DEFYING THE ODDS Similarity and Difference in Canadian Elementary and Secondary Education By Jennifer M. Wallner A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Jennifer M. Wallner (2009) Defying the Odds: Similarity and Difference in Canadian Elementary and Secondary Education Jennifer M. Wallner PhD. Thesis Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2009 Abstract: This dissertation explains why and how, in the absence of direct federal participation, the Canadian provinces invest at comparable levels, achieve similar outcomes, and produce similar policies while simultaneously maintaining distinctive policy particularities in the elementary and secondary education sector. Given the limited national direction and the extensive autonomy afforded the Canadian provinces, for both students of federalism and education policy, the significant interprovincial similarities appearing across the subnational education sectors are a puzzle to be explained. I develop this analysis by exploring my puzzle in two comparative contexts: cross-nationally and longitudinally. To account for patterns of educational policy similarity and difference, the dissertation points to the movement of policy ideas across the provinces in response to their increasing legal, economic, organizational, and cultural interconnectedness. My dissertation argues that as interconnections among the provinces increased, the movement of policy ideas across the provinces intensified. As policy ideas moved, provincial governments would determine whether a policy from another jurisdiction could be suitable in their own. The subsequent decision to adopt the policy of another turned critically on both the existing relations between the jurisdictions and viability of the new idea within the internal policy context of the receiving jurisdiction. The basic conclusion of my work is that despite Canada’s highly decentralized federalism, there is a remarkable degree of convergence and similarity among the education sectors of the Canadian provinces. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is safe to say that graduate school is often characterized by endless hours alone in dusty, windowless, libraries. While my experience included such hours, I was also fortunate to be surrounded by an amazing group of people that made my graduate school experience far from one of solitude. The opening pass of gratitude is dedicated to the members of my dissertation committee. Without a doubt, I had the most amazing and supportive people behind me. Richard Simeon, Grace Skogstad, and Linda White saw this process through from start to finish, and their assistance was invaluable. I feel that words cannot capture the depths of my gratitude; nevertheless, I will try. Your patience and guidance through the various iterations of my project(s) enabled me to complete this program. Your enthusiasm for my work gave me the perseverance to carry on. Each of you provided me with incredible mentorship that helped me evolve as a scholar, both in the confines of my thesis and in our countless other initiatives beyond. I aspire to be like each of you and hope to continue to pass your knowledge on to a new generation of future scholars. I would also like to thank Rod Haddow and Kathryn Harrison, who came in at later stages in the project. Your comments and questions will help me move my thesis into new territories. Beyond those directly involved with my thesis, I also learned many things through conversations and work with other faculty members. Specifically, Joe Wong, Graham White, Rob Vipond, Phil Triadafilopouolos, Susan Solomon, David Rayside, Neil Nevitte, Jeff Kopstein, Ran Hirschl, and David Cameron, provided me with additional tutelage that will serve me well, wherever I end up. I am grateful for all our time spent together. The administrative staff in the Political Science Department is one of the most caring and attentive groups I have ever had the pleasure of working with. Each of you provides the unfailing support that keeps not only the entire Department running, but also reduced my own spazziness as I navigated my way through this PhD. None of us could work without you. To my fellow students in The Program, it has been my honour and privilege to have you as my friends. In classroom and bars, at conferences and the cottage, softball iii games and the Fishbowl Bowl, you not only kept me sane, you made me a better scholar and person. Specific shout-outs are issued to: Jörg Wittenbrink, Steve Trott, deb thompson, Leah Soroko, Reuven Shlozberg, Vincent Pouliot, Martin Papillon, Mike Painter-Main, Juan Marsiaj, Elisabeth King, Petr Kafka, Josh Hjartarson, Marc Hanvelt, Victor Gomez (co-member of the Chass-crew), Genevieve Fuji Johnson, Erica Fredericksen, Bill Flanik (fellow commune member), Jim Farney, Jan Erk, Essyn Emurla, Seb Dallaire, Chris Cochrane, Wayne Chu, Antoine Bilodeau, Sebastian Baglioni (other commune member, and master of his domain), Cheryl Auger, and Chris Alcantara. And, a special thanks needs to be given to Luc Turgeon, who never ran away from my many outbursts and was always willing to hear (and counter), “My thesis doesn’t make any sense!” Here’s too many future hours on Skype so that we can continue being productive. I would not be the person I am today without the love and support from my family. When asked, “Aunt Jenn, when are you getting a job?” I can now finally give an answer! Both of my parents are my inspiration. My mom’s willingness to learn new things and taking amazing risks at any point in her life has kept me motivated throughout my studies. I hope I can face my own life with such courage and determination. My dad’s dedication and commitment to anything that he set his mind to provided me with the necessary example to stay the course with my own work. When faced with a puzzle, I frequently think, “How would Dad solve this one?” and somehow I always find an answer. Unfortunately, my dad passed away during the course of this degree and he was not able to see my life as a graduate student come to a close. Not a day goes by that I do not think of him and wish he could be with me now. I miss him terribly and I dedicate this thesis to his memory. The closing pass is reserved for one: Steve White. You kept me on course through my darkest times and supported me through it all. I have found my team-mate in life and cannot wait for our many adventures together. Fortune has undoubtedly smiled upon me and I continue to be elated each and everyday. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Abbreviations viii List of Tables and Figures x List of Appendices xi Introduction: Defying the Odds: Similarity and Difference in Canadian Elementary and Secondary Education 1 I. The Importance of Education 8 II. Why Canada? 14 III. Research Design 21 IV: Looking Forward: The Plan of the Thesis 30 Chapter One: An Unexpected Outcome: Part I 32 1.1 Setting the Context: Federalism and Social Policy 36 1.2 Investments in Canadian Education 40 1.3 Achievements in Canadian Education 47 1.4 Defying the Odds 52 Societal Pressures 53 Fiscal Federalism 54 The Configuration of the Sector 57 Conclusion 60 Chapter Two: An Unexpected Outcome: Part II 66 2.1 The Five Dimensions of Education 64 Educational Administration 64 Finance 70 Curriculum 73 Evaluation 77 Teaching Profession 80 2.2 The Contemporary Snapshot 84 Educational Administration 84 Finance 87 Curriculum 89 Evaluation 92 Teaching Profession 94 Conclusion 98 v Chapter Three: Accounting Policy Similarity 99 3.1 Globalization 100 3.2 Policy Diffusion 105 3.3 Policy Diffusion in Canadian Education 119 3.4 Understanding the Achievement of Policy Similarity 124 3.5 Putting It All Together 133 Chapter Four: The Foundation and Consolidation Education 136 4.1 The Policy Climate 139 4.2 Establishing Central Administration 145 Civic Trusteeship 147 Religious Trusteeship 149 Collective Responsibility 152 Individual Responsibility 154 Unpacking the Politics 155 4.3 Financing Education 158 4.4 The Curriculum 162 4.5 Teaching the Teachers 169 Conclusion 174 Chapter Five: Universalizing Canadian Education 177 5.1 The Policy Climate 180 5.2 Central Educational Administration 186 5.3 Consolidating Units 190 5.4 Universalizing Secondary Education 195 5.5 Teacher Education 199 Conclusion 205 Chapter Six: Individualizing Canadian Education 209 6.1 The Policy Climate 212 6.2 Central Educational Administration 219 6.3 University-led Teacher Education Moves to the East 222 6.4 Policy Changes in Secondary Education 226 6.5 Canceling the Provincial Departmentals 231 6.6 A New Model of Education Finance 236 Conclusion 241 vi Chapter Seven: Standardizing Canadian Education 244 7.1 The Policy Climate 246 7.2 The Transformation of Education Finance 256 7.3 Provincial Exams and Pan-Canadian Assessments 264 7.4 OBE and Collaborations in Curriculum 271 7.5 A National Agreement on Teacher Certification? 282 Conclusion 286 Chapter Eight: Conclusion – Pulling the Threads Together 289 8.1 Revisiting the Central Questions 291 8.2 Limitations and Future Directions 306 Conclusion 310 Bibliography 312 Appendices 357 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIT – Agreement on Internal Trade AIP – Agreement in Principle ATA – Alberta Teachers Association ACDE – Association of Canadian Deans of Education APEF – Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation BCCT – British Columbia College of Teachers BCSTA – British Columbia School Trustees Association BCTF – British Columbia Teachers