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The Relationships Between Experiences of Racism, Internalized Racism, and The The Relationships between Experiences of Racism, Internalized Racism, and the Mental Health of East Asians in the U.S. A Dissertation Presented to The Graduate Faculty of the University of Akron In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Soyeong Kim August 2017 The Relationships between Experiences of Racism, Internalized Racism, and the Mental Health of East Asians in the U.S. Soyeong Kim August 2017 Approved: Accepted: ____________________ ____________________ Advisor Department Chair Dr. Suzette L. Speight Dr. Paul E. Levy ____________________ ____________________ Committee Member Dean of the College Dr. Ingrid K. Weigold Dr. John Green ____________________ ____________________ Committee Member Dean of the Graduate School Dr. John Queener Dr. Chand Midha ____________________ ____________________ Committee Member Date Dr. Varunee Faii Sangganjanavanich ____________________ Committee Member Dr. Toni L. Bisconti ii ABSTRACT Race scholars acknowledge that racism shapes the attitudes and subjectivities of everyone living in a society including that of the oppressed (Feagin, 2000). Given the high prevalence of racism experienced by Asian Americans in the U.S., this study sought to investigate the relationship between experiences of racism and psychological outcomes and the mediating role of internalized racism in defining this relationship with a community sample of 104 East Asians. The study examined two variables – internalized stereotypes and perceived stigmatization – as mechanisms through which experiences of racism influence the psychological outcomes of East Asians. The results indicated that experiences of racism have a significant relationship with a level of psychological distress and heightened awareness of stigmatized identity. Adherence to two prevailing Asian stereotypes – Expected Academic Success and Emotional Reservation – was found to have a significant association with increased psychological distress. Despite the high frequency of experiences of subtle racism reported by the current sample, adherence to Asian stereotypes and perceived stigmatization did not mediate the relationship between racism experiences and mental health outcomes. Overall, the findings highlight the need for further research regarding the impact of racism and internalized racism. The study includes implications for clinical interventions and directions for future research. Keywords: racism, internalized racism, stereotypes, perceived stigmatization, East Asians, mental health, well-being. iii DEDICATION 이 박사논문을 늘 가슴에 품은 꿈을 쫓아 살아가라고 격려해주신 저희 가족에게 바칩니다. This dissertation is dedicated to my family, who has always encouraged me to follow my heart to reach my goals. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1 Population of Interest………………………………………………………………….2 Racism and the Psychological Outcomes of Asians in the U.S……………………….4 Internalized Racism and Asian Americans……………………………………………6 Critical Issues in the Current Literature……………………………………………….8 The Purpose of the Present Study……………………………………………………11 II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE………………………………………………..15 Racism and the Mental Health of Asian Americans…………………………………15 Asian Americans’ Experiences of Racism………………………………………..15 The Impact of Racism on the Mental Health of Asian Americans……………….19 Internalized Racism………………………………………………………………….26 Internalized Stereotypes………………………………………………………….29 Perceived Stigmatization…………………………………………………………33 Control Variables…………………………………………………………………….41 Summary……………………………………………………………………………..43 III. METHODS………………………………………………………………………….46 Participants…………………………………………………………………………...46 Procedures……………………………………………………………………………48 Measures……………………………………………………………………………..50 ii Statistical Analyses…………………………………………………………………..62 IV. RESULTS …………………………………………………………………………..65 Data Cleaning and Screening………………………………………………………....65 Preliminary Analyses…………………………………………………………………67 Correlation Analyses……………………………………………………………….…69 Medication Analyses………………………………………………………………….71 Post-hoc Analyses…………………………………………………………………….72 V. DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………………………….75 Experiences of Racism and Psychological Outcomes.…………………………….....75 Internalized Racism and Psychological Outcomes...………...…...…………………..79 Acculturative Stress and Psychological Outcomes...……………...……………….…83 Mediating Role of Internalized Stereotypes and Perceived Stigmatization...………...85 Implications for Interventions………………………………………………………...88 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………....92 Directions for Future Research and Training…………………………...…………….94 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………97 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..99 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….124 APPENDIX A. DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE……………………………125 iii APPENDIX B. SUBTLE RACISM SCALE FOR ASIAN AMERICAN COLLEGE SUTDNETS………………………………………………………………...127 APPENDIX C. THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL ACCULTURATIVE STRESS INVENTORY………………………………………………………………128 APPENDIX D. THE INTERNALIZATION OF ASIAN AMERICAN STEREOTYPE SCALE……………………………………………………………………...130 APPENDIX E. STIGMATIZATION SCALE……………………………………....132 APPENDIX F. THE KESSLER PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS SCALE………..134 APPENDIX G. SCHWARTZ OUTCOME SCALE……………………………..…135 APPENDIX H. INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL FOR HUMAN SUBJECTS…………………………………………………………………136 APPENDIX I. INSTITUTIONS WITH THE LARGEST ENROLLMENT OF ASIAN STUDENTS……………………………………………………………...…137 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Participant Demographic Information………………………………………..116 2 Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness and Kurtosis Values for All Scales ..........................................................................................117 3 Correlations between all Scales and Subscales……………………………….118 4 Correlations between Demographic Items and Main Measures……………....118 5-1 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variable Predicting Psychological Distress……………………....………………………....120 5-2 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variable Predicting Psychological Adjustment……………………………………………..121 6-1 Indirect Effects of Experiences of Racism on Psychological Distress………..122 6-2 Indirect Effects of Experiences of Racism on Psychological Adjustment……123 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Conceptual Model 1 of the Present Study………………………………………..13 1.2 Conceptual Model 2 of the Present Study………………………………………..14 2. Statistical Diagram………………………………………………….…………....64 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Today in American society there is a widespread belief that all individuals should have an equal opportunity, regardless of their ascribed characteristics. Nevertheless, oppression continues to exist, and certain groups continue to be privileged over others (Young, 1990). Oppression is the unjust exercise of power by one group over another in a way that creates and sustains social inequality (Fanon, 1963; Freire, 1970; Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996; Young, 1990). It entails a series of asymmetric power relations leading to conditions of systemic inequality and marginalization (Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). Racism is a form of oppression that specifically targets racial minority groups. As Jones (1972) argued, “racism results from the transformation of racial prejudice and/or ethnocentrism through the exercise of power against a racial group defined as inferior intentionally or unintentionally” (p. 172). In modern days, experiences of racism involve several social contexts, as racism operates in multidimensional levels – individual, institutional, and cultural (Jones, 1997). Members of racial minority groups, including individuals of Asian origin, are therefore ubiquitously exposed to the racially biased evaluation of their racial group through media, daily encounters, and institutional policies (Speight, 2007). As a result, many theorists suggest that internalized racism is a predictable consequence of socialization within white dominant society (Fanon, 1963; Freire, 1970; Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1 1996). For the last few decades, researchers have documented how experiences of racism influence minorities’ self-concept specifically through self-hatred, colorism, and the shame associated with race. However, those studies heavily focus on the experience of African Americans and relatively little is known about Asians and Asian Americans. Given the lack of attention in this area, the present study seeks to examine how continued exposure to racism is associated with internalized racism with Asian individuals, particularly individuals with East Asian descent, and the role of internalized racism in explaining the relationship between experiences of racism and the mental health outcomes of East Asians in the U.S. Population of Interest Asian Americans are descendants of immigrants from any part of Asia or are immigrants themselves from Asia to the U.S. (Liu, Murakami, Eap, & Nagayama Hall, 2009). The number of Asian Americans in the U.S has drastically increased in the last few decades from 6.9 million in the 1990s to over 18 million in 2012 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). They are the fastest growing minority group in the U.S. and have recently passed Latinos as the largest group of new immigrants to the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Given this rapid increase in the number of Asian immigrants, research on Asian Americans’ mental health has largely been discussed in the context of their immigration history (i.e., acculturation and adjustment). For example, acculturative stress has been identified as one of their primary sources of stress (Berry, 1987; Lieber, Chin, Nihira, & Mink, 2001; Paukert, Pettit,
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