ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • 97-115 Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey

Koray GÜLER1, Yegân KÂHYA2 1 [email protected] • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Istanbul, Turkey 2 [email protected] • Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Received: March 2018 • Final Acceptance: February 2019

Abstract Following the industrial revolution, abandonment and decrease of population in rural areas are common problems that can be faced all around the world, as a result of various factors. As a consequence of implemented policies and radical changes in social life, nowadays large number of rural settlements in Turkey are also in the process of abandonment. However, many of these abandoned rural settlements have invaluable vernacular assets that bear the traces of past rural life and comprise the spirit of these cultural landscape areas. Although rural heritage in depopulated settlements have melted against the natural conditions by time, some settlements succeed to preserve their authenticity and integrity to a certain extent. On the other hand in some , which are more crowded and close to the city centers, authenticity and integrity values of traditional architectural heritage has been destroyed by human beings as a result of new construction pres- sures. This situation accompanies a big dilemma about conservation of tradition- al architectural heritage. This article aims to discuss reasons of depopulation in countryside, impacts of abandonment, pros and cons of re-evaluation alternatives for rural settlements and to develop proposals not only for preservation of rural architectural heritage in rural regions of Turkey, but also for revitalization and sustainability of livelihoods in there.

Keywords Abandoned Rural Settlements, Rural Depopulation, Rural Architectural Heritage, doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2019.48991 doi: Rural Landscape, Cultural Landscape 98

1. Introduction tural approach, building technology, Abandonment of rural settlements construction techniques, craftsman- and decrease of population in rural ar- ship and landscape features of their eas have become common problems all period and require a holistic approach around the world resulting from vari- for their protection. This article aims to 1The of ous factors coming into play after the propose solutions by discussing possi- Sarihacılar has Industrial Revolution. However, many ble options for Turkey’s rural architec- been abandoned of these abandoned rural settlements tural heritage which is being lost due to as a consequence have invaluable vernacular assets that abandonment and neglect. of declining bear the traces of past rural life and income from embody the spirit of these cultural 2. Reasons for abandonment of rural agriculture landscape areas. The de-populization settlements and animal process leads to neglect, gradual dete- The reasons for abandonment of husbandry, which were rioration and finally the destruction of rural settlements are multidimension- the traditional the traditional environment built with al and interdependent to each other livelihood, and the experiences gained over the centu- from time to time. It can be classified the tendency of ries. These rural settlements are shaped basically into two groups as follows: out-migration by the interaction between man and Human-based or nature-based reasons from rural to nature. Accordingly, the loss of con- (Table 1). urban seen in the tinuity in habitation does not only whole country. cause the loss of cultural heritage but 2.1. Human-based reasons 2 also has negative effects on natural life, 2.1.1. Socio-cultural and economic During the First the agricultural landscape and bio-di- reasons World and versity of these settlements. The fac- Socio-economic conditions such the years of the Turkish War of tors leading to abandonment of rural as unemployment, agricultural ineffi- Independence, settlements can be classified into two ciency, lack of public investments and the inhabitants main groups: human and nature based. services, inadequate access to educa- of the Dumanli The former can be divided into three tion, health and cultural services, lack village, who subgroups as socio-cultural and eco- of infrastructure and transportation supported the nomical, political, and other reasons facilities, distance to focal points and rebellion in (Table 1). Traditional rural settlements psychological influences, such as dis- order to establish whose vulnerabilities increase day by satisfaction with the living conditions a Greek state day reflect the everyday life, architec- caused by these circumstances, desire in the region, became lonely after the absolute Table 1. Reasons for abandonment of rural settlements. defeat of the Greek army in Western Anatolia (Tutkun, 2009: 121). Even though, the villagers from Trabzon and Gümüşhane were settled to the village instead of the inhabitants who migrated to Greece as a requirement of “The 1923 Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey”, the settlement could never regain its vitality and was abandoned in time (Tutkun, 2009: 121).

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 99

for life in big cities, hopes for a better and conflicts, and in some cases all of life or the desire to change social sta- the traces and remains have been com- tus are grouped as socio-cultural and pletely and intentionally destroyed fol- economic reasons for abandonment of lowing the war (Figure 2). rural areas. 2.1.3. Other reasons New public or private sector invest- ments such as small or large-scale dams built on rivers, investments in wind and solar energy, unplanned growth of settlements, improper development policies, motorway, seaway or airway investments or public works and urban development activities, are examples of other elements that threaten tradition- Figure 1. A view of a village abandoned al rural environments (Figure 3). for socio cultural and economic reasons: Sarıhacılar Village in Antalya, Turkey.1 The beginning of the abandonment in rural settlements for socio-cultural and economic reasons could be linked to the Industrial Revolution that be- 3 The gan in Europe in the 18th century. depopulation The technological developments and process in mechanization of production caused the village of rural populations to accumulate in the Figure 3. A view from an abandoned village Dereuzunyer cities where factories were located. The because of human based other reasons: was started number of people working in the ag- Dereuzunyer Village in İzmir, Turkey.3 in the 1970s ricultural sector, which constitutes the after the news source of livelihood of the rural pop- Following the legal restrictions in- about a dam ulation, declined and migration from troduced by conservation boards in construction rural areas to urban centres was accer- some of the multi-layered rural set- in the region elated because of change in production tlements located on an archaeological (Kâhya et systems from traditional form towards site, settled continuously since ancient al, 2018). mechanization (Figure 1). times and bearing traces of different Following the civilizations above or below ground government 2.1.2. Political reasons/conflicts (Bilgin Altınöz, 2006:1), it is seen that decision of Factors causing loss of population local communities willingly leave their expropriation in rural settlements such as , living environment because of the in- in 2014, the conflicts, terrorist incidents, securi- ability to sustain their lives or through village has been ty issues, forced migrations, political the expropriation decisions. Pollution completely discrimination, and racism have been and environmental degradation are- abandoned. grouped as political reasons. Over the another reasons for depopulation in In the near years, many urban and rural settle- rural settlements. Being located above future, on ments have been devastated by wars high-valued mine reserves, or exhaus- completion of tion of reserves could also cause migra- the Rahmanlar tion from rural settlements. Dam, all of the settlement and 2.2. Nature-based reasons agricultural Natural constraints or natural disas- areas of ters like earthquakes, fires, floods, ero- Dereuzunyer sion, landslides, volcanic eruptions and will, avalanches which cannot be foreseen unfortunately, and occur suddenly are nature-based be submerged Figure 2: A view from an abandoned village reasons for abandonment of rural set- by dam waters because of politic reasons: Dumanlı Village tlements (Figure 4). (Kâhya et al, in Gümüşhane, Turkey.2 Even though and 2018). Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 100

life in the region continues, in some ar- eas traditional farming practices have been abandoned and terraces where agricultural products had previously been planted have been left to nature. 90% of these cultural landscape areas, which were damaged by excessive rain- fall in 2011, are abandoned or uncul- tivated agricultural terraces (Agnoletti, Figure 4: A view from an abandoned village 2014: 69). Agricultural products in the because of nature based reasons: Roghudi uncultivated agricultural terraces have Village in Calabria Region, Italy (Italian been covered over the years by Scots 4 Ways, 2014). pines and mediterranean shrubs, and global warming are caused by human cultural landscapes have been dam- activity in the world, they are consid- aged as a result of changing vegetation. ered as nature-based reasons in the Compared to big effects in abandoned classification. terraces, excessive rainfall has only Natural disasters cause loss of pop- negatively affected 2% of the cultivated ulation in villages directly and/or indi- areas where traditional farming prac- rectly. Rural settlements are not aban- tices have been continued (Agnoletti, doned only because of direct effects 2014: 69). like becoming unusable after natural Considering the difficulties and cost disasters, but also some are evacuated of activities for reducing the negative before the disaster due to high risk (lo- impacts of abandonment on biodiver- cation on the fault line, presence of an sity and environment, preventing the active volcano in the area, avalanche migration trend and depopulation is 4 danger, etc). crucial for the future of conservation The of nature and cultural heritage. Apart depopulation process in the 3. Impacts of abandonment from negative impacts of depopulation, village of Roghudi It is possible to classify the negative other direct effects like loss of social Vecchio began in impacts of depopulation in rural set- identity and a sense of belonging in the the 1940s with tlements into three groups as impacts rural population, which has strong ties the migration on culture, nature and human beings. with the living environment and tra- of some of The loss of rural heritage, which has ditions, can also be seen. It is evident the villagers been shaped by the daily lives, tradi- that some of the people who migrated to the coastal tions or cultural activities of past soci- from rural areas to big cities have expe- areas because eties availing themselves of resources rienced difficulty in adapting to city life of declining and opportunities in the surrounding and have wanted to return. However, agricultural environment, causes cultural desertifi- they could not return because their old income (Italian Ways, 2016). cation and loss of today’s generations’ settlements are in bad condition due to After a series links with past (Bronner, 2006: 26). lack of maintenance related to depopu- of floods and Depopulation of rural settlements lation. This situation creates a sense of landslides does not have only negative effects on desperation for these people and indi- occurred in the historic environment and cultural rectly causes social crises. the 1970s, the heritage but also on natural life, agri- settlements, cultural landscape and bio-diversity 4. Possibilities for re-evaluation of dwellings, (Macdonald et al, 2000: 56). rural settlements animal shelters, The loss of cultivated areas which 4.1. Re-wilding or reforestation agricultural have great importance in terms of sus- approach fields and most tenance can be caused by the lack of Approaches for re-evaluation of ru- importantly the hopes of maintenance and neglect of agricultur- ral settlements can be classified into the villagers for al landscape elements such as terraces four groups as re-wilding/reforesta- the future were and waterways built to protect agricul- tion, museumification, tourism, and flooded and tural land and to increase production. re-settlement. The first one of these -op the settlement Flood disasters in 2011 in the Cinque tions, re-wilding/reforestation, is based was completely Terre National Park, which is one of on the principle of convertion of aban- abandoned Italy’s World Heritage sites, is a typical doned rural settlements to wild life or (Italian Ways, example of this circumstance. While forest area via abolition. This approach, 2016).

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 101

which consciously destroys the rural life to local communities (Figure 5). environment created by the common After the adoption of the Geneva contributions of nature and man as a Declaration by the International Coun- result of centuries of cultural accumu- cil of Museums (ICOM) in 1956, the lation, causes irreparable loss of cul- European Open Air Museum Associa- tural heritage and a period of human tion (AEOM) was established in 1972 history which can not be reproduced. to determine international criteria for According to Navarro and Perreira, open air museums. AEOM suggested the living conditions of the rural pop- the protection and restoration of rural ulation are poor and traditional farm- buildings in their original environment ing techniques are not environmen- as far as possible in order to raise the tally friendly contrary to the common scientific quality of the open air mu- belief, so abandonment of rural areas seum approach (Eres, 2016: 162). The can be regarded as an opportunity for notion of preserving cultural assets rehabilitation of nature (Navarro and in their authentic environment began Perreira, 2012: 900). Furthermore, it to be accepted with the introduction has been argued that policies to pre- of modern conservation principles in vent the loss of population in rural ar- 1960s. The International Council on eas and protection of rural heritage are Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) sug- very costly, so re-wilding/reforestation gested encouraging the open air muse- option should be considered by policy- ums to protect rural buildings in-situ makers. as well in the International Colloqium On the other hand, some believe on Folk Architecture held in 1971. Al- that the protection of nature without though the educational roles of open the human factor will not be possi- air museums like introducing visi- ble and the forestation of abandoned tors to the past rural life are acknowl- agricultural areas will cause different edged, it is thought that the approach 5The village of disadvantages by making the land use of bringing different buildings together Lehde, which homogeneous contrary to Navarro in a new environment by dismantling was declared and Perreira (Agnoletti, 2014). Be- them from different contexts is in con- as a Biosphere cause of its controversial aspects and tradiction with contemporary con- Reserve Area by UNESCO severe consequences, the reforestation servation principles. So it can be said in 1991, has approach has been excluded from the that such museumification approaches been partially alternatives of re-evaluation. cannot be considered as a desirable or transformed sustainable option for the conservation into a museum- 4.2. Museumification approaches of rural settlements anymore. village. The The first approaches in the preserva- village is located tion of rural architectural heritage are in the midst known to have been implemented in a of Spree Forest way in which buildings were disman- which consists tled from their authentic location and of many small relocated in an open-air museum that islands that are surrounded by could be visited by the public. The first the streams of examples of open air museums, which the Spree and were located in Europe, were built are connected around a green area or an existing vil- only through lage near the big city centres. In these Figure 5: A view from in-situ conserved small pedestrian museums, different themes and peri- museum village: Lehde Village in Spreewald Region, .5 bridges. The ods ranging from the medieval farm open-air buildings to the bourgeois towns, the 4.3. Tourism approaches museum, located workers’ neighborhoods representing One of the possible scenarios for the in the village the early industrial cultures and ateliers protection of cultural assets in aban- where only 150 have been exhibited (Zippelius, 1974). doned rural settlements is the re-func- people live today, gives broad The presentation and interpretation of tioning of these environments for tour- information the rural architecture through open air istic activities, either partially or fully. about the rural museums had become an effective tool Tourism, which has created new eco- life of the XIXth for raising awareness, keeping tradi- nomic resources for countries and af- century. tions alive, and introducing past rural fected their policies, is recognized both

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 102 as a positive and negative force for the defined rural tourism spaces in which conservation of natural and cultural small-scale businesses provide services heritage (ICOMOS, 1999). such as accommodation, food and While it is known that the travel ac- beverages to visitors who aim to have tion which is the basis of tourism is as a pleasant time integrating agricultural old as the history of humanity, the first or local values with reference to agri- mass visits for recreational purposes to cultural tourism (EC, 1999: 151). remote and hard-to-reach rural areas As in industrialized countries all took place after the developments of over the world, rural areas of Italy start- railways in the second quarter of the ed losing population due to migration 19th century (Roberts and Hall, 2001: in the 20th century. The population in 3). After the Industrial Revolution in the rural areas of Tuscany, which is the European countries, technological most prominent region of Italian rural developments have facilitated human tourism today, declined by 50% from life and extended the average human 1951 to 1971 as a result of rural mi- lifespan. With the expanding scope of gration (Randelli et al, 2014: 278). The human rights, ordinary citizens gained depopulation trend in the rural areas freedom of movement and began to of Tuscany has been reduced after the travel more in their more expansive success of the policies implemented by leisure time over time. the Italian government, and thus the The preference for leisure tourism region has maintained its vitality today based on the sea, sand and sun trio (Randelli et al, 2014: 278-280). This up to the end of the 20th century has success of the region in rural tourism begun to change due to reasons like can be related with the wealth of local improved educational level and intel- resources, a picturesque landscape, lectual capacity, globalization, devel- high quality agricultural products and opment of new marketing techniques, the location of many historic town change in holiday perception, prob- centers on the periphery of rural areas lems of urbanization and improved (Randelli et al, 2014: 278). social mobility. Nowadays, rural areas “Albergo Diffuso (AD)” (Scattered 6The village endowed with natural and cultural Hotel) is one of the models used for of Bacharach amenities attract more people due to revitalizing life in rural regions of It- is located in the growing demand for alternative aly by developing tourism (Figure 7). the Middle holidays (Figure 6). In the AD approach, which was first Rhine Valley The European Commission (EC) implemented in Friuli-Venezia Giulia between Bingen, village, located in the northeast of Italy Rüdesheim, and abandoned in the 1980s due to the and Koblenz. earthquakes, the principle of restoring The region as and using abandoned buildings for a transport touristic purposes has been adopted artery has been comprised of sixty (De Montis et al, 2015: 12). In line with small towns, the AD approach; the restoration practices extensive terraced and contemporary designs built with vineyards and traditional construction techniques the of will contribute not only to the conser- castles that once Figure 6: A view from a World Heritage Site vation of cultural heritage neglected af- defended the where rural tourism developed: Bacharach ter abandonment, but also prevention trade. Various in Upper Middle Rhine Valley, Germany. 6 of permanent loss of living population rural tourism by strengthening the site with modern activities equipment (De Montis et al, 2015: 12). such as grape According to Dall’Ara (2010), in the harvest festivals contribute to the AD approach horizontal and scattered rural economy use of the buildings in historic rural of the region settlements has been adopted instead and also the of vertical use preferred in traditional preservation hotels. In AD, accommodation units, of the physical Figure 7: Albergo Diffuso Approach are scattered around 200 meters away and natural (Dell’Ara, 2015). from reception and other common ar- environment.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 103

eas of the complex. city to go and enjoy “Nong jia le”. China was and still is the biggest agrarian society by population in the 4.4. Resettlement approach world (Su, 2011: 1439). Although it is The third re-evaluation scenario for a relatively late-starter compared to the abandoned rural settlements is the us- Western countries for rural socio-eco- age of this built environment with its nomic regeneration through the pro- authentic function. Revitalization of motion of rural tourism, after the ef- livelihood in depopulated settlements forts of the Chinese National Tourism can be achieved in two ways, the first Agency, which offers both financial of which is the return of the former incentives and government policy sup- inhabitants, the second being resettle- port, farm diversification into tourism ment with new residents. has shown great improvement over the country in recent years (Su, 2011: 4.4.1. Resettlement of former 1439). According to Hu (2008: 89-90), inhabitants the number of rural communities has The first option for the revitalization greatly increased in pursuit of differ- of life in abandoned rural settlements ent forms of rural tourism, particularly is the resettlement of the built environ- “Nong jia le” (Happy Farmer Home) ment with its former inhabitants. The tourism, a dominant form of rural prerequisite for this option is availabil- tourism in China. “Nong jia le” tour- ity and willingness of the people who ism, a distinctively Chinese version of left their villages for various reasons rural tourism which is promoted as to return to their homes. Another re- “having fresh food, tasting green veg- quirement in the return of former in- etables, experiencing traditional court- habitants is not to face any legal restric- yard living, doing hard farming work, tions. seeing entertaining farmers’ plays, and The encouragement of people sub- purchasing indigenous products from jected to forced migration due to man- farm families”, has been developed not made disasters such as war, terrorism, only as a style of holiday, but also as or political pressures, to return to their 8The cultural a new form of privately-owned small villages after changed political con- assets in the enterprise among millions of Chinese ditions can be given as an example of village of Počitelj, farmers (Su, 2011: 1439). According to resttlement of former inhabitants (Fig- which is a typical Su (2011: 1439), “Nong jia le” tourism ure 8). traditional appears to be as a new concept of cul- Ottoman tural rural tourism integrated through 4.4.2. Settlement of new inhabitants settlement the cultural and rural tourism, invest- The second option for the revi- with its castle, mosques, ed and operated by individual farmers talization of life in abandoned rural Turkish Baths, and farmer’s families, providing rustic settlements is the settlement of new public kitchens, meals and accommodation (farm- inhabitants who want to live in the madrasahs, and house) services and amusements for countryside. Increasing population half-timbered tourists and vacationers who during in big cities causes expansion of cities dwellings, the holidays leave their homes in the towards rural areas and transforms suffered great these areas into an integral part of the damage during city. Beside the expansion of the cities the Bosnian towards to the countryside, recent de- War (1992-5). velopments in mobile communication After the end and transportation facilities make the of the war, rehabilitation remote rural areas more residential works were and livable. carried out with People have been enabled to do their the support of jobs via telephone and internet thanks national and to the progress in technology. Accord- international ingly, a new trend to settle in the rural organizations areas to escape the city, air pollution, and the life in Figure 8: A view from a rural settlement noise and overcrowding was born, the village was that life restart after war: Počitelj village in particularly among the upper income 8 restarted again. Čapljina Region, Bosnia Herzegovina. group. In some cases, these new dwell-

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 104 ers, referred to as the neo-rural pop- plans to promote traditional rural ulation, bought abandoned buildings buildings”, “natural and cultural heri- in rural settlements and transformed tage conservation and multifunction- them according to their own desires. al valorization in abandoned villages” The refunctioning of cultural assets have been suggested for revitalization that have been neglected as a result of of life and conservation of cultural her- abandonment can be considered as a itage in rural settlements. kind of rural gentrification by re-func- Russo et al. (2013: 323-342) exem- tioning by people belonging to the plified the analytic hierarchical pro- middle and high income groups and a cess proposed for designating alterna- transformation of the past rural fabric tives for the reuse of rural buildings into a closed new living environment in an abandoned village on the island (Dinçer and Dinçer, 2005: 2). In some of Sicily(Italy). The aim of the analytic cases, this wave of migration from cit- hierarchical process, which is used for ies to rural areas is in the form of sec- comparing, evaluating and classifying ondary usage like weekend or holiday the reuse options of abandoned rural housing (Figure 9), while in others it settlements, is to determine the best leads to permanent settling. scenario among all alternatives for the target case (Russo et al, 2013: 25). Zavadskas and Antucheviciene (2007: 436-451), suggested the use of the multiple criteria evaluation meth- od for the restoration of abandoned ru- ral buildings. The method is composed of eight phases. The first phase of the method is “preliminary research for derelict rural buildings regeneration”, the second is “formation of variants of Figure 9: An instance from a rural derelict rural buildings regeneration”, settlement in which new inhabitants start and the third is “identification of the to live, Doğanbey Village in Söke, Aydın, evaluation criteria”. In later phases, Turkey. 9 the most appropriate reuse alternative for the abandoned rural buildings has Migration to rural areas by some been determined with the help of the ecologically conscious people who “fuzzy decision matrix” (Zavadskas have chosen an alternative way of life and Antucheviciene, 2007: 442). 9After the based on the principle of ecological life The first phase of Fuentes’ six- landslide in 1985, such as natural architecture, organic phased proposal (2010: 119-129) for the village of farming and animal husbandry is an- “methodological bases for document- Doğanbey was other example of resettlement in rural ing and reusing vernacular farm ar- declared as a areas. These settlements, which are chitecture” aims to collect geophysical, disaster area by the government called eco-villages, can be established historic, socioeconomic and legal data and subsequently in an abandoned village by restoring about the study area and to analyse evacuated. After buildings, or in a village where life goes the traditional materials and building the change in on as well as on empty plots close to techniques under the title of draft stud- the status of the an existing village by constructing new ies. The second phase is inventory, the disaster area at buildings. third is typological analysis and selec- the end of the tion of significant samples, the fourth 1990s, a group 5. A model proposal for conservation is cataloguing, the fifth is assesment of of intellectuals of abandoned rural settlements reuse potential and the last phase is de- living in Istanbul 5.1. Discussion of international velopment of a local reuse scheme. In was bought approaches the assesment of the reuse potential, and repaired the damaged Different approaches such as “an- which is defined as the fifth step of the historical alytic hierarchical process”, “multiple method, variable factors such as loca- buildings in the criteria evaluation”, “methodological tion, accessibility, landscape value, set- village and thus bases for documenting and reusing tlement character, close environments the life in the vernacular farm architecture”, “village features, property structure, legal sta- village started renewal”, “developing interpretation tus, architectural, historical or other again.

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 105 authentic values, number of storeys, proaches. In this direction, Filipe and lighting conditions, privatized areas, Mascarenhas (2011: 38), suggest that structural conditions and state of au- the Broas village can serve as a cultur- thenticity are taken into account for al park that is supported by versatile re-evaluation of abandoned rural set- activities. The cultural park concept tlements (Fuentes, 2010: 127). is mentioned as a new kind of cul- For rural regions of eastern Germa- tural heritage management and rural ny, Wilson (1999) proposed the concept museum strategy, which provides a of village renewal (Dorferneuerung) contemporary education and research which has been successfully imple- opportunity and creates new economic mented in West Germany since 1950. resources with development of cultural This concept aimed to prevent the loss tourism and several touristic activities of population living in rural regions in rural areas (Filipe and Mascarenhas, of eastern Germany and to achieve 2011: 21-45). rural development following the fall It is seen that different proposals of socialist rule after the unification have been developed for the revitaliza- of East and West Germany (Wilson, tion of life in rural settlements and for 1999: 247-255). The Dorferneuerung relating re-evaluation and conserva- approach, which is related with agri- tion of rural heritage with rural devel- cultural policy, includes not only the opment policies, as well as refunction- modernization of villages in terms of ing of building types associated with 20th century necessities, the addition agricultural production. of the deficient modern equipment to Fuentes et al. (2010: 738-748) dis- the traditional fabric, and the improve- cuss the re-functioning of abandoned ment of the infrastructure possibilities underground wine cellars in . but also the preservation of the rural Major transformations in the agri- heritage (Wilson, 1999: 248). cultural sector and industrialization Porto et al. (2012: 421-436) pro- of economic activities caused decline posed a four-phased method to local in rural population in Spain as well governments for developing interpre- as other developed countries (Fuent- tation plans to promote traditional es et al, 2010: 738-748). Fuentes et al. rural buildings as built heritage attrac- also stated that wine cellars can alter- tions. The first phase of the method is natively be reused for aging special- focused on the definition of historical, ly produced wines, local restaurants cultural, environmental and social val- and wine tasting areas, and these new ues and evaluation of tourism poten- functions not only contribute to the tial. The second phase consists of deter- regional economy and conservation of mining visitor profiles by surveys and cultural heritage, but also reverse the the third phase includes selection of migration trend from rural to urban rural buildings for interpretation and (Fuentes et al, 2010: 742-747). collection of data about them (Porto et Van Der Vaart (2005: 143-152) al, 2012: 424). The interpretation strat- questioned re-use alternatives of egy, which is expected to be finalized abandoned farms within the Nether- in the last phase of the proposal, con- lands-Friesland borders. Re-use alter- sists of preparation of sub-targets and natives in Friesland have been con- action plans for their implementation, centrated on residential functions and identification of working groups and the economic vitality created by new stake-holders and production of neces- inhabitants restoring and living in ru- sary tools for presentation (Porto et al, ral buildings has contributed to the 2012: 424). conservation efforts (Van Der Vaart, According to Filipe and Mascar- 2005: 146). enhas’ (2011: 21-45) guidelines to nat- Figlia (2012:2), put forth in his re- ural and cultural heritage conserva- search conducted at Aspromonte and tion and multifunctional valorization, Belize valleys in Italy, where abandon- which is exemplified in Broas village ment problems have been experienced in the north of Portugal, abandoned intensively, that rural buildings should rural settlements can be reused with be considered as a regional source with touristic, museological and similar ap- their local values. According to Figlia

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 106

(2012: 14-16), life can restart with new (1998: 25) described the process for uses such as tourism or ecological life, preparing a management plan as: ini- which are determined as a part of rural tial survey of the site, site description development policies. and boundary definition, identification Although there is no direct empha- of resources, formulation of objectives sis for conservation of abandoned rural and consideration of constraints, defi- settlements in Burra Charter, a three- nition of projects, work programme stage process of “understand signifi- and annual plans, execution of works, cance”, “develop policy” and “manage recording, reporting and review of in accordance with policy” has been results, storage of information and proposed for planning and manage- data, revision of site description and ment of all areas which have cultural re-evaluation, formulation of revised significance, whether rural or urban objectives and reconsideration of con- (ICOMOS Australia, 2013). straints, definitions of further projects US National Park Service’s Cultural and revised work programme and the Landscape Program focuses on pre- next annual plan. Similar to other defi- serving a landscape’s physical attri- nitions, IUCN have defined the pro- butes, biotic systems, and use, when cess as: getting started and planning that use contributes to historical signif- the work, understanding the proper- icance (Page et al, 1998: 8). The Nation- ty’s characteristics and its natural val- al Park Service program involves three ues, deciding who should be involved primary activities, namely, research, and when, agreeing a vision for the planning, and stewardship (Page et al, property and setting management ob- 1998: 8). The landscape characteristics jectives, examining management pol- and associated features, values, and as- icies, agreeing on management poli- sociations that make a landscape his- cies, agreeing on management actions, torically significant have been defined consulting on and approving the plan, in the research (Page et al, 1998: 8; Mc- monitoring the plan and reviewing the Celland et al, 1999). While planning plan (IUCN, 2008: 8). outlines for the issues and alternatives As a result of implemented policies for long-term preservation, steward- and radical changes in social life, now- ship involves such activities as con- adays a large number of rural settle- dition assessment, maintenance, and ments in Turkey are in the process of training (Page et al, 1998: 8). Accord- abandonment or rapid transformation ing to Birnbaum (1994: 3), the pres- (Güler, 2016). Although rural heritage ervation planning generally involves in depopulated settlements has been the following steps: historical research; eroded by natural forces over time, a inventory and documentation of exist- few settlements have managed to pre- ing conditions; site analysis and eval- serve their authenticity and integrity to uation of integrity and significance; a certain extent. On the other hand, in development of a cultural landscape some villages, which are more crowded preservation approach and treatment and closer to the city centers, in some plan; development of a cultural land- villages, which are more crowded and scape management plan and manage- closer to the city centers, unfortunate- ment philosophy; the development of a ly, the authenticity and integrity values strategy for ongoing maintenance; and of the traditional architectural heritage preparation of a record of treatment have been destroyed. This fact indi- and future research recommendations. cates a big dilemma about the conser- The management plan, which was vation of rural architectural heritage in declared as a prerequisite for heritage Turkey. sites to be nominated for World Her- itage by UNESCO World Heritage 5.2. Proposed conservation approach Center (WHC), can be defined as a The international approaches for constantly revisable guideline that de- conserving the rural patrimony have scribes which methods, sources, ex- been evaluated in terms of applicabil- perts and programmes should be fol- ity in Turkey and possible challenges lowed to protect cultural and natural during implementation process of the heritage sites. Feilden and Jokilehto models that have been discussed (Ta-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 107

Table 2. Comparison of international approaches and assessment of applicability of those approaches in Turkey.

ble 2). Aspects of these approaches and (v)“Monitoring, evaluation and pertinent to Turkey’s own conditions update” (Figure 10). In this regard, de- have been taken into account and in- termining cultural and natural values corporated into the creation process of of abandoned rural settlements consti- a conservation model. In the creation tutes the first step of the conservation process of conservation model, crite- approach in response to the question ria such as suitability to the rural her- of why these settlements should be itage conservation principles, fitting preserved. the conditions in Turkey, being easy to apply and understandable, not recom- 5.2.1. Definition of cultural, natural mending only one option (proposing values and importance of settlement different alternatives) for re-evaluation (1st Stage) have been taken into consideration. As Documentation of biodiversity and a result of all the research, analysis and tangible-intangible values of rural en- evaluations contained in this paper, the vironments, which should be a part of proposed conservation model is based the national cultural and natural heri- on five main parts, namely, (i)“Defini- tage inventory system, is a precondition tion of cultural and natural values and to be able to define the cultural signifi- importance of the settlement”, (ii)“De- cance. It is also a necessity to define the termination of the re-evaluation alter- boundaries of protected areas and buf- natives”, (iii)“Determination of conser- fer zone. When determining the bor- vation policies”, (iv)“Implementation” ders of protected areas, elements such

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 108

Figure 10. Stages of proposed conservation approach for abandoned rural settlements. as traditional settlements, agriculture Determining the reasons for aban- and forest areas, water resources, and donment of rural settlements is one of transportation links, should be tak- the most fundamental issues that will en into consideration. Boundaries of guide decisions to be taken in next step protected areas should consist of core “Determination of the re-evaluation protection area, shaped by traditional alternatives”. Reversing abandonment buildings, roads, squares, agricultur- conditions is a necessity to revilatize al areas, etc. and buffer zone, which is life and to conserve the rural heritage located outside of the area and affects with decisions made in accordance it physically, visually and socially. It is with the country’s rural development crucial to determine the state of built policies and other planning tools. heritage and reasons for abandonment, Re-evaluation possibilities can differ in which can differ according to various some cases where there is no chance to factors outlined in Table 1. remove the factors causing abandon-

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 109 ment. Simultaneously to identify the units bound to local or central gov- underlying causes of demographic loss, ernment which are responsible due to not only documentation of the cultural legislation, national and international and natural heritage of the settlements, organizations related to conservation but also legal status of the protected of natural or cultural heritage, univer- area, land use and planning decisions, sities, representatives of professional international and national conserva- chambers, financial sponsors, non-gov- tion legislations and analysis of phys- ernmental organizations, national and ical, social and economic structures local media organizations, local com- need to be done. If it is determined that munities and users, who are local and there is a deficiency in current legal sta- foreign tourists, tourism companies tus during analysis, it is crucial to attain working in the region and guides. The legal protection for the site with the effective conservation and reassess- definition of boundaries of protection ment of the cultural and natural heri- zones in line with the aforementioned tage and re-establishment of a sustain- criteria. At this point, making reforms able economic structure in abandoned in national conservation legislations of rural settlements are only possible by the countries in line with the contem- developing social awareness with the porary conservation principles to meet contributions of all stakeholders and the needs of rural settlements should partners. Participation of locally relat- be seen as one of the prerequisites for ed people as well as professionals, rep- success. In addition to this analysis, resentatives of professional chambers, information such as availability of nat- non-governmental organizations, cen- ural resources, structural conditions of tral or local governing bodies which cultural heritage, state of ownership, influence and shape decisions, is cru- usage of building stock, sufficiency of cial in determining and achieving the infrastructure facilities in terms of cur- future goals for conservation. rent and possible future uses, transpor- Considering that the economic tation facilities, land use and planning power of the property owners in the decisions and socio-economic indi- abandoned rural areas is very limited, cators are necessary for deciding the the development and conservation of re-evaluation alternatives of the site. As rural areas, which have rich cultural a result of the documentation process and natural heritage, depend on the which requires interdisciplinary stud- economic resources provided. Mitchell ies, all related data should be compiled et al. ( 2009: 73-78) have classified and an information database about the the strategies for creating financial protected region should be established. resources for conservation of cultur- After analysis and synthesis of all the al landscape areas in two categories; obtained data, the strengths, weak- external resources, which are directly nesses, opportunities and the threats provided by public or private sectors, (SWOT analysis) of the protected area and internal resources, obtained from should be determined. uncovering the hidden traditional po- tential of these areas. 5.2.2. Determination of the According to this classification, re-evaluation alternatives of possible sources for conservation of settlement (2nd Stage) cultural and natural heritage in ru- The second part of the conserva- ral settlements can be classified as; tion approach is “Determination of the direct public resources allocated to re-evaluation alternatives of the rural agriculture, forestry, rural develop- settlement”. The first step of the deter- ment and other village affairs and re- mination of re-evaluation alternatives sources provided from public-private stage is identification of national and partnerships, chambers of commerce international partners, stakeholders and industry, private individuals or and financial resources in relation to companies, and national or interna- the protected site. tional organizations. In addition to Most of the stakeholders and part- above-mentioned external resources, ners involved in the protection of rural possible contributions or sponsorships settlements can be listed as follows; all of wealthy people living in big cities or

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 110 other places but having strong ties with physical condition of the settlements. the settlement (hometown) or citizens’ When adapting rural environments associations can also be considered as built in past centuries to contemporary other sources. living standards, it is crucial to respect Limited resources provided for ru- authenticity and integrity values of ral areas should be used not only in settlements. Major interventions and the rehabilitation of the physical en- reconstructions should be avoided in vironment but also in building a sus- re-use projects, unless they are com- tainable economic structure in these pulsory. The state of integrity of the settlements. Along with direct sources architectural heritage in all conserva- of public and private sectors (external tion work to be done is another factor sources) for establishing a sustainable to note. The structural condition of economic structure in cultural land- the architectural heritage is an another scape areas, it is crucial to enable inter- factor that affects the decision of re- nal resources such as “directing the site use alternatives. In all rehabilitation or operation income to site management” conservation activities, preservation of (Mitchell et al, 2009: 73-78). traces of abandonment, which is a his- Incomes derived from sales of high toric turning point for settlements and quality touristic objects and agricul- development of informative interpreta- tural products promoted by using the tion and presentation techniques about advantage of heritage site image with this historic era should be considered. area-specific labels are examples of in- Museumification, tourism and re- ternal sources. settlement approaches which are de- Before determining the alternatives termined as re-evaluation alternatives for re-evaluation of abandoned rural of abandoned rural settlements, can settlements, it is necessary to inves- be implemented on their own or all tigate the possibility of local people’s together depending on various factors return to their villages. In the re-eval- such as the reasons for abandonment, uation stage, it is crucial to consider socio-economic structures, physical former residents who want to return conditions, strengths, weaknesses, po- and not demolish the ties of these set- tentials, risks, financial resources and tlements with the past. Strong rural legal status. economies, which will be created by In the determination of re-evalua- support in agriculture and forestry that tion alternatives, physical and social comprise the traditional livelihoods of conditions of settlement along with rural environments and by other rural neccessities and expectations of possi- development investments, will encour- ble users are key shaping elements. The age the return of former inhabitants by next step in this phase is to identify a overcoming socio-economic and psy- common future vision in the direction chological factors that cause abandon- of new use or uses, which should be ment. The return of former inhabitants determined through participation of is not always possible due to natural, all stakeholders and partners in order political and other reasons. On the oth- to protect the settlement and establish er hand, it should be considered that a sustainable economic structure. some of the former residents may not want to return, despite the incentives 5.2.3. Determination of conservation provided for returning and revitaliza- policies (3rd Stage) tion of rural life. In this respect; deter- After defining the cultural and nat- mination of needs and expectations of ural values and significance of the set- former residents who are willing to re- tlement and determining the re-evalu- turn, of people who want to live in ru- ation alternatives, the third main part ral areas or who want to use these areas proposed in the conservation model for vacation, education, cultural, sport- is to determine the conservation poli- ive or different concerns or want to in- cies (Figure 10). Conservation policies vest in these areas is another step when should put on the agenda matters like considering the re-use alternatives. The financial resources, tools, conservation needs and expectations of potential methods and priorities for sustaining users should be compatible with the the cultural and natural values and

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 111 ecological balance of the settlements which can be defined as a type of distri- integrated with other national policies. bution of roles, should be determined. Conservation policies of rural heritage can only be achieved if they are com- 5.2.5. Monitoring, auditing, patible with the national policies such evaluation, and review (5th Stage) as rural development, environment, Conservation of rural heritage and forestry, agriculture, water, urbaniza- sustainability of rural life can only be tion, tourism, education, energy, econ- achieved by monitoring the proposed omy and administration. From this implementations, the cooperation be- point of view, countries should revise tween all the stakeholders and sharing their national agriculture, forestry, de- the knowledge and experience. In case velopment and all related policies and of changing conditions, the monitor- large-scale planning decisions with the ing process will provide a chance to fix priority of conservation and a part- the problems in advance. The moni- nership among these policies must be toring process requires observing the ensured. After the reforms in national projects’ compliances to work packag- policies, it is necessary to determine es and the success in conservation of objectives, strategies, actions and tools rural heritage. In order to review the in line with the announced conserva- implementations objectively, it is rec- tion policies. ommended that an independent ex- The forms of intervention required pert team, in which the representatives by the reuse scenario, which is deter- of all stakeholders and partners can mined by the conditions of the rural contribute and can share their views settlements, should be shaped accord- should be established to evaluate the ing to the values of the architectural projects periodically. In case of failure heritage and conservation principles detected by the expert team, re-evalu- (ICOMOS Turkey, 2013: 24). In con- ation alternatives of the settlement de- servation practices, conservation of termined with the participation of all authentic features and minimum inter- the stakeholders and partners and re- vention are main aims but if it is seen lated common future vison should be as a requirement within the scope of discussed again and the process should maintenance and restoration; one or be reconsidered. This will ensure effec- more approaches such as rehabilita- tive conservation of cultural and natu- tion, adaptive re-use, moving, anas- ral heritage, which are non-renewable tylosis, re-construction and forms of resources. intervention such as cleaning, con- solidation, reintegration, structural 6. Conclusion reinforcement can be implemented The conservation of rural settle- with a holistic view and understanding ments depends on preventing the loss (ICOMOS Turkey, 2013: 24-27). of population and revitalization of life which can only be possible if factors 5.2.4. Implementation (4th Stage) that cause abondonment are elim- The tools, timelines, resources and inated. If it is possible to reach for- methods of projects should be defined mer inhabitants of rural settlements, as work packages in the implementa- they should be respected and priority tion process. Orbaşlı (2010: 56), rec- should be given to encouraging their ommended the use of “Policy-Time- return by enhancing their living con- Responsible Institution-Financial ditions and rehabilitating the physical Resources” headings for preparation environment. Rather than re-func- of work programmes of the projects tioning of all or most of the rural set- aimed to be implemented in short, me- tlements for tourism or turning them dium and long terms. Objectives to be into a museum through ownership achieved through the implementation change, fostering the attractiveness of of the proposed policies, works to be rural areas by encouranging the return carried out to achieve these objectives, is suggested. people/organizations who will under- In order to conserve cultural assets take these works, financial issues and and to revitalize life in abandoned ru- time intervals in this work programme, ral areas, the museumification, tourism

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 112 and resettlement approaches can be um villages or only tourism oriented adopted together or independently, in usage, do not provide a permanent accordance with reasons for depopula- life in some cases, and therefore some tion, socio-economic structure, physi- challenges can appear in preserving cal condition, strengths and weakness- cultural assets. Some negative impacts es, potentials, risks, possible financial like changes in the traditional way of resources and legal status of the settle- life or complete abandonment of tradi- ments and also in harmony with na- tional habits can be seen in some cases tional rural policies. Whatever conser- after uses related to tourism. Cultural vation approach is preferred, it should assets in depopulated settlements can not be forgetten that all of the efforts be re-used with touristic functions to are just a tool for preserving these areas meet the wishes of people who want and sustaining rural life. In restoration to spend their free time or vacation works for new life scenarios, first of all, in rural areas; however, it should not the traditional buildings which are not be overlooked in the interventions to used, abandoned or ruined should be be carried out that tourism is not an considered, provided that the number aim but merely a tool. Tourism is only is limited. In re-use approaches, special a way to preserve these areas and im- attention should be given to prevent prove the living conditions of the local damaging the social structure of set- inhabitants; it should not change the tlements. They should not be left at the social structure completely. mercy of a single person or an institu- It is evident that rural settlements tion; instead, they should be open to all from which there has been enforced segments of society after rehabilitation. evacuation because of conflicts, wars, It is thought that preventing the security problems, etc. can be re-set- physical of cultural assets is tled after the circumstances causing more difficult and expensive in settle- the abandonment have disappeared. ments re-functioned as a museum-vil- Although revitalization of life can be lage after depopulation than where provided with the return of the former life continues. However, in some cases inhabitants, it is seen that preservation where the factors leading to abandon- of cultural heritage does not even come ment cannot be eliminated for various to mind in some cases and instead of reasons, the only alternative for pres- repairing or restoring the traditional ervation of such neglected and ruined buildings, people choose to demol- rural settlements is turning them into a ish them and build new buildings af- museum-village. In addition, there are ter their return. For this reason, it is examples of rural settlements turned thought that people should be encour- to memorial sites after abandonment aged to restore their traditional build- or compulsory evacuation due to such ings and additional government sup- causes as war or conflicts. In such uses, port can be provided for this purpose. it should be seen as a necessity to con- Another form of re-settlement in serve and maintain the cultural assets rural regions is settling of new inhabi- exposed to great destruction through tants, apart from local people, especial- war, abandonment and so on in order ly those coming from the cities through to prevent the deteriorating effect of reverse migration. Such uses cause the natural conditions. changes in traditional rural life, social Despite acceptance of education- structure and landscape characteristics al roles of open-air museums, which of the living environment. Although emerged as the first practices in histo- revitalization of life after abandonment ry for the protection of rural architec- is favourable, limited life in certain ture, it is thought that the approach of seasons and major interventions in the bringing different buildings together restoration of cultural assets are nega- in a new environment by dismantling tive effects. Another group of migrants them from different contexts is in con- from the cities to rural areas are those tradiction with contemporary conser- who have ecological tendencies. It is vation principles except in extraordi- observed that those who prefer an al- nary circumstances. Transformations ternative lifestyle in this way establish of abandoned settlements into muse- a new living environment or in some

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 113 cases transform derelict villages to a bergo Diffuso. L’idea, la gestione, il mar- new living environment. keting dell’ospitalità diffusa. Franco This article has aimed to discuss rea- Agnelli, Milano. sons for depopulation of the country- De Montis, A., Ledda, A., Ganciu, side, the impacts of abandonment, the A., Serra, V. & De Montis, S. (2015). pros and cons of re-evaluation alterna- Recovery of rural centres and “Albergo tives for rural settlements and to devel- Diffuso”: A case study in Sardinia, Italy, op proposals not only for the preserva- Journal of Land Use Policy. 47, 12-28. tion of the rural architectural heritage Dinçer, Y. & Dinçer, İ. (2005). in rural regions of Turkey, but also for Historical heritage-conservation-resto- revitalization and sustainability of live- ration in small towns and questions of lihoods in such regions. Eventually, the rural gentrification in Turkey.ICOMOS conservation approach, which was pre- 15th General Assembly and Scientific pared to meet the needs of special con- Symposium: Monuments and Sites ditions in Turkey, proposes different in their Setting-Conserving Cultural perspectives by creating a multi-staged Heritage in Changing Townscapes and guide for protection and revitalization Landscapes. Xi’an-China. of rural settlements. This guide created EC. (1999). Towards Quality a framework that can easily be under- Rural Tourism Integrated Quality stood and implemented by local au- Management of Rural Tourist thorities or other policy practitioners Destinations. Enterprise Directorate who are authorized to protect cultural General Tourism Unit, Bruxelles. and natural heritage. With the imple- Eres, Z. (2016). Arkeolojik Kazı, mentation of this approach, which can Koruma, Sergileme ve Toplum İlişkisi be elaborated and developed with the Kırklareli’nde Tarihöncesi Arkeolojik contributions of different disciplines, Alanlar Üzerinden Bir Deneyim. Eres, the effective use of restricted resourc- Z. (Ed). Mimari ve Arkeolojik Koruma es of Turkey will be ensured in order Kültürü Üzerine Yazılar, Arkeoloji ve to overcome human or nature-based Sanat Yayınları, (115-156). Istanbul. problems. Feilden, M. B. & Jokilehto, J. (1998). Management Guidelines for World References Cultural Heritage Sites. ICCROM, Agnoletti, M. (2014). Rural land- Rome. scape, nature conservation and culture: Figlia, D. L. (2012). The Abandoned Some notes on research trends and man- Village as a regional resource, Paper agement approaches from a (Southern) presented in the 26th Annual Congress European perspective, Journal of of the Association of European Schools Landscape and Urban Planning, 126, of Planning AESOP, Ankara, Turkey, 66-73. July 12. Bilgin Altınöz, G. (2006). Filipe, M. & Mascarenhas, D. M. J. Çok Katmanlı Kentteki Tarihsel (2011). Abandoned villages and relat- Katmanlaşmayı Çözümlemek: Kent ed geographic and landscape context: Arkeolojisi. Retrieved from http:// Guidelines to natural and cultural her- www.metropolistanbul.com/public/ itage conservation and multifunctional temamakale.aspx?tmid=&mid=13 valorization, European Countryside, Birnbaum, C.A. (1994). Protecting 2011/1, 21-45. Cultural Landscapes: Planning, Fuentes, J. M. (2010). Methodological Treatment and Management of Historic bases for documenting and reusing ver- Landscapes. Preservation Brief: 36. nacular farm architecture, Journal of Washington, D.C.: Department of Cultural Heritage, 11, 119-129. Interior, National Park Service. Fuentes, J. M., Gallego, E., García, A. Bronner, S. J. (2006). Building tradi- I. & Ayuga, F. (2010). New uses for old tion, control and authority in vernacular traditional farm buildings: The case of architecture. In Asquith, L. & Vellinga, the underground wine cellars in Spain, M (Eds.), Vernacular Architecture Journal of Land Use Policy, 27, 738- in the Twenty-First Century, 23-45. 748. Taylor & Francis, New York. Güler, K. (2016). A Model Proposal Dall’Ara, G. (2010). Manuale dell’al- for Conservation of Abandoned Rural

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey 114

Settlements in Turkey: Case Study of 912. Ödemiş - Lübbey Village. (Unpublished Orbaşlı, A. (2010). Tarihi Çevrenin doctoral dissertation). Istanbul Korunmasında Yönetim Planlaması. Technical University, Istanbul. İçinde Özaslan, N. & Özkut, D. (Eds). Hu, Y. H. (2008). A study on the par- Mimari Korumada Güncel Konular, ticipation of community in rural tour- Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları No: ism, Journal of Business Times, 30, 89- 2049, 45-60. Eskişehir. 90. Page, R.R., Cathy A. Gilbert, C.A. & ICOMOS. (1999). International Dolan, S.A. (1998). A Guide to Cultural Cultural Tourism Charter Managing Landscape Reports: Contents, Process, Tourism at Places of Cultural and Techniques. Washington, DC: U.S. Significance. Department of the Interior, National ICOMOS-Australia. (2013). The Park Service. Burra charter: The Australia ICOMOS Porto, C. M. S. & Laenza, M. P. & Charter for Places of Cultural Cascone, G. (2012). Developing inter- Significance. pretation plans to promote traditional ICOMOS-Turkey. (2013). rural buildings as built heritage attrac- Architectural Heritage Conservation tions, International Journal of Tourism Charter. Istanbul. Research, 14, 421- 436. Italian Ways. (2016). Roghudi Randelli, F., Romei, P. & Tortora, Vecchio Hope in an Abandoned Town. M. (2014). An evolutionary approach Retrieved from http://www.italian- to the study of rural tourism: The case ways.com/roghudi-vecchio-hope-in- of Tuscany, Journal of Land Use Policy. an-abandoned-town/ 38, 276-281. IUCN. (2008). Management plan- Roberts, L. & Hall, D. (2001). Rural ning for natural World Heritage proper- Tourism and Recreation Principles ties a resource manual for practitioners. to Practice. CABI Publishing CAB IUCN Programme on Protected Areas, International. Wallingford-UK. Gland. Russo, P., Riguccio, L., Carullo, L. & Kâhya, Y., Güler, K. & Güler, A. Tomaselli, G. (2013). Using the analytic C. (2018). Ödemiş-Dereuzunyer: hierarchical process to define choices for Architectural Features of a Rural re-using rural buildings: application to Settlement to be Submerged by Dam an abandoned village in Sicily, Journal Waters, International Journal of of Natural Resources, 2013/4, 323-332. Architectural Heritage. Su, B. (2011). Rural tourism in China, MacDonald, D., Crabtree, J. R., Journal of Tourism Management, 32, Wiesinger, G., Dax, T., Stamou, N., 1438-1441. Fleury, P., Gutierrez Lazpita, J. & Van der Vaart, J. H. P. (2005). Towards Gibon, A. (2000). Agricultural aban- a new rural landscape: Consequences of donment in mountain areas of Europe: non-agricultural re-use of redundant Environmental consequences and poli- farm buildings in Friesland, Journal of cy response, Journal of Environmental Landscape and Urban Planning, 70, Management, 59/1, 47-69. 143-152. McClelland, F. L., Keller, J.T., Wilson, J. O. (1999). Village re- Keller, G.P. and Melnick, R.Z. newal and rural development in the (1999). Guidelines for Evaluating former German Democratic Republic, and Documenting Rural Historic GeoJournal, 46, 247-255. Landscapes. National Register Bulletin Tutkun, M. (2009). Santa Harabeleri 30. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department ve Yeniden Kullanıma Kazandırılması of the Interior, National Park Service. Üzerine Model Önerisi. (Unpublished Mitchell, N., Rössler, M. & doctoral dissertation). Karadeniz Tricaud, P. (2009).World Heritage Technical University, Trabzon. Cultural Landscapes A Handbook Zavadskas, K. E. & Antucheviciene, for Conservation and Management. J. (2007). Multiple criteria evaluation UNESCO, Paris. of rural building’s regeneration alterna- Navarro, M. L. & Pereira, M. H. tives, Building and Environment, 42, (2012). Rewilding abandoned land- 436-451. scapes in Europe, Ecosystems, 15, 900- Zippelius, A. (1974). Handbuch

ITU A|Z • Vol 16 No 1 • March 2019 • K. Güler, Y. Kâhya 115 der Europaischen Freilichtmuseen. Rheinischen Freilichtmuseums und Verband Europaischer Freilichtmuseen, Landesmuseums für Volkskunde in Führer und Schriften desKommern, 7, Köln.

Developing an approach for conservation of abandoned rural settlements in Turkey