Aesthetics in the Academy
Dominic M . McIver Lopes
During the fall of 1998 the American Society for Aesthetics conducted a survey of the chairs of philosophy departments in North America in order to gauge the status of aesthetics (or the philosophy of art) in the American academy. In particular, the survey was designed to ascertain what proportion have philosophers ofart on staff, what aesthetics courses are offered, what the demand for those courses is, and how many graduate departments are training students with a competence in aesthetics. AMERICAN SOCIETY FORAESTHETICS 1. The Survey and Its Reliability AN ASSOCIATIO N FOR AESTHETICS, CRITICISM AN D THEORY OF THE ARTS The survey was sent to 368 philosophy department chairs, including every department with a doctoral program in philosophy and a random selection ofother departments. Respondents VOLUME 20 NUMBER 2 FALL 2000 were assured that their responses would be kept confidential and reported only as aggregate data. (A copy of the survey and the raw aggregate data are available at the Society's web site, The Lack of Historical Perspective: < aesthetics-online.org>.) 5 The Topic Revisited One hundred and fifty departments returned the survey-a very high response rate of Elmer Duncan 41 percent. The response rate of the departments with doctoral programs was 85 percent, ensuring a reliable picture of the status of aesthetics in graduate schools. Review ofJoseph Margolis, With one exception, the responding institutions appear representative. Whether catego 8 What, After All, Is a Work ofArt? rized by geographical location, type (private or public), size of overall institutional enrollment or size ofenrollment in philosophy, they correspond closely to the benchmark provided by Review of Claire Detels, the APA's much larger 1994 survey of Philosophy in America (Schacht 1997: 2-5). 9 S'!ft Boundaries: Revisioning the The exception concerns two-year colleges. According to the APA survey, fully one quarter Arts and Aesthetics in American of US colleges and universities offering philosophy courses have no degree in philosophy Education (Schacht 1997: 2). However, only three percent of departments responding to the ASA survey fall in this class. We should keep this in mind as we consider the results of the survey. Aesthetics News For example, it's plausible that there are fewer philosophers specializing in aesthetics at such 11 Conference Reports institutions, so that the survey overestimates the fraction of philosophers specializing in aesthetics. At the same time, we may be less worried about the representation of aesthetics in these departments, which tend to be very small. 12 Calls for Papers 14 Upcoming Events 2. Aesthetics Courses
15 Active Aestheticians One purpose of the survey is to gauge what might be described as the demand for aesthet ics-that is, aesthetics teaching. On the whole, this demand appears to be very healthy, indeed increasing slighdy.
aesthetics-online.org 100 90
ArchitECture 80 70 Social Sciences 60 Music 50
Rim Studies 40 30 Ulerature 20
Vrsual ArtS 10 0 o 10 20 30 40 50 Balanced Analytic Continental Historic"
Number of Aesthetics Courses Offered Outside Philosophy by Discipline §) Often [j} ~times §! Neve, Aesthetics Outside Philosophy
Comparison of Non-Aesthetics Courses with Aesthetics Topics Half the institutions surveyed have a course in aesthetics taught out by Departmental Emphasis side philosophy, usually in fine art, literature, fum studies or music, though some courses are also taught in departments of architecture, Undergraduate Aesthetics Courses anthropology, sociology, psychology and education. One might suppose that there is a relationship between aesthetics Forty-five percent of philosophy departments offer at least one lower offerings in the philosophy department and aesthetics offerings outside division course in aesthetics and 11 percent offer more than one. The philosophy. Aesthetics offerings in departments other than philosophy average enrollment is 27 students at an average rate of one and a half might sap demand for a philosophy department's aesthetics courses or sections per year. it might stimulate it. Tests were run to detect such a relationship. Only 14 percent of departments offer no upper division course in _ Contrary to expectatiQn,-'lffi:ring£.Jllill~ph.il=~hy areJlQlJl ----fteStheti~:tfef-'6ne,_a_quarter- effer-twe-and-0ne -in-tefl- effers- three factor determining whether or not aesthetics is offered within philoso or more. Of those departments with a course in philosophy, four in ten phy or, ifit is offered, how often it is offered. The teaching of aesthetics offer a course at least once a year, a third every other year, and quarter outside philosophy neither stimulates nor dampens the teaching of less frequently. The median enrollment in upper division aesthetics aesthetics within philosophy. courses is 17 and the average is 22 students. Even so, the survey data indicate that there is widespread demand For purposes of comparison, this distribution spectrum resembles for courses in aesthetics across the university arrriculum. Aesthetics may those for offerings in epistemology and philosophy ofscience (Schacht well be one of philosophy's most successful exports. 1997: 45-7).
Aesthetics in Philosophy Courses 100
90 Sixty-three percent of departments report that aesthetics is covered sometimes or often in their lower division philosophy courses. This 80 interest carries forward to the upper division, where topics in aesthetics 70 are sometimes or often broached in non-aesthetics courses in an aston 60 ishing nine of ten departments. It would be no surprise to find aesthetics mentioned in historical 50 courses, especially courses in ancient philosophy, Hume, Kant, Hegel 40 and continental philosophy. But it appears that topics in aesthetics also 30 have a home in epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy oflanguage, philosophy of mind, feminist philosophy, ethics and political theory. Aesthetics is clearly extremely well integrated in the philosophy curriculum in North America. Is there a difference in the way aesthetics is integrated into the curriculum in departments with different Aesthetics GradAestretics Epstemo!ogy Phil of Science orientations? Aesthetics 'sometimes' or 'often' pops up in non-aesthetics courses in 90 percent of analytically and continentally-oriented depart rn Every 1-2 years ments alike, though it appears 'often' in courses offered by seven times [] Occas ionally un Never as many continental departments as analytic ones. In historically-ori ented departments, which are overwhleminglyundergraduate, topics Relative Frequency of Course Offerings in aesthetics are broached in just over half of non-aesthetics courses.
2 ASANEWSLETIER In sum, aesthetics courses are offered regularly in most philosophy "'he< departments-with a frequency comparable to other core courses in philosophy. Aesthetics courses are also offered in great diversity. De Femi nist mand for these courses is increasing moderately and a sizable number of departments have plans to increase offerings. \bJai An Graduate Aesthetics Courses Fil m
One in every three departments with a doctoral program offer no aes Hst ory thetics courses whatsoever at the graduate level but 39 percent offer one course, 18 percent offer two and nine percent offer three or more. Li terature Almost equal fractions offer a course every year, once every two years
General and only occasionally (see Relative Frequency of Course Offerings chart above). 0 3 Numberof Aesthetics Courses Offered in Philosophy by Subject
The vast majority (85 percent) of departments offering any course in aesthetics offer a generic course. Of this group of129 departments, 50 offer philosophy of literature, 20 the history of aesthetics, 18 phi losophy offilm, ten the philosophy of the visual arts, eight feminist aes thetics and a handful each offer music aesthetics and environmental aesthetics. It should be noted that there is demand for these courses despite the fact that almost no department requires an aesthetics course for the major. Moreover, only one in seven departments offer aesthetics courses that are required by majors outside philosophy-mostly fine art and art history, with a few for music, architecture and art education majors. Indeed, one in five chairs report that their department does not Proportion of DOd oral Departments by Number of Graduate Aesthetics (ourses offer enough courses to m eet current demand and 70 percent of these are planning to offer more courses. That is, one department of every This distribution correlates with the figures for the proportion of seven surveyed plans to increase its offerings in aesthetics. faculty specializing in aesthetics in doctoral departments, discussed Three offour chairs report demand in these courses is steady. It is below. increasing in 13 percent ofdepartments and decreasing in nine percent. This correlation is not inconsistent with the diversity ofgraduate This matches the APA's data (Schacht 1997: 44). To put this in per aesthetics course offerings, which approaches that of undergraduate spective, compare it with the demand and demand trends for episte offerings. A generic course is taught in 31 departments, 21 offer the mology and philosophy of science (Schacht 1997: 45-7). history of aesthetics, eight offer philosophy of literature, five offer phi losophy of film, five offer feminist philosophy and a handful offer a 100 smattering of others. It is notable that history of aesthetics is much 90 stronger at the graduate level. This is due to the number of graduate courses devoted to single historical figures. 80 70 60 SO 40 30 20 10 o Aesthetics Grad Aesthetics Epstemology Phil of5dence
till Increasing o Steady Il2l Decrea5ing l5
Relative DemandTrends Number of Graduate Aesthetics Courses in Philosophy by Subjed
FALL 2000 3 Demand trends for graduate level courses are even higher than for departments surveyed lost an aesthetician. Of these, 42 percent have undergraduate courses (see Demand Trends above). Seventy-two rehired in aesthetics and 19 percent have plans to. In addition. one in percent of chairs report demand as steady, but only seven percent re ten departments who have not lost an aesthetician plan to hire one. port it as declining and 22 percent report it as on the increase. This is no surprise in view of the popularity among graduate stu dents of aesthetics. Fully half of doctoral departments have at least one graduate student developing a competence in aesthetics and a third have more than one, Half have at least one student writing an MA or
PhD dissertation related to aesthetics and a quarter have more than Riled with Aesthetics one. Among the departments responding (85 percent of all doctoral departments) there are 93 graduate students developing a competence in aesthetics and 56 students writing dissertations related to aesthetics.
3. Aesthetics Faculty
A Profile of Aesthetics Faculty in Philosophy Departments Plan 10 Fill with Aesthetics Hiring Trends The average number of resident faculty at the departments surveyed is 7.8. The average proportion offacuity within these departments who Assuming that plans to hire are fulfilled, these numbers indicate a do at least some research in aesthetics is one in five. very slight net rate of attrition of two percent of the aesthetics profes One in four departments have a specialist in aesthetics and three soriate every decade. However, taking into account the margin of error of every four departments have at least one full-time member who is for the survey, it is equally likely that the aesthetics professoriate will doing at least some research in aesthetics. Moreover, almost haJfhave remain close to its currents numbers. more than one member doing some research in aesthetics. Doctoral departments depart from this picture in two respects. First, more departments have a specialist in aesthetics-almost four in ten. 4. Conclusions
Several main conclusions about aesthetics courses are warranted: J..Ther<'-is->riJ.!e..coYeragcl=hetics ourrulqilii!Qs_QP-hJ0'J:>is.JI.Q.es not affect demand for aesthetics courses offered by philosophy departments.
2. Aesthetics is extremely well integrated into the philosophy curriculum, though somewhat less so in historically-oriented departments.
3. There is a remarkable variety of aesthetics courses on offer at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
4. Demand for aesthetics courses is steady and increasing somewhat. Proportion of Departments by Number of Aesthetics Faculty It matches demand for epistemology (a core course) and philoso phyofscience (an important non-core course). Second, almost nine in ten have at least one member doing some re search in aesthetics. As noted above, departments that do not have a 5. At the graduate level, demand for aesthetics as an area of specialist in aesthetics are less likely to offer a course in aesthetics. This competence or a dissertation topic is very healthy. Almost one in may reflect a reasonable reluctance to offer graduate-level courses in four departments report an increase in demand for aesthetics. a field not taught by specialists in the field. Incidentally, the chance that a department has representation in 6. Many chairs would like to offer more aesthetics and a substantial aesthetics does not appear to be affected by its philosophical orientation. number have plans to. Analytically-oriented departments are as likely to have members who do aesthetics as a continentally-oriented or balanced departments. 7. The philosophical orientation of departments is not a factor in any of these facts, except that aesthetics courses are offered in fewer Aesthetics Faculty: Trends departments with historical orientations.
As noted, demand for aesthetics courses is increasing overall. Is this These conclusions suggest that additional hiring is needed in aesthet matched by hiring trends? During the past decade, one in four of the ics. First, as their chairs recognize, undergraduate departments must fill
4 ASANEWSLETIER currentand projected demand for a wealth of aesthetics courses. Sec to lay open before the pupil the whole field, instead of confining him ond, graduate departments must also fill the demand for new to a single point ofview, and to trust somewhat to the powe", of his own candidates on the job market with the ability to teach courses in understanding for the separation of truth from error."2 This claim, that aesthetics. ra the history of philosophical ethics is an essential part of that subject, seems to be generally recognized today. Part of my claim is that this References does not seem to be equally recognized in aesthetics. A common way of teaching introductory ethics is to go through one of the many Schacht, Richard (1997) Philorophy in America 1994: Summary and convenient historical anthologies. To say the least, this is not as often Results. Newark DE: American Philosophical Association. the case in aesthetics. Consider just the past four or five decades, from the 1950's to the present. I suspect that during the 1950's, anyone who wanted to do a course in the history of aesthetics would have had dif The Lack ofHistorical ficulty finding an acceptable textbook. Then, curiously, in the 1960's, all of this changed. There appeared, during that decade, at least six Perspective good anthologies. The best of them was probably WhatisArt: Aesthetics Theoryfrom Plato to Tolstoy, edited be Alexander Sesonske (Oxford in Aesthetics: the Topic University Press, New York, 1965); Sesonske's anthology had almost everything. Also good was Philosophies ofArt and Beauty: Readings in Revisited Aesthetics from Plato to Heidegger, edited by Albert Hofstadter and Richard Kuhns (Modern Library, New York, 1964), though the readings selected in this one were a bit overly German, with hefty selections from Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, Schopenhauer and Schelling. Elmer Duncan Other offerings were Aesthetics Theories: Studia in the Philosophy ofArt, edited by Karl Aschenbrenner and Arnold Isenberg (Prentice-Hall, I know it is bad form to begin with a personal reference. But Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1965), Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Campbell Crockett was one of my teachers during the late 50's, and Criticism, edited by Marvin Levich (Random House, New York, early 60's, at the University of Cincinnati. He was, truly, a man of 1963), Philosophy ofArt andAestheticsfrom Plato to Wittgenstein, edited infinite jest, and a remarkably intelligent and articulate professor. by Frank A. Tillman and Steven M. Cahn (Harper & Row, New York, Among other things, he was for some years a member of the editorial 1969), and Perspectives in Aesthetics, Plato to Camus, edited by Peyton board of the Journal ofAesthetics and Art Criticism. One of his early E. Richter (The Odyssey Press, Inc., New York, 1967). But alas, the contributions to that journal was an article on "The Lack of Historical law of supply and demand did its work, and all of these are gone now. Perspective in Aesthetics," published nearly a half century ago, in For many years, it has been difficult to find textbooks in this area. The December of1951. I want to claim that Professor Crockett was right, good news is that these are two new anthologies for our use: Dabney in 1951, and that the situation has not improved markedly in the Townsend's Aesthetics, Classic Readings from the Western Tradition intervening years. (Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, Massachusetts, 1996) and Actually, Crockett's principal target for criticism was a claim made Aesthetics, the Classic Readings, edited by David E. Cooper (Blackwell by Eugene Veron, and echoed by Melvin Rader, that "traditional" art Publishers, Maldin, Massachusetts, 1997). Both appear to be compe was primarily "decorative," while more recent art is expressive.1 tent, but somewhat modest offerings compared to, for example, the older Crockett objects. He notes that more than two hundred years ago, Sesonske volume. While applauding these publications, one wonders Winckelmann saw Greek art as primarily expressive, not decorative whether sales will keep them in print. Finally, it should be noted that (whatever that means, and Crockett argues that the meaning of the the last major general history of our subject to be published in English term is by no means clear). was Aesthetics from Classical Greece to the Present by Monroe Beardsley The primary targets of my paper are much more obvious. What I (The Macmillian Company, New York, 1966), and that one, the sub want to suggest is that the discipline of aesthetics, in general, suffers tide informs us, was meant to be l'a short history." from a lack of historical perspective. I begin by noting that most of us In 1980, Sodal Research devoted a special issue to an assessment are philosophy teachers. As such, we are likely to be trained in ethics of the state of philosophy. Ted Cohen did the essay on aesthetics. first, and later (if at all) in the philosophy of art. So it is natural to com Cohen gave an optimistic view, calling attention to some "excellent pare these two "value" disciplines of ethics and aesthetics. And I want work" recently done on "the aesthetics ofHume, Kant, and the eigh to contend that this reveals a continuing lack of historical perspective teenth century in general."J And of course he was right. But even in in aesthetics. Later, I want to look at some specific areas calling for future those limited areas, it could be argued that the historical work done in study, and, finally, and briefly, I raise the question, "Why should this aesthetics has not kept pace recently with work done in moral matter?" and give a very tentative, perhaps hesitant, answer. philosophy. In am right in this, what is to be done? Ofcourse, we need To begin, pardon a rather obscure reference, but in July of1837, more and better historical work in all areas. But what are some specific Francis Bowen, of Harvard" published in the Christian Examiner a areas in which work needs to be done? Surely there are many, but I review of Francis Wayland's Elements ofMoral Science. Bowen praised shall restrict myself to citing only two. Erst, I think we need more qual the book but complained that Wayland, in his desire to lead his young ity studies of nineteenth century American philosophy in general, and students into the way of Christian virtue, had neglected the history of aesthetics in particular. It seems clear that the nineteenth century was philosophical ethics. He wrote "The history of ethics is in itself a part a formative period in our national history and has been too little studied. of the science. An enlarged and generous plan of instruction would be The importance of aesthetics in that century was a subject for debate
FALL 2000 5 even then. Thus, in 1879, G. Stanley Hall gave a very negative assess- Munro published an article on "The Strange Neglect of George Lan- ment in an article prepared for Mind on "Philosophy in the United sing Raymond: Some Needed Researches in American Aesthetics."6 States." Rayroond (1839-1929) had, Munro noted, been a teacher at an Ivy Aesthetics, so called, is taught in many colleges from various textbooks, League school for many years, wrote a whole shelf of books on such as Day, Bascom, Kames's Elements ofCritici sm, and compendi- aesthetics, corresponded with Santayana, etc. Yet, less than thirty years urns of art- history. An immense range of topics, from landscape after his death, he was all but completely forgotten. Why? The answer gardening and household-furniture to painting, poetry, and even music, would seem to be that Princeton, where Raymond was appointed "pro- are summarily treated, and more orless arbitrary psychological principles fessor of oratory and aesthetic cri ticism"7 in 1880 by President James are laid down as fundamental canons of taste. The work done in this McCosh, was one of the last strongholds of Scottish thought. When department we regard as not merely worthless, but as positively harmful. America moved on to adopt German philosophy, and then pragmatism, No attempt is made to explain the ulterior causes or the nature of the Scottish way of doing things was abandoned, neglected, forgotten . feelings of pleasure and pain: and without museums, galleries, or even Once more, note that the reason McCosh hired Raymond was his photographs, little can be learned of the history or principles of art.' expertise in oratory-and his Scottish methods of teaching his subject. Professor John Veitch had a much more hopeful view of the pros- I offer a second, very different example of needed research, and will pects for our discipline when he wrote, for the same journal, "Philosophy be brief this time. America'sJournal ofA esthetics andArt CritiC£sm was in Scottish Universities," two years earlier in 1877: self-consciously modeled on the Zeitschrijtfor Aesthetik und allgemeine Hutcheson's first work, the Inquiry into the original ojo ur Ideas of Kunstwessenschaft. That gre at G erman journal was edited by Max Beauty and Viriue, inaugurated another line of speculative thought in Dessoir from 1906, until the Nazi go,vernment forced it to cease Scotland. It was one of the very earliest modern treatises on the subject publication during World War II. Like Erkenntnis, the joumal began of Aesthetics. Appearing in 1725, it preceded the treatises of the Pere again after the war, but never regained its former glory. A simple look Andre in France (1741), and that of Baumgarten in Germany (1750). at tables of contents for the old ZAAK reveals a rich treasure of work It was the forerunner in Scotland of some very important and valuable by major scholars. Many of the articles dealt with the phenomenology discussion of the subject. One of the pupils of Hutcheson eaught the of art. Others struggled with the notion-which sounds strange to our impulse and the spirit of his aesthetical inquires. Adam Smith, a ears- of a "Kunstwi ssenschaft" (notice: it's not 'Kunts' und Glasgow student and a Snell Exhibitioner at Oxford, returned from the 'Wissenschaft'), not art and science but a science of art, or an "art- English university in 1748, at the age of25, and began his public career science." by giving lectures on Rhetoric and Belles lettres in Edinburgh. These I know of few extended studies of the "Zeitschrift." There are a formed part of the material which he afterwards used in his brief couple of chapters in the Earl of Listowel's 1933 doctoral dissertation, occupancy of the Logic Chair in Glasgow,-1750-51. They were post- published as Modem Aesthetics, an historical Introduction.' In 1993, humously published undectbe title 0~l'QjIOs2p.bical Essays. The t>.ilL- -LJdia G~.ehLdid :uu;uyciOltS, an
6 ASA NEWSLETIER that our young people today have a way of saying that to understand someone is to know where h e/she is "coming from." We must 1 Campbell Crockett, "The Lack of Historical Perspectives in Aesthet understand where our history comes from in order to move on ics," The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism X, no.2 (December productively and responsibly. 1951): 160. If not, there may be another way. For more than thirty years now, 2 Francis Bowen, CriticalEuays, 2d ed., (Boston: James Munroe and George Dickie has been struggling with some version or other of the in Company, 1845), 315. stitutional" theory of art. In an early version of that theory (1974), 3 Ted Cohen, "Aesthetics," Social Research 47, no.4 (Winter 1980): Dickie put matters this way, "A work of art in the classificatory sense 608. is (1) an artifact (2) a set of the aspects ofwhich has had conferred upon 4 G. Stanley Hall, "Philosophy in the United States," MindIV, (1879): it the status of candidate for appreciation by some person or persons 94. acting on behalf of a certain social institution (the artworld)."lO 5 John Veitch, "Philosophy in Scottish Universities," Mind II (1877): I've always thought Dickie's view paradoxical in a sense. On the 211-212. Of course what Professor Veitch said about Mam Smith is one hand, itwas easy to criticize (as many did). We might say, for ex not entirely correct. Some of the Essays are, to be sure, on topics relevant ample, that a university can confer status (a Ph.D., for example), but to the philosophy of art. But the "Rhetorick Lectures" were lost to us how can the "artworld" confer status, and how can just anybody act on until Professor John M. Lothian discovered them in 1958. The Lecture behalf of this institution? It was easy to be critical, but there remained on Rhetoric and Belies Lettres, edited by J.C Bryce, are now Volume IV the nagging feeling that there was something right about Dickie's view, of the Glasgow edition of the Works and Correspondence ofAdam Smith, i.e., being an art work does seem to have some connection with being Oxford, 1983. placed on display, on a pedestal, in a museum, etc. Under criticism, 6 Thomas Munro, "The Strange Neglect ofGeorge Lansing Raymond: Dickie abandoned the notions of status conferring and acting on behalf Some Needed Researched in American Aesthetics," Journal ofAesthet ofan institution. Instead, he now says "The later version claims (as does ics and Art Criticism 13, no. 4 (June 1955): 533-537. the earlier version) that works of art are art as the result of the position 7 J. David Hoeveler,Jr.,fames McCosh and the Scottish Intellectual Tra or place they occupy with in an established practice, namely, the dition,from Glasgow to Princeton, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton artworld."11 University Press, 1981): 243. I have been tempted to write an essay against this later version, 8 The Earl of Listowel, ModenzAesthetics, an Historical Introduction, tentatively entitled "Say It Ain't So, George!" protesting the fact that (New York: Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia Uni Dickie has now given up a controversial and intellectually challenging versity, 1967). The relevant chapters would seem to be Chapter 9, view in favor of one for less interesting. Nevertheless, he may have "The Theory of the Science of Art," and Chapter 10, "The Phenom given us, in this information, the truth that is to be found in the enological Theory." institutional theory. It does seem just common sense (and I know the 9 Lydia Goehr, "The Institutionalization of a Discipline: a Retrospec m~tter is more comPlicated than this) that we tell the difference tion of theJounzal ofAesthetics andArt Criticism and the American So between cats and dogs by seeing that one has physical characteristics ciety for Aesthetics, 1939-1992," Journal ofAesthetics andArt Criticism that the other lacks. But we cannot distinguish art objects from other 51, no.2 (Spring 1993): 99-121. things in that way. Art objects can only be defined in terms of some sort 10 George Dickie,Introduction toAesthetus, anAnalytuApproach, (New of practice, institution, or history. York: Oxford University Press, 1997) 83. We come full circle, and are left with the conviction that Campbell 11 Ibid., 88-89. Crockett said it better, better, at least, than I can. Near the end of his 12 Crockett, op. cit., 163. 1951 essay there is a paragraph that, given what has been done in the years since, I have trouble believing was written almost ftftyyears ago. Crockett wrote "I suggest that the word art denotes a unique historical phenomenon. We should consider the possibility that art is not capable ofdefinition in the traditional sense. I am not asserting that this phe nomenon is nothing more. I suggest that the word art denotes a unique American Society for Aesthetics historical phenomenon. We should than an aggregate of diverse and heterogeneous objects and activities. But I am asserting that historical perspective is indispensable to discernment of patterns displayed by 58th Annual Meeting in 2000 this phenomenon. There is an arbitrary element in my procedure, and Wednesday, October 25 - I wish to be certain that it is not concealed. An examination of what Saturday October 28,.2000 those of the past and present have regarded as art convince me that art is a unique historical phenomenon."12 University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada That seems right enough to me. I only add that if Crockett isright in this, then the careful srndy of the history of our discipline, this "ex Visit the ASA website at amination ofwhat those of the past and present have regarded as art",
FALL 2000 7 tory of Art," Margolis focuses on the art theories of Hegel, and to a Review greater degree, those of Greenberg and Danto, the latter two whom he considers adherents of Hegelianism. In response to Danto's view that art has entered a "post-historical" phase in which no further develop ments or styles are forthcoming, and in which everything is permitted, Joseph Margolis, What, After All, is a Work ofArt? Margolis poses the question: could it not be the case that the attitude which avers that the contemporary period of art has transcended all University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania University possible epochs of some master narrative of art might itselfbe simply the latest stage of that same narrative? He also asks: what of Danto's Press, 1999 history of art? If that is changed, his notion that art has ended evapo rates. For Margolis, changing what counts as art results in an altered history, which makes the end of art as untenable as the end of human history. Steve Wall In the second chapter, "Relativism and Cultural Relativity," Margolis holds that relativism is a much more alluring position than Joseph Margolis's latest book is a collection oflectures and essays on art, philosophy, and particularly works such as Plato's Theatetus and aesthetics, culture, and epistemology. Readers already familiar with Aristotle's Metaphysics, have allowed. He states that both the ancient Margolis's work will find some clarifications and amplifications of his and the modern critics of relativism (such as Beardsley and Hirsch) have previous positions. Those who are not will find this book to be an made an unwarranted assumption: that what is fundamentally real is excellent introduction to the more important themes of these unchanging. For Margolis, relativism is not an inherently subversive philosophical areas as they have developed over the last three decades doctrine; rather it is an honest way to avoid the illusions that issue from or so. A minor warning to this latter group of readers: Margolis's invariance and bivalence. And relativism is supremely operative in the language occasionally requires a second or even a third perusal. cultural realm. He writes, perhaps in an over-general way: However, those who are willing to make this effort will be rewarded "Furthermore, the world of human culture-oflanguage, languaged with the products of an engaging critical mind. Margolis's acute, critical thought, history, technology, art, and most provocatively, whatever we eye subjects all thinkers and ideas, regardless of their stature or suppose are the competence of science, and the conditions of the world's reputation, to keen analysis. Whether the theorist in question is a con intelligibility-is clearly contingently formed, impressively variable in temporary luminary such as Arthur Danto, or is a member of the structure, eminently alterable by human intervention, problematically "canon," such as Benjamin or Kant, Margolis is always willing to intelligible under conditions that change with changing history, and subject them to criticism. His criticisms are always interesting and, more endlessly novel and creative" (44). A biva!ent mode ofinterpretation irilf'ortantly, frequendy on the mark. is inadequate for fluxive -cultunilphenomena; what is needed is an In his prologue, Margolis argues that in order to make sense of the approach that accounts for the multiple ways in which they may be recent modernistlpostmodernist debate, it must be bracketed into local interpreted. Instead of only 'true' or 'false' values, Margolis introduces arguments: those of Greenberg and Krauss on modern painting, those such values as 'not false' which are capable ofaccounting for multivalent of Venturi and Jencks on architecture, of Fredric Jameson on film, those interpretations. This multivalency nonetheless allows us to reach a form of Riffiaterre, Hutcheon, and Hassan on literature and literary theory, of"objec tivity." He alludes to Foucault's treatment of Velasquez' Las and those of Habermas, Lyotard, Rorty, and Zygmunt Bauman on Meninas and Barthes reading of Balzac's Sarrasine as examples of what philosophy. There is not a "settled center" of the quarrel as different he is suggesting but this reader would have preferred that Margolis had parts of the globe emphasize differing terms, nor is there a standard provided his own interpretations of a number of disparate works to postmodernist perspective that can be gleaned from these disparate illustrate his thesis. While Margolis is correct to suggest that a cultura! disciplines. Margolis mimics this in the way he sections off the reductionist bivalency is inadequate to interpret many works, I don't book itself. think he sufficiendy appreciates the fact some interpretations are Margolis defines modernism as the notion that one can locate stronger than others; or that some interpretations are more indicative objective and se9ll'e interpretations of the world, while postrnodernism of the author's intentions, while others simply reflect the critical stresses that we cannot, but he states that these distinctions are merely prejudices of the moment. localized disputes that obscure the rea! puzzle and are symptomatic of "What, Mter All, Is a Work of Art?" is the third and cenrra! essay a larger issue. He posits that the real issue that confronts us is not this in terms of chronology, and since it shares the book's title, one goes in self-deceiving distinction, but the recovery of historicity, and "historicity assuming both that it will be centra! to the book's thesis and will shed signifies the end of the necessary changelessness of the very structure some light on an issue that has flummoxed many aestheticians and of rationa! thought and, under post-Kantianism, the end of the change philosophers of art recently, namely how art might be defined in a lessness of the very structure of the intelligible world. Historicity is the manner that avoids circularity and question-begging. Margolis says collective change of the structure of encultured thought through the that Morris Weitz, who is largely responsible for undermining the processes of historic a! life" (8-9). The recovery of historicity leads to possibility of a universa! definition ofart, stated but did not demonstrate another insight: the presence of an agon between "modal invariance" that art's openness precludes locating a definition that will cover all and "flux". While recent intellectual history has been couched in terms possible manifestations of art. Margolis appears not to think that such of invariance and neutrality, Margolis optimistically offers that an ap a formal definition is all that important anyway. He retains his earlier preciation of the reality of the flux of hi story is emerging. notion that "artworks are physically embodied and culturally emergent In the ftrst chapter, "The History of Art Mter the End of the His- entities" which possess histories. He concedes that this "generic (not
8 MA N EWSLE1TER yet specific) formula" has drawn its share of criticism and as one permeable-continually open to redefinition and change as additional clarification of the formula he offers that "entities" are individuated, experience is received and examined"(28). reidentifiable denotatum located in the realm of existents. This Detels argues that the failure to integrate the arts with one another eliminates numbers, kinds, universals, !}pes and similar groups as they and with the history and wider culture of American society has do not exist. Were artworks to be counted among this group they would contributed to the marginalization of the humanities and the narrow, perforcelack perceptible qualities, which is not true. This clarification technocratic focus that education has come to assume. The arts lose by reduces the scope of what can count as artworks, but some readers this, the humanities lose, and, most of all, the students and society in might prefer an even more specific rendering of the concept of art. general lose. This is a problem that lies not with individual teache" but In the fourth chapter, "Mechanical Reproduction and Cinematic with the very structure of the curriculum in American education, a Humanism," Margolis discusses the evolution offUm theory. He sug curriculum that divides art education into separate channels, each gests that film has developed in a way its theorists could not have discipline in its own domain and with its own sequence of specialized anticipated, and that many film theories err because they are not courses. founded on an understanding of the human experience. He offers his All this applies equally to aesthetics. Detels makes a broad and relativistic logic as a way to effectively capture fIlm's interesting and open compelling case for the relevance of aesthetics to arts education, par qualities. (In this chapter readers are also treated to some succinct ticularly to music education. But for aesthetics to contribute signifi criticisms of persons engaged in the philosophy of art. For example, of cantly to education in the arts, it must forego its exclusiveness and its Kant, whose presence in aesthetics Margolis finds regrettable, and of preoccupation with narrow, technical issues peculiarly its own. Benjamin, whose stature as a force against totalitarianism prevents Aesthetics, moreover, should not see itself as a discipline searching for many commentators from criticizing him but whose ideas on art are universal answers but rather recognize its historicity and its continuity nonetheless wrong-headed most of the time.) with the arts and their practice. This book will leave most readers hoping that Margolis will be com To accomplish this, Detels wants to loosen many boundaries: pleting another one soon. HI were to offer a suggestion for how he goes between aesthetic theory and artistic practice, among the individual about developing that work, it would be that he apply his theories in an arts, between the arts and their historical and cultural context, and extended way to particular works of art. ril between history and philosophy (32). Taking Heidegger's sense of boundary as "that from which something begins its essential unfolding" (77), she sees this unfolding proceeding both within and across permeable borders. What helps us grasp this process is to think of the Review arts not as structured orders of objects that require study in specialized courses but as experiences that are integral and that engage us. The three major divisions of the book develop these ideas. Detels considers them first and more generally in relation to the arts and Claire Detels, Soft Boundaries: Revisioning the Arts and aesthetics. In separate chapters she develops a powerful critique of hard boundaries and considers the narrowness of historical canons and Aesthetics in American Education the failure of philosophers to deal adequately with the history and practice of the arts. Since Detels's special area is music, she quite Westport, CT: Berfin and Garvey, 1999 naturally pursues her case there in the fullest detail in the second part of the book, documenting how completely the disciplines in music education have been fragmented. She goes further to develop a new paradigm for music that relates it to the body and understands it as an Arnold Berleant art whose soft boundaries encourage the interrelatedness ofcomposers, performers, audience, critics, and community, no one of which can be The title of Claire Detels's new book, Soft Boundaries, is a telling understood apart from the others. This leads her to develop a critique metaphor for her thesis, which is as straightfOlward as its implications of autonomist or formalist aesthetics and especially music theory. are profound: The fragmented, single-disciplinary, hard-boundaried Detels' richly developed argument leads her finally to its application structure of our curricula and our educational institutions in the arts to the curriculum. In this third part, she offers specific examples of must be replaced by a new approach, one that softens the lines between reformed curricula, both in music and in arts education more generally, the individual arts and, within them, between their history, theory, and where history, theory, and practice join in complementary roles. I found practice. 11Us same pursuit of interrelationships and continuities must this section particularly welcome, for it gives specific and concrete form carry over into the various humanistic disciplines and into the sciences. to her more general proposals. It also offers a fascinating view of the While others have pursued the intertwining of the arts in aesthetic rich possibilities of a soft-boundaried curriculum. For example, she theory and metaphysics, Detels focuses on music and particularly on presents a history and theory curriculum that integrates folk and popular its implications for reforming curriculum. To this she brings an informed music with different periods of classical styles and with the music of commentary grounded on solid experience, claiming that other rulnues. A theory curriculum includes notation, melodic structure, "Soft-boundaried education in the arts and aesthetics means integration harmony, forms, and styles of folk, popular, commercial, and of historical and philosophical inquiry with practice and experience of non-Western music, together with traditional classical and artistic production, within and beyond the traditional boundaries of arts contemporary techniques, and it combines these with ear training, disciplines. Soft boundaries may be used to construct concepts and com arranging, and composition in some of these styles. There is a municate about them across disciplinary boundaries; but they are also discussion of the specific recommendations in the Goals 2000 national
FALL 2000 9 standards for arts education, and last of all the curriculum of an but rather that it is capable of different kinds and degrees of interdisciplinary course in the arts in aesthetics she developed at the appreciation and understanding. The coda to the fourth movement of University of Arkansas, which includes drama, dance, the visual arts, Mozart'sJupiter Symphony is exciting to most lovers of classical music, music, environmental arts, photography, ftlm, and new art forms. The but its ingenious fugal complexities are recognizable mostly to the final chapter considers the critical role that education in the arts can play trained musician. Similar things can be said of Berg's Wozzeck. in countering the confusion between reality and representation that However, the powerful aesthetic possibilities of complex forms are not interactive computer technology has produced: Virtual reality, she confined to such works. Sometimes the most profound musical claims, is one form of"epistemological pollution" that aesthetic education sensibility can be touched by relatively simple musical means, as in must confront. "Only with teachers and students trained to value and Purcell's "Dido's Lament" from Dido andAeneas. I'm certain that none pursue relationships among the arts, aesthetics, and our lives will we be of this is new to Detels, but it bears mention in a full and fair account. prepared to navigate the deep waters of twenty-first-century experi Detels's very first words express her deep commitment to the cause ence" (142). The chapters in this book can stand independently, many of the arts and aesthetics as a uniquely valuable part of the educational of the~ having appeared elsewhere earlier. While this results in some process. She carries this banner through an impressive array of issues. repetition, it does allow the reader to read selectively without losing a How Claire Detels manages to find her way through the maze of hard sense of the larger picture, and it also serves to make her argument stand boundaries to an interdisciplinary and interactive engagement of out clearly and forcefully. history, philosophy, art theory and practice is itself something of a Soft Boundaries represents an important effort to re-think the rela confirmation of the value of her claim that historical and cultural forces tion of philosophical aesthetics to the theory and practice of the indi refuse to be contained within rigid lines. Taking an activist's stance to vidual arts. Without oversimplifYing, Detels skillfully represents many this cultural process, Detels is working to promote the integration of the of the different positions in current aesthetics, as in her discussion of theory and practice of the arts into the wider cultural process. One only Danto, Levinson, and Carroll (49 ff). She is clear about where these hopes that this movement toward inclusiveness and interdisciplinary debates stand in relation to the issues she takes as most important communication will mark a turning point in the direction ofa new and (largely outside them). But while she is critical of analytic aesthetics, she lasting pattern. Joining with recent developments in the sciences and does not give much consideration to alternative theoretical approaches humanities, from quantum mechanics to deconstruction and feminist and their substantive contributions, such as phenomenology, theory, she sees an educational paradigm emerging that inttgrates the deconstruction, henneneutics, postmodemism, and pragmatism, nor do arts, history, and philosophy into a coherent cultural context. We ~eed her sympathies with feminism lead to an extended discussion. finally, this not only in the interests of educational practice but for an aesthetics her critique of hard boundaried aesthetics and art education might have of the arts that is both richer in theoretical resonance and truer to the been still more effective if one did not have to wait until the last part way the arts function in most cultures. ~ __~ e book fur lJl:r ROS!tive alternatiy'e~ _ _ __ _ What Detels has done here is admirable, yet it is at the same time problematic. While her goal ofintegrated interdisciplinary curricula in the arts is eminently desirable, the difficulties of achieving it are, I think, monumental in an academic climate that is on the one hand almost entirely vocation-oriented and, in what is left, highly technical and Teaching Aesthetics narrow. It's impl,:>rtant to emphasize, however, that her argument is not theoretical rhetoric, for she has begun to implement these proposals. Call for Submissions Still, I suspect that she may be underestimating the difficulty in getting specialist scholars not only to teach in an interdisciplinary, integrative The Newsletter invites papers and other materials that address way but, more important still, to think and experience this themselves. the teaching of aesthetics, art theory and art criticism. Also invited She does indeed face that problem, suggesting that we start with faculty are submissions to the Teaching Aesthetics section of Aesthetics seminars and workshops (128 ff.), but the institutional, political, On-Line. professional, and personal obstacles are formidable. I suspect aestheticians will be among the last to change, for their professional pedagogical essays investment in their intellectualist canon may too great to be vulnerable .:. to criticism on historical, cultural, pragmatic, experiential, and pedagogical syllabi grounds. On the other hand, it's important to appreciate that at least some case studies issues in aesthetics are indeed technical and require specialized knowl edge and skills in dealing with them. Similarly, while catholicity in music reading lists and bibliographies is desirable, we must still acknowledge the wide range of appreciative .:. experiences which different kinds and styles evoke and that these are discussions of individual artworks not interchangeable or in any way equivalent. The entertainment quality of an advertising jingle is different from rock; the musical book, film and exhibition reviews experience of the folk ballad "Lord Randall" is quite unlike that of Britten's War Requiem. Detels well knows how music of high complexity can achieve transcendent beauty through its developed and sophisticated art. This doesn't mean it will necessarily be inaccessible
10 ASA NEWSLETIER committee. Please send the nominations via work of Radford and Scruton. Justin London, Aesthetics email to the National Office, Music, Carleton College, argued that in the
FALL 2000 II environmental aesthetics opened with an invited judgements. She was followed by James Mock, paper,"The Savage Beast Revisited: Reflections of presentation by Bureau of Land Management Philosophy, University of Central Oklahoma, who Music, Morality and Aesthetic Nihilism,- questions botanist Bruce Delgado on the restoration of spoke on ·Disputing About Tastes: He argued whether the arts have a positive moral effect. native vegetation on sand dunes at the nearby that natural and moral beauty are the objects of Looking at three models of aesthetic response, former Army base, Fort Ord. Delgado's charming taste and that there is nothing in Hume that optimism, pessimism and nihilism, by using presentation included the first Asilomar ·camp leads to relativism in aesthetic judgements. Eva examples from films and philosophical writing, sing- along", Following this. John Fisher, Dadlez, Philosophy, University of Central Soderholm concludes that aesthetic nihilism is Philosophy, University of Co lorado, asked in what Oklahoma, concluded the session with her paper the most appropriate of the models. way art about nature guides the aesthetics of ·'The Vicious Habits of Entirely Fictive People,' The Fourth SeSSion, had two panels. literature nature, and particularly whether autobiographi She argued that because Hume holds that in the Southwest, was chaired by George Moore, cal responses to nature are problematic. morality is based on the very sentiments the President of the Association. First was -'A The conference closed with two Friday narrative art intends to arouse, we cannot divorce Hole Where the Natives Had Been': John Nichol's morning panels. In the first panel, Susan Hahn, morality from narrative art. The Magic Journey" by Michael Manson, English, Humanities Center, johns Hopkins University, The second session ran two panels. Reuben University College of Cape Breton, who talked attempted to explain inconsistencies in Ellis, a Past-President of the Association, chaired about John Nichols' criticism of American Socrates' polemic against poetry by assimilating Merleau-Ponty & Revel. Patricia Locke of St.John's colonialism in Northern New Mexico in his The these attitudes to modern ones, and to an College, Annapolis, talked on "The Body is the Magic Journey. He was followed by Bob Frye, agonistic theory of poetry. Aaron Meskin, Place in the Thought of Merleau-Ponty." She English, Texas Christian University, w hose "The Philosophy, Texas Tech University, followed with discussed Merleau-Ponty's explanation of space Aesthetics of the Ordinary, Part II: Barbara his discussion of theories of artistic value, concen in( the Phenomenology of Perception by using Kingsolver's Realistic Craft in Pigs in Heaven, trating on those proposed by Ronald Dworkin architecture to talk about the role of the body in discussed Kingsolver's humour that sometimes and Malcolm Budd. The last panel of the the articulation of space. S. K. Wertz, Philosophy, simply entertains but sometimes becomes meeting considered two issues from Texas Christian University, then spoke about political commentary that advances her anti photography. Julie Van Camp, Philosophy, NRevel's Conception of Cuisine: Platonic or mythic view of the Southwest. The last paper in California State University at Long Beach, HegelianrTurning first to Deane Curtin's Platonic the session was read by George Moore, English, proposed distinguishing the meaning of reading of Revel's Culture and Cuisine, Wertz University of Colorado at Boulder, who talked originality (as a relationship between the artist claimed that a Hegelian reading of the text about ·0. H. Lawrence's New Mexico Poems: and the work of art) from the evidence used to produces a more sympathetic and more Aesthetics and Ideology in Conflict." Moore's assess it, which also includes the relationship of comprehensive interpretation of that text. Wertz thesis was a defense of Lawrence against charges the work to other works. Birgit Tregenza, was followed ·by William Springer, Philosophy, of fascism, and ra cism on the basis that Lawrence I Philosophy, California State University at University ofTexas at EI Paso discussing -Movies must be read in the context of his own Northridge, addressed the views of Kendall and the Metaphysics of Mind." Taking Merleau psychology and his vision of himself in the r· Walton and Dominic Lopes on photography, and Ponty's eS5ay "Film and the New Psychology" and process of developing his new consciousness. argued that photographs are not necessarily the act of watching a film as his frame of The concurrent panel, Education and the more transparent than handmade pictures. reference, Springer argued for an existentialist Avant-Garde, chaired by Arthur Stewart had two The Division has named conference chairs for conception of the person. papers. The first by John Haddox, Philosophy, the next two yea rs: Dam Lopes John Samson, Secretary-Treasurer of the University of Texas at EI Paso, talked about the
ASA NEWSLETIER developments in both field s_ In the panel on not exceed twelve standard pages in length and Music, Manuel Davenport,Philosophy,Texas A&M, Calls for should require no more than twenty minutes had his paper 'Music and Biology: read by his reading time. They should be prepared for blind son because he was ill. The paper argued that Papers review and should include an abstract. musicians possess a capad ty for advanced motor Send submissions to Sarah Worth, Department and mental skills know n as -ballistic control- that Pacific ASA of Philosophy, Furman University. Greenville SC makes them attractive to women; thus musicians Pacific Grove, CA 29613.
FALL 2000 '3 will take place at Witte de With center for con XVth International Congress of Aesthetics and the Ends of Art temporary art and design in a broad perspec Aesthetics Ange/aki Special Issue tive, that of the image culture of our times. See Aesthetics at the 21 st Century
The Royal Institute of Philosophy Essays in Philosophy: A Biannual Journal Conference 2001 Environmental Aesthetics Coleridge, Friendship and the Origins of Philosophy and the Emotions Modernity 11-13 July 2001 Given today's intense interest in environmental is University of Warwick, England sues, environmental aesthetiCS offers philosophers 13, 14 February 2001 This conference aspires to act as a forum for the an important opportunity to explain and ground presentation of key papers by leading figures in claims about the aesthetic value of the environ A two-day conference will be hosted by the the analysis of emotions, and for the ment. In this relative ly new field, much of the Centre for Research in Philosophy and Literature, commencement of a dialogue on this topic discussion has focused on the aesthetic value of University of Warwick. Guest speakers will be among advanced researchers from different wilderness but there are many topics worthy of Tillotama Rajan, Paul Hamilton and Ant hony philosophical disciplines, including t he discussion and exploration. This issue of Essays in Harding. philosophy of: action, art, cognition, literature, Philosophy offers a forum for this exploration. Recent philosophical interest in friendship meaning, mind, and value. Papers relating to all aspects of environmental and community has highlighted the important Papers of 3,000 words may be submitted in aesthetics are welcome. Papers should not focus though ambiguous role played by relationships 'blind-review' format to Anthony Hatzimoysis, primarily on issues in environmental ethics. . in Western thought. More particularly, among Centre for Philosophy, Government Department, All submissions should be sent to Professor su ch diverse thinkers as Cavell, Blanchot and University of Manchester, Manchester, M 13 9PL UK Robert Snyder, Humboldt State University, via De rrida, the rethinking of friendship has email
'4 ASA NEWSLE'ITER for a 2(}minute paper to: Heather Jones, Centre Deconstruction and Relativity, Process Theology, for Research in Philosophy and Literature, Existentialism and Essential ism. This list is 2001 John Fisher Prize University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL illustrative and not exhaustive. (Tel : +44 0247622582). For further information contact Dr. Kisor The ASA is pleased to announce the
FALL 2000 I'
American Society for Aesthetics ~on-profit Organizatio Marquette University U,S, POSTAGE PAID 404 Cudahy Hall MILWAUKEE WI P.O, Box 1881 Permit No. 1664 Milwaukee WI 53201-1881
Active Aestheticians ASA NEWSLETTER professional orchest ra s, the Pleven Phil harmonic EDITED BY Curtis Carter won the Kairos Award for 1999 in an all Beethoven program including th~ Sarah Worth given annually by Marquette University to Coriolan Overture, Piano Concerto No.4, and recognize the achievements of individuals and Symphony No.3, His volume (co-edited with ISSN 1089- 1668 organizations who have advanced significantly Richard Shusterman), Interpretation, Relativism, and the fine arts through contributions and service the Metaphysics ofCu lture:T hemes in the Philosophy The Newsletter is publish ed three ti mes a to the Beatrice Haggerty Museum of Art. Carter ofJoseph Margo /i' appeared in 1999. year by the American Society for Aesthet has been the director and chief curator of the ics. Subscriptions are available to non and have Haggerty Museum since 1984. Joseph Margolis Tom Rockmore members for S15 per year plu s postage. edited a special issue of Metaphilosophy on the For subscription or membership Pradeep Dhillon, a member of the Philosophy of "Philosophy of Interpretation." The volume information: ASA, 404 Cudahy Hall, included a collection of papers by a number of Education Division of the Department of Educa Marquette University, Milwaukee WI tional Policy Studies at the University of Illinois well known philosophers and other specialists 53201-1881; (414) 288-7831; fax (414) 288- who have focused very pointedly on certain at Urbana-Champaign, assumed the editorship 7889; email
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