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Circumventing Ovicidal Deficiencies of Fumigants During Postharvest Fumigations

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Circumventing Ovicidal Deficiencies of Fumigants During Postharvest Fumigations CIRCUMVENTING OVICIDAL DEFICIENCIES OF FUMIGANTS DURING POSTHARVEST FUMIGATIONS By SANDIPA G. GAUTAM Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Tribhuwan University Rampur, Chitwan 2007 Master of Science in Entomology Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK 2010 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December, 2013 CIRCUMVENTING OVICIDAL DEFICIENCIES OF FUMIGANTS DURING POSTHARVEST FUMIGATIONS Dissertation Approved: Dr. George P. Opit Dr. Kristopher L. Giles Dr. Jack W. Dillwith Dr. Brian Adam ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like express my sincere gratitude to my major advisor, Dr. George P. Opit for his professional guidance, endless support, and encouragement. I will always be grateful to him for encouraging and supporting me in every aspect of each assignment. I would also like to express heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Spencer S. Walse of USDA-ARS, Parlier California for his excellent supervision and research directions. In addition, I thank my committee members Dr. Kristopher L. Giles, Dr. Jack Dillwith, and Dr. Brian Adam for their professional guidance and input into this dissertation. I extent my sincere gratitude to Steve Tebbets, Dennis Margosan, Jane Tebbets, and Gail Sergent of USDA-ARS, Parlier California for their excellent technical assistance and for creating a great working environment. I also thank all faculty members, the staff, and my fellow graduate students of the Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology for providing me with a friendly atmosphere in which to work. I would like thank my sister Sudipa and my brother in-law Keshab, and my friends Bhawana, Sandhya, Sabita, Nisha, Kandara, and Nirajan for their moral support. My dear husband Dhiraj Gautam and my son Samyak (Bule) for their unconditional encouragement and help they provided towards the completion of this dissertation. Finally, I am obliged to my parents, Dr. I. C. Ghimire and Srijana Ghimire for providing me the spirit of hard work, discipline, and perseverance without which this work would not have been authored. iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Name: SANDIPA G. GAUTAM Date of Degree: DECEMBER, 2013 Title of Study: CIRCUMVENTING OVICIDAL DEFICIENCIES OF FUMIGANTS DURING POSTHARVEST FUMIGATIONS Major Field: ENTOMOLOGY Abstract: Sulfuryl fluoride (SF) is an increasingly used methyl bromide alternative for postharvest disinfestation of United States-produced walnuts. However, eggs of several key walnut pests are not adequately controlled by this fumigant at recommended label rate. These studies were conducted in the context of overcoming ovicidal deficiencies of SF during rapid field disinfestations. The first objective was to investigate the role of egg morphology in the context of species-specific fumigant efficacies. To accomplish this, the abundance, distribution, and location of respiratory openings on eggs of Carpophilus hemipterus (L.), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Lasioderma serricorne (F.), Plodia interpunctella (Hübner), Ephestia elutella (Hübner), and Amyelois transitella (Walker) were compared. Chorion structures and thicknesses of these species were also compared. Presence, distribution, and location of respiratory structures varied among species. This was the case for chorionic structures and thicknesses as well. The second objective was to establish dose responses of eggs of key walnut pests, namely, C. hemipterus, T. castaneum, L. serricorne, P. interpunctella, E. elutella, A. transitella, and Cydia pomonella (L.) to propylene oxide (PPO) in combination with 100 mmHg or carbon dioxide and normal atmospheric pressure. Results showed that PPO is an effective ovicide. Mortality tests on all insect species resulted in LC99 values ranging from 24.7- 167.9 mg/liter at 100 mmHg and 4.0-17.3 mg/liter in combination with carbon dioxide. Corresponding CT (concentration x time) products were 49.3-674.4 mg h/liter and 95.3- 414.8 mg h/liter, respectively. In general, coleopteran eggs were more tolerant to PPO compared to lepidopteran eggs, but L. serricorne was the exception. Findings from these studies suggest that species-specific ovicidal efficacies are possibly related to surface morphology of eggs, and that chorionic respiratory structure and chorion thicknesses may differentially affect fumigant penetration/uptake. PPO efficacy data provides information on concentrations of PPO required to kill eggs of key walnut pests at reduced and normal atmospheric pressure. These toxicity data represent a critical initial step in formulating a SF-PPO blend to meet postharvest disinfestation requirements of the California walnut industry. Future research should be aimed determining the absorbance and residue levels of propylene oxide and commercial testing of the blend. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES ......................................................................1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 Objectives ................................................................................................................5 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................................7 Dried Fruits and Nuts ...............................................................................................7 Walnuts ....................................................................................................................7 Postharvest Insect Pests of Walnuts .........................................................................8 Postharvest Pest Management in Walnuts .............................................................10 Field Disinfestation ................................................................................................10 Storage Disinfestation ............................................................................................11 Fumigants ...............................................................................................................12 Methyl Bromide .....................................................................................................12 Phaseout of Methyl Bromide .................................................................................12 Alternatives to Methyl Bromide ............................................................................14 Sulfuryl Fluoride ....................................................................................................16 Phosphine ...............................................................................................................17 Propylene Oxide.....................................................................................................17 SF-PPO Blend ........................................................................................................19 Insect Eggs and Fumigant Efficacy .......................................................................20 Insect Eggs .............................................................................................................21 Respiratory Systems in Insect Eggs .......................................................................23 Chorion and Choriongenesis ..................................................................................25 Aeropyles ...............................................................................................................26 Function of Aeropyles............................................................................................29 Micropyles .............................................................................................................30 Respiratory Horn ....................................................................................................31 Plastron ..................................................................................................................32 Ecological Significance of Egg Respiratory System .............................................32 References Cited ....................................................................................................35 v Chapter Page III. EGG MORPHOLOGY OF KEY STORED-PRODUCT PESTS OF U.S.A.........45 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………...47 Introduction ............................................................................................................48 Materials and Methods ...........................................................................................50 Results ....................................................................................................................54 Discussion ..............................................................................................................58 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................62 Reference Cited ......................................................................................................63 IV. EGG MORPHOLOGY AND ULTRASTRUCTURE OF CHORIONS OF KEY STORED-PRODUCT INSECT PESTS OF U.S.A. ..............................................76 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..77 Introduction ............................................................................................................78 Materials and Methods…………………………………………………………...80 Results ....................................................................................................................86
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