DOCSLIB.ORG

Miranda: a Half-Century Legacy by Jerod Sun La Jolla Country Day La Jolla, CA

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Miranda: a Half-Century Legacy by Jerod Sun La Jolla Country Day La Jolla, CA Miranda: A Half-Century Legacy By Jerod Sun La Jolla Country Day La Jolla, CA His gun clattered onto the floor. Sweat beads rolled down his face as the handcuffs clicked. The words reverberated in his head: “You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be provided for you.” In this quintessential finale of a late-night cop show, the suspect was given the “Miranda warning” (Baker, 177–178). Today, as an entrenched American norm, knowledge and reliance on the right of silence is almost ubiquitous (Amicus). However, few who worked outside the courtroom understood those pre-ingrained rights in the Fifth Amendment before the landmark Miranda v. Arizona ruling. Since then, Miranda has become one of the most frequently cited cases in American history. On March 13, 1963, Ernesto Miranda confessed after two hours of interrogation to kidnapping and rape, and his confession was admitted into court (State v. Miranda). Miranda appealed on the basis that he was not advised of his right to have an attorney. The Supreme Court granted certiorari, scheduling his case for a hearing. Miranda v. Arizona represents the consolidation of four cases with the fundamental question: does the Fifth Amendment’s protection against self-incrimination extend to police interrogation? (Van Meter, 76). In a controversial 5-4 decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren delivered the opinion in the affirmative. “The prosecution may not use statements… unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the privilege against self-incrimination.” (Miranda v. Arizona). Directors, screenwriters and actors were now given a new line to memorize. Every court case goes beyond a situational decision in setting a precedent, through the principle of stare decisis – “Let the decision stand” (Wilson, 427). While the Warren court was an activist one, Miranda was the inevitable result of decades of Court jurisprudence regarding the Fifth Amendment (Marion, 3). Warren understood and made it clear that the basic right against self-incrimination extends far beyond Miranda itself, to the Constitution. The Fifth Amendment states that one shall not “be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself” (U.S. Const.) and said right was specifically encompassed. Henceforth, the privileges granted to a defendant in court — the right to counsel, the right to due process, and the right not to witness against oneself — were extended to the police station (Van Meter, 92). The idea that convicted criminals could go free was anathema to many Americans. In the Boston police commissioner’s words, “criminal trials no longer will be a search for truth, but a search for technical error” (Baker, p. 176). However, the underlying premise, that an innocent person will always object when confronted with a baseless accusation, is inappropriately simplistic (Amicus). As such, the remedy in the case of violation is rightly suppression of the testimony and a retrial. Admissibility would be allowed if the illegal action was done in good faith (Reaffirming) or in the immediate interest of public safety (Massachusetts v. Sheppard). Anyhow, studies have shown that the rate of convictions did not change dramatically as Miranda rights became standard practice (Cassell, 1095-1099). The Court did not ignore the wishes of the country; Miranda protected the same citizens whom were speaking against it. In the half century that has passed, Miranda remains the kaleidoscopic core of all contentions on violations of Fifth Amendment rights. While court jurisprudence on the Fifth Amendment has ebbed and flowed, the principle of Miranda was intertwined into many future decisions. In 2000, the Supreme Court guaranteed Miranda further by ruling that the self- executing rights cannot be altered by passing a law (Dickerson v. United States). In addition, the Court recognized that Miranda has become a part of our national culture (Lane). Furthermore, in 2004, the Supreme Court passed a unanimous decision stating that once judicial proceedings have been initiated, police officers cannot interrogate a defendant without counsel present. (Fellers v. United States). All of these cases cited the universal precedent, the right to remain silent per the Fifth Amendment. “This will be one of the most important opinions of our time,” Justice Brennan wrote to Warren regarding the final Miranda opinion; (Sonneborn, 42) indeed, Miranda has become the authoritative precedent for defending the rights of the accused. Because of its prominence, Miranda has gone further in protecting our civil liberties than any other court case. Society’s knowledge of common law protects the accused—rightly and wrongly—from violations of their constitutional rights. Miranda has decisively done just that. Bibliography Baker, Liva. Miranda: Crime, Law, and Politics. New York: Atheneum, 1983. Print. Brief of the Rutherford Institute and the Cato Institute as Amicus Curiae in support of Petitioner, Salinas v. Texas, 570 U.S. _ (2013) Cassell, P. G. All benefits, no costs: The grand illusion of Miranda defenders. Northwestern University Law Review, 1996. Print. Clymer, Steven D. Are Police Free to Disregard Miranda? 112 Yale Law Journal 447, 2002. Print. Fellers v. United States, 540 U.S. 519 (2004) Lane, Charles. “Miranda Rights Need an Update.” The Washington Post 23 Apr. 2013. Web. 11 Mar. 2016. <https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/charles-lane-an-update-for-miranda- rights/2013/04/22/ee104c1c-ab72-11e2-a198-99893f10d6dd_story.html> Marion, Nancy E. Federal Government and Criminal Justice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Print. Massachusetts v. Sheppard, 468 U.S. 981 (1984) Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966) "Miranda v. Arizona." Oyez. Chicago-Kent College of Law at Illinois Tech. Web. 15 Mar. 2016. <https://www.oyez.org/cases/1965/759> “Reaffirming Miranda.” The New York Times 20 May 2003. Web. 15 Mar. 2016. <http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/20/opinion/reaffirming-miranda.html> Sonneborn, Liz. Miranda v. Arizona: The Rights of the Accused. New York: Rosen Pub. Group, 2004. Print. State v. Miranda, 98 Ariz. 18, 401 P.2d 721 (Ariz. 1965) U.S. Const. amend. V. United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897 (1984) Van Meter, Larry A. Miranda v. Arizona: The Rights of the Accused. New York: Chelsea House, 2007. Print. Wilson, James Q, Meenekshi Bose, and John J DiIulio. American Government. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2015. Print. .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Education and Interrogation: Comparing Brown and Miranda John H
    Cornell Law Review Volume 90 Article 2 Issue 2 January 2005 Education and Interrogation: Comparing Brown and Miranda John H. Blume Sheri Lynn Johnson Ross Feldmann Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation John H. Blume, Sheri Lynn Johnson, and Ross Feldmann, Education and Interrogation: Comparing Brown and Miranda, 90 Cornell L. Rev. 321 (2005) Available at: http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr/vol90/iss2/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Cornell Law Review by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. EDUCATION AND INTERROGATION: COMPARING BROWN AND MIRANDA John H. Blume, t Sheri Lynn Johnson,tt Ross Feldmannttt INTRODUCTION ................................................. 321 I. THE WARREN COURT UNDER THE MICROSCOPE: JURISPRUDENTIAL SIMILARITIES OF BROWN AND MIRANDA .. 323 A. Quasi-Legislative Adjudication ...................... 324 B. Stretching the Record: The Use of Social Science and Other Research ................................ 329 II. BROWN AND MIRANDA IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT .......... 332 I1. NOT THE END OF THE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT: WHY BROWN AND MIRANDA BOTH FAILED TO LIVE UP TO THEIR PRO M ISES ............................................... 335 IV. OTHER PARALLEIS ....................................... 341 CONCLUSION ................................................... 344 INTRODUCTION Although the Warren Court had its share of grand decisions, per- haps it should be known instead for its grand goals-particularly the goals of ending America's shameful history of segregation and of pro- viding a broad array of constitutional rights to persons accused of committing crimes.
    [Show full text]
  • 384 US 436 86 Sct 1602 16 Led2d 694 Ernesto a MIRANDA, Petitioner
    384 US 436 86 SCt 1602 16 LEd2d 694 Ernesto A MIRANDA, Petitioner, v STATE OF ARIZONA Michael VIGNERA, Petitioner, v STATE OF NEW YORK Carl Calvin WESTOVER, Petitioner, v UNITED STATES STATE OF CALIFORNIA, Petitioner, v Roy Allen STEWART Nos 759—761, 584 Argued Feb 28, March 1 and 2, 1966 Decided June 13, 1966 Rehearing Denied No 584 Oct 10, 1966 See 87 SCt 11 No 759: [Syllabus from pages 436-437 intentionally omitted] Page 438 John J Flynn, Phoenix, Ariz, for petitioner Gary K Nelson, Phoenix, Ariz, for respondent Telford Taylor, New York City, for State of New York, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court (Also in Nos 584, 760, 761 and 762) Duane R Nedrud, for National District Attorneys Ass'n, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court (Also in Nos 760, 762 and 584) No 760: Victor M Earle, III, New York City, for petitioner William I Siegel, Brooklyn, for respondent No 761: Page 1 of 70 F Conger Fawcett, San Francisco, Cal, for petitioner Sol Gen Thurgood Marshall, for respondent No 584: Gorden Ringer, Los Angeles, Cal, for petitioner William A Norris, Los Angeles, Cal, for respondent [Amicus Curiae intentionally omitted] Page 439 Mr Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion of the Court The cases before us raise questions which go to the roots of our concepts of American criminal jurisprudence: the restraints society must observe consistent with the Federal Constitution in prosecuting individuals for crime More specifically, we deal with the admissibility of statements obtained from an individual who is subjected to custodial
    [Show full text]
  • Miranda V. Arizona and the Right to Remain Silent
    Five Words That Changed America: Miranda v. Arizona and The Right to Remain Silent Five Words That Changed America: Miranda v. Arizona and The Right to Remain Silent Amos N. Guiora Louisa M. A. Heiny Copyright © 2020 Twelve Tables Press Cover photo source: Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records, History and Archives Division ISBN: 978-1-946074-30-0 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner: Twelve Tables Press P.O. Box 568 Northport, New York 11768 www.twelvetablespress.com All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. To Erik, Sabrina, and Linnea. Yes, again. L.M.A.H. To Hagit, Tamar, Amitai, and Yoav. A.N.G. Contents Acknowledgments ...........................................................................................ix Introduction .....................................................................................................xi Reconstructing History .................................................................................xiii Part I: Three Crimes: Phoenix, Arizona 1962–1963 ...................... 1 Chapter 1: The Longest Day .....................................................................3 Chapter 2: Pray for Me .............................................................................9 Chapter 3: A 1953 Four-Door Packard ..................................................
    [Show full text]
  • AAKASH PATEL Contents
    History AAKASH PATEL Contents Preface. 1 1. Dawn of Civilization. 2 Mesopotamia . 2 Ancient Egypt . 3 Indus River Valley . 5 2. Ancient Europe . 6 Persian Wars . 6 Greek City-States. 8 Rome: From Romulus to Constantine . 9 3. Asian Dynasties. 23 Ancient India. 23 Chinese Dynasties . 24 Early Korea . 27 4. The Sundering of Europe . 29 The Fall of Rome. 29 Building a Holy Roman Empire . 31 Islamic Caliphates . 33 5. Medieval Times . 35 England: A New Monarchy . 35 France: The Capetians. 42 Germany: Holy Roman Empire. 44 Scandinavia: Kalmar Union. 45 Crusades . 46 Khans & Conquerors . 50 6. African Empires . 53 West Africa . 53 South Africa. 54 7. Renaissance & Reformation. 56 Italian Renaissance . 56 Tudor England . 58 Reformation. 61 Habsburg Empires . 63 French Wars of Religion. 65 Age of Discovery. 66 8. Early Modern Asia . 70 Tsars of Russia . 70 Japan: Rise of the Shogun. 72 Dynastic Korea . 73 Mughals of India. 73 Ottomans of Turkey. 74 9. European Monarchy . 76 Thirty Years' War . 76 Stuart England and the Protectorate . 78 France: Louis, Louis, and Louis . 81 10. Colonies of the New World . 84 Pilgrims and Plymouth . 84 Thirteen American Colonies . 85 Golden Age of Piracy . 88 11. Expansionism in Europe. 89 Ascension of the Romanovs. 89 Rise of Prussia . 91 Seven Years' War . 92 Enlightenment . 93 Hanoverian Succession. 94 12. American Independence . 96 Colonies in the 18th Century . ..
    [Show full text]
  • Miranda's Fourfold Failure Albert W
    University of Chicago Law School Chicago Unbound Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers Working Papers 2017 Miranda's Fourfold Failure Albert W. Alschuler Follow this and additional works at: https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/ public_law_and_legal_theory Part of the Law Commons Chicago Unbound includes both works in progress and final versions of articles. Please be aware that a more recent version of this article may be available on Chicago Unbound, SSRN or elsewhere. Recommended Citation Alschuler, Albert W., "Miranda's Fourfold Failure" (2017). Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers. 663. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/public_law_and_legal_theory/663 This Working Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Working Papers at Chicago Unbound. It has been accepted for inclusion in Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers by an authorized administrator of Chicago Unbound. For more information, please contact [email protected]. CHICAGO PUBLIC LAW AND LEGAL THEORY WORKING PAPER NO. 623 MIRANDA’S FOURFOLD FAILURE Albert W. Alschuler THE LAW SCHOOL THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO May 2017 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2969143 MIRANDA’S FOURFOLD FAILURE ALBERT W. ALSCHULER∗ INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 849 I. THE INITIAL DOCTRINAL FAILURE: MIRANDA’S MISUNDERSTANDING OF THE PRIVILEGE AGAINST SELF-INCRIMINATION ................................. 850 A. Compulsion ................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • With Its Decisions in the Cases of Mapp V
    T Mugshot of Miranda in 1963 ed EXTS 10th Amendment Bill of Rights Article I, §8 Background Mapp v. Ohio (1961) Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) (“Gideon’s Trumpet) Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) Convictions without “fundamentals of fairness” will be overturned The Miranda decision distilled the several “fundamental fairness” standards into one succinct statement of the due process rights of the accused. Thanks to television police shows, the Miranda warning has become a statement of a citizen's rights familiar to many Americans. Circumstances of the Case A kidnapping and sexual assault occurred in Phoenix, Arizona, in March 1963. On March 13 Ernesto Miranda, 23, was arrested in his home, taken to the police station, identified by the victim, and taken into an interrogation room. Miranda was not told of his rights to counsel prior to questioning. Two hours later, investigators emerged from the room with a written confession signed by Miranda. It included a typed disclaimer, also signed by Miranda, stating that he had “full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me,” and that he had knowingly waived those rights. Two weeks later at a preliminary hearing, Miranda again was denied counsel. At his trial he did have a lawyer, whose objections to the use of Miranda's signed confession as evidence were overruled. Miranda was convicted of kidnapping and rape, and received a 20-year sentence. Constitutional Issues Was a confession an admissible document in a court of law if it was obtained without warnings
    [Show full text]
  • The Judicial Example of John Marshall Harlan by Chris Kemp
    An Even Keel: The Judicial Example of John Marshall Harlan by Chris Kemp Norman Dorsen, who clerked for John Marshall Harlan II, did not adopt the same judicial philosophy as the Justice he worked for. He did, however, develop a strong respect for his one-time mentor. The desire of Justice Harlan to provide balance in all things, "to keep things on an even keel," as Dorsen remembers him saying, well represents the judicial philosophy of Harlan. 1 Harlan came from a family of some political and legal prestige, and his upper class background, his commitment to federalism and the separation of powers, and his desire to hold to neutral principles on the Court shaped his judicial philosophy. The Harlan family immigrated to colonial America to escape the persecution directed toward Quakers in England. Family members migrated westward, and Harlan's great-grandfather, James, became a prominent figure in Kentucky politics prior to the Civil War. He served in the state legislature and as the secretary of state and attorney general, and later, two terms as a member of Congress. His support of the Union cause led Lincoln to appoint James the United States Attorney for Kentucky. James named one of his sons John Marshall Harlan, after the great Chief Justice. Like his father, John also became active in state politics, and was catapulted into the national political spotlight by helping Rutherford B. Hayes secure the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1876. Following the controversial resolution of the election, Harlan narrowly missed being appointed the administration's Attorney General, but later in 1877, he was appointed to the United States Supreme Court.
    [Show full text]
  • Landmark Decisions of the United States Supreme Court
    Landmark Rulings of the United States Supreme Court Marbury v. Madison, 1803 First Supreme Court decision to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional; established the Court’s power of “judicial review .” President John Adams’s last-minute appointment to William Marbury as a federal judge was rejected by newly-elected President Thomas Jefferson, when the papers arrived after his inaugural. Marbury sued to get his judgeship, to force Secretary of State James Madison to give him his job. Power to force President to give such commissions was granted by Judiciary Act of 1789. The Court’s ruling: • Marbury did have a right to his job, since his commission had been legally signed and approved • However, Supreme Court could not order Madison to deliver the papers giving him his judgeship, since the Constitution did not give James Madison that power to the Court • Congress could not give Court this power by passing a law, so that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional • Result: because the Supreme Court was asked to rule in this dispute, it gained the power of “judicial review” – to declare acts of government (local, state or national) to be invalid – unconstitutional – because they violate the Constitution (Marbury did not get his judgeship). McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819 Allowed a broad interpretation of the Constitution in determining the implied powers. Maryland wanted to tax a branch of the Bank of the United States, but the bank’s cashier, McCulloch, refused to pay the state tax. Maryland convicted McCulloch of evading the tax, he appealed his case to the Supreme Court.
    [Show full text]
  • Phoenix Law Review
    PHOENIX LAW REVIEW VOLUME 7WINTER 2013 NUMBER 2 Published by Phoenix School of Law Phoenix, Arizona 85004 Published by Phoenix Law Review, Phoenix School of Law, One North Central Avenue,14th Floor, Phoenix, Arizona 85004. Phoenix Law Review welcomes the submission of manuscripts on any legal topic and from all members of the legal community. Submissions can be made via ExpressO at http://law.bepress.com/expresso, via e-mail to [email protected], or via postal service to: Editor-in-Chief Phoenix Law Review Phoenix School of Law 1 North Central Avenue 14th Floor Phoenix, Arizona 85004 We regret that manuscripts cannot be returned. All submissions should conform to the rules of citation contained in the most recent edition of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citations, published by the Harvard Law Review Association. Phoenix Law Review is published twice each year or more by the Phoenix School of Law. Subscription rates are $50.00 per year for United States addresses and $64.00 per year for addresses in other countries. Subscriptions are renewed automatically unless notice to cancel is received. Subscriptions may be discontinued only at the expiration of the current volume. Direct all communications to the Editor-in-Chief at the address given above. Copyright © 2013 by Phoenix Law Review on all articles, comments, and notes, unless otherwise expressly indicated. Phoenix Law Review grants per- mission for copies of articles, comments, and notes on which it holds a copy- right to be made and used by nonprofit educational institutions, provided that the author and Phoenix Law Review are identified and proper notice is affixed to each copy.
    [Show full text]
  • Miranda V. Arizona (1966)
    You Have the Right to Remain Silent: Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Primary Sources (Original materials and firsthand documentation created during a historic event) Included in this lesson: • U.S. Bill of Rights o Original (image) o Transcription (excerpt) • Images of Ernesto Miranda o Mug shot at time of arrest, Police Department, Phoenix, Arizona, 1963 o Booking fingerprints, Police Department, Phoenix, Arizona, 1963 o Police line-up for victim identification of suspect, Police Department, Phoenix, Arizona, 1963 o Current Arrest record after sentencing, Arizona Prison, Florentine, Arizona, 1963 • Letter from Justice William Brennan, Jr. to Chief Justice Earl Warren U.S. Bill of Rights, Original (image) U.S. Bill of Rights, Transcription (excerpt) Congress of the United States begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine. THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution. RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.
    [Show full text]
  • Miranda V. Arizona Yale Kamisar University of Michigan Law School, [email protected]
    University of Michigan Law School University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository Other Publications Faculty Scholarship 2009 Miranda v. Arizona Yale Kamisar University of Michigan Law School, [email protected] Available at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/other/134 Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/other Part of the Supreme Court of the United States Commons Recommended Citation Kamisar, Yale. "Miranda v. United States." In The Oxford Guide to United States Supreme Court Decisions. 2d ed., edited by K. L. Hall and J.W.Ely Jr., 225-8. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Other Publications by an authorized administrator of University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966), argued 28 Feb. 1966, decided 13 June 1966 by vote of 5 to 4; Warren for the Court, Clark, Harlan, White, and Stewart in dissent. The Warren Court's revolution in American criminal procedure reached its high point (or, depending upon one's perspective, its low point) on 13 June 1966. That day the Court handed down its opinion in Miranda, the most famous, and most bitterly criticized, confession case in the nation's history. To some, Miranda symbolized the legal system's determination to treat even the lowliest and most despicable criminal suspect with dignity and respect. But to others, especially those who attributed rising crime rates to the softness of judges, the case became a target of abuse.
    [Show full text]
  • Teacher Notes: Miranda V
    YEZ yez OH YAY! Teacher Notes: Miranda v. Arizona (1966) The Background of Miranda’s Criminal Case: 1. What happened on March 2, 1963 in Phoenix, Arizona? An 18 year-old woman was walking home from work when a man pulled her into a car, took her to the desert, and raped her. 2. What happened in the investigation of the case ten days later? The man was later identified as Ernesto Miranda. He was arrested and placed in a line- up with three other men who closely matched Miranda’s physical appearance. The victim failed to positively identify Miranda, and detectives then began to interrogate him in hopes of getting his confession. 3. What happened as a result of the police interrogation? The detectives questioned Miranda for two hours after which he confessed. They then brought the victim to the door and asked Miranda if this was the woman that he had raped. He said it was. He was then asked to write his confession. 4. What was at the top of the confession Miranda signed? At the top was a disclaimer which stated that the suspect was confessing voluntarily without threats or promises of immunity, and with full knowledge of his legal rights and understanding that any statement he made might be used against him. Stop and Think: At this point, what is your opinion about the actions of the police with regards to Miranda’s interrogation and the confession which he signed? The Trial and Appeal of Ernesto Miranda: (2:12 to 5:13) 5. What did Miranda’s attorney attempt to do before his trial began? The attorney asked the judge to exclude the confession from the evidence the prosecution could use because the confession was not given voluntarily.
    [Show full text]