AMGUEDDFA CYMRU - NATIONAL MUSEUM WALES Department of Natural Sciences

Novel detection and removal of hazardous biocide residues historically applied to herbaria

Dr. Victoria J. Purewal ACR1 & Prof. Belinda J. Colston2

IDENTIFICATION OF HISTORIC TREATMENTS

This PhD research was prompted through rising health concerns associated with key members of staff and researchers working on the NMW herbarium. Similar medical conditions including rhinitis, hay fever, loss of sense of smell, dry eyes, dry throat and eczema had developed over a period of just 4 months for some individuals and up to five years in others.

Research was undertaken to determine the inorganic and organic biocide contamination on the collections of both lower plant and vascular material. Analysis determined that significant concentrations of naphthalene and mercury, were present on the collections. Literature searches provided confirmation that these chemicals could induce the observed symptoms amongst personnel.

Due to the paucity of historic information regarding the treatments applied and the lack of observable signs, this problem has been largely ignored and has therefore become exacerbated.

Numerous experiments were attempted to provide a method of identification for historic treatments, and finally scanning with a UV lamp (fig. 1) provided a positive response. UV-A radiation caused a fluorescence on the sheets that was not observable in visible light. The fluorescence induced was distinctly coloured, ranging from cream through to orange. Within these coloured areas, mercury was always present, however no other single chemical provided this response.

ANALYSIS

Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) was employed to measure the metal ion concentration within the fluorescence. This process was also able to map an area of the mount sheet. Figure 2 shows the same piece of herbarium paper under both UV light and visible light. Areas of fluorescence are circled in pencil. PIXE mapped a straight line through the Fig. 1. Identifying historic treatments applied to herbaria using a UV Lamp. The right image shows and example of example of intense two circles. The bright red areas on the map correlate to high concentrations of metal ion within the fluorescing areas. orange fluorescence under UV light.. Accelerated ageing tests were conducted to deduce how mercury was producing this fluorescence. Whatman filter paper was spiked with recognised chemical solutions, in this instance, Kew mixture was used (IMS, mercuric (II) chloride, phenol). (Bridson & Forman, 1998).

Observations were made under UV light of the samples following accelerated ageing tests at 80°C with no RH control along with control samples. The observed fluorescence was then taken for further analysis, specifically X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), a sensitive method of determining the valence state of a compound. The results are summarised in table 1.

Mercurous (I) chloride (Hg2Cl2) is the mineral calomel. Unlike mercuric chloride (which is always white), calomel ranges in colour from white to yellow to grey, and is often a fluorescent red under UV light. It is possible, therefore, that variation in the concentration of Hg (I), and Hg (II), may well give rise to a range of colours, mostly in the red spectral region (cream, yellow, peach, orange), and mainly fluorescent in nature. The reduction of Hg(II) to Hg(I) is a naturally occurring process, however from the accelerated ageing results, naphthalene is shown to increase the speed of reduction of mercury, hence the enhanced colour relating to increased Hg(I) ions as opposed to Hg (II ions. This is due to the delocalised electrons associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Sample Colour change/ Remaining compound Chemical applied Binding Energy (eV) Valence State Fluorescence after ageing 1 Mercuric chloride 3 days Cream 99.9 (± 0.2) 0/+1 Mercurous (I) chloride There is a chemical relationship between the historic HOOH + Mn+

2 Mercuric chloride 3 days Cream 100.8 (± 0.2) +1 Mercurous (I) chloride biocide applications and the cellulose matrix that it binds HOOH + M(n+1)+

3 Naphthalene 3 days None Not found N/A None with. There are numerous potential pathways that the 4 Mercuric chloride and Naphthalene 3 days Peach 100.8 (± 0.2) +1 Mercurous (I) chloride chemicals initiate and figure 4 relates to those associated Fig. 4. Control 1 None 3 days None Not found N/A N/A with transition metal elements, in this case mercury.

Control 2 Mercuric chloride and naphthalene 0 days None Not found N/A N/A Control 3 Naphthalene 0 days None Not found N/A N/A Transition metals are likely to be reduced by the peroxide and superoxide produced Control 4 Mercuric chloride 0 days None Not found N/A N/A during the oxidative processes associated with cellulose degradation. It is probable that Control 5 None 0 days None Not found N/A N/A in biocide applications, the mercury(II) (in mercuric chloride) will be reduced to Hg(I) in Table 1 Results of accelerated ageing tests and XPS analysis accordance with reaction schemes 2 and 3. DECONTAMINATION Fig. 3. PIXIE mapping of herbarium paper.

Reducing levels of both naphthalene and mercury in the NMW herbarium environment were priorities as these were the most prevalent chemicals; mercury is highly toxic and naphthalene is a suspected carcinogen. Once the UV lamp screening technique had been developed, it proved a safe, quick and economically viable method of identifying sheets treated with mercury. Mercury was found to be in concentrations from 0 – 2046µg/g (PPM) throughout the herbarium, and the UV lamp was able to detect the treated sheets indicating which specimens could be selected for a priority re-mounting programme. Removing the contaminated sheets will remove the majority of mercury contamination as a source of inhalation and absorption through the skin.

Naphthalene is a polycyclic, aromatic hydrocarbon with a high vapour pressure for a solid. The National Toxicological Program (NTP) study states that 9 µg/m3) (NTP, 1992) causes respiratory problems in mice. The odour threshold of naphthalene is reported to be between 99 µg/m3 (USEPA, 1990; von Rotberg, Gagelmann et al., 2005) and 360 µg/m3 (DHHS NIOSH, 1981), therefore if it is detectable by odour, then it is in concentrations high enough to cause harm.

It is absorbed deeply into the matrix of wood and paper and is often present within the herbarium environment long after the source has dissipated or been disposed of. It was expected, because it is volatile, that it could be removed from the herbarium environment with ease, however it is actually very difficult to remove. Three different approaches were employed to remove naphthalene from herbarium sheets: air-drying in a fume cabinet, freeze- drying and heating. The results are tabulated in Tables 2-4.

[Naphthalene] [Naphthalene] [Naphthalene] Time (hours) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) The most efficient and cost-effective method for the safe removal of naphthalene from the collection has been demonstrated to be air-drying, with a low, continual air Test A1, A2, A3 Control A1, A2, A3 Total loss flow being maintained over the sample. A maximum loss of 79% naphthalene (by weight) was observed using this method over a 48-hour period. The desorption of 84.16 168.49 84.33 naphthalene, however, is not straightforward. Even with a continual airflow over the samples, the surface concentration of naphthalene was observed to increase after the initial 48 hours of treatment. It is believed that this is due to the naphthalene held within the body of the paper being mobilised to the surface, rather than reabsorbed. Mean 21.04 42.12 21.08 % Loss 50.05 Further research, however, is needed to understand the kinetics of the process and to determine an effective protocol for optimum success. Table 2 Naphthalene concentrations across all air-dried sheets, showing total loss (ppm) and % loss. For an institution legally required to protect its staff, visitors, volunteers and researchers, the detection and removal of hazardous material from the herbarium environment is a top priority. With most herbaria being vast, the task of decontamination is difficult – both costly and time-consuming, yet this research has provided two simple and [Naphthalene] [Naphthalene] [Naphthalene] Time (hours) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) economical options that can be readily applied. Following the successful application of these techniques to the NMW herbarium, both biological and environmental Test F1, F2, F3, F4 Control F1, F2, F3, F4 Total loss contamination was largely reduced. 387.77 413.09 25.32

Mean 77.55 82.62 5.06

% Loss 6.13 REFERENCES CONTACT Table 3 Naphthalene concentrations across all freeze-dried sheets, showing DHHS (NIOSH) (1981) In Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards, Vol. 3 (Ed, Mackison, total loss (ppm) and % loss. 1 F. W., R. S. Stricoff, and L. J. Partridge, Jr.) U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Dr. Victoria Purewal

Department of Natural Sciences, [Naphthalene] USEPA (1990) Drinking water health advisories for 15 volatile organic chemicals with especial reference to the physiological actions of drugs. 1-7. [Naphthalene] [Naphthalene] (ppm) Time (hours) (ppm) (ppm) Amgueddfa Cymru-National Museum Wales, Control H1, H2, H3, Test H1, H2, H3, H4 Total loss NTP (1992) National Toxicological Program, Toxicology & carcinogenesis studies of naphthalene in B6C3F1 mice, Technical Report Series 410 .http://ntp.niehs. H4 nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr410.pdf Cathays Park, Cardiff, CF10 3NP, United Kingdom. 77.55 82.62 187.89 Bridson, D. and Forman, L. (1998) The Herbarium Handbook, Whitstable Litho Printers Ltd., RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew. 2 Prof. Belinda Colston Mean 56.18 87.49 31.32 OEHHA (2004) Office of environmental health hazard assessment, Naphthalene Chronic Toxicity Summary http://216.239.59.104/ % Loss 35.79 search?q=cache:C20nd7wmRyYJ:www.oehha.org/air/chronic_rels/pdf/91203.pdf+naphthalene,+carcinoma&hl=en School of Chemistry, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, United Kingdom. Table 4 Naphthalene concentrations across all oven-heated sheets, showing von Rotberg, W., Gagelmann, M., Piening, H., Sieke, R. W., Michaelis, S., Wilke, N. and Roux, K. (2005) First results of a pilot decontamination in a PCP polluted total loss (ppm) and % loss. building by means of a humidity controlled thermal process, 2005.http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/gagelmann/gagelmann.html

Promoting discovery, understanding and sustainable use of biodiversity Collection Digit!lis!tion !t N!tur!lis Biodiversity Center Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, Netherlands, www.naturalis.nl

Naturalis Biodiversity Center runs one of the largest projects for natural history collection digitization to date. At least 7 million objects will be digitized in detail from a total collection of 37 million.

Why digitization? Digitization on demand • F acilitate scientific research The collection digitization expertise is • P rovides better means for quality checks available to others. Consultancy and digi- • A llow for virtual disclosure tization services are offered to institutes • S upport dissemination to interest groups who lack specialized equipment, staff and • E nables consultancy to business and expertise to digitize themselves. government • P romote knowledge through education Contacts • More efficient collection management Naturalis Biodiversity Center Digistreets for different collections Program Manager: Kirsten van Hulsen • W ood samples [email protected] • G eology and paleontology collections • H erbarium sheets Links • M olluscs • ( In)vertebrates http://science.naturalis.nl/en/ • A lcohol samples collection/digitization/ • M icroscopic glasslides • 2 -D material • E ntomology collections

Challenges • P rioritization in a collection of 37 million objects • D igitize 7-8 million objects in detail within time and budget • C ombine in-house (3 million) and out- sourced (4 million) approaches • R egister 30 million objects digitally on a high level • Cr eate infrastructure for continued digi- tization in the future, longterm sustai- nable storage and digital publication. • C rowdsourcing solutions for transcribing object labels Preventing humidity and direct water damage in a dried plant collection (DAO) Mitrow, G., P.M. Catling, J. Cayouette, J.A. Macklin, T. Smith and A. Ward Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (DAO Herbarium)

1. Where does water come from? 4. Selected References !! External flooding Alten, H. 1999. How temperature and relative humidity affect collection !! Internal flooding (water pipes) deterioration rates. Northern States Conservation Center – Collection !! Malfunction of dehumidifiers Caretaker 2(2): 1-10. New High Voltage http://www.collectioncare.org/pubs/ !! Building alterations and structure lacking vapour barrier Alternating Current v2n2p1.html (HVAC) climate !! Open compactor (no sealed cabinets) exposing control system Bridson, D. and L. Forman 1999. The specimens to greater water risk without water pipes Herbarium Handbook, third ed. Royal (below) replaces an Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK. 344 pp. !! Automatic water sprinklers for fire control older cooling

system with many Carroll, D.S., et al. 2010. Chapter 10 - overhead water Biohazards. Pp. 351-393 in Hawks C.A.et pipes (above). This al., eds. Health and Safety for Museum new system has Professionals. Society for the been installed in all Preservation of Natural History collection rooms at Collections. Health & Safety Committee DAO eliminating the of the American Institute for Conservation risk of overhead of Historic & Artistic Works. New York. water damage. Health Canada. 2004. Fungal Contamination in Public Buildings: Health Effects and investigation Methods. 51 pp. Photographed by Nicholas Wotjas http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/ Open concept compactor system showing potential Photographed by Nicholas Wojtas alt_formats/hecs-sesc/pdf/pubs/air/fungal- sources of overhead water damage. fongique/fungal-fongique-eng.pdf

3. Problems with water and humidity Horner, E. 2005. The damp building 2. What we did? effect: understanding needed, not more Chemical, biological and mechanical deterioration as well as a debate. Annals of Allergy. Asthma & A risk assessment provided an important document used to potential health risk. Immunology 93:213-215. inform managers/administrators in order to gain support for ! Less than 40% RH may lead to brittleness of specimens, Jarvis J, Morey P. Allergic Respiratory the necessary modifications. ! makingPhotographed them vulnerable by Nicholas Wojtas to breakage. Disease and Fungal Remediation in a Building in a Subtropical Climate. Applied !! Evaluated risks of overhead water pipe leakage, and ! At 70-85% RH, molds such as Erotium herbariorum can grow Occupational and Environmental Hygiene installed new water free cooling climate control system. ! resulting in damage to material and compromising DNA 2001; 16(3): 380-388. ! Monitored temperature and humidity levels by using analysis due to contamination. ! Lull, W.P. and B.P. Moore. 1999. automatic data logger readers . Photographed by Nicholas Wojtas ! Lower humidity impedes the ability of serricorne , Chapter 5. Herbarium building design and ! environmental systems, pp. 105-118 in !! Installed dehumidifiers. the Cigarette and other non-temperate pests to A Friedrich Model D70BP Metsger, D.A. and S.C. Byers, Managing dehumidifier can effectively reproduce. the modern herbarium. Society for the !! Arranged for security check of the facilities at nights, control humidity in an 800 on weekends and holidays. Preservation of Natural History square foot room, having the !! Higher humidity increases the rate of chemical deterioration Collections and the Royal Ontario capacity to remove 70 pints/ which is equivalent to natural aging. Museum, Toronto. !! Maintained RH at 40-50% and minimized fluctuation. day. ! RH fluctuations cause mechanical stress. This occurs when Michalski, S. 2013. Agent of ! water absorption causes expansion and contraction leading Deterioration: Incorrect Relative Humidity. Canadian Conservation, Institute. 25 pp. Automatic data loggers to changes in size and shape leading to cracking, http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/caringfor- monitor temperature and splitting and warping. prendresoindes/articles/10agents/ humidity chap10-eng.aspx !! High humidity promotes mold growth which can threaten Photographed by Nicholas Wojtas !! 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1. Study on Insect Diversity in Northern Thailand for QSBGE 1. International Symposium on Diversity and Conservation Entomology Museum of Fireflies 2008

2. Study on biodiversity of Black fly in Thailand 2. Enhancing Taxonomic and Molecular Diagnostics Capacity for Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) [California Department of Food and Agriculture/QSBGE]

3. Field studies in the southeast Asian tropics of northwestern Thailand on the ecomorphological radiation of the rove beetle 3. Thailand Insect Group for Entomological Research project subfamily Steninae (Coleoptera Staphylinidae) (TIGER , 2006-2009) [Kentucky university/DNP/QSBGE] [University Tübingen/QSBGE]

4. Taxonomic Capacity Building in Support of Biodiversity Conservation in Thailand (Darwin project, 2004-2007) [NHM/QSBGE]

E

4. Study on biodiversity of Empidoidea in Thailand [National Museum Wales/QSBGE] Activities

Entomology Section, Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden, Chiang Mai, 50180 Thailand Discovery of unrecognised J. E. Le Conte specimens in the UK A.D. Spooner & D. J. Mann Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Parks Road, Oxford, Oxon, OX1 3PW, England [email protected] J. E. Le Conte F. W. Hope Abstract Evidence During re-curation of the historic Histeridae (Clown Research into the label names bought attention to beetle) collection, a series of specimens were the prominent American entomologist J. E. Le noted as needing further investigation, due to the Conte. It was essential to establish a link between style and content of the handwritten labels. After Le Conte and Hope. This was found in letters in the research into the handwriting, using comparisons Museum’s archives from Le Conte to Hope with archival material, it was determined that the between the years 1830 - 1845. The section of specimens were sent to F. W. Hope (1797 - 1862), one of these letters below Le Conte writes of his the Founder of the Hope Entomological ‘Monography of the North American Histeridae’. collections, from J. E. Le Conte (1784 - 1860). A prominent early American entomologist, these are the first confirmed specimens attributable to Le Fig. 2 . Hister decisus and associated labels Conte outside the USA. Further research into the specimens is required, as there is a strong To date 43 specimens have been discovered. Each possibility that some of the specimens are types. specimen has handwritten labels; one with a scientific name and the abbreviation ‘n.a’, the A comparison of the handwriting between the The discovery second a number. Nine labels included ‘mihi’ after letters and specimen labels revealed strong In a historic Hope-Westwood cabinet, a series of the scientific name (e.g. Fig. 2). This is often similarities. Many of the characters are the same, specimens with interesting labelling were significant as it denotes in Latin ‘belonging to me’. this is a clear indication that the discovered in the Histeridae drawers. This is often used by authors to indicate that a were identified, and in some cases described, specimen was used in the original description of by Le Conte. species new to science, thus making them type.

Further research Investigate the type status of beetles labelled mihi .

Singletons of other Le Conte specimens have been discovered in the Hydrochidae and Nitidulidae collections; the search continues. Fig. 1. Original drawer layout, highlighting the specimens Fig. 3 . Hister arcuatus and associated labels Preserving Endangered Specimens and Endangered Skills: A progress report! Bocaege E1, Lemprière A, Cooke MJ, Alber SJMM! 1[AUTHOR FOR CORRESPONDENCE] The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 35"43 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London WC2A, [email protected]!

The Background! Comparave anatomy and pathology collecons have historically played a significant part in UK medical educaon, but many collecons have suffered neglect since the end of the last century. As specimens were used less for teaching and research, collecons declined – and with them their documentaon and the requisite preservaon skills. Recent interest in object"based learning and praccal teaching sessions have revived the use of zoological and human pathology and anatomy collecons, but there are fewer collecons and staff available to facilitate this learning.!

The Project! Preserving Wet Specimens! In order to safeguard fluid"preserved Around 600 specimens have been specimens and conservaon skills, a conserved since the ESES project three year conservaon iniave was started in 2011. Conservaon work launched by the Museums and undertaken in this period included the Archives department of the Royal handling, consolidaon and College of Surgeons of England. remounng of fragile specimens, fluid ‘Endangered Specimens, Endangered top ups, transferring dry specimens Skills’ is nearing its goal of training new and the consolidaon of damaged conservators, preserving 900 (acrylic) containers. ! specimens from the College’s collecons and injecng more ‘wet’ preparaon skills into the sector through a bespoke training programme. ! The Challenges! Most specimens were mounted in Perspex or glass containers sealed with Before treatment"! Aer treatment" silicone or pitch, discolouraon and specimen mounted in but a small deterioraon of acrylic new glass jar! number of container! specimens are in External Short Courses jars which were ! sealed with layers A total of five external training of real and courses have been held involving imitaon pigs’ custodians of similar historical and bladder, n and modern medical collecons and lead and painted Example of leakage! entry"level individuals seeking over with pitch. The specific skills in conservaon to main conservaon problems were ensure their future employability. evaporaon, discoloraon and leakage. These courses were composed of Conservaon work included removal, tutorials and praccal workshops handling and remounng oen very and aimed to cover the core topics fragile specimens.! The dissected stomach of a porpoise " in need of treatment due to signs of ! in fluid collecon conservaon evaporaon and discolouraon! including fluid idenficaon, The Fluids! mounng of In our collecon, most specimens in glass jars have been preserved in alcohol (70%), but some specimens in glass jars contain formalin or Kaiserling III. Addionally, some of these fragile jars and standard preparaons have been preserved in non"standard fluids such as oil of turpenne, methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen), liquid paraffin, operang Steedman’s method (phenoxytol) or Romhanyi’s nicone/pyridine procedures related method. The ESES team is currently assessing new jar sealing methods in to fluid changes in order to provide an adequate method of sealing containers in which and damage to convenonal sealants are dissolved by chemicals, allowing extensive Example of leakage! acrylic containers. ! evaporaon. !

Generously supported by the John Ellerman Foundaon and the Board of Trustees of the Hunterian Collecon! Advancing Integration of Museums into Undergraduate Programs

“I wish to emphasize what I believe will ultimately prove to be the greatest value to our museum - and that is that the student of the future will have access to the original record of faunal conditions …. Right now are probably beginning www.aim-up.org changes to be wrought in the next few years vastly more conspicuous than those that have occurred in ten times that length of time preceding.“ - J. Grinnell (1912)

J. Tomasz Giermakowski1, Anna K. Monfils2, Steffi Ickert-Bond3, Scott V. Edwards4, Eileen A. Lacey5, Kayce Bell1, Joseph A. Cook1

1 Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], 2 Department of Biology, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI 48859, USA; [email protected] , 3 Museum of the North, University of Alaska, PO Box 756960, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA; [email protected], 4 Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; [email protected], 5 Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, 3040 Valley Life Sciences Building #3140, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; [email protected]

Advancing Integration of Museums into Undergraduate Programs The Challenge We are an NSF-funded research coordinating network (RCN) that aims to increase the integration of natural history collections into undergraduate education. Educators are mostly unaware of the educational potential of collections and associated databases. This even includes Our goals are to: students and instructors at institutions with large museums: 1.Train undergraduates in specimen-based research • a survey of ~100 undergraduates at U of California Berkeley 2.Develop instructional tools that use museum specimens and databases revealed that: 3.Introduce educators to the instructional power of natural history collections • > 70% unaware of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology 4.Increase public awareness of the importance of natural history collections • < 10% had visited the museum • the same survey of ~100 undergraduates at U of New Mexico revealed that: • about 50% unaware of Museum of Southwestern Biology • only about 15% had visited the museum

Clearly, a significant challenge is to inform students and instructors about the potential role of collections in undergraduate teaching and research at universities

What do collections-based approaches offer undergraduate education? •Scale -time and space •Integration of Data -biotic and abiotic Denver Museum of Nature & Science, -genomic and organismal ZM.2723 •Complexity •Web-based Discovery-informatics •Educational Process -Experiential versus passive -Actual data

Target Audiences Annual Themes • Natural history collections (academic and free-standing) • Educators with or without collections Year 1 – Integrative Inventories Year 2 – Geographic Variation Year 3 – Evolutionary Dynamics of Genomes Year 4 – Biotic Response to Climate Change Year 5 – Co-evolving Communities of Pathogens & Hosts, relating to Emerging Disease

As archival observatories, museums provide a window on historic conditions by

establishing the baselines necessary to assess change and predict future impacts. Their Photo: Christopher Witt impact depends on training the next generation of scientists to creatively explore, utilize and integrate these vast resources into critical science initiatives.

Example of a cross-disciplinary seminar: CO-EVOLUTION: Art + Biology in the Museum Interested? We are recruiting people to join the network and

Spring 2012 Seminar @ Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico participate in one of our working groups • Bioinformatics and Web Presence Communication between fields is important within science, but also between biologists, artists, and historians as we build collective knowledge. Natural history collections • Outreach, Development and Design emphasize spatial and temporal variation and are uniquely situated to bridge the gap • Education between traditionally segregated disciplines, as they foster development of creativity, generative thinking, and rigorous inquiry; all required of future leaders. By incorporating • Network Evaluation art and history into biology, we begin to strengthen ties between the sciences and the humanities within the university's curriculum and research activities. A common interest in place-based research and inquiry-driven learning underpins integrated and experiential approaches to pedagogy.

This Research Coordinating Network is partially supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant NSF 0956129. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Analysis of William Hunter’s Eighteenth Century Insect Cabinet in a Scientific and Cultural Context E. Geoffrey Hancock, Hunterian Museum (Zoology), University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Scotland , UK Hunterian Museum (Zoology)

New approaches to old collections William Hunter’s (1718-1783) collections, bequeathed to the University of Glasgow, are a fruitful ground for research. Having become a successful doctor and obstetrician in London, Hunter invested in his private museum that housed initially his anatomical teaching preparations. It expanded to cover numismatics, art, books, anthropology and natural history material. His insect cabinets contain about 7,500 specimens including more than 500 primary types of taxonomic significance. As an entomological resource it is extremely important and was used by contemporary scientists, principally Johann Christian Fabricius (1745-1808). A specimen-based catalogue is being prepared . As a source for other studies it has even greater potential. This poster describes some ways in which a collection can be treated beyond its own subject-based context. This approach, using broader viewpoints applying new interpretations to this old collection, has been supported by a Leverhulme Trust research grant.

The collection Print making Cabinet made in Edinburgh Coloured illustrations provide unequivocal visual evidence for identification. Hunter’s collection was between 1807-1812, one of a pair sourced for several contemporary illustrated works such as Drury(4) and Olivier(5). housing the original drawers Two centuries later digital imaging and electronic mail can speed up the process. A recent email request to the Hunterian Museum (Zoology) solved a taxonomic problem concerning a North American that was photographed, analysed and web-published within just a few days(6). One of the first hand-coloured pulls from Moses Harris’ engraved plate of Hunter’s Goliath beetle. This species was unique to Hunter’s collection and one of his prize possessions (photograph courtesy of The Rt Hon The Earl of Derby). The original eighteenth century drawers fitted into the Regency cabinet. The remain as catalogued by Hunter’s Trustees arranged by Fabricius (1781) with some later additions Over 230 years old many insects are in extremely fine condition. This example helped resolve a nomenclatural problem in 2005. & biodiversity The C18th revolution in printed and illustrated reference works rapidly disseminated information. The earliest taxonomists created the framework for what is now called biodiversity. The products of nature were pouring into the capitals of Europe and rapidly being fitted into the new binomial system. Foremost amongst these practitioners was Fabricius, the ‘Entomological Linnaeus’. He visited London nine times between 1767-1791 and had access to private museums. The most famous was undoubtedly that of Sir Watermark of W. Curteis of Carshalton, Surrey, used between 1763-1787, from original (1) Joseph Banks but Fabricius maintained that Hunter’s cabinet was the best. Hunter engaged Fabricius to drawer lining. This provides internal evidence arrange and augment the collection, including the incorporation of duplicates from Banks and bequests for the integrity of the colleciton from other famous collectors. Fabricius, one of Linnaeus’ pupils, increased the news species published by a factor of ten. He was able to encompass within his oeuvres the entire knowledge of insect diversity. Thereafter the rate of discovery became too great for any individual to operate in such a wide field. In the early nineteenth century separate academic disciplines were to emerge, developing their own epistemologies (3). As described by Donovan(2) it was normal to exhibit two examples of . each species, one of the pair being displayed upside down if possible. Others were regarded as duplicates and either given away, exchanged or put at the end of the series

Acquisition From Hunter’s collection links can be made with establishment of empire during the Enlightenment. The controlling hand of Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society, is ever present. The exploration of Africa, for example, with its network of explorers including the botanist Francis Masson in South Africa and Henry Smeathman in Sierra Leone, resulted in them sending many specimens of plants and back to London (8) . The only original examples of this extinct species are in Hunter’s cabinet (7). They were considered lost Hunter got his share of these to enhance his cabinets. for many years as they had been described from Dru Drury’s cabinet which was later dispersed at auction.

Museum techniques Butterfly endemic to New Zealand from Eighteenth century developments in curatorial techniques included cabinets containing standardised cork- Captain Cook’s first voyage, collected by bottomed and paper-lined drawers with glass lids. These provided an environment for both conservation and Joseph Banks, naturalist on board study. There was wider use of specimen labels and pins for ease of handling individual insects. It created Endeavour, described by Fabricius in 1775. collections that resemble modern museum practice in all but minor detail. An historical comparison of collecting, preserving and collection conservation is part of this study on Glasgow. The collection affords a direct means of assessing these procedures after 230 years have elapsed. This is possible because Hunter’s collection remained substantially undisturbed in Scotland since the bequest. Specific investigations have been made in history of pin manufacture and supply, including metallurgical analysis, for comparison with later styles.

The Madagascan swallowtail in Huunter’s collection is heavily repaired when see from underneath, reflecting its rarity. For over 150 years this species was believed to come from the Oriental region. These are the only two extant examples prior to the discovery of its native haunts in Madagascar after which the species was found to be abundant (9).

Voyages of exploration were lengthy, dangerous, costly and infrequent. A butterfly species that may be common in New Zealand was in strictly limited supply in eighteenth century London and had a rarity which made them of equal value to works of art in the marketplace. Any damage sustained to specimens in transit or subsequently would be rectified if possible. A significant number of specimens have been repaired. This has been done skilfully and is often difficult to detect from above. A most interesting discovery is that thin sheets of mica have been used to support wing fractures, an observation which appears to have been previously unrecorded (11) . Methods of preserving specimens in the field developed and became standardised to allow their safe transportation back to Europe (10) .

References 1. Fabricius, J.C. 1784) Die Briefe aus London vermischten Inhalts. Dessau und Leipzig. [see also: Armitage, A. 1958. A naturalist’s vacation, the London letters of J.C. Fabricius. Annals of Science, 14: 116-131. 2. Donovan, E. (1794) Instructions for collecting and preserving various subjects of natural history; as animals, birds, reptiles, shells, corals, plants, &c; together with a treatise on the management of insects in their several states; selected from the best authorities. Printed for the author, London. 3. Farber, P.L. (1982) The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline. Reidel, Dordrecht. 4. Drury, D. (1770-1782) Illustrations of Natural History. London, 3 volumes. 5. Olivier, G. A. (1789-1808) Entomologie, ou histoire naturelle des insectes, avec leurs caractères génériques et spécifiques, leur description, leur synonomie, et leur figure enluminée. 8 vols. Paris. 6. Gatrelle. R.R. (2005) Taxonomic analysis of the Megisto (Satyridae) in the eastern United States, Pt 1. Taxonomic Report of the International Lepiodptera Survey 6(5): 1-4. 7. Ferrer, J., M.V.L Barclay & E.G. Hancock. (2004) Discovery of lost J.C. Fabricius (1775) and A.G. Olivier (1795) types of Coleoptera in the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, Scotland. Annales Zoologici 54(4): 775-781. 8. Douglas, S. & F. Driver. 2005. Imagining the tropical colony: Henry Smeathman and the termites of Sierra Leone. In Driver, F. & L. Martins Tropical Visions of Empire 91-112. University of Chicago, Chicago 9. Hancock, E.G., Broadsmith-Brown, G., Douglas, A.S. & Vane-Wright, R.I. (2008) William Hunter’s museum and discovery of the Madagascan , Pharmacophagus antenor (Drury, 1773). Antenna 32(1): 10-17. 10. Douglas, A.S. & Hancock, E.G. (2007) Insect collecting in Africa during the eighteenth century and William Hunter’s Collection. Archives of natural history 34(2): 293-306. 11. Brown, G. & E.G. Hancock. (2007) The historical repairs of and moths from the eighteenth century collection of William Hunter, University of Glasgow. Natural Sciences Collections Association News 12: 15-19. Acknowledgement The Leverhulme Trust for a grant award to research Hunter’s insects [F/00 179/AA] started in 2005.