeneralized in meaning thanits Old English
predecessor. fami- The quoted passage containsseveral words which do not seem words; these liar to the modern reader andwhich are glossed with two bordweall, are words, such as heabolinda,ealdorlangne, beaggifa, and
compounded from two Old Englishwords. The Old Englishword-stock,
although not as large as thatof Modern English, isextremely expressive
to form new words. because of the Anglo-Saxonpractice of combining words 196
7 For example, Wrenn notes in his edition of theBeowulf nlneteer different compounds using heabo, 'battle,' as thefirst element_ liord compounding has remained a characteristic of theEnglish, although mmT to as great a degree since borrowingfrom other languages has become prevalent.
7 C. L. Wrenn, eoiiu1f with the Finnesburs, Fragment_(lowton, 1953), pp. 261-262. The Middle English Period(1100-1500)
With the coronation ofWilliam the Conqueror came thesubstitution
of Norman French nobility forEnglish nobility. Indeed, almost all
important positions in thekingdom were eventually filledby the French.
Norman Frenrh was the languageof the court and of officialbusiness;
it was, therefore, the prestigelanguage. However, because English had
been firmly established asthe national languagebefore the Norman
Conquest, it was still the languageof the commoners. Thus there were
two important influences atwork upon the language: the changes that
changes were broughtabout by the presence ofFrench courtiers anci the
that resulted because Englishbecame the language of theuneducated.
The changes in the MiddleEnglish period affected boththe grammar and
vocabulary of the language. Some of the changes had begunbefore the
Conquest, but they were greatlyaccelerated by its influence;others
began after the invasion ofthe Northmen.
Losses resulted from: (1) two languages livingside by side,
an (2) little conservative influence fromwriting and education,(3)
awareness thatform made no difference in analready frozen word-order.
Sing. O. E. M. E.
Nominative stir' ston Genitive stanes stones Dative stane stone Accusative stan ston
1 Plural
Nominative stanan stones Genitive stana stones _ Dative stanum stones Accusative stinin sames
197 198
Along with the loss of many inflectional endings in Middle English, internal vowel changes, such as the change of Old English stin to Middle
English still, also occurred. This kind of change, phonetic change, had already begun late in the Old English period and would have happened, although perhaps less quickly, without the Norman Conquest.
The imprint of the Norman Conquest was made most noticeably upon the vocabulary and the spelling of the language. Understandably, some
French vocabulary from the Norman overlords filtered into the English word-stock; such words as baron, servant, messenger, feast, largess, govern, empire, adjourn, religion, abbey, sermon, havoc, apparel, embroidery, poison, and image came into the language through the Norman
French.8Likewise, Norman Trench scribes frequently altered Middle
English spelling by analogy with their own ways of spelling certain sounds. Fot example, they frequently spelled the sound [L], spelled with a u in Old English, with the letters ou: thus O. E. hiis, M. E. houg>N. E. house. The initial sound in what, spelled hw in Old English, was reversed by the French scribes; thus O. E. hilrM. E. why? N. E.
Ity. Another change made by scribes was the insertion of i before e in some words: thus O. E. felcM,I. E. field, and 0- E. tet>M. E. thief.
The changes occurring in Middle English are not uniform through- out England because the language itself was not uniform.The dialectal differences appeared not only in the spoken language but also in the written language. Middle English was divided into four dialects:
Northern, East Midland, West Midland, and Southern. The Northern dialect area covered the area north of the Humber; East and West Midland
8Albert C.Baugh, A History of the English Language (New York, 1957), pp. 201-209. 199
between the Humbe..and the Thames; speech togetherextended aver the area of the Thames. In addition tothese Southern occupiedthe area south form of SouthernMiddle English four major areas, asomewhat different of the MiddleEnglish dialects was spokenin Kent. Elements from each English; for example,the third person have been retainedin Modern Northern form pai,whereas the plural pronoun theydeveloped from the Midland form sche orshe. feminine singularshe came from the national languageduring the The reinstatementof English as a thirteenth centurywhen the English Middle English periodbegan in the foreign influencesin their were beginningto reactagainst the many century, English wasagain the languageof country. By the fourteenth London speech,containing the nobility, oflaw, and ofliterature. for cultivated use. The elements of all thedialects, was preferred Chaucer's"Prologue to theCanterburyTales'is following excerpt from
written in theLondon dialect.
A clerk therwas ofOxenford also, a clerkthere was ofOxford also
That unto logykhadde longe ygo. who unto logichad long betaken himself
As leene was hishorse as is a rake, as leanwas hishorse as is a rake
And he nas nat right fat,I undertake, and he was not not very fat I assert
But looked holwe,and theretosobrely. but looked hollowand theretosoberly
courtepy; Ful thredbarewas his overeste cloak Full threadbare washis outermost short
yet no benefice, For he hadde geten hym yet no benefice for he had obtained (for) himself
Ne was so worldlyfor to have office. Nor was so worldly as to have(secular) office 200
For hym was levere have at his beddes heed. for him it was dearer to have at his bed's head
Twenty bookes, clad in blackor reed, twenty books bound in black or red
of Aristotle and his philosophie, of Aristotle and his philosophy
Than robes riche, or fithele, orgay sautrie than robes rich or fiddle or gaypsaltery9
The translation follows:
'There was also a clerk of Oxford, who had betaken himself unto logica long time ago. His horse was as lean as is a rake, and he was not very fat, I assert, But looked hollow, and thereto soberly. Full threadbare was his outermost short cloak; For he had not yet obtained for himself a benefice(i.hurch office], Nor was so worldly as to have ['secular] office. For him it was dearer to have at his bed's head Twenty books, bound in black or red, of Aristotle and his philosophy, Than rich robes, or fiddle, or gay psaltery.'
Although some inflectional endings, were used in Chaucer's time, the syntax was close to that of current usage. However, it is interesting to note Chaucer's use of the double negative for emphasis, as nas nat
(literally, 'he was not noe), a practice which did not become offensive until long after Shakespeare's lifetime.
9 Geoffrey Chaucer, "Prologue to the Canterbury Tales" in A. C. Baugh, Chaucer's Major Poetry (New York, 1963), p. 244. Modern English Period(1500-1800)
undergo change, In the fifteenth century,the language again was to
different although the nature of itsmodification was to be somewhat this from that of the MiddleEnglish period. Of primary importance in
middle class and the process was theinfluence of the rise of the development of social consciousnessthereafter. People who were attempt-
of the importanceof ing to cross classlines became increasingly aware The result was the language as an integral partof social designation. acceptance of upperclass language as astandard to be maintained. influence on the Education, more readilyavailable, has a conservative maintenance of a standard standards in language. The acceptance and slowing the process of speech tended to fixgrammatical patterns, thus
English period. rapid grammatical changebegun in the Middle changes in pronunciation In the Modern Englishperiod, some major
in Chaucer's speech,such as took place. Words which were bisyllabic and became monosyl- looked and bookes, weakenedtheir final syllables
represented by En (such asstill is heard in lables. The palatal sound still used in writing. German tragen) waslost, although the symbols were what is known as the Great The values of vowelsymbols were changed in designated the vowel Vowel Shift; thus the e,which had originally These changes in sound in mate, came to representthe sound in me. by pronunciation took placeafter spelling hadbeen somewhat fixed words and many printing,so that "silentletters" remained in the written
in Middle English. modern words were spelled,although not pronounced, as
201 202
The word-stock, or vocabulary, of English wasgreatly enlarged during this time. The Elizabethans in particular werefascinated with foreign words and borrowed many to enrichtheir vocabularies. Shake-
speare himself was liberal in his useof borrowed words, as well as quite
creative in "verbing it wlth nouns," that i4changing the function of words already in the language. Many of the words adopted by the Eliza-
bethans were retained as vital parts of the language. Such words as
hereditary, external, habitual, atmosphere,autograph, malignant, dis-
10 repect, and consolidate were originallyborrowed by the Elizabethans
and were sometimes subjects of controversy amongthem.
Another development of the language whichbegan in the sixteenth
century and moved to completion in theend of the sixteenth century
was the use of the progressiveform of the verb. This construction was
almost nonexistent in Old English andMiddle English; the use of pro-
gressive forms, which began with suchexpressions as "he is laughing"
and extended later to the passiveconstruction, such as "it is being
moved," was one of the most important changes inthe Modern English
period.
In the eighteenth century, the riseof rationalism as the predom-
inant mode of thinking amongscholars made its imprint upon thinking
about language. In addition, this was a period ofreaction--one which
could not allow the liberal use of languagewhich had been encouraged
in the Renaissance. In this period, scholars began tofeel the necessity
of codifying English. The result was a body of rules about grammarand
usage which relied upon reason,etymology, and examples from Latin and
10Baugh, A History of the EnglishLanguage, pp. 264-270. 203
proponents of the Greek for authority. The theory of the men who were
language should be"refined" movement toward codification was that the and established in a permanentform. Although there was a basiclin-
language could be estab- guistic fallacy in theirthinking that a spoken
decisions about lished in a permanent formand although many of the
disputed points of usage werearbitrary and based onpersonal prejudices,
settled and have sincebecome many mattersabout the language were Swift and Bishop established. In the same time thatsuch men as Dean according to their Lawth were codifying mattersof grammar and usage Greek), other scholars were authorities (reason,etymology, Latin, and doctrine usually con- championing use as thecriterion of authority, a this doctrine sidered most soundlinguistically. The chief advocate of dictum of was JosephPriestly; his theory,perhaps reflecting the speech," set up current Horace that "use is thesole arbiter and norm of English Grammar usage as thestandard of speech. In his Rudiments of the custom of (1761), Priestly stated: "It must be allowed that "11 speaking is the originaland only just standardof any language. in trade and in In the eighteenth centurythe effect of expansion vocabulary. contacts with other partsof the world was seenin English and Portuguese brought many In America contactwith Indians, Spaniards, tomahawk, chili, choco- new wurds intothe language: ylgwam, toboggan,
few of these. English trade late, tomato, canoe,quinine, tobacco are a bandana, calico, with India caused theborrowing of such words as other tongues verandah, indigo, andseersucker. Such borrowings from
provided English with itscosmopolitan vocabulary.
1 'Ibid.,p. 341. Late Modern English (Nineteenth Century and After)
Perhaps the most significant factor at work upon the language in the modern period has been the rapid development of science and tech- nology. According to A. C. Baugh, "periods of great enterprise and activity seem generally to be accompanied by a corresponding increase in new words."12 Every field of science has contributed words which have become part of the general vocabulary: anesthetic, aspirin, iodine, hormones, from medicine; election, atomic energy, from physics; benzine, cyanide, radium, from chemistry; egocentric, extravert, introvert, from psychology. Likewise, inventions require new terms, as may be illus- trated by the wealth of terms which have come with the automobile, the airplane, radio, and television.
The need for rapid enrichment of the word stock of English in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has been filled in several ways. The
"borrowing" habit, well established by this time, has provided one means of incorporating new words into the language; as English speaking people adopted ideas or innovations from other people, they usually adopted the foreign term which designated them: chop suey, vodka, chauffeur are examples. A second v.eans of filling the need for new terms is the oldest means of increasing vocabulary in the English language--compounding. Such words as hitchhike, teen-age, searchlight, and'lipstick are modern words formed in the manner used by speakers of
1 2Ibid.,p. 357.
204 205
evident in Old English. An extension of thismode of word-formation is
compounds made from Latinand Greek roots. Reliance upon the classical
languages as a source for newwords is a method usedfrequently in de-
vising scientific terminology.
Enrichment of the word-stockof English is accomplished notonly
also by coining by incorporating foreignwords into the language, but
new words andadapting existing words. Coinages are frequently formed addressograph is analogous by analogy with existingwords; for example,
in form to such words asautograph and phonograph. Less frequently,
new words which arenot suggested bypreviously existing words are 13 created; Kodak and Nylon areexamples of the creation of newroots.
Moreover, words or the meaningsassociated with words are oftenaltered.
and super- Such words as transcontinental,trans-airways, dissassemble, Similarly, such words market vary in semantic meaningfrom their stems.
crosswise differ in part ofspeech, as finalize,sanitize, lengthwise, and 14 or grammatical meaning,from their stems.
Meanings associated withparticular words are sometimesaltered
through the process of semanticchange. Some of the types of semantic
and change are elevation, degradation,folk etymology, generalization, 1[1 word occurs when that specialization. Elevation in the meaning of a
word no longer denotes somethingconsidered common or humble;conversely,
degradation of meaning occurs when aword no longer denotessomething
valued positively by society. An example of elevation isoffered by
the words praise and nice; theformer originally meant 'to put avalue
or price on,' thelatter, 'simpleminded.' Hussy, which once meant
13Pyles, ma. cit., pp. 262-263.
14 Ibid., pp. 267-276. 206
'housewife,' and reek, which once meant 'smoke' or 'smell,' are ex- amples of degradation of meaning. Folk etymology is the process by which a speech community borrows a word, but, losing sightof its original meaning, reforms the word. The substitutions of sparrowgrass or speargrass for asparagus and cramberryfor cranberry are results of folk etymology. Specialization and generalization occur when the scope of a meaning changes. In the former, the word becomes specialized or restricted in its application; in the latter, the meaning of aword is extended. Liquor, originally referring to any fluid, nowusually denotes alcoholic beverages. Meat, which once meant 'food,' is now more specialized in meaning. The word place has generalized in refer-
ence from its early meaning,'a wide street,' to its present denotation
of any geographic point. Barn, originally 'a storehouse for barley,'
has extended in scope so that it is now astorehouse for any grain and
for livestock. 207
Bibliography
A. References for Teachers Old English Handbook. Anderson, Marjorie andBlanch!Williams. Company, 1935. Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin
English Language. New York: Baugh, Albert C. AHistory of the Second edition. Appleton-Century-Crofts,1957. New York: Appleton- Baugh, Albert C. Chaucer's Major Poetry. Century-Crofts, 1963. Introduction Bloomfield, Morton andLeonard Newmark. A Linguistic Alfred A. Knopf,1963. to the Historyof En&lish. New York: A=MIN=.1 An Introduction.New Francis, Nelson. The English Language, York: Ronald Press, 1963. Aspects of American .Kerr, Elizabeth M.and Ralph M. Aderman. World, Inc., 1963. English. New York: Harcourt, Brace and New York: Laird, Helune andCharlton. The Tree of ,Language. The World PublishingCompany, 1957. G. & C. Merriam :Picturesque Word pligiu. Springfield, Mass.: Company, 1933. Development of the English Pyles, Thomas. The Origins and World, 1964. Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
American English. New York: Pyles, Thomas. Words and Ways of Random House, 1952.
Language ScientificAmerican, Thieme, Paul. "The Indo-European CXLIX (October,1958), pp. 63-74. Boston: Wrenn, C. L. Beowulf with theFinnesburg Fragment. D. C. Heath andCompany, 1953.
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Bauman, Hans. The Caves of Great Hunters.Sew York: Pantheve Books, 1955.
Epstein, Sam. The First Book of Codes and Ciphers. Sew York: F. Watts, 1956.
Epstein, Sam and Beryl. The First Book of Words: Their Family, Histories. New York: Franklin Watts, 1954.
Frasconi, Antonio. See Again, Sam Again. New York: Aarcourt, Brace, and World, 1964.
Hofsinde, Robert. Indian Picture Writing. Neff UTIL:William Morrow and Co., 1959.
Hofsinde, Robert. Indian Sign Language. New York:William Morrow and Co., 1956.
Ludonici, L. J. Origins of Language. Blew York: G. P. PUtnam's Sons, 1965.
Ogg, Oscar. The 26 Letters. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co_, 1961.
Saroyon, William. Me. NewYork: Crowell - Collier, 1963-
Selsam, Millicent E. The Language of Animals.Wiliam Morrow and Co., 1962. LANGUAGE: STRUCTURE AND USAGE
I
I MORPHOLOGY
Kindergarten,
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses inflected and derivedwords in his conversation.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
differentiate, by use of context clues, events which are happening in the present and events which happeued sometime in the past.
understand the difference in word meaning when the prefix un- is added to an action word (verb).
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To differentiate, by use of context clues, designations of present and past time.
Example: After reading a "Once-upon-a-time story," ask pupils when
the story happened: Did the story happen a long time ago or last week?
How do you know?
Example: Tape pupils's voices during a sharing period or at a con-
versation time. Later, call attention to the fact that a speaker tells
when something happened by the words he uses. Play selections from the
tape, introducing each selection in such a way that timeis kept in mind.
2. To understand the difference in word meaning when the prefix un is added to an action word (verb). I
210 211
Game" in which the teacherdoes something Example: Play the "Undoing and asks a child toundo it. unlocks it; tie a shoestring, Sample actions: Lock the door, child it; cover a book, child unties it; button asweater, child unbuttons dress a doll, child child uncovers it; cork abottle, child uncorks it; undresses it, etc. what they are doing: "I With each action theteacher and child say am lockingthe door." "I am unlocking it." generalize about action At the end of the gamelead the pupils to words when un- is added tothe word which signifiesthe action. MORPHOLOGY
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses inflected and derived words in his conversation.
has some understanding of the terms past and pretent.
understands the un- prefix in common verbs.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
understand the meaning of the phrasemore than one, the meaning of the term plural, and the meaning of thenoun inflection -s.
understand the meaning of the term past tense and the meaning of the verb inflection -ed.
discover that he uses in his own writing the noun inflection-s and the verb inflection -ed.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand the meaning of the phrasemore than one, the meaning of the term plural, and the function ofthe noun inflection -s.
Example: Play a game, "One or More than One."Appoint one child to
hold one or more than one object (pencils, marbles, beads, etc.)behind
his back, and appoint another child toguess whether he is holding one or more than one object. Write on the board statements aboutcorrect guesses:
212 213
Throughout the game lead (John had one pencil. Ted had five pencils.) number larger than one, the pupils to see thattwo, three, five, ten, any may berepresented by the term morethan one.
After playing the game withreal objects, change toword-picture
picture of a ball with theword cards. A set of two cards such as a balls may be used. ball and a picture ofseveral balls with the word face-down, and asks another One child looks atboth cards, turns them card shows more than one. child to guess whichcard shows one or which etc.) may be matched with real Word cards (WTI rX11:71 r zru ,
objects grouped in variousnumber arrangements.
Later in the day callattention to the wordcards without pictures: 1=73
cat cats bat bats
book books mat mats or more Ask the pupils toidentify the words which represent one
than one of theobjects named. form of a word to Lead the pupils togeneralize about changing the the word. cause it torepresent more than oneof the objects named by explaining that the Call this changed form theplural form of the word, be word plural means morethan one. The pupils' generalization may
written on chart paper:
A word which names onething may be changed sothat it
plural names more than oneof the things. The word + -s is the
form. balls = ball + -s
identify EXample: Using stories onfilmstrips, ask the children to Intro- plural forms of words andexplain the way the word wasformed.
duce the term singular in acasual manner. 214
Example: Tape children's voices during a conversation time.Later
play the tape and aelect certain statements to write on the board.Ask
the children to categorize the underlined words under the headings singular
form and plural form:
my grandmother brought me this sweater for Faster.
I have some new shoes too.
Mother said she would buy me a new hat for Easter but we haven't
been to town yet.
Are you going on an egg hunt? I went to three egg hunts last year.
I'll bet I found fifty eggs.
Use words from the children's own conversation as an entry into
further understanding of the morphological concepts of the language.
Lead them to see that words like sweater, shoe, hat are called base
words and that the plural form is really the base word + -s. They
understand that base wo d has a meaning, that it represents something.
The -s has no meaning alone--but when it is added to the base word the
meaning of the new form of the base word is changed.
2. To understand the meaning of the term past tense and the meaning of the verb inflection -ed. I
Example: Involve the children in dramatizations of stories or
nursery rhymes. Later write on the board sone statements about the
actions that were performed.
Jack jumped over the candlestick.
Mary worked in her garden/.
Mother Hubbard opened the cupboard door.
Lucy Locket hunted her pocketbook.
The lamb followed Mary to school. 215
children to decide Call attention to theunderlined words and ask the in what way they arealike. (They all end with -ed.)
Re-write the words asfollows:
junp + -ed
work + -ed
open + -ed
hunt + -ed
follow + -ed
of action and that Explain that the baseword represents some kind
sometime before now, some- the added -ed shows thatthe action took place
time in the past.
Follow this by moreinvolvement of pupils. Ask a pupil to change
it represent action that the form of an actionword such as sew to make Mother took place in the past. Write the word in context onthe board:
sewed a button on my coat.
Continue with other wordsuntil the dhildren gain anunderstanding
call, talk, whisper, of the verb inflection-ed. (Suggested words:
shout, cook, boil, watch,look, listen, wash,polish.) books, or Example: From stories in thebasal reader, in library
words which are formed byadding on filmstrips,lead dhildren to find reflected by the -ed to a base word inorder to show that the action (base word + base word took place inthe past. Explain that this form
Follow with -ed) is called the past tense.;tense refers to time.
the action word bow? questions such as this: What is the past tense of (The man (mow, pull, etc.)Place the newly formedwords in context.
bowed to the Queen.)
After children have formedthe past tense of severalverbs, lead 216
them to form a generalizationabout past tense form:
An action word may be changed toshow that the action happen-
ed at some time before now, sometimein the past, by adding -ed
to the base word.
jumped + -ed = jumped
NOTE: Children, by analogy, will likely add-ed to base words that do
not fit into the regular-ed inflection pattern. When this happens
only a casual explanation of the verbin question is needed. Irregular-
ities in verb inflections will bestudied in more detail at a laterlevel.
3. To recognize the nouninflecticn -s and the verb inflection -ed in pupils' own writing. !
EXample: After a field trip write a story aboutwhat happened, in-
clude things the pupils saw andthings they did.
When the story is finishedidentify plural forms of name-words
(nouns) and past tense forms of actionwords (verbs). MORPHOLOGY
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses inflectedand derived words in conversation.
...knows the meaning of the termssingular and plural.
O 110 recognizes the noun inflection -s.
...recognizes the verb inflection -ed.
understands the meaning of the un- prefix in some verbs.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
understand the meaning of the terms possessive, possessiveform, and noun and the meaning of the noun inflection's.
understand the meaning of the terms present Li:mgand verb and the meanings of the verb inflections -in and -s.
...develop an understanding of inflection of compoundwords.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To understand the meaning of the terms possessive andpossessive form and the meaning of the noun inflection 's.
Example: Ask several children to bring something which belongs to
them and place it on the table. Write sentences about the articles on
the board.
217 218
Susan's sweater is on thetable.
This is Barbara's pencil.
Here is Bob's book.
Is this Jimmy's marble?
Gail's pocketbook is heavy.
Explain that the 's added toSusan's name shows that Susan owns
the possessor of the the sweater. The 's points out the owner or article. possession or Generalize about theform that the name takes when ownership is shown. Write the generalization onchart paper:
Name + 's showspossession.
Jimmy's book
John's is the possessiveform of John. This is John's bicycle.
something from a friendand bring Example: Ask a child to borrow about the article, naming it to the table. Elicit from him a statement
the board: the owner of thearticle. Write his statement on
This is Fred's cap. something from a Remind pupils that youasked John to "borrow
given statements friend." Comment on the factthat John might have
such as these:
This is myfriend's cap.
This is my buddy's cap. other than namesof Discuss with pupilsthe fact that name-words order to show possession. particular persons maychange their form in
Illustrate:
My mother's car is inthe garage. 219
His father's coat is onthe chair.
The dog's collar isbroken.
A child's toy is onthe floor.
The flower's leaves arefalling.
A cat's fur issoft. of name-words is base Draw the conclusionthat the possessive form word + 's.
Replace the chart madeearlier (Name + 's showspossession, etc.)
the new chart: with a revised chart. Elicit pupil help in phrasing
A base word + 's showspossession.
John's is the possessive formof John.
This is John's bicycle.
Friend's is the possessive formof friend.
This is my friend'sbicycle.
Compare the plural of name Example: Review the concept ofplural. Call attention to the words with the possessiveform of name words. If those words fact that the words dossand dog's sound justalike.
the rest of the sentencein are in spokensentences we must listen to
order to know which formthe speaker is using.
Call attention to thefact that in writing thewords dogs and dog's by using we show thedifference between theplural and possessive forms
the appropriateinflection -s or 's
Lead to the followingcomparison:
Base word + -s is theplural form of a nameword.
Base word + 's is thepossessive form of a nameword.
is the part which has Conclude that in eachinstance the base word
The -s has no meaning meaning of its own. It representssomething. alone. It only signifies that the base word has bees doomed tomes. more than one. The 's bas no meaning of its mom. It may sigmlfies that the base word has been changed to Show that its refe:Pmet ponseesego something.
Example: Find other words which may be used as base 'smogs fa site- ations such as those above.Write on the board a statememt smeh as this:
The are in the yard.
Ask pupils to supply words which might be placed Is tieMask space..
List their suggestions as:
The flowers are in the yard.
dogs
boys
toys
bicycles
Call attention to the fact that each wordsupplied is the pima fors of a word, base Immdi 4- -s.
[AOTE: Some one will likely offer word soma as child:ma far Melia& space. Accept it and remaek casually that this is apeculiar am&
Its plural farm is base word(child) (r) Avoid prelsogrd dis- cussion. Irregularities of so un. imflectioms are studied later. Ds nst avoid the word. This is inotber opportmmity to idemtify a baleimnd which is classified asamong
Introduce the idea that base words such as the owesin thls list
are called nouns.Discuss the fact that a mom moire dammed to olbsff
more than one. The plural fora ofamoon is made byaiding -s. 221
sentence Test the base wordssupplied by the children in the pattern
to see if they can bechanged to the possessive form. Lead pupils to
1 form a generalization:
A noun can be changed toshow possession. The possessive
form of a noun is made byadding 's.
The girl's coat is new.
Ann's coat is new.
Give ten word-cards Example: Play a game called"Noun-Testing." words to cee if they can be to each student. Ask students to test the
called nouns. The words must passthree tests'
(1) The word fits into this sentence:
The is in the yard.
(2) The form of the word may bechanged to mean more than one by
adding an -s.
(3) The form of the word may bechanged to show possession by
1 adding 's.
Assorted word cards are used:km, if, um., rabbit, swing, beautiful,
under, and, king, etc.
2. To understand the meaningof the terms present time and verb and the meaning of the verbinflections -s and -ing. I
Example: Review the concept of past tenseof action words:
Discuss games played at recess. Write statements on the board as
pupils tell about their play.
Sue and Judy played jump rope.
Tommy played on the monkey bars.
Mary and Jill pretended thatthey were ladies. They visited Cail
in her playhouse. 222
Lead pupils to identify the action words. Call attention to the fact that the action words are written in the past tense form(play. +
-ed, pretend + -ed, visit + -ed) because recess is over, the tine in which the action took place has already gone by, it is past.
Introduce the idea of examining the children's own language to find out what they do with words to show that action ishappening right now, at the present tine. Whisper directions to a child. While he carried out the directions ask another child totell what he is doing. Write the child's statement on the board. Continue until several such state- ments are written.
Joe is sharpening his pencil.
Jerry lc stacking sone books.
Betty is looking at the fish.
He is standing on one foot.
She is reading a book.
Comment on the fact that pupils already know how tomake action words show present time. They have done so in these sentences.
Underline the words is sharpening, is stacking, islooking, is standing, is readin. Ask pupils how these terms are alike. (The word is is used each time. The action words all end in -ing.) Lead pupils to make generalizations such asthese:
(1) One way to show that action is takingplace at the present
time is to use the word is and thebase word +
(2) The base word tells what action is meant. The word is
and ending -in change the base word toshow that the action
is happening now.
Call attention to the fact that thewords am and are are used in- 223
When the speakertalks about stead of the wordis in manyinstances: about himself and anotheror several himself he says"I am reading," or When the speakertalks to another or others he says"We are reading." If a speaker talksabout several others he says"You are reading." Alter the generalizationto read: people he says"They are reading." place at the presenttime we To show thataction is taking
may use is, are,or am andthe base word +
The man is mowingthe lawn.
My friends areplaying.
I am working.
that in addition tothe pattern isand Example: Introduce the idea of showing thataction is happen- base word + -ing, wehave another way
Illustrate this by askingcertain questions ing at the presenttime.
and recording answerson theboard:
Do you ever talk onthe telephone?
What persons do youcall? and play with me. I call Jimmysometimes to ask him to come
her. I talk to mygrandmother when we call
When do you brush yourteeth? before I go to bed. I brush themafter breakfast and
I brush mine beforebreakfast, too.
What television showsde you watch?
I watch CaptainKangaroo.
I always look atTarzan.
(Limit to regular verbs atthis time, Point out the actionwords. action shown in statementsof this if possiole.) Explain that the kind of actionwhich has been going on type is acontinuing or regular 224
and continues to go on. We call it present time not because it is happen-
ing at this moment but because we do it regularly at this tine of our
lives. (I brush my teeth every day.)
Call attention to the fact that in these sentences nothing is added
to the base word to show that action is taking place at the present time.
Example: (Follow-up of preceding example) From an imaginary con- versation written on chart paper introduce the vyrb inflection -s.
Mary: I look at Captain Kangaroo.
Joe: You look at that but I look at Hopalong Cassidy. They are
on at the same time and I like Hop better.
Betty: She looks at Captain Kangaroo. He looks at Hopalong. I
look at the Lone Ranger.
'Kathy: They look at kid stuff. I like Space Ghost.
Jimmy: When Bill spends the night with me we look at the late show.
Lead children to examine the action word look as each person used
it in the conversation. Help them discover that Betty changed its form,
yet she too made the action word show present time. She used the base
word + -s. Lead to the idea that the -s is added to the base word to
show action in the present time only if the speaker is talking to a
second person about what a third person is doing.
Continue with another closely related illustration. Imagine two
ladies talking together about cooking. Write their conversation on the
board leaving out the action word cook(s).Discuss with children who
the speaker is, who the listener is, and who performed the action.
Fill in the blanks together with the action word cook or its changed
form cooks. 225
dinner every daywhen I come home fromwork.
a roast onSunday and then warm You every day? I it for two or threedays. the best roast I have ever Do you know Mrs.Williams? She eaten. together sometimes. Yes, I know Mrs.Williams. We Those Have you ever been to acooking school? I go once a week.
teachers beautiful cakes andpies. check the statements to When the actionwords have been supplied, alone and under what see underwhat conditionsthe base word was used about the conditions the baseword + -s is used. Again, generalize action in the present fact that -s is added tothe base word to show another (or others) about a time only if thespeaker is talking to
third person doing theaction. the base word whichshows Call attention tothe fact that it is The -s has no meaningunless the action, or hasmeaning of its own. third person (not it is attached to abase word. Then it tells that a action at the presenttime. the two talkingtogether) is doing the
Lead the children toform a generalization: happening over a periodof To show thatregular action is the base wordalone or time, including thepresent time, we use
the base word + -s:
I like candy.
You like candy.
He likes candy.
We like candy.
They like candy. 226
Example: Tape a sample of children's conversation and listen to the tape. Select action words for discussion. (Avoid irregular verbs at this time if possible.) Decide whether the action words show present time or past time. Comment on the fact that the pupils manage their language easily. They make the form of the word show when the action took place.
Introduce the term verb by stating that action words have a special name. Write the term verb on the board as it is introduced.
Call attention to ways we can tell whether or not a word may be called a verb:
(1) It will fit into a pattern like one of these:
I like candy.
I walk every day.
(2) The form of most verbs may be changed by adding -s, -lag" or -ed.
Follow this with a game called "Verb Testing."Distribute word cards to children. Help them test the words to see if they can be classified as verbs. Submit the words to this test:
(1) Can you make it show past time by adding -ed to the base word?
Prove it by using the changed form in a sentence.
(2) Can you make it show present time by adding -s to the base word?
Prove it.
(3) Can you make it show present time by adding-in&to the base
word in sentences beginning like these?
He is (base word + ing) .
I am
They are 227
ask, Sample words for usein testing: talk, jump, if, under, to, beautiful, hm, girl,climb, paint.
NOTE: Avoid includingirregular verbs.
understanding of inflectionof compound words. 12. To develop an
from literature Example: Select fromchildren's conversation or the board: samples of compoundwords to write in context on
my aunt brought me araincoat.
I ate oatmeal forbreakfast.
She is a clalm. words and ask what it means. Call attention to oneof the underlined which this word wasmade. Then call attention tothe small words from these each part has a Lead the pupils to seethat in words such as together a new meaningis meaning of its own,then when they are put
implied. and ask the Point to the underlinedword in the second sentence the new meaning iswhen children what the meaningparts are and what
the parts are puttogether. Tell Continue with samplesuntil understandingis established.
compound words. Comment children that wordsof this type are called Test the compound about the fact that many nounsare compoundwords.
be called nouns. Use words in the sample sentencesto see if they can
-s? Can a possessive this test: Can a plural formbe made by adding
form be made by adding's? MORPHOLOGY
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
I The child
recognizes and knowsthe meaning of the noun inflections-s and IL.
...recognizes and knowsthe meaning of the verb inflections:111, -Ingo and -ed.
...understands the term compound word, recognizes some compound words.
understands the meaning of the -un pre- fix in some words.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
understand some of the forms of the verb be.
oleounderstand functions of the verb be.
begin to understand and identify auxiliaries.
...expand his knowledge of derived words to include selected prefixes.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
i1. To understand the forms of the verb be.
Example: Introduce the idea that there is a group of wordswhich
pattern like action words but reallyshow no action. They show only being.
Illustrate and discuss two or three samples:
228 229
John 411 here. (Action word)
John is here. (Being word)
Mary saw my friend. (Action word)
Mary is my friend. (Being word)
The puppy ran away. (Action word)
The puppy is away. (Being word)
Discuss variations in theform of the word signifyingbeing. Call attention to the fact thatthe word signifying being_ inthese sentences also signifies present time. Elicit pupils'help in changini, the state- ment to signify past time.
Call attention to the fact thatthe form of the word signifying being changes:
himself, he says I am, I was, (1) If a person is talking about
or I will be.
(2) If someone is talking toanother person about that person,
he says you are, you were, or youwill be.
about a (3) If someone is talking toanother or to other people
third person, he says, Johnis, John was or John will be;he is, he
was, or he will be.
The third person form isused when one is talking about agirl
also: Mary is, she is, or shewill be.
The third person form isused when we talk about things: The rose
is, it is, or it was.
be, studied in the example Example: Review the forms of the verb
above,and comment on the factthat in each case these verbs gowith
be which go singular forms of nouns. Introduce the forms of the verb
with plural nouns. 230
Write on the board a few sample sentences:
I am sleepy.
I was happy to see him.
You are my friend.
You were the first one here.
He is tall.
He was the tallest boy in his class last year.
Call attention to the fact that in each case one person is being talked about. (In sentences 3 and 4 call attention to the words friend and first one to help establish the singular you.)
There are other forms of the verb be:
(1) When the speaker talks about himself and others like him he says,
We are sleepy.
We were late this morning.
Jimmy and I are Cub Scouts.
(2) When someone is speaking to a group of people he says,
You are my friends.
You were the best ball players on the team.
(3) When a person is talking to another or othersabout two or more people or things he says,
They are on the front row.
John, Jimmy, and Sam are absent.
They were here when school started.
Trees are tall plants.
Squirrels were in the trees.
Lead pupils to state a generalization:
The verb which signifies being changesits form to fit the 231
situation. Forms of the verb be which show the presenttime are these:
am, ar_g_, is.
I am sleepy. Joe is sleepy, too. Billy and Tom are wide awake.
Forms of the verb be which show pasttime are these: was, were.
John was sick yesterday. His mother and father were worried
about him.
2. To understand functions of the verb be.
Example: Explain that the verb be links one partof the sentence with another part if those two partsrefer to the same thing:
He is my brother.
The word he and the words my brotherrefer to the same person. The vex') is serves as a linking verb tolink these two terms together.
Mary is beautiful.
The word beautiful describes Mary. The verb is links Mary and beautiful.
That girl is a good student.
The terms that girl and a Rood student arereferring to the same
person. The word is links the termstogether.
Select EXample,: Make a tape recording of pupilstalking together.
from the tape illustrations of thechildren's use of linking verbs.
Use these as illustrations indiscussion of linking verbs.
Example: Introduce a second function of the verbbe, its use as
an auxiliary. Playing a game, "ImaginaryDoings." Begin the game by
saying something of this nature:
"I am skating on a frozen pond. What are you doing?"
A child answers "I am ..." andasks another Nhat are youdoing?"
As this continues, record severalof the statements on the boardand
suggest that the group imaginethat the happenings occurred last night. 232
Then begin the game again:
"WhenIuras sleeping, Joe was flying in the Sky. Mat mere "Ns ankale"
Again, as the game continues, record several statements sn Melanoma.
After the game is ended alk children to underline Me mar& aide* are forms of the verb be. Call attention to the fact that in these sentences the verb does not link one part with another (the parts are woe alike).
In these sentences the verb be is used with the academism:di to slaw the time of the action. It is called an auxiliary sr abel4dblegverfol
I was sleeping.
Joe was flying in the sky.
Review: The form of Me verb be signifies the time that Me Aram
took place:
Is (es, 10) with the base word+-M&Aleasspresent time.
Was (were) with the base ammid+-lagomans past time. Re is flying:. Be dgos
I3. To understand and identify auxiliaries.
EXample: Help children to identify the auxiliaries (sr 'milldam
verbs) and the verbs with which they are used in sentences smeh as the
following:
He is riding his new bicycle.
The dog was not eating his food.
Were you Iodking at this book?
The boys are build-biz a hut.
Introduce another auxiliary, have:
We have talked about this before.
John has walked to school every day Mils year.
Marie had called before I left. 233
helping verb, Discuss other termsby which auxiliaries e called, logical reasons verb pointer, and verbintroducer. Elicit from children
for these names. prefixes snd the relationships 4. To understand themeanings of selected of these to the meaningof the base word.
again) the teacher Example: To introduce theprefix re- (meaning
may write sentencessuch as these on theboard:
Please reread thedirections.
Did you rewrite yourletter?
John refilled the paintjars.
Mother reloaded the washingmachine before she left. seeds did not come up. We had to yeplant ourgarden because the first
these sentences. In Ask pupils to examinethe underlined verbs in
of re- + base word. In two most of the sentencesthe verb is composed Review the sentences the verb iscomposed of re- + baseword + ed. understanding meaning of -ed added to averb. Lead the pupils to the
in these sentences. Ex- of the mewing of theletters re- in the words meaning plain that sometimes one or moreletters, combined to have a Such a grouping of ther vwn, areattached to the beginningof a word.
of letters is called aprefix.
Provide other experienceswith prefixes:
that the prefix un- meansreversing (1) Lead pupils to discover Use examples. or undoingthe action signifiedby the base word. have prefixes. (2) Call attention to thefact that nouns may prefix under: Guide pupils in determiningthe meaning of the The undercurrent is very Tdp ball rolled intothe underbrush.
strong in the river. 234
Guide pupils in discoveringthat the meaning of the baseword plus the meaning of the prefixresults In a new meaning.
Lead to a generalization byeliciting from pupils a statementabout prefixes:
A prefix is a letter or growof letters added to the beginningof a word. A prefix has a meaning of its own. Its meaning alters the meaning of the base word, orimplies a new meaning:
He unhooked the latch and went out.
(un- + base word + ed)
prefix -hook-
Means to Means to Has no do the secure by meaning reverse placing alone. action, metal pin Attached to in holder. a verb it changes verb to show past action.
Means to remove metal pin from holder. THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
Kindergarten
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses orallythe variousconstructions and patterns of theEnglish sentence.
OBJECTIVES
The child will which describe persons, become aware thathe can make statements objects, or events.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
1. To sake statementsthat describe.
the activities focus onthe use of statements, Note: The examples of and the "tune"of a sentence expansion of sentenceswith description, in languagedevelopment, as a unitof language. Children will differ of words as thoughit were a from those who use aword or a group of considerable com- sentence, tothose who useeasily sentences sound of the sentence,in plexity and length.Practice with the expression, is anessential for listening toothers' and to his own skill and understanding. each pupil's progressin language
the children inplaying the game"When?" Example: The teacher leads child finishes itwith a "when The teacher begins astatement and a
clause": when they arehungry. Babies cry
235 236
We wear raincoats when it rains. Old Mother Hubbard found nothing when she went to the cupboard.
and asks Example: Play telephoning. One child "telephones" another what one or two other Children aredoing, "Hello, Jane. Are Susan and
Jill there?What are they doing?" As Susanand Jill hear their names,
they begin to do something whichJane can describe. Jane's telephone
conversation describes their actions.
Example: As the teacher reads poetry orstories to Children, she
occasionally calls attention todescriptive language.
Example; Play "I see something." A childmakes one or two state-
ments describing an objectin the classroom. Others guess what the
It is in the object is. Illustration: "I see something red and round.
front of the room. What is it?" "7 see something blue, made of cloth.
It is hanging on a hook.What is it?"This game may be played by imag-
ining, with eyes closed. "I see a fat little monkey eating ripebananas."
Example: After a field trip the childrendraw pictures about things
He is seen or done. Each child is asked to tellabout his.picture.
asked to use describing words ashe tells about the objects or events. THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
constructions and ... usesorally the various patterns of theEnglish sentence.
describe and ...knows the meaningof the term the parts can identifyin simple sentences that describe.
OBJECTIVES
The child will sentences. understand and use theterm sentenceand identify simple by noticingdiffering differentiate betweenquestion and statement word order and the"tune" of the orallanguage.
combine short sentences.
...extend sentences.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES sentence and toidentify simple 1. To understandand use the term sentences.
in a casual, but mean Example: The teacher usesthe term sentence
ingful way. Illustrations: "That is a reads a story, she pausesto say, (a) As the teacher read it again." good sentence. Listen while I exciting experience. The (b) A group storyis written about an the board as theygive teacher writeschildren's contributions on
to use theword sentence in her them. She finds opportunities
237 238
conversation: "How will our story begin?Who will give me the
first sentence?"
"That was a good sentence, Judy.Let me read it to see if I
wrote just what you said."
"Now, who will give me one last sentence to end our story?"
(c) In the reading lessons as the teacher checks comprehension
she asks such questions as these:
"Beth, will you read the sentence which tells about Jane's
surprise?"
"Mike, will you read the sentence that tells why the children
were so happy?"
Example: On the Game Shelf are boxes of word cards. A child or a small group of children may play "building sentences."As a sentence is built, one of the group may copy it on the chalkboard. The group which builds a specified number of sentences wins a game.The teacher reads and discusses several sentences briefly to emphasize the "tune" of a sentence.
Example: The tape recorder is turned on during sharing time, at a time when some object is brought to show.Later, selections from the tape are transcribed and shown to the class by opaque projection. The division into sentences is mentioned.
2. To differentiate between question and statement by noticing word order and the "tune" of the Ianguage.
Example: A boy shows the class a butterfly which he has caught and mounted. He tells about it and pupils ask questions. The teacher repeats a question and his answer andasks pupils to listen for the difference in the way the two sentences are said. The teacher writes the sentences on the board, as she talks about them, classifying each as question or 239
statement.
Where was the butterfly? The butterfly was in myflower garden.
asks what else is dif- Pupils notice the questionmark, and the teacher
led to see that the words ferent between the two. They recognize or are
is at the end. In are in adifferent order. In the question butterfly
the statement butterflyis at the beginning. statement. He Example: One pupil arrangesword cards to make a asks a question. selects another pupil tochange them so that the sentence
He has gone home. Has he gone home?
Mary is eating lunch. Is Mary eating lunch?
Jim can run. Can Jim run?
into single sentences. 3. To combine short sentences [ of short sentences onthe board Example: The teaCher writes groups
shows that they may becombined to make or makes themwith word cards and combinations are made,pupils single sentences. After two or three sample
Samples: are asked tocombine other short sentences.
I have a dog.His name is Brownie. I have a dog namedBrownie.
I vent to the inovies. I saw a war picture. I went to the moviesand saw a war picture.
Dick is my cousin. He lives in New York. My cousin Dick livesin New York.
Daddy went with me.Mother did not go. Daddy went with me,but Mother did not go. 240
14. To extend sentences.
_Example,: The teacher arranges word cards to form a simple sentence:
The boy went home.
A child is asked to find words which could be added to the sentence to
tell something about the boy or to tell something about his going home.
Such cards as these are available: little, slowly, if, and, happy, but,
quickly, after, until, school.
Example: The teacher writes a simple sentence on the board, reading
it as she writes. She says to the class: "This short sentence has two
parts. We will draw a red line under one, and a yellow line under the
other. What is the first part?"As dhildren answer, she recognizes the
answer which designates the complete subject andunderlines it in red,
and the predicate in yellow. Children recognize these two main parts
of the sentence by the "tune" of the language and by the meaning.At
this level, there seems no need to use the terms to name the parts.
The teacher asks the pupils to suggest words that tell more about
the part in red. Words or phrases are added and underlined in red.
Pupils suggest words that tell more about the part in yellow.
(red) The kittencried. (yellow) _jelittlirtyt_cittenT1 cried for his mother.
Example: Using a child's drawing as a starter, children are guided
in building a structure of modificationand fitting the structure into
a sentence.
house a red brick house an old red brick house with a tallchimney We bought an old red brick house with a tall chimney. An old red brick house with a tall Chimney is next door to our house. THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
Second Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses orally thevarious constructions and patterns of theEnglish sentence.
sentence and ...understands and uses the term identifies simple sentences.
differentiates between statementsand questions.
combines and extends sentences.
OBJECTIVES
The child will recognizing the two ...increase his understandingof the sentence by main parts, subjectand predicate.
recognize simple usesof coordination.
modification and coordination. ...build sentences through
LEARNING EXPERIENCES of a sentence, subjectand predicate. 1. To understand thetwo main parts
observed in scienceacitivites may Example: A report of animals
furnish written materialfor study and discussion:
Rabbits have soft fur andlong ears. Their back legs arelong and strong. Their tails are short. Rabbits wiggle their noses. They eat vegetables. Rabbits are quiet animals.
241 242
The teacher writes a sentence on the board. She reads the sentence
and asks "What is this sentence about?"As pupils answer she underlines
Rabbits. "What does it tell about rabl-its?" She underlines have soft
fur and long ears. Rabbitshave soft fur and long ears. Several
other sentences are so divided by the teacheras the children suggest
the division.
Example: From notes of children's free conversation, the teacher writes on the board selected statements. Children are led to locate the
subject and predicate. The teacher underlines the complete subject and
the complete predicate of each sentence.
The boys on our block played ball yesterday.
Our mothers watched us.
My team won.
Taking one sentence at a time, the teacher asks if there isone word that tells what the subject is. As children locate the noun, she puts a second line under this headword.They locate in each predicate
the one wordwhich tells what is said about the subject, and the
teacher puts a second line under this verb. She calls each of these words the headword.
Example: Children are asked to make sentences by joining two parts from the following lists of subjects and predicates. Subjects Predicates That nice lady are empty. Those little kitten lives near us. The boxes drink milk. Those crayons -slept After lunch he- fell of his desk. Summary: From the above examples, children draw generalizations as follows: Sentences have two parts, a subject and a predicate.A head- word in the subject is a noun or noun substitute. The headword in the 243
predicate is a verb.
coordination. 2. To understandsimple uses of
these are written on theboard: Example: Statements such as
Martha and Jane arepainting. Judy and Beth arereading. Bill and Jim areworking puzzles. The little kittenand the puppy areplaying together.
each sentence has twohead- Children are led to seethat the subject in
words, joined by theword and.
Martha and Jane arepainting.
literature or from Example: The teacher selectsstatements from coordination in the children's written or orallanguage to illustrate
the coordination andthe use of subject. Children are helped to see
and as a functionword to join twolike words.
The boy and his dogwalked down the road.
headwords in the subject. The words 122y and slog. arenouns, both used as
They are joined byand, a functian word.
The dog barked andgrowled.
both used as headwordsin the The words barkedand growled are verbs,
and, a function word. predicate. They are joined by children draw the Summary: From many experienceswith the word and, coordination generalization that and servesthe function of junction or
words in the subject - nounsused of two like words. It may join like
words in the predicate -verbs used as as headwords. It may join like
headwords. It may join otherlike parts of language. 244
13. To build sentences through modificatios mod coordination.
Example: The children wish to keeparecord of am esperiemme. mad
dictate sentences to the teacher as she writes them as a Alert. lie
sentences are short and repetitious, so she suggests some caMilmstimms
to make the story more interestimg.Plplls read the story Ass&
We went to the zoo yesterday. Mt. Rhine met us. He is the keeper. He likes the animals. His favorite is the thimpamzee. The chimpanzee is funny. He talked to us. He did triCks for us.
Pupils select sentences whith they wish to coShise, suggest several
ways, and decide which is the most effective.The story is revised and
a new chart made.
We went to the zoo yesterday. Mr. Rhine, the keeper, met us. He likes all the asimals, but his favorite is the thimpaszee. The funny chimpanzee talked amd did tricks for us.
Example: The teacher writes two or three simple semtemces as the
board and asks pupils to find ways to =Oise them.
(a) Pat went to the beach. The sun was skiable. His sister went, too.
Pat and his sister went to the beach in the summidne.
(b) I was sick. I vent home. I told my mother. She putseto bed.
I was sick and went bome. Mem I told ay notber, sloe purse tolled.
or
When I went home sick, my notber put me tobed. 245
(c) A dog lives next door. He barks at night. He keeps everyone awake.
The dog next door keeps everyone awake barking at night. or
The dog next door barks at night and keeps everyone awake. or The dog that lives next door barks at night and keeps everyone awake.
Example: A simple sentence on the board is divided into its two parts (subject and predicate). Pupils are asked to suggest words that
tell more about the first part; words that tell more about the second
part. The teacher records the suggestions in two lists.
The rooster crows old in the morning red every day with the broken leg in the barnyard mean loudly big early that Mr. Gray gave us on the fence to wake up everybody Children select from the suggestions those they wish to use in an extended
sentence. THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
Third Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
... usesorally the various constructions and patterns of English sentences.
... can combine and extend sentences.
... canidentify the subject and predicate of simple sentences.
...knows the function of the word and in simple sentences.
'OBJECTIVES
The child will
...differentiate statements and requests or orders.
...identify sentences as statements, questions, orrequests by means of word order of subject and predicate.
...recognize kernel sentences and extend them withdescriptive elements recognized as modifiers.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
11. To differentiate statements and requests or orders.
Example: The teacher and children list the kinds of things said as
one person gives an order to another or makes a request of another:
Please close the door. Walk quietly in the hall. Pick up your clothes. Turn off the television. Clean your desks. Bill, pick up your pencil.
246 247
Children are guided inseeing that the subjectof a sentence which
It is understood is a request or anorder is not necessarily stated. that the person to whomthe order is given willperform the action
Implied by the verb.
together children are asked to Faample: After several experiences
make up problems for eachother. Illustration: Add punctuation and
circle the letter identifyingthe sentence type(statement -S;
question - Q; request ororder - R):
1. Bring the book to me (S, Q, R) 2. Will you bring the book to me (S, Q, R) 3. He brought his book to me (S, Q, R) (S, Q, R) 4. John is giving food to thegoldfish 5. Where are the goldfish (S, Q, R) 6. Look at the goldfish S, Q, R)
and predicate in 2. To identify the changesin word order of subject the three types of sentences.
change Example: The teacher may beginthis by asking children to
statements into questionsand/or requests:
Susan fed the parakeet. Did Susan feed theparakeet? Has Susan fed theparakeet? Feed the parakeet. Feed the parakeet,please.
The teacher shows the sentercegraphically as the pupilsidentify
subjects and predicates, nouns, orverbs as headwords ofeadh.
Susan fed the parakeet.
Did Susanfeed the parakeet? 11111 Subject .7 Predicate
(You) Feed the parakeet. 248
3. To recognize kernel sentencesand extend them with descriptive elements identified as modifiers.
Example: The teacher places on the boardthe following kernel sentences: Hens clucked. Jake played,. The visitors talked. The dog slept.
Pupils suggest ways of extendingthe sentences by adding descriptions of the subject or of the predicate. The teacher uses Os wordmodifier
of the to apply to all additionsthat modify. Arrows show modification headword.
The big hens in theard cluckedat the baby chicks.
The teacher has used the terrkernel sentence as she puts the
sentences on the board. She discusses the word kernel withthe pupils
and they see the meaning asrelated to other uses they alreadyknow.
Discussion also centers around theword modifier and its meaning as
related to change. SENTENCE STRUCTURE
structure of Grammar is divided intomorphology, dealing with the of words into large words, and syntax,dealing with the combinations
units of phrases,clauses, and sentences. or language There are five basicsyntactic patterns of utterances These are (1) structures, whichwill help in the studyof syntax. (3) struc- structures ofmodification, (2) structures of predication, coordination, and (5) tures of complementation,(4) structures of that words may structures ofsubordination. These are the five ways of relationships,and fit together in English. They are the five kinds
may be, it canalways be analyzed no matterhow complicated a structure 1 in terms of thesefive basic types ofsyntactic structure. head (h) and a modifier The struceure ofmodification consists of a change, describe, (im), whose meaning serves tobroaden, qualify, select, The head of a or in someother way affect themeaning of the head. fre- structure of modificationis frequently a nounand the modifier
quently an adjective,such as
new car
safe roads
the modifier areslnele In the examples justcited, both the head and
based 'The discussion of the first foursyntactic structures was of The Structure ofAmerican primarily on materialcontained in Chapter 6 subordination was based English by W. NelsonFrancis. The section on English Imams by W.Nelson Francis. on materialin Chapter 2 of The 250
words. But this is not always the case. These structures can be of a more complex nature, such as
children laughing and playing
people who like to read
A structure may include other structures as one or both of its parts.
Each of the four parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb), as well as certain function words, may serve as the head of a structure of modification.Also, each of the four parts of speech, sometimes in special inflected forms, and certain function words serve as modifiers.
In the sentence, "He usually tells me his secrets," usually tells is a structure of modification with the verb tells as head:
(he) works successfully
(he) slowly drove
When adjectives function as heads of structures of modification, their most common modifiers are the qualifiers, such as very, rather, and quite. After the qualifiers, the next most frequent modifiers of adjectives are adverbs, but all the parts of speech may occasionally function as modifiers of adjectives. Example 1 shows a qualifier modi- fying an adjective-head, while Example 2 shows the adverb as modifier.
Example 1 very pretty
Example 2 exceedingly famous
When adverbs appear as heads of structures of modification, they may be modified by severaldifferent classes of modifiers:
Qualifiers: rather slowly 251.
Other Adverbs: far way
Nouns: a foot away
Prepositional Phrases: outside in the cold
The structures of mdication alsoconsistof two components, a subject and a predicate (verb):
boys play
dogs bark
Each of these may be a single word, asin the above examples, or they may consist of a wordwith accompanying functionword(s), a phrase, or one of the four otherkinds of syntactic structuremodification, corm- plementation, coordination, andsubordination. Some e, mples include:
(modification) the sun sets In the west(modification)
(modification) 8 the industrious man painted the house (complemen- tation)
(coordination) the boy and girl walked and talked (coordination)
(modification) to work in the city is my ambition (complementation)
(complementation) riding the surf is my. favorite hc."21111(comple- mentation)
The structures of com lementationconsist of a verbal element and
a complement.The verbal element may be a singleverb or any structure
that has a verb in key position,such as a verb-phrase, aninfinitive,
structure of coor- a structure ofmodification with verb as head, or a
dination whose components are anyof these. The verbs which are at 252 the core of.these various types of verbal elements may be divided into three main groups, two of which have complements:
1. Linking verb has a subjective complement (SC) but no passive form.
sc (the woman) is a nurse
sc (his hobby) is collecting stamps
sc (the boy) is tall
2. Intransitive verb has neither complement nor passive, so it
does not appear in structures of complementation.
3. Transitive verb has, in the active voice, a direct object and
sometimes an indirect object or an objective complement. In the
passive voice it sometimes has a retained object or objective
complement. DO Direct object: (he) caught the fish DO v' DO (he) wants to make money
Indirect object: v IO DO To (he) told the policemen his name
Objective v DO OC complement (he) paintedhis house green OC v DO OC (we) electedhis brother president
Objective comple- OC ment after (he) was made angry passive OC
Structures of co-ordination consist of two or more parallel con-
structions, usually joined by a special kind of function word(s) such
as and; neither, nor; not only, but also. These syntactically equiva-
lent units may be any of the parts of speech, function words, or more
complex structures. Some examples of structures of co-ordination include: 253
not onlyMother but alsoDaddy laughing andplaying (he) paints picturesand plays the piano
the tall,awkward boy red, white, andblue
consist of asubordinator and sub- The structuresof subordination structure ofsubordination is the ordinated material. One example of a subordinator and my car asthe sub- phrase of my car. Of serves as the
of of is toindicate thesubordinate ordinated material. The function to the restof the sentence. relationship of theshort phrase Ey car
of subordination is tofit such a structure The purpose ofthe structure clause is also astructure of into a largerconstruction. The dependent over," "We heard tlw newsthat the war is subordination. In the sentence with over" is a structureof subordination the clause"that the war is is over serving asthe subor- that serving assubordinator and the ___war
dinated material. is also importantin an English The order inwhich words appear
sentence. There are words inEnglish whichwill group (1) Grouping of words: with others. For example,it is possible with some kindsof words but not
such as these: to utterstrings of words
Bakes lady old goodthe cakes. The old ladybakes good cakes.
intelligible wordsbut is meaningless. The first utteranceis made up of words, is ameaningful English The second utterance,made up of the same The words is in the arrangementof the words. sentence. The difference bakes do not together; the wordsthe, old, and the, old, andlady group
group together. within a group. Estab- is an establishedorder of words 254 lished order in English is the old lady, not old the lady, nor lady the old.
(2) Order of the groups within a sentence: The subject precedes the predicate; the subject and predicate relate to each other; the direct object fulfills or complements the assertion made by the verb, and thus follows the verb. The order of groups of words falkinto several common patterns, designated sentence patterns.
A study of the base sentence patterns brings to the conscious level the forms that are already being used successfully at the operational level.
PATTERN ONE
The form of Pattern One is Subject followed by Verb, represented by S + V or N + V. With this sentence pattern of Noun + Verb, we can form a sentence like
N + V
Mary + sings.
The first position in the sentence is usually the subject which is always a substantive (any word or group of words which function as a name). The best way to locate the subject of a sentence is to ask
"Who?" or "What?" before the word or the phrase that expresses action or assertion. If the subject were located in different parts of the sentence to vary style or meaning in English speech and writing, the sentence would no longer follow the basic Pattern One.
Pattern One can be expanded in many ways. Most frequently an adverb is used to provide variaticns. Mary + sings4beautifully. To represent
Pattern One plus an adverb, we use the symbols N + V + (Adv.). The parentheses indicate that the element may be left out, as with the 255
adverb in the sentence above. Other forms of Mary + sings mightinclude the following:
1. An expanded subject
(participial phrase) Mary, standing in the center of the auditorium stage and performing for the empty seats, + sings as if this were tonight's performance.
2. An expanded verb
(prepositional phrase) Mary + has been sing- ing in the church choir.
(subordinate clause) Aunt Mary +is singing so that the house will have a happy sound.
If a noun that requires anarticle or some other noundeterminer is
used for the subject of aPattern One sentence, thegrammatical repre-
sentation becomes(D) + N + V + (Adv.). Substituting words for this
representation we have
(D) N + V + (Adv.)
The + dog + barks +loudly.
Still further examples ofPattern One are forms of theverb be that 2 are followed by anadverb.
The mail is here.
Billie was up.
2 According to Nelson Francissuch sentences would bePattern Three. a subject, averb He would consider itsconstituents to be S + V +SC: and a subjective complement. (D) + S + V +SC The + mail + is + here 756
His mother vas nearby.
They're off.
Othersplace these sentences with forms of be in an entirely different
3 sentence pattern; however, in this writing swig newcomerswill be treated as another variant of Pattern One.
EXTENDINC SENTENCES
Sentences are expanded by adding modlfters, dependent clauses, and/ or duplicating structures withinthe pattern.Roberts calls this netlind 4 of extending sentences using slots. The individual actual, learns the syntactic structures of modification, predication, esimplementatims. coordination, and subordination and then forms sentences from any ems- bination of words that will logically fit into the sentence frame or pattern. Using these five syntactic structures, one can represent an infinite number of ideas and relationOhips through a finite vierof sentence patterns. The slot in this Pattern Ome sentence
sings. can be filled by almost any sibstantivewith the number of modifiers almost unlimited.
(D) + i + V + (Adv.)
The dog barks loudly.
(D) + + V The ( ) dog ( ) harks lewdly. brown and white that lives next door The brown and white dogthat lives next door harks Uwe,.
In the sentence above brown and white are united in a structureoff
Roberts. EngliSh Semtences. NewTort:Harcourt, lrace, ame World, Inc., 1962, p. 45.
4 rbid., p. 11. 257
coordination,brown and white andbecome a structure of modification as they modify dogs. Next we see a structure ofsubordination,that lives next door,being used as amodifier of the noun dog. The syntactic struc-
ture of predication occursin the clause that lives nextdoor and also
in the Kernel sentence Thebrown and white dog (thatlives next door)
barks.
PATTERN TWO
A second sentence pattern--perhaps the most common oneof all--
consists of a noun, a verb,and another noun used asthe object of the
verb.
N + V + N, or S + V + N. 1. Pattern two is represented as N + V+ N
Joe eats pie
with them to extend Verbs that have an adverbconstantly occurring
their meaning, as looked in,and came to, are considered aform or a
Pattern One verb.
The nurse looked in on Tommy.
Having lain on the floor anhour, the injured man came to.
The term Nelson Francis calls verbsof this type separableverbs.5
separable is perhaps best seenin a Pattern Two sentencethat shows
an object.
Pattern 2 The old woman took inlaundry.
The old woman tooklaundry in.
New York: 5Nelson Francis. The Structure of AmericanEnglish,. The Ronald Press, 1958, p.265-267. 258
2. Pattern Two may be extended, N + V + N + N, to include an
indirect object. Often the verb is a form of sive when indirect
objects are found in sentences.
(D) + N+ V + (D) +N+(D) + N
The man gave the boy some money.
3. The same grammatical representation as anindirect object,
N V + N + N, is used when a sentence contains anobjective
complement.
(D) + N + V + (D) + N + (D) + N
Theprincipal called that boy a genius.
The class elected Arthur president.
He considered me a fool.
In these sentences the nouns thatfollow the verb refer to the
same thing, i.e., boy -genius, Tom - president, me - fool.
In the case of A sentence with an indirectobject, the nouns
that follow the verb refer to differentthings.
4. Sometimes occurring in a sentence after anobject is an adjective,
as an objective complement. This is just another example of
the variety which may occur under PatternTwo.
Ne considered me foolish.
I thought Tom honest.
Sentences of this type are symbolicallyrepresented, N + V + N
+ Adj.
(D) + N+ V + (D) + N + Adj.
The man thought his son smart. 259
The components of Pattern Two may be extended to obtain variations.
Grammatical analysis shows that most of our sentences are extensions
and variations of Pattern One and Two.
N + V + N
I + want + a drink of water
Tom + studied + chemistry for his degree in science
The man in the store + brought + a package to exchange.
PATTERN THREE
In Pattern Three, N + V + PN, the noun that follows the verb re-
names the subject. The verb of Pattern Three is one of the forms of
be or a linking verb. This pattern establishes a unique relationship
between the two substantives. In the sentences below,clown and fool
are the same individual, Hary is the same person asthe speaker's
sister, and puppy and pet refer to the same animal.
(D) + V + (D) + PN
The clown seemed a fool.
Mary is EY sister.
The puppy was pet.
PATTERN FOUR
Pattern Four is similar to Pattern Three in that it too uses forms
of be or of linking veibs. The adjective which follows the verb modifies
the subject of the sentence.
(D) + N + V + PA
The lions appeared tame.
That rose is red.
Jill is pretty. 260
The kernel or basic sentences show all of the grammaticalrelation- ships of the language. The more complex sentences are derived from transformations of the kernel sentences.
By the time a child enters school, he is wellaware of the basic sentence structures and, even further, has learned to alter these pat- terns to express the meaning he desires.A child knows where to place each word in a sentence like "Jill plays with me." In other words, he can use the kernel sentences of the language. He can also change the same sentence to "Can Jill play with me?" because he knows the trans- formation to use in asking a question, and he easily fits wordsfnto the pattern which he needs to communicate his ideas. The development of his ability to use the common transformations easily and completely and to the more unusual ones when needed is basic to his growthin maturity in writing and in speaking.
Transformations that are used frequently andcan profitably be explored with young children are:
(1) Questions
(2) Passives
(3) Possessions
(4) Subordinate clauses 261
REFERENCES
Francis, W. Nelson. The Structure of American English. New York: The Ronald Press, 1958.
Fries, Charles C. The Structure of Imlish. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952.
Gleason, H. A. Jr. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1961. Revised Edition.
Hook, J. N. and E. G. Mathews.Modern American Grammar and UsaFe. New Yoric The Ronald Press Company, 1956.
Roberts, Paul. English Sentences. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1962.
Roberts, Paul. English yax. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and tkorld, Inc., 1964.
Stageberg, Norman C. An In!.,roductory, English Grammar. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967. USAGE AND DIALECT
Kindergarten and First Grade
EXPECTED READINESS
The child
uses language as it is used at home.
OBJECTIVES
The child
develops awareness of variations in usage.
recognizes usages different from his own.
understands that some habits of usage are not acceptable as standard.
choosei language in terms of his audience and situation.
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
I1. To develop awareness of variations in usage.
Example: Read to children Robert Louis Stevenson's "Time to Rise".
Call attention to the birdie's way of speaking("Ain't you 'Shamed")
and add that he probably knows what the standard English is; he's just having fun saying it this way.
Read the poem again and ask pupils to say with you the words the birdie spoke. Then ask them to say the words another way. Repeat the
standard usage several times.
!maple: Read to children "Three Little Kittens" by Eliza Lee
Follen. Lead children to dramatize the story. Call attention to
262 263
Insist that Mother Cat's manner ofspeaking, "You may have somepie." the person who playsthe part of Mother Catspeak as Mother Cat speaks.
Follow, later in the day, with a game1May I?"Talk with pupils about the word !nand howthis word is distinguishedfrom the word can.
"The Three Little Pigs." Example,: Read for enjoyment the story in the story, and After the reading callattention to certain statements Encourage the ask in what other waysthese might have been said. Summarize Children to express the statementsin every way they can. different words and word this discussion with theidea that people use
orders to say the samething.
12. To recognize usagesdifferent from his own.
children, Example: When I seen is a commonhabit of usage among the After the teaCher may readRachel Field's poem,"A Summer Morning." which made her reading the poem talk aboutthe things Miss Field saw
know that summer had come. back Example: Ask a child to go to thewindow to look, then come fall (or winter, or and tell something he sawwhich made him know it is have him begin spring). To gtve the childpractice in the use of saw,
as many sentences aspossible with "I saw...." another Example: Later in the day, or onthe following day, play
person's desk for a peep.When it is game. Each child selects another his own place and reports, his turn he peeps intothe desk, comes back to teaCher calls "I saw a in John's desk."As the game ends the her tell attention to the words seeand saw. Ask pupils to listen to
past tense. what she now sees on thetable or 411,01 as compared to Call attention to the "I see a book. I see a flower," etc.
viewed at the time fact that the word see isused to talk about things 264
of speech. (I see a red sweater). The word saw i used to refer to things seen at an earlier time. The looking or seeing is finished or past.
3. To understand that some habits of usage are not acceptable as standard.
Elample: To call attention to non-standard usage habits, such as,
"We haven't no ...," plan experiences demonstrating standard usage.
For example, arrange for another teacher to come to the room to borrow supplies; call attention to her use of "We have no supplies."Later, ask a pupil to go borrow something from another teacher.Enlist the aid of the class in helping him phrase the question he will ask.
Example: For the group of children whose usage habits are standard, read Christina G. Rosetti's "Who Has Seen the Wind?"After reading this poem, note the way Rosetti used inverted word order.In one place she said, "Neither I nor you," in another she said, "Neither you nor I."
Lead pupils to recognize the rhyming sounds. The inverted word order is necessary to maintain the rhyme scheme.
Example: Read selected Mother Goose thymes and call attention to
different ways of saying things in such lines as, Whose dog art thou?The north wind doth blow. Call attention to such word forms as
"art", "thou", and "doth". Explain that these very old forms of words are often used today in poetry. Aak pupils what words they would use instead of "Whose dog art thou?"
4. To Choose language in terms of audience and situation.
Example: Invite other classes to the room to see art work, pets, science experimentation, etc. Work together planning the invitations.
Emphasize the use of specific vocabulary; for example, use paintings or
Agin! rather than the more general term pictures. 265
the zoo. Example: The pupils andteacher plan a field trip to the Before they go, theywrite a letter(dictated to the teacher) to director to tell him whatthey want to see. They list questions they During the composi- would like to have answeredwhile they are there. importance of clarity in tion of the letter, theteacher emphasizes the such communicationsand use of standardlanguage. which pupils will need to usephrases Example: Plan experiences in
these by making a list onchart paper: of courtesy. Call attention to
Thank you. Please. Pardon me. References
Field, Rachel. "A Summer Morning,"in Miriam Blanton Huber, Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition. New York: Macmillan, 1965, p.122.
Follen, Eliza Lee. "The Three Little Kittens," in Miriam Blanton Huber, Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition. New York: Macmillan, 1965. p.8.
Rosetti, Christina G. "Who Has Seen the Wind," in Miriam Blanton Huber, Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition, New York: Macmillan, 1965, p.118.
Stevenson, Robert Louis. "Time to Rise," in Miriam Blanton Huber, Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition,New York: Macmillan, 1965, p.88.
"The Three Little Pigs," in Miriam Blanton Huber, Story and Verse for Children,Third Edition. New York:Macmillan, 1965, pp.260- 265. DUCE AND DIALECT
Second Grade
EXPECTE% READINESS
The Child
... usesinformal spOlen language as it is used at home.
.. shows someattempt to thaw language patterns if Oman vary from the laminasthool lamgmagn.
...has sow awareness of variatiom laimmunise usage.
OBJECTIVES
The child will
.recognize that lamguage usage varies.
...recognise that usage differsframable ma.
Otandool.. ...recognize that sone habits of usage aremot acceptable as
...Choose his own usage la ternsof Ma audiemce and tbe ammatImm.
LEARWDIG EXPERMICES
I1. TO recognize that language usagevaries.
Example; Read to tbe dhildrem nibs Walrusamd the Curpemlbee bp
Charles Lutwidge Dodgmon. After readimg amd ealwytag the imam a
whole, select passages to illustrateumususl une ef lamsame.
Children paraphrase these passages.
Example:Eead "The Fairile byVilnaAniagbas. Selmct cloica at passages for discussionof usage of unusual expressions or
267 268
words. Explain to children that in poetry, the writer often uses
lampaage in away different from the ordinary in order to achieve a
cart-Ala effect. Decide upon ways by which they would say these same
Ideas la regular conversation.Would we use "daren't", "sup", etc?
What terms would we use?
2. TO recognize that usage of others nay differ from his own.
biample: Record on tdpe the voices of people or cartoon Characters
ha children's television programs. Plan a listening period during which
Children listen for language usage different from their own (phono-
logical variations and morphological variations).
3-To recognize that some habits of usage are not acceptable as stamdard. (NOM The teaCher selects prevailing non-standard usage of her own group of children as samples rather than the samples listed here.) ,
!sample: Record on tape the Children's voices as they participate
te a sharing period, or some other conversation time.Later in the day,
talk with pupils about different ways of talking with different people.
For erAmple, the language used with friends is not always that used
with others. Listen to this statement made by one student:
"After school yesterday John came to my house.He and
Mamma to the movies."
Wits his statements on the board and comment on the acceptability of
the first sentence. Then point out that the second sentence needs some
amigos before he says it to anyone other than his family and close
friends. The standard way of saying this is "He and I went to the
mmiles." CROTE: In using selections of the children's own conversa-
tions always point out acceptable usage as well as the non-standard
usage you wish to correct. Acceptable usage canalways be found. 269
At least one vord orphrase conforms to standard usage:In "I seen him coming," three of the fourwords used are standard inform.) Write on Example: Provide other exercises forpupil practice. the board such statements asthis:
Mary and Sue went to thefair yesterday.
Then ask: If Sue were telling this,how would she say it?
4. To choose his own usage in termsof audience and the situation.
Example: Invite first graders,kindergarteners, and the principal
to your room to see yourscience experiments. Plan the way you will
talk about them to the smallchildren. Plan the way you will talk
about them to the principal.
Example: Write a letter to thelibrarian asking for books about a
certain subject studied in acurriculum area. Plan ways of phrasing
the letter so that shewill know what is needed.
Example: Plan an announcement to bemade to children of other
classrooms informing them of arope-jumping contest at recess and
inviting them to watch.
Have try-outs for beingappointed the announcer.Lead pupils to
establish criteria for selections. Criteria such as those below are
suggested:
1. Voice is clear and loud enough tobe heard.
2. The necessary information isgiven (place, date, time).
3. Wbrds used are suited to audience.
4. Standard forms of speech are used. 270
References
Allingham, Willis.. "The Fairies,"in Edna Johnsan, Evelyn R. Sickels, and Frances Clarke Sayers, Anthology of Children's Literature, Third Edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1959, p. 1004.
Dodgson, Charles L. "The Walrus and the Carpenter,"in Lillian Hollowell, A Book of Children's Literature, Third Edition, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. pp. 436-437.
iI
LI
]; USAGE AND DIALECT
Third Grade
IEXPECTED READINESS
The child
...is aware that language usagevaries. is used at home. uses informalspoken language as it standard. is aware that certain usagesof language are not
OBJECTIVES
The child will
...understand that usagevaries phonologically.
...understand that usagevaries morphologically.
understand that usagevaries as vocabularyvaries. audience and the situation. ...choose his own usagein terms of his
LEARNING EXPERIENCES
varies phonologically. I1. To understand that usage
stories told in dialectdifferent from Examole: Play recordings of Talk about the waythe speech sounds. that of the childrenin the class. pronunciation normal Identify words pronounceddifferently from the the effect that among thechildren in your class. Draw conclusions to that as a person pronounces pronunciation is a partof language usage,
his ownicky, orin the way he uses the soundsof the language in
established as standardwhere he lives. 272
Example: As a follow-up on thenext day, review discussion of phonological variation. Call attention to pronunciationsamong the group that are not in accord with the standard offhe speech community:
Some people havea habit of front-shifting the primarystress in such words as police, guitar,and insurance, so thatwe say po-lice, gui-tar, etc. Some people substitute /d/ for the /t/in then, there, etc.
Example: Make a chart to remind the childrento use the sounds of the language according to the standardpronunciation of the community.
Sample reminder chart (usepronunciation key familiar toyour group):
STANDARD PRONUNCIATION IN
(name of your town)
police - (
them - (
(Add words as sub-standardpronunciations are identified.)
2. To understand thatusage varies morphologically.
Example: Write the word kitten on the board andask one or two pupils to use it ina sentence. Write sentences on the board.
I have a little gray kitten.
my kitten is yellow.
Now ask who has more thanone kitten. Write on the board as pupils respond:
Billy has three kittens.
Judy has two Persian kittens
Dick has five kittens at his Grandmothers.
Jackie's aunt hassome kittens. 273
Call pupils' attention tothe form of the word kitten asthey use it.
In which sentence wasonly one of these animals talkedabout? Which the sentencetells about more than oneof these animals? Note that three, or five, or same word, kittens(kitten + s) is used to refer to a hundred, or some. Lead the pupils to generalizeabout the method of making the plural form of aname-word, adding s to the rootword.
their kittens like to do. Example: Ask pupils to tell some things
As pupils respond writetheir statements on the board:
My kitten likes to drinkmilk.
My kittens like to playwith a ball..
Our kittens play witheach other.
My kitten sleeps allthe time.
Now call attention tothe form of the actionwords, or verbs, as Conclude by dis- Children use them withsingular or plural sibjects.
cussing the use of formsof words that agree witheach other.A singular form of the singular subject (one thingtalked About) needs the
action word (verb). Aplural subject (more than onethimg talked About)
needs the plural form of theaction word (verb).
ExaaTiv Ask pupils to readthe sentences on a mimeographedwork
Underlime it. sheet to find the subject,the thing being talked About. Under- Choose the form of the actionword that agrees with thesubject. form of line it. Remember that a singularsubject needs the singular
the action word. Aplural subject needs the pluralform of the scam
word. Work out one or two sampleproblems with pupils:
Monkeys (play, plays) in trees.
My (stand, stands) on his bindlegs.
Bees (mike, makes)honey. 274
Example,: Read to pupils "The Eel" by Ogden Nash. Find an illus- tration of substandard usage. Ask them what verb form wouldhave been used if Mr. Nash had used standardlanguage. Discuss possible reasons why Mr. Nash chose this form.
...1Emple: One child begins a statement by giving asubject, another supplies an action word and completes the statement.Everyone listens to see whether or not the formof the action word agrees with thefora of the subject word. The teacher gives a few samples tobegin the game:
Dogs eat bones.
A rabbit likes carrots.
To understand that usage varies asvocabulary varies.
Example: Ask children to compare the vocabularyused in the Mother
Goose Rhyme, "Jack and Jill" with thevocabulary they would use:
Jack and Jill went up the hill,
To fetch a pail of water;
Jack fell down, and broke his crown,
And Jill came tumbling after.
Explain that fetch is an old wordseldom used today. What word is now used instead of this?What does the writer mean by"broke his crown"?
What is another phrase which says the samething?
Read "Snow White and the SevenDwarfs". After enjoying
the story together, call attention tocertain vocabulary variations:
Tell me, glass, tell me true!
Of all the ladies in the land,
Who is fairest?Tell me, who? 275
Thou, queen,may'st fair and
beauteous be,
But Snow Whiteis lovelier far
than thee!
glass?, fairest?,thou?, May'st? What other wordsmight be used for
"Everything was spruce andneat in thecottage".
or choice oflanguage to formalityof Ekample: Discuss the relation would you probably say: a situation. When and to whom
We got something toeat at the restaurant.
We ate dinner atthe restaurant.
We dined at therestaurant.
I'm dog-tired.
I'm really tired.
I am very muchfatigued.
note to afriend; "We are having a Example: A person may write a night and would likefor you to party for TomBrown at 8:00 Saturday
come." formal invitation issent: For a differentkind of party a pleasure of your companyat a Mr. and Mrs. RalphJones requests the
reception honoring Mr.Thomas A. Brown. 8:00 P. M. Athens Country Club June 17, 1967 Athens, Georgia should be made available (Samples of informal andformal invitations with the understanding for pupilexamination). Conclude the discussions his speaking orwriting in that a person choosesthe words to use in audience, and (3) thesituation. terms of (1) hisidea, (2) his
[
11.1L 276
References
"Jack and Jill" in Mirian Blanton Huber,Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition. New York:Macmillan Company, 1965, p.320.
Nash, Ogden. "The Eel,"in Edna Johnson, Evelyn R.Sickles, and Frances Clarke Sayers, Anthology ofChildren's Literature, Third Edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1959. p. 62.
"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs"in Edgar Taylor, Grimm'sPopular Stories. Lmcluded in Miriam Blanton Huber,Story and Verse for Children, Third Edition. New York:Macmillan and Company, 1965, p. 281. USAGE
Speech is recognized as the most important means of communication known to man; communication through speech, moreover, is a conveyance not only of ideas but also of self. It is the importance of speech in conveying impressions and establishing relationshipsbetween people that has brought about the English teacher's concern with the areaof taste in language, or usage, as well as with the structureof the langu- age, or grammar. It cannot be denied that this is an important partof the child's language education; however, it is necessaryfor both student and teacher to remember (1) that usage is not grammarand should not be allowed to over-shadow an examination of the system that wakes grammar communicate even when individual or textbook tasteis violated (2) that usage involves choice, or taste, and(3) that audience and situation should be considered when choices are made. It is as ifiappropriate for a football coach to shout to his team,"Impede them!
Impede them! Throw obstacles in their way!" as it is for a minister to say "Hit ain't" to a well-educatedcongregation. With this in mind, it may be well to re-examine the area of language usage.
Usage may be defined as the sum of all choicesoffered within the language system. Although grammar are separate segments of 278 language study, the traditional grammarian does not always make this distinction clear. For example, the traditional grammarian has treated ain't as "incorrect:" or "bad English." However, because ain't fits the grammatical system of the language, a better explanation might be:
"Ain't is a form not accepted by polite society." The judgment concern- ing ain't is not one of grammatical correctness or incorrectness, but one of taste. Since usage is usually treated in the classroom in the manner of the traditional grammarian, it is wise to remember that his judgments are based upon the language of the standard-setting group of speakers. The particular choices which are offered by usage handbooks are but a segment of the available alternatives in the language.
Since every speaker makes choices in every utterance, the first step in studying usage is examination of the kinds of choices involved in an utterance. The language offers a speaker alternatives at every level of the hierarchy of the language system: phonology, morphology, syntax, and sentence patterns. In addition, the speaker may draw from the entire word-stock of the language and from the various meanings attached to each word.
To indicate the kinds of choices involved in an utterance, this sentence and some possible variations of it are offered as examples.
You girlsshould leave those pocketbookswith me while youare swimming.
The finalsound in swimming may be[1] as in "win", or[n] (a) U
as in "Iwilti." A speaker who habitually uses[n], orthe
final sound of win; will read the word swimming.with that
sound. This choice betweenEn] and [5] is one of many
possible choices in pronunciation (phonology) which a speaker
may make in this sentence. 279
(b) Different speakers may substitute you all, v'alllet
folks, or youse for you girls. This is a Choice of mmogissamgy..
(c) rifferent speakers may say them, those, dam, or dose leffmme
pocketbooks. This is also a matter of morphological Imaistilon.
(d) The phrase should leave may be replaced by ought to 311MMEID
had ought to leave, had better leaveetc., thus awe**
the syntactic pattern somewhat.
(e) The sentence pattern may be varied slightly ',junking a
command: "Leave those pocketbooks with se 'dale Imam
swimming."
(f) Same speakers may prefer bathiss to swimming. This Ismodhadke
of vocabulary or word-stock.
(g) Various words, such as purses, handbags, bags, magic salmi
tuted for pocketbooks.This is a choice of mocilmaary, ar
lexical item.
In addition to tha kinds of choices illustrated above, doe smadhar--
listener relationship involves semantic tmterpretmtiom of thrum&
used. Thus the word pocketbook could involve mot only dawn:las
alternattves suggested in (g), but also words which indicate eat pocketbook has been Interpreted as paperback book. The swans
involved in choice of meaning, or choosimg fromamocdrs semmatic
is dependent upon the experience of both speaker amdlistener mod the
context in which the word is used. A listenerwho is able tome the
articles in question automatically knows what pocketbooks meams
one who cannot see the pocketbaikswill make the semantic Istasimmtm-
tion which his experience suggests.
The variatioos of the sample sentence offered above axeZINISBalllibia
as differences in the speeCh of peoplebelongimg to different social 280
language classes and differentregions of the country. For, although the
speakers, these alternatives offers multitudinous alternativesto its to geographic temi to be grouped into usagesets which correspond These sets divisions of an area and tosocial class stratification.
dialects, appear in every of usages, kaown asgeographic and social drawn from language. Each kind of dialecthas characteristic items hierarchy, as well as acharacter- every level ofthe language-system
istic word-stock and someunique semantic concepts.
Geographic dialect, or thecomposite of usages which areregional
speaker's is nature, is thefirst kind of dialectwhich determines a associated natural usage. The most obvious ofthe speech differences They fall into with geographic dialect arethose of pronunciation. differences of phonemic three categories: allophonic variations,
inventory, and differencesin phonemicdistribution.' and the word greasy, The New Englander's useof[s],as in kiss, in zero, in the same compared with theSoutherner useof[z], as between two dialects. mord, illustrated anallophonic difference when the NewYorker's pronun- Another allophonicvariation is evident The ciation of tree andthr.te is comparedwith the Southerner's. tongue) in three to former uses a dental stop(made with teeth and tongue and hard gumridge) in contrast with thealveolar /t/ (made with uses[9:1(which is the initial sound in thanks) in tree; the latter
three to contrastwith the alveolar/t/ in tree.2 in thanks and those The absence of[0] and[i],the initial sounds
An Intvoduction,New INF. Nelson Francis, The EnglishLanguage: 227-228. York: W. W. Norton andCo., Inc., 1965, pp.
2Ibid., p. 227. 281 respectively, in the speech ofuneducated Jamaicans and the absence of
[x] (the palatal sound preeent in Old English ich and GermanBach) from American English illustratedialectal differences in phonemic inventory, or in total number ofphonemes.
Finally, variations in the distributionof phonemes in different dialects, or the use of differentphonemes in the same word, appear in such pairs as:
tomato: /tams: to:/, and /tame: to:/
house: /haws/ and /haews/
Differences in morphology, syntax, and patterns,although fre-
quently not as obvious as pronunciationdifferences, do play a part in
regional dialects. For example, morphological contrasts occur inthe
second person plural pronoun: in! or youpeople, for educated North-
erners, youse, for someuneducated Northerners; you all, y'all, and
you folks, for mostSoutherners. Typical syntactic variations are
"hadn't ought" in Northern speech, "finally atlast" in North Carolina
speech, or "he don't" in some partsof the South. Variations in
sentence patterns may beillustrated by such samples as theSoutherner's
"I just love going shopping" in contrast withthe Northerner's omission
of just, or the Northerner's frequentaddition of "You know" to an
utterance. One variation of sentence pattern is inthis sentence heard
in Georgia: "Did I ever have a good time!"
Differences in lexical items among dialects provide the student
of dialect with helpful information forestablishing dialect boundaries.
For example, in different areasof the country the same cooking utensil
may be called a skillet, afrying pan, a spider, a creeper, or afry
pan. These are regional words which areexpressions of the particular
cultural phenomena of an area. Hence, the Southern honorific"Colonel"; 282 the Western "tall talk" words, such as rambunctiouscahoots, and horn- swoggle; and the Louisiana Creole words are an integral part ofdialect.3
Just as language is divided into geographic dialects, it is also divided into social dialects. Thus a professor, a salesman, and a mill hand in the same town will have differences in their speech other than those of regional dialect. These are differences in speech which correspond to the social hierarchy of an area. Those features associated with lower class speakers are considered vulgar by speakers higher on the social ladder, while speakers of the lower class may consider the speech of upper class speakers prissy or snobbish.Charles Barber, in his book Linguistic Change in Present kg. English, says, "If by some historical accident the vowel sounds of the Cockney and the Eton boy had been distributed the other way round, we sh-lld still have found the speech of the Cockney 'vulgar' and the speech of the Eton boy
'posh'."4
In American speech, there are three social dialects, or social levels of usage: vulgate, or folk speech; popular, or colloquial speech; and formal speech. At the bottom of the social dialect hierarchy is folk speeth, or vulgate English, which is the natural usage of those people who are not heavily dependent upon language for a livelihood.
Some solecisms, such as the double negative, are common to such speakers throughout the country. Nevertheless, because most of the characteristic features of folk speech are regional, it is considered the most insular of the social dialects. An example of folk speech is this statement:
3Formore complete discussion, see Thomas Pyles,Words and Ways of American English, New York: Random House, Inc., 1952.
4Charles Barber, Linguistic Change in PresentpaEnglish, University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1964, p. 17. 283
"You oughea could use better Englibh.You're as good as any next feller." Often heard are "He don't" and "I've drank," and "between you and I."
The natural language of the middle group of the population is colloquial5 speech; this is also the language of informalor intimate conversation among educated speakers. Control of technical vocabulary is a characteristic of speakers of this level. However, colloquial speakers are frequently unsure or indifferent in such matters as choosing pronoun case or making the distinctions between like and as.
Ain't appears in colloquial speech, and contractions such as hadn't, should've, etc., have a high occurence. "Who did you give it to?" and
"He hasn't got any" are examples of colloquial speech.
At the top of the social dialect hierarchy is formal speech, or the "King's English," which is the language used by cultured, educated speakers when they are being careful about their speech.Formal English is characterized by precision in its grammar and vocabulary.The finer distinctions of usage, such as the semantic distinctions of shall and will, or may and can, or the requirement of English idiom that one "agree to" a proposal and "agree with" a person, are adhered to by speakers of formal English. Formal English is more economical and restrained than the language of the other two levels. "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for yourcountry"6 is an illustration of formal English.
5Colloquial (L. coz. 'with and loqui 'to taIk') is used in this paper to mean'conversational% this is the sense of the word as it is used in most usage handbooks.
6John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, 1960. 284
Because it is the social dialect of prestige, speakers who are
desirous either to reach or affect higher social status usually find
it necessary to gain some control of formal English. Many people learn
to handle formal English from formal education, wbile others learn this
social dialect by imitating speakers who use formal English.However,
there are people wbo attempt to use formal speech without grasping the
flavor of the prestige dialect; the resulting usage is usually so
inappropriate and ineffective that it does not communicate.Redundancy
and verbosity (not precision, economy, and restraint) characterize this speech; it is known as hyper-urbanism. An illustration of hyper- urbanism is this announcement made by a Principal to his student body:
"Because of inclement weather the athletic events scheduled for September8
will be discontinued." He meant, of course, that there would be no
football practice that afternoon because of rain; his announcement would have been much clearer if he had not attempted to make it sound "high-
flown."
In addition to his geographic and social dialects, a speaker has
functional varieties, or styles, of language with which he may suit his speech to different situations and audiences. Francis has identified
five styles of language, which he has divided into two groups: discursive
and non-discursive. Three styles are discursive, i.e., conversational;
these are called consultative, casual, and intimate. Two styles, because they do not allow audience interruption, are non-discursive;
these are known as frozen andforma1.7
The consultative, used for opening conversation with strangers or
for serious discussions in small groups, is the central style. This is
7Francis,ap. cit., pp. 253-261. 285 inoffensive because it is neither too intimate nor tooformal; speakers use this style to"feel out" new people or situations. For example, in
Shakespeare's Richard III when Cstesby, as part of a plot to putRichard on the throne, attempts todiscover whether Hastings will he a party to their plot or will remain loyal to the rightful heir,he uses the consul- tative to address Hastings:
It is a reeling world indeed, my lord, And I believe 'twill never stand cpright Till Richard wear the garland of the realm (Act III, Scene ii).
A somewhat different situation in which theconsultattwe is used may be illustrated by the following:
Ralph Burroughs settled himself into the seat beside a well dressed man, apparently a businessman like himself. As he tilted the seat slightly back be remarkedto the stranger, "I'm tired. I went to the polls at seven this morning to vote before Ileft home."
"So did I," responded the stranger.
Burroughs continued, "I wanted to be sure my vote was counted for AlfredLivingston. He'smy man for governor."
"I wanted nine counted, too," the stranger replied, but Burroughs sensed a tenseness in his voice.
"Of course, Robert Inge has a good platform, too. I guess we'll just have to wait for theresults."
The casual style is more informal than the consultattwe;it i
the style appropriate to easy conversation amongfriends. Slang, jargon,
and profanity may be introduced into the casualstyle. Expressions such
as nice, cute thingamajig, you know, and as a matter of fact inter-
lace conversation in the casual style. The American "local color"
were quite adept atpresenting the casual style of speech. An
example of casual style follows: 286
There's no way of telling what a fellow will do when he gets excited. I remember the time Bill Archer's house burned. The thing was almost gone when he waked up, but he grabbed something to save. When he got out- side and looked at what he had, there waa an empty suitcase in one hand and a pitcher of milk in the other. "Why in tarnation--," he exclaimed in disgust. "I'm not going nowhere and I'm not hungry!"
The intimate style of speech is used by people in very close rela- tionships. Much of communication within the intimate style is carried on by means other than linguistic, such as a raised eyebrow or a shrug of the shoulder. In the intimate style utterances are usually short and words may have special meanings derived from shared experiences.
Intonation is usually the chief means of indicating intimacy and shared experiences and ideas.
The other two styles, i.e. formal and frozen, are non-discursive.
The formal style, as distinct from formal social dialect, is the style of speech used for expository discourse. The speaker is concerned with the presentation of an idea in precise language and in a logical order which serves his purpose.
The last functional variety, or frozen style, is primarily the style of literature:
A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen, philosophers, and divines.8
When a speaker is engaged in conversation he easily changes his styles as often as situations and audiences change. For example, in a group situation a speaker may use different styles when answering different members of the group; he may also use different styles for different subjects of conversation, as may be recognized by anyone who
8Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Self-Reliance," in American Poetry and Prose, ed. Norman Foerster and Robert Falk. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1960, p. 333. 287 has overheard two women movefrom a discussion of "the worldsituation" to a discussionof their children'sactivities.
However, because of theformal nature of situations whichrequire a speaker to use anon-discursive style, this style-to-stylemovement
style is elimi- does not usually occur. The possibility of change of nated by the speaker'spreplanning his speech and by hisseparation
from audience reply.
A speaker learns muchabout certain areas of usagethrough the
socializing process; by early teensthe child can usuallyhandle the
three conversational styles, aswell as the geographic andsocial
dialects of his environment.However, to be linguisticallycompetent,
and with propriety four a speaker mustbe able to use appropriately dialects. styles and, depending upon hisbackground, two or three social flexibly, so In other words, a competentspeaker nust use the language Because that his usage can besuited to all situations andaudiences.
relatively few speakerslearn formal speech natively orhave sufficient
opportunity at hose to acquireskill in handling non-discursivestyles,
concentrated on these are the alternativeswhich the educational system the kind of usage adding to his usage. Nevertheless, simply teaching the goal of which is acceptable in"polite society" is not enough; develop flexibility teaching usage should bethat of helping the child to
in his language usagewhich is based on a senseof appropriateness.
Correct usage is, afterall, appropriate usage,just as correct dress is vulgate English when appropriate dress. It is just as incorrect to use
addressing a seminar group as to wearshorts and sneakers to the opera;
playing a football likewise, a boy using formalspeech in the midst of
inappropriate as wearing hisSunday game is choosing aform of speech as
suit in the sane game. DIALECT
1. The meaning of the term dialect.
The term dialect refers to the speech peculiar to a particular
group of pgtople who, through a period of time, have been in constant
communication with each other and have developed language habits common
among themselves. Such a group is called a speech community. Any
group (a family group, a boys club, a professional group, etc.) may
become a speech community as members of that group use certain words which have special meaning for themselves.
Larger speech communities, the people who live in certain geo-
graphic areas and who communicate more frequently with others within
their own area than with people from other areas, are said to have re-
gional dialects. Scientific study of the speech in a geographic area
is called dialect geography, linguistic geography, or area linguistics.
The person who makes such a study is called a dialect geographer, a
linguistic geographer, or a dialectologist.
When linguistic geographers use the term dialect they are not
referring to substandard speech. They mean a variety of speech found in
a certain region which differs to some extent in pronunciation, in
vocabulary and/or in grammar from speech in other regions.
2. Reasons for differences among dialects within the United States.
The early settlers in what was to become the United States con-
tinued to speak the varying dialects of their home towns or villages in
288 289
beginning, varied speechhabits the British Isles. Thus, at the very
the settlementslocated along existed in America. During Colonial days Little communica- the Atlantic were atgreat distancesfrom each other. colony and those ofanother. tion occurred betweenthe people of one
Dialect differencescontinued. there was little move- Before the middleof the eighteenth century
the Blue Ridge Mountainsto any ment inland. Settlers did not cross These Scots, extent until thegreat migrationof the Ulster Scots. traveled westward untilthey crossing the mountainsin Pennsylvania, Later they reached French outposts,then they turnedsouthwestward. River, some continuingsouth- divided, some goingwestward to the Ohio recrossed the westward to the TennesseeRiver Valley. A third group foothills into theliedmont Blue Ridge and continuedalong the eastern This new grouphad a different sections of theCarolinas and Georgia. However, as theScots' com- dialect from thesettlers along the coast. people of the Coastal area munities grew, someof them began to contact of the area, Richmond,Charleston, and began to adoptwords from the cities
of the SouthernMidland group hadbeen and Savannah. Thus the dialect tidewater area. influenced by the speechof the southeast
influences dialectdistribution. The physical geographyof a country blocking travel alsoblock the Marshes, deserts, andmountain ranges in and rivers becometravel spread of speech habits,while mountain passes for the spread andoverlapping of routes and, thus,provide opportunities
in American historyfollowed favorable dialects. The vestern movement the spread ofdialects from geographic routes. This resulted in Michigan, from theMidland areas Pennsylvania to Ohio,from New York to Most of the westernfrontier up theMississippi to northernlands. the South Midlandregions; thus settlers came from theinland North and 290 the speech of those two areas was carried to the new settlements and interfused as dialect groups settled down together.
Few people from eastern New England, the North Midland area, or the
South proper migrated to the west.New England held her population be- cause of her flourishing sea trade. For the most part, people of the
South, traditionally plantation people with such crops as rice, cotton, and tobacco and with slavery as a source of labor, remained in the South.
Much of the new territory was closed to slavery, and little of the land was suited to plantation crops. Occasionally a southern planter moved to the new lands in the Gulf area, into the black belt of Alabama, or into the bluegrass region of Kentucky. Although comparatively few peo- ple from the South and from New England migrated west, their dialects had some influence on the speech of settlers there. The few legrants from the Old South, owners of new plantations, were influential and their speech was emulated in the areas in which they settled. At the same time, in many other areas of the Middle West, local schools were being modeled after the New England Academy and New England school teachers were brought in. Thus, New England dialect, often encouraged by the teachers, became "proper talk" for many of the educated Middle Westerners.
Soon after the frontier settlements in the Middle West were made by migrations from older states, there came an influx of foreigners to these new lands. At first most of these settlers were German, later Scandi- navians came, and still later Slays and Finns. Each group brought its own language.
The extension of migration from the Great Plains into the Rocky
Mountainarea resulted in the crossing of Yankee and South Midland groups. When these English-speaking settlers arrived in the Rocky 291
partly Spinet& Mountain area they found aSouthwestern Spanish culture,
American and partlyHispanicized Indian, withits own distimettimesame(h. emigrants from Settlements in the PacificCoastal area were as& by
farmed in other states as the OregonTrail was opemed and as gold was
Armemiams indgrated early tm California. Chinese, Filipinos, and
California and brought their ownlanguages.
effludualWiangimas The non-English languageshaving the most lasting
(the Penmsylimmla of the United States arethe German in Pennsylvania hronglitIss slam= Dutch), French in Louisiana,and tbe African Languages Penosylumela temamm. the to the South Carolinaand Georgia coastal area. dying lamguage. ihmr- oldest surviving foreignlanguage colony, is mow di vocabulary to Amertemalheithdh. ever, it hascontributed many items of
French settlements in NorthAmerica are as old as theNagillia
settlements, but French, too,is a dying language tathis cuumtre. alms ere French is found only inafewisolated Missouri villages
Mississippi and insouthwestern Louisiama. In Louisimmaitsnestmes
only as a folk dialect.An tramsportatioa,education,wad indhstriall they Uwe beammre employment have been providedfor this group of people
literate in English ratherthan in Fremch. alum fame Dialect distribution in theUnited States has resulted from migrations tom awe changes within ageographic area,as well as griming Is popautima geographic area to another. The :hated States, Indmondad. =memo wealthy in resources, has seensociological change.
for the wolicing clamail have developed. The trend from farm ro tom moving from urban tonolwadban the growing trend inthe prestige group's
areas is causing acurrent shiftingof dialect growps.
of sclundiss fair With the current trend ofincreasing the years 292
American young people, extending public education down to pre-kindergar-
ten level and upward through junior college level, there is a likelihood
that education will erase even more of the variations in dialects.Mass
communications media, too, are making a difference. Speech models not
typical of a speech community lre brought into it via radio and tele- vision.
3. Kinds of Dialectal Differences
Linguistics geography reveals three kinds of dialectal differ-
ences: differences in pronunciation, differences in vocabulary, and
differences in grammar.
Differences in pronunciation are of two types, systematic and
individual. Asystematic difference is one that affects in a common may a whole group of words. An example is this: the sound of r is con- sistently lost except before vowels in eastern New England speech. In
the same region the sound of r is often added between two vowel sounds,
as in "the idear of it." This speech variation is found in the South
and in New York city also. Individual differences affect only a single word or a group of closely related words. The verb srease and the adjec-
tive greasy are examples. Southerners pronounce these with a z sound, while Northerners use the s sound.
Differences in vocabulary are the easiest to identify.The groups of words below are examples of the many names of the same thing, as they are used in different regions of the United States:
(1) Creek, stream, brook, run, branch, fork, prong, gulf,
binnekill, binacle, rivulet, riverlet, gutter, kill,
bayou, burn
(2) seesaw, teetering-board, teeter-totter, dandle, tilt, 293
tilts, ridy-horse, hicky-horse, teeter horse, see-horse,
tiltams
(3) peanuts, ground peas, goobers, grubies, pinders,ground
nuts, grounuts,ground almonds.
Differences in grammar are found. Most Northern speakers use the word dove as the past tense of dive, while mostSoutherners use the word dived. "Two miles is all the farther I can go" is used in some
Atlantic Seaboard regions and in the North Central Statesof Wisconsin,
Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio.New Englanders and many Southerners use"as far as."
4. Dialect areas in the United States
Linguistic geographers identify and chart dialect areas asthey are studied. The reported studies include Northern, Midland, andSouth- ern, with Midland being divided intoNorth Midland and South Midland.
Other dialect areas, less clearly set off, have been found inthe North-
ern Plains, the San FranciscoBay area, and in parts of the Rockies.
The projects of the Linguistic Atlas of the United States andCanada
have resulted in a fairly detailed study of abouttwo-thirds of the United
States.
5. Dialect in Literature
Dialect has been used in literature for a long time. It was
used in ancient Greece. Chaucer and Shakespeare used it in England as
a way to say subtle thingsabout their characters and to identify a
character as belonging to a certain social class or to acertain geo-
graphic area. Writers in the United States (Mark Twain,Joel Chandler
Harris, and James Russell Lowell, for example) haveused dialect to
bring out contrasts among characters or to addcolor. 294
There are problems in writing in dialect. Writing can only suggest the variety and complexity of oral communications.The writer of dialect seeks the best way to represent the differences which will make a character distinctive. Joel Chandler Harris, in writing the
Uncle Remus stories, used phonetic devices to portray the Negro dialect.
He used d for th in the, that, them, and whether, and f for th in words like mouth and tooth. He wrote before as befo', surely as sholy, and poor as Rce. He invented terminology for Uncle Remus, words like rekemember and phrases such as "es ca'm es a dead pig in de sunshine."
A common kind of imitation speech, known as "eye dialect," is found in comics and other inaccurate representations of American English dialects. This is the respelling of ordinary words to suggest a non- standard pronunciation. This is a false representation, however, be- cause spelling such words as says, women and was as sez,wimmin and wuz is recording the actual sounds of these words as they are pronounced in standard English.
Dialect writing involves another problem. Each writer himself speaks some regional dialect, and those characters of his who speak his own dialect will not be portrayed asvarying in their speech. For example, a Southern writer will spell his own pronunciation of I and
with these standard spellings, but a Northern or Midlandwriter por-
traying a Southerner's dialect would likely spell these words asah and mah. Resource Materials for Teaching andLearning
A. Books for the teacher
Allen, Harold B., ed. "Linguistic Geography,"Readings,in Applied English Ilspistics. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1958.
Anderson, Wallace L. and Norman G. Stageberg,eds. "Linguistic Geography," Introductory Readings on Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,1962.
Atwood, E. Bagby. A Survey of Verb Forms in the EasternUnited States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1953.
Barber, Charles. Linguistic _Clamp_ in Present Ela English. University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1964.
Bloomfield, Leonard. "Dialect Geography," Languag New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1933.
Francis, W. Nelson. The Structure of American English. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1958.
Fries, Charles C. American English Grammar. New York: Appleton - Century -Crofts, Inc.,
Gleason, H. A., Jr. "Variations in Speech,"An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics, Rev. Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1961.
Greenough, James B. and George L. Kittredge.Words and Their Ways in English Speech. New York: Macmillan Company, 1961.
Hall, Robert A., Jr. Leave Your Language Alone: Ithaca, New York: Linguistica, 1950.
Kurath, Hans. "Linguistic Geography: Atlantic Seaboard" in English AsLanguage by Charlton Laird andRobert M. Correll, eds. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World,Inc., (Harbrace SourceRooks).
Malmstrom, Jean.Language in Society. New York: Hayden Book Company, Inc., 1965.
Malmstrom, Jean and Annabel Ashley. Dialects, U. S. A. Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers ofEnglish, 1963.
295 296
McDavid, Raven I., Jr. "The Dialects of American English,"in The Structure of American English by W. N. Francis. New York: Ronald Press Company, 1958.
Mencken, H. L. "The Common Speech," The American Language, An ingulainto the Development of English in the United States, Fourth Edition, New York:Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1936.
Pooley, Robert C. Teaching English Usage. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 1946.
Pyles, Thomas. Words and Ways of American English. New York: Random House, Inc., 1952.
Reed, Carroll E. American Dialects. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1958.
B. Selections for children
1. Stories
Bontemps, Arna. Lonesome Box(Negro, Modern)
Bowman, James Cloyd. Pecos Bill: The Greatest Cowboy of All Time (Western)
Burch, Robert. Skinny (Georgia)
Burch, Robert. Tyler, Wilkin and Skee (Georgia)
Credle, Ellis. "A Tall Tale from the High Hills." Story Parade, XI: 4 (Blue Ridge Mountains)
Field, Rachel. Calico Bush (New England, sea)
Gipson, Fred. Old Yeller (Southwest, Texas)
Harris, Joel Chandler. Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings (Negro Folk Language)
James, Will. Sunup: Tales of the Cow Camps (Western)
Justus, May. The Other Side of the Mountain (Tennessee Mountains)
Krumgold, Joseph. and Now Miguel (Mexican American)
Lampman, Evelyn Sibley. Half-Breed (Indian American)
Lenski, Lois. Cotton in Mr_ Sack (Southern)
Longstreet, Augustus. Georgia Scenes (Southern) DEPARTmENT OF 114EAt. TH. EGUCATiON A40 (WELFARE rE6000(Iffy. 9-66) ERIC ACCESSION NO. ERICREPORT RESUME
CLEARINGHOUSE IS DOCUME011 COPYRIGHTED/ YES 0 NO0 ACCESSION NUMBER RESUME DATE p.A, T.A. 06 -30-68 . ERKREPROOVCTIO4 RELEASE' VES Ga ..00
Tri-LE Materialsfor a Curriculum in Written Couposition, K-6
Book Three,A Curriculum in Written Composition K-3
PERSONAL AuTHOR(5) English Curriculum Study Center SOURCE CODE INSTITUTION (SOURCE) , College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 3060 0 REPORT/SERIES NO. ECSC 3 10 SOURCEcccE.i. OTHER SOURCE 20 none OTHER REPORT NO. 30 SOURCE COGE OTHER SOURCE 0 none 50 OTHER REpoRT NO. 0 PUWL. DATE 06-30 - 681coNTRACT/GRANTNuo/BER HE 078, Contract OE 4-10-017 PAGINATION. ETC. i .
00' 01 250 pp. RETRIEVAL TERMS 00 English Curriculum Study Center 01 Materials for a Curriculum in Written Composition, K-6 02 Twenty Documents 03 04
05 ,, 06 - I IDENTIFIERS 07 Project No. RE 078, Contract OE 4-10-017 ABSTR AC T 00 ECSC 3. Book Three,ACurriculum in Wtitten Composition, K-3, ideutifles 01 concepts and skillsand presents illustrative learning experiencesdesigned 02 to develop those conceptsand skills needed for effective writingin 003 kindergarten throughgrade three. Grade level designations are givenmore p04 to indicate sequencethan to assign a body of material to any particular 805 group of children. Background language experiences of individualsor groups of children and theirday-to-day verbal needs are the determiningfactors 07 for the selections ofany ccapouent of the materials. 08 09 10 , 11 12 13 14 815 16 817 818 819 820 821 822 --1. 297
McCloskey, Robert. Burt Dow Deep-Water Man: A Tale of the Sea in the Classic Tradition (Sea)
Meyer, Franklyn E. Me and Caleb (Missouri - -Ozark Mountains)
Rawlings, Marjorie Kinnan. The Yearling (Southern, Florida)
Schaefer, Jack. Mavericks (West)
Singmaster, Elsie. "The Belsnickel" (Pennsylvania Dutch)
Turkle, Brinton. The Fiddler of High Lonesome (Southern Mountains)
Twain, Mark. Tom Sawyer Huckleberry Finn (Southern, Mississippi River)
Van Druten, John. I Remember Mama (San Francisco, Norwegian)
2. Poems
Benet, Stephen Vincent. "The Mountain Vhippoorwill" (Southern Georgia)--Lines 1-32, read by teacher to pupils
Field, Eugene. "Seein' Things" "Little Orphant Annie" (Midwest)
Garland, Hamlin. "Horses Chawin' Hay" (Midwest)
Lomax, John A. and Alan Lomax. American Ballads and Folk Songs (American Folk Language)
Lowell, James Russell. "The Courtin" from The Bigelow Papers Second Series (New England)
Riley, James Whitcomb. "When the Frost Is on the Pumpkin" (Indiana)
Whittier, John Greenleaf. "Skipper Ireson's Ride" (New England)