A STUDY OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KARUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU
Thesis Submitted to Bharathidasan Univesity, Tiruchirappalli in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Award of the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS
Research Scholar Mr. V. RAMACHANDRAN (Ref.No:11009/Ph.D2)/Economics/P.T/July2009)
Research Supervisor Dr. R.VEERASEKARAN, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., BLIS., Formerly Associate Professor & Research Advisor PG & Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College (Nationally Re-Accredited with “A” Grade by NAAC) Tiruchirappalli- 620019. Director, Mohd. Sathak Group of Institutions Solinganallur, Chennai – 600 119. TAMILNADU - INDIA
PG and Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College (Nationally Re-Accredited with “A” Grade by NAAC) Tiruchirappalli- 620019 TAMILNADU - INDIA.
OCTOBER 2014
Certificate
Certificate
Certificate
Dr. R.VEERASEKARAN, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., BLIS., Formerly Associate Professor & Research Advisor PG & Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College (Nationally Re-Accredited with “A” Grade by NAAC) Tiruchirappalli- 620019. Director, Mohd. Sathak Group of Institutions Solinganallur, Chennai – 600 119. TAMILNADU - INDIA
Date:
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “A STUDY OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KARUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU” submitted to the Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics is a bonafide and original work done by Mr. V. RAMACHANDRAN under my supervision and guidance.
The thesis has not been submitted to any other university or institution for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship, or any other Title.
Signature of the Guide
Dr. R.VEERASEKARAN
Declaration
DECLARATION
Declaration
Mr. V. RAMACHANDRAN M.A., M.Phil., B.Ed., Research Scholar, Post Graduate & Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Kattur Tiruchirapalli-620 019. Date:
DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis entitled, “A STUDY OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KARUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU” has been originally carried out by me at the Post-Graduate and Research Department of Economics, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli under the guidance and supervision of Dr. R.VEERASEKARAN, M.A., M.Phil., PhD., BLIS., Formerly Associate Professor & Research Advisor), PG & Research Department of Economics Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli- 620019
Place : Tiruchirappalli Signature of the Candidate Date : V. RAMACHANDRAN
Acknowledgement
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to my Research
Guide Prof. Dr. R.VEERASEKARAN for the continuous support of my PhD study and research, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research till I have completed this thesis. His morale and sincerity adorned me to go for thesis submission at an appropriate time with sufficient data collection processes from various bureaucratic and academic agencies at local, regional, national and global levels. I really thank him again and again.
To the Management and Principal Dr S.SEKAR, M.Com., M.Phil., M.B.A.,
Ph.D., PGDCA., of Urumu Dhanalakshmi College my thanks are due for allowing me to do the research work in the college, without which the work would not have been completed.
I thank the Bharathidasan University, for allowing me to do the research work on this topic under the guidance of learned scholars in the premier institution at
Tiruchirappalli.
It is my duty to express my thanks to the Dr. K. KAMAR JAHAN M.A.,
M.Phil., MBA., M.Ed., Ph.D., Head of the Department and other faculty members of the Department of Economics for assisting me with adequate guidance necessary for completing my doctoral program. Acknowledgement
Besides my advisor, I would like to thank Dr. M. Perumal for his invaluable help particularly in Statistical Analysis, his ideas to form methodology and overall guidance in brining this scholarly work with success.
I owe my sincere thanks to Dr.V.B. Jugalae Professor of Economics Jiwaji
University of Solapur, Maharastra for his excellent help.
My sincere thanks also go to PhD Scholars including of UDC College for their help throughout the study period.
I would like to thank the fraternal teachers who have responded my queries in a good manner I was able to get ideas and inputs to complete my PhD work. Really I am indebted to them.
I owe sincere thanks my parents Mr.M.Veerasamy, V.Nagammal and my father- in-law Mr.M.Kalaiselvam Rtd. Supnt and mother-in-law K.Chandrodayam (Rtd.HM) for their constant encouragement.
Last but not the least, I will be failing in my duty if I don’t thank my wife
Mrs.R.Anisuya Devi B.A., and my daughter R.Shobitha is who has given moral support and encouragement to me throughout the period of this PhD work. She is always there to cheer me up and stood by me to complete the work successfully.
Place : Tiruchirappalli Signature of the Candidate
Date : V. RAMACHANDRAN
Contents
contents
Contents
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
NO TITLE PAGE NO
I INTRODUCTION 1-19
II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 20-81
III AREA PROFILE OF KARUR DISTRICT 82-93
EMERGING ISSUES ON PERSPECTIVENESS OF IV 94-147 TEACHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
V ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 148-226
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND VI 227-244 CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY i-xxii
LIST OF TABLES
Sl.No TITLE PAGE NO
5.1 Distribution of Sample 153
5.2 Reliability of Teacher Perspectives Scale Validity 158
Total and Area-wise Correlations of the Teacher 5.3 Perspectives Rating Scale and Teacher 160 Perspectives Scale
Value of the Effectiveness Scores of the two 5.4 Groups of Teachers who have been Rated by the 170 Headmasters as Effective and Ineffective Teachers
Inter-correlations among various Areas of 5.5 179 Teacher Perspectives Scale (N=180)
Estimates of Internal Consistency and of 5.6 186 Equivalence for the Eight SOCDQ Subtests
Reliability Coefficients, Indicators of Reliability, 5.7 Corrected Coefficients and Standard Errors of 191 Measurement
5.8 Showing Split-Half and Test-Retest Reliability 193
5.9 Showing the Percentile Norms (N=180) 194
5.10 Reliability levels of the four scales in the survey 197
5.11 AHS teachers’ teaching experience 199
5.12 AHS teachers’ computer experience 201
5.13 AHS teachers’ training in computer use 201
The relationship between computer ownership and 5.14 203 computer experience of the AHS teachers
The relationship between computer ownership and 5.15 204 computer training of the AHS teachers
AHS teachers’ computer experience by age 5.16 205 Computer Experience
5.17 AHS teachers’ training in computer use by age 206 5.18 AHS teacher’s computer perceptions 207
Pearson product-moment correlations among 5.19 209 perceptions scales
AHS teachers’ gender differences in Computer 5.20 211 Attitudes and Confidence and Comfort
Teaching field and computer perceptions 5.21 relationships for AHS teachers with Internet 212 connection
Test of ‘No Education Effect’ and ‘Constant Returns 5.22 220 to Scale’ Hypotheses
5.23 Estimates from First-differenced Equation 220
Percentage Distribution of Economic Growth in 5.24 221 China (1990-2000)
Estimates from First-Differenced Equation with 5.25 223 Disaggregated Average Education Variable
5.26 Test of Identical Marginal Effects of Education 224
5.27 Test of Identical Marginal Effects of Education 224
5.28 Further Estimates 226
LIST OF CHARTS
Sl.No TITLE PAGE NO
5.1 Distribution of Sample 154
5.10 Reliability levels of the four scales in the survey 198
5.11 AHS teachers’ teaching experience. 200
5.18 AHS teacher’s computer perceptions 208
Chapter-I Introduction Chapter I
Introduction Chapter –I Introduction
CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION
The ultimate goal of education is the harmonious and progressive development of the child. It can be achieved only when teachers have certain characteristics and qualities in them. A scholar may properly be devoted to his special subject, but the teacher must always think of subject matter in relation to its value in life and its use for children. The great teacher is concerned with what the pupil can do with subject matter and how knowledge affects the learner, and not primarily with the mastery of a subject for its own sake. The teacher begins with the innovative capacities of the child, his experience in the home and in the outside world, his physical, moral and spiritual potentialities and work with him to develop a person who can meet the problems of life in an intellectual way. Thus the teacher is potentially the integrator of personalities, the counselor and guide to learners, the developer of citizens and the servant of the state as guardian of the individual.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Teachers who inspire and motivate the students are included in the category of "Effective Teachers. Teacher effectiveness plays a pivotal role in the teaching learning process. It, being the hub of the whole programme, needs close observation and critical analysis. It is generally agreed that the "goodness" of an educational system to a great extent is dependent on quality of teachers available to implement it. An effective teacher may be understood as one who helps in the
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Chapter –I Introduction
development of basic skills, understanding, proper work habits, desirable attitude and value judgment. Teacher effectiveness concerns with these outcomes and the objectives of education. It points to the effects of a teacher in the classroom situation. A school may have excellent material resources, equipments, building, library and other facilities along with a curriculum appropriately adopted to suit the community needs, but if the teachers are misfit or indifferent to their responsibilities, the whole program is likely to be ineffective and wasted.
The school is the greatest tool available to spread information to others. It is the best training ground to teach individuals to become agents for change and become productive members of the society. Yet, schools cannot do this without having teachers who wish to bring forth change and who possess the necessary human traits, abilities, skills and competence. The importance of teacher in the educational process is unquestionable. The teacher occupies the key position all the human factors in the education system, and it is only through them that the ultimate process of education takes place. Teachers are uniquely positioned to define their problems and seek solutions in their own situations and their own terms. But teachers‟ perceptions about what goes on in the school often differ from public perceptions. Teachers consistently view public education in a more positive light than that of public. In addition, the role of teachers in the class room has shifted, therefore, they are required to wear many hats during the course of the school day.
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Chapter –I Introduction
The teacher today faces new challenges in the education calling for greater effort from teachers. Teachers as a group are not more maladjusted than members of other vocations. Problems of adjustment are common to all groups, but every vocation presents certain problems peculiar to itself. Perhaps the prime condition of satisfactory adjustment is that the teachers have confidence in their own competence and that they respect their vocation. Generally, teaching is not conductive to that growth and maturity of mind that seem so necessary to personal satisfaction and consciousness of worth. Some administrators over that as a class the older teachers are less competent a statement which, incidentally is tantamount to say that our school do not do much to develop teachers. Also, it will probably be admitted that teachers would derive greater satisfaction from their work if they could look forward to a long period of promotion and if they could see every where about them evidence of increasing growth and development.
Importance of Teacher in Our Society
What‟s the most precious material we have in the country; children. If we don‟t give them best keepers and mentors and teachers, we are destroying the future of the country. Teachers are the constructor of our nation but we are so careless about that. We underpay teachers, we hire poorly prepared teachers and we don‟t help them. We don‟t go into school and help them, “What can we do?” We don‟t participate. It‟s a matter of taking care of the children. If you have a child who‟s ill, you want the best doctor. You want the best surgeon, “I want the best surgeon for my child.” But do we say that about teachers? No, we don‟t. We know that surgeons are well paid, they better be well paid, they don‟t want to have
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Chapter –I Introduction
worries at home. It should be the same with teachers; they are the single most important profession in the country because they are shaping the future. And some of them are misshaping the future or they are not being helped by us.
First step is clarification of what a teacher will do for pupils what he/she wants to help them learn. The teacher needs to know the actual purposes of education as well as; the second step is that of selecting the materials and methods which promise to be of most helpful in accomplishing these purposes.
The third step is that of evaluation, of accurately assessing the results of his/her teaching efforts.
There are three categories of effect, in terms of object affected, that pertain to pupils, school operations and the school community. According to Hough and
Duncan, (1970):
"Teaching is an activity, a unique professional, rational and human activity in which one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of others".
The art of teaching also includes presenting the subject mater in an attention-catching manner through simple language, pleasing gestures and soft voice. It is a step to bring about greater opportunity for the students to become educated. It is the establishment of a situation conditioned to bring effective learning. It is a complex situation with a range of activities where in the teacher is the focal point. The teacher‟s sense of efficiency is a central achievement.
4
Chapter –I Introduction
School organizational climate is the major determinant factor of the
Perspectives of Teachers. The management of the class room teaching process, performance evaluation, handling of the curriculum, sharing of responsibility by the staff, involvement of the community and acquiring and administrative support etc. are different characteristics on which schools perform differently. The school organization not only has to pay utmost attention to the physical setting of the school, class and its structure but also the learning process, enabling the children to understand discipline, punctuality and the sense of service etc. A perspective of
Teachers is also affected by the conduct of schools which depends upon the availability of adequate facilities and provision of suitable teaching staff.
The atmosphere in which the schools conduct themselves in a unique way is technically known as its organizational climate. Teachers tend to function whole heartedly and more effectively in schools with more open climate in which ideas and feelings are expressed more openly and vice versa. It was for the first time in
1954 when the idea of a study of organizational climate of schools was discussed
(Halpin 1954). Halpin and Croft (1963) defined personality is to the individual as climate is to the organization. Thus they have defined climate as the personality of an organization. School climate as the personality of a school has been often described in terms of the social interactions between the teachers and the principal and among members of the teaching staff. The climate of an institution means the interpersonal relationship within the group and between the groups and its leaders
(i.e. staff, personnel and head of the institution) respectively. It is the social milieu,
5
Chapter –I Introduction
the human behaviour or social atmosphere that pervades all activities in the educational institution. All this calls for looking into teacher-school interactions and also how teachers behave in a situation conducive or not conducive to him/her.
Perspectives of Teachers
The Secondary Educational Commission (1952-1953) has rightly stated: we are however convinced that the most important factor in the contemplated educational reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities, his educational qualifications, his professional training, and the place that he occupies in the school as well as in the community.
Education Commission (1964-1966) observed that the success of any system of education depends on the quality of its teachers, who shape the classroom by sharpening younger generations. It is no exaggeration to say that any system of education can never rise above the level of the quality of its teachers.
School Organizational Climate
Organizational is that social system whose activities are governed by social laws as said by Keith Davis “Just as people have psychological need they also have social roles and status”. Educational institutions are organizational set up for achieving particular purposes. They are social systems. If educational administrators have to work in them or to manage them, it is necessary for them to understand their nature and their working. The functioning of organizations is so complex that it almost defies understanding yet, educational administrators have
6
Chapter –I Introduction
got to understand then as they have to use them for achieving certain well-defined goals. Understanding of educational organizations is very important, if it is desired that these should function efficiently contributing effectively to the achievement of desired goals.
Organizations are “complex, socio-technical” having both “adaptive and maintenance mechanisms”. The urge to modify structure and functioning in order to confirm to the changing environmental conditions and also the urge to resist change, both being inherent in every organization, creates tensions, stresses and conflicts within it and affects its worker participants as well as the climate.
Climate is attitudinal and is also defined as the qualitative aspect of the interpersonal relationship within the organization. New Webster‟s Dictionary of the
English language (1981) describes climate as the tendency suggestive of the mood and temper of a social organization or a political group. Climate may also be defined as a set of properties of the work environment, which are specific to a particular organization, that may be assessed by the way the organization deals with its employees and it‟s societal and task environments. This definition views the climate as an entity generated by some unique way of interaction of a particular organization with its boundaries.
The dictionary of education (Good, 1959) defines organizational climate as the pattern of social interaction that characterizes an organization. “A set of characteristics that describe an organization and that distinguish the organization
7
Chapter –I Introduction
from other organizations and influence the behaviour of the people in the organization is known as its organizational climate.” The human interaction that takes place in the school plays an important role. The school is the web of interaction among people who live and work together in a particular way. The atmosphere in which the school conducts itself is technically known as its organizational climate. School being an organization can be said to have its own culture emanating from its role expectations and functions. Schools are expected to develop the interests, attitudes, intellectual ability and creativity level, personality make up, value system, habits and character of their students. The psycho-emotional environment in which the process of education takes place in school speaks of its organizational climate (Sharma, 1978).
Netzer and Eye term these inherent interacting forces of the organization as resisters and exciters (see Sharma, 1973). They also hypothesize linker force operating in between these two and restoring balance within the organization. This whole operation of forces interacting with each other generates a unique climate within each organization.
Organizations are human creations and fundamentally they consist of people rather than buildings, equipment, machinery etc. The term organization is a general and restricted to industrial and commercial films educational and medical institution. Social clubs are a wide range of other organized human activities.
8
Chapter –I Introduction
Corwin (1966) says: “An organization can be defined as (1) stable patterns of interactions (2) among conditions or groups having a collective identity (e.g. a name and a location), (3) pursuing interests and accomplishing given tasks, and
(4) coordinated through a system of authority.”
Simply stated an organization consists of deliberate arrangements among groups for doing things i.e. arrangements for coordinating the activities, coalition of groups that have a collective identity for, pursuing interests and accomplishing given tasks, and coordinated efforts through a system of authority”.
Thus, are may say “Organizations are social units (or human groupings) deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals. Corporations, armies, schools, hospitals, churches and prisons are included in this broad definition. On the other hand, tribes, classes, ethnic groups and families are excluded. In other words these are characterized by division of labour, power and communication responsibilities, the presence of one or more power centers which control the concerted actions of the organizations and direct them towards its goals, substitution of personnel.”
People within organization are required, to some extent, to be working to common goals and coordinate their activities to this end. Although relationships between people are determined according to certain structure.
The school organization affects the teaching of the teachers. Class room teaching, performance evaluation, handling of the curriculum, sharing of responsibility by the staff, involvement of the community and acquiring and
9
Chapter –I Introduction
administrative support etc. are definitely handled by different schools in a varied manner to give a name to the institution, unique to its style.
`The school organization not only has to pay utmost attention to the physical setting of the school, class and its structure but also to the learning process enabling the children to understand discipline, punctuality and the sense of service etc. effective teaching is also affected by the conduct of schools which depends upon the ability of adequate facilities and provisions of suitable staff.
School, their facilities and equipment, together with the educational system in which they function are often inadequate can effect adversely.
The atmosphere in which the schools conduct themselves in a unique way is technically known, as its organizational climate. Teachers tend to function whole heartedly and more effectively in schools with more open climate in which ideas and feelings are expressed more openly. The term organizational climate of schools is differently denoted by researchers. Argyris calls this the „living system of organizations.
Argyris (1957) treated organization as a personality. According to him change in different aspects of society affects the organization. Many variables operate in society that includes formal organizational variables, personality variables and informal variables. These three variables are mixed beyond classification and form a pattern in which each plays a functional role.
10
Chapter –I Introduction
Personality is to the individual what organizational climate is to the organization. Organizational climates have marked consequences on the behaviour of the members of the organization and consequently on the achievement of the organization (Halpin and Croft, 1963). They also defined the organizational climate as patterns of social interaction that characterized an organization. The main units of interaction in this concept of climate were individuals, the group as a group and the leader.
Withal (1965) “climate represents the general emotional factors present in each individual's complex of feeling arising out of shared experience and interpersonal interaction”. As Halpin (1966) pointed out when one moves from school to school, it can be observed that each school appears to have its own personality. As one can study the personality of an individual through the study of his behaviour, we can study the organizational climate of a school through a study of the behaviour of the leader and members of the school. This level was refereed to as a living complexity and was defined as the organizational climate.
In practical terms organization is usually evaluated on the basis of two dimensions: (i) performance and (ii) human factors. Halpin and Crofts (1963) enunciated four common dimensions: (i) Disengagement (ii) Esprit (iii) Intimacy and (iv) Production Emphasis. The four new dimensions stated by Sharma in 1973 are: (i) Psychophysical Hindrance (ii) Alienation (iii) Controls and (iv) Humanized
Thrust. These dimensions have further been grouped under two categories:
“Group Behaviour Characteristics” and “Leader Behaviour Characteristics”.
11
Chapter –I Introduction
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
All educational thinkers, policymakers, administrators and all educational committees and commissions--Indian as well as foreign hold that the
Perspectiveness of instruction depends vitally upon the quality of the teacher, who is the pivot of an educational system. As far back as 1952, Secondary Education
Commission observed that: the most important factor in the compemplated educational reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities, his educational qualifications, his professional training and the place that he occupies in the school as well as in the community.
The Perspectiveness of instruction in schools depends vitally upon the quality of the teacher and teacher Perspectiveness is the competence and ability of a teacher to teach effectively and effective teaching involves a set of teaching behaviours which are specially effective in bringing about desired changes is an effective manner and the class room learning demands the actions of a leader on the part of a teacher.
A successful teacher becomes better and better because his actions are not based simply on intuition but on careful analysis, reflection and planning. A good working view point is that the successful teacher is not a perfect one, but one with aptitude for teaching and favourable attitude towards teaching who stays busy at the job of self improvement. Thus to sum up as Mahasan (1995) has said:
"Teaching is certainly one of the oldest professions. In modern formally situations especially with young ones the teacher builds up instruction, trains, moulds and guides for healthy growth and stable adult life.
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Chapter –I Introduction
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The important aim of education is all round development of child‟s personality and that is possible only if the good type of atmosphere or climate is provided in schools. The school organizational climate is often one of the determining factors of the success and failure of the school. The results of the study pertaining to school organizational climate and its effect on teacher
Perspectiveness could serve to broaden the implications to be drawn from research and it is also expected to provide a field of great interest in educational philosophy. School organizational climate has been reported to have a major influence on teacher‟s motivation, productivity, performance and job satisfaction.
The school organizational climate significantly affects the academic achievement of students which is otherwise related to teacher Perspectiveness.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Teaching is a series of events through which teacher attempts to bring desired behavioural changes in students. It imparts useful information to the students and develops harmonious relationship between the teacher, the students and the subject. The art of teaching also includes presenting the subject matter in a attention–catching manner through simple language, pleasing gestures and soft voice. It is a step to bring about greater opportunity for the students to become educated. It is a complex situation with a wide range of activities wherein the teacher is the focal point. The present study deals on “A STUDY OF
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER SECONDARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KARUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU” in a detailed manor.
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Chapter –I Introduction
OBJECTIVES
The present study was undertaken with the following objectives:
To study about the personnel management Perspectives of Higher
Secondary School Teachers in Karur District.
To study the better management practices followed in improving their
Perceptiveness.
To study teacher Perspectiveness among Higher secondary school
teachers of Karur District in relation to their school organizational climate.
To study teacher Perceptiveness among Higher secondary school teachers
of Karur District in relation to gender, location, teaching experience and
stream (science, social science and languages).
To study interaction effect of school organizational climate separately with
gender, location, school, teaching experience and of stream on teacher
Perceptiveness among secondary school teachers of Karur District.
To study interaction effect of location of school, gender, teaching
experience and stream on teacher Perceptiveness among secondary
school teachers of Karur District.
To study and compare more effective and less effective teachers on their
attitude towards teaching, job satisfaction and different dimensions of
school organizational climate.
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Chapter –I Introduction
HYPOTHESES
Higher Secondary School Teachers teaching in open autonomous and familiar
school climate will have significantly higher level of teacher Perceptiveness as
compared to their counterparts teaching in paternal, controlled and closed
climate.
There will be no significant gender difference in Teacher Perceptiveness
among Higher Secondary School Teachers in Karur District.
There will be no significant difference in teacher Perceptiveness among
teachers belonging to rural and urban Higher Secondary Schools in Karur
District.
Higher Secondary School Teachers having different levels of teaching
experience (less than 8 years, 9–15 years, 16 and more than 16 years) will
exhibit significant mean differences in their teacher Perceptiveness.
The more effective Higher Secondary School Teachers will differ significantly
from less effective teachers in their attitude towards teaching, job satisfaction
and eight dimensions of school organizational climate.
METHODOLOGY
In order to study Perspectives of teachers among secondary school teachers in relation to school organizational climate and certain selected personal variables, namely gender, location of school, teaching experience and stream a sample of 75 higher secondary schools (15 Rural and 15 Urban) were selected. Further all the teachers (Totaling 540) working in these schools were administered following research tools.
15
Chapter –I Introduction
Multi-Stage Sampling Technique was followed to select the sample size
School Organizational Climate to assess school climate in six types of
climate namely open, autonomous, familiar, controlled, paternal and
closed.
Perspectives of Teachers Scale to assess Perspectives of Teachers.
Teacher Attitude Inventory to assess attitude of teachers towards teaching
only in terms of „more effective‟ and „less effective‟ teachers.
Job Satisfaction Scale to assess job satisfaction of teachers towards
teaching only in terms of „more effective‟ and „less effective‟ teachers.
The main aim of the present investigation is to study the “A STUDY OF
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER SECONDARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS IN KARUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU” effects of school organizational climate on teacher Perceptiveness as a whole and in combination with certain personal variables such as gender, location, stream and teaching experience. Also it aimed to evaluate how effective teachers differ from less effective ones in terms of job satisfaction and teacher attitudes. To investigate the factors underlying these variables, proper procedure and standardized tools were used.
SAMPLE
The universe of the study was higher secondary schools of Karur District.
The sampling for the study was made in two phases. In first phase three Taluks
Namely Karur, Aravakurichi and Kulithalai. Out of 75schools 30schools were
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Chapter –I Introduction
selected randomly, having average, low and high literacy level respectively. In second phase 15rural and 15 urban schools from these districts were selected on random basis. Thus, a total sample of 30 schools were drawn for the conduct of the study. The total number of teachers in all the 30schools were obverted as 540
30per cent of sample (180) were selected as a sample for study purpose.
PERIOD OF THE STUDY
The present study deals one year period 2009-2010. About 10months period have been spared by the researcher to contact the selected respondents.
STATISTICAL TOOLS
Descriptive statistics was used to explain school organizational climate prevailing in secondary schools of Karur District along with and Perspectives of
Teachers.
Analysis of variance, followed by t-test was used to study main and interaction effects of school organizational climate in combination with gender, location, teaching experience (less i.e. below 5 years, average i.e. 5-10 years, and more i.e. above 10 years) and stream on Perspectives of Teachers among Higher
Secondary School Teachers.
The investigator used two sets of tools in the present investigation. One set of tools was to identify school organizational climate and Perspectives of Teachers and select more effective and less effective teachers. The other set of tools,
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Chapter –I Introduction
namely, teacher attitude inventory and job satisfaction scale was administered only on more effective and less effective teachers, identified on the basis of their
Perspectives of Teachers score. In short four tools, selected for use in the study are described hereunder in brief:
Inter correlation matrix,„t‟ test Rating scale technique, Anova and kuder-richardson test have been used to analysis and to interpret data.
FUTURE DIRECTION OF RESEARCH
The present study tries to find out the Unanswered Research Gaps on improving their quality and Perceptiveness of higher secondary school teachers in this area in future with the perspective future plans.
LIMITATIONS
The present study is not free from some limitations and constraints It exclusively deals only in Karur district alone. Among many taluks in this district only three taluks have alone taken in to account for study purpose and so it is micro level study and not in the macro level. There may be possibility of the exclusion of some schools and teachers. It is not serious lacunae for a plain truth result of the experiments would not affect to much and teachers (respondents) are unwilling to provide certain information.
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Chapter –I Introduction
CHAPTERIZATION
Chapter-I : Deals introduction, importance of the study, statement of the
Problem, scope of the study, objectives, hypotheses,
methodology, sample size, statistical tools, limitations and
Chapterization
Chapter-II : Deals Review of Literature
Chapter-III : Area Profile of Karur District
Chapter-IV : Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in
India
Chapter-V : Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Chapter-VI : Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
Bibliography
19
Chapter-I I Review of Related Research Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Chapter – II Review of related literature
CHAPTER – II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of the related literature involves locating, reacting to and evaluating the researches, carried out earlier, and also the causal observations and opinions that are related to any research problem being explored. This encourages the researcher to have a thorough understanding and insight into the work already undertaken and key areas to be explored further. It is vital that in a spirit of adventure we should not neglect a particular fact because it is of past and should not accept a new one because of its newness. It is quite important to give reference to the old so that new one could be learnt. No research endeavour is unique in descriptive research and variables, under investigation are studied in different combinations to understand the dynamics of cause and effect relationship underlying any phenomenon. Thus related studies provide a comparative data on the basis of which one can evaluate and interpret the significance of one‟s finding.
Chhaya (2006)1investigated into certain psychological characteristics of an effective school teacher, which was conducted on 80 effective and 100 ineffective higher secondary teachers. The findings were that (i) effective teachers had significantly better personality adjustment and more favourable attitude towards teaching than ineffective teachers (ii) effective teachers did not show significantly
1 Chhaya (1974) An Investigation into certain Psychological Characteristics of an Effective School Teacher (A Comparative Study of Effective and Ineffective School Teacher) Ph.D. Thesis in Psychology. Kanpur University, Kanpur.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
more interest in teaching than ineffective teachers, (iii) effective teachers were significantly more emotionally stable than ineffective teachers (iv) effective teachers were not more extrovert than ineffective teachers.
Kaul (2009)2 factor analyzed the personality traits of popular secondary teachers and arrived at four factors namely, striving self-confidence, ability and preservance and calmness. In another factor analytical study on the intellectual and personality correlates of teacher Perspectiveness, Grewal (2010) found that the measures of personality traits clustered in specific constellations with the criterion measure of teacher Perspectiveness.
Goel (2011) 3 reported extroversion as an important factor related to teacher Perspectiveness. Using the Flander‟s Interactive Analysis System, he found extrovert teachers to have greater interchange of classroom events than introvert teachers. The extrovert teachers had large transition from pupil response to the categories of teacher praise; encourage and questions as compared to introvert teachers. It appeared that extrovert teachers had all the seven interaction models of critical teaching behaviour while introvert teachers had only first four models of teaching behaviour. In conclusion, it may be said that personality dimension of extraversion is important in shaping the teacher‟s behaviour.
2 Kaul, L. (1974) A Factorial Study of the Personality Trails of Popular Teachers. Indian Educational Review, 9(66), 78. 3 Goel, S. (1978) Behaviour Flow Patterns of Extrovert and Introvert Teachers in Classroom at Secondary Level Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Meerut University, Meerut.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Mutha's (2012)4 study attempted to identify the attitudinal, motivational and personality factors which differentiated effective teachers from in
Perspectiveness ones. The major findings of the study were that sex, professional training, nature of schooling and income levels were significantly associated with the teacher Perspectiveness.
The single most important contribution, education can make to a child‟s development is to help him towards a field where his talents best suit him, where he will be satisfied and competent. By encouraging children to develop a full range of abilities that and hence school becomes an agency to develop life skills.
Academic achievement is nothing but the knowledge attained or skill acquired as measured by the test scores or assigned by the teacher. But how a academic achievement is influenced by the Perspectives of Teachers in relation to school organizational climate. Thus overall Perspectives of Teachers is an important aspect of the total personality of good teacher. Hence, the present study is an effort to study the Perspectives of Teachers of secondary school teachers of
Punjab in relation to school organizational climate. For this purpose, the review of literature is being presented under three sections:
Studies related with Perspectives of Teachers.
Studies related with organizational climate.
Studies related with Perspectives of Teachers and school organizational
climate.
4 Mutha, D.N. (1980) An Attitudinal and Personality Study of Effective Teachers, Ph.D. Thesis in Psychology, Jodhpur University.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
STUDIES RELATED WITH PERSPECTIVES OF TEACHERS
Sharma’s (1971)5 investigation aimed at studying the relationship between characteristics possessed by teacher and Perspectives of Teachers with a view to predicting teacher success. Teaching aptitude appeared to be a sound predictor of
Perspectives of Teachers.
Chhaya (1974)6 investigated into certain psychological characteristics of an effective school teacher, which was conducted on 80 effective and 100 ineffective higher secondary teachers. The findings were that (i) effective teachers had significantly better personality adjustment and more favourable attitude towards teaching than ineffective teachers (ii) effective teachers did not show significantly more interest in teaching than ineffective teachers, (iii) effective teachers were significantly more emotionally stable than ineffective teachers
(iv) effective teachers were not more extrovert than ineffective teachers.
Kaul (1974)7 factor analyzed the personality traits of popular secondary teachers and arrived at four factors namely, striving self-confidence, ability and preservance and calmness. In another factor analytical study on the intellectual and personality correlates of Perspectives of Teachers, Grewal (1976) found that the measures of personality traits clustered in specific constellations with the criterion measure of Perspectives of Teachers.
5 Sharma, R.A. (1971) A Study of the Relationship of Predictors of Teacher Effectiveness at Elementary Level and Follow-up After One Year of Training Ph.D Thesis in Education, Meerut University, Meerut. 6 Chhaya (1974) An Investigation into certain Psychological Characteristics of an Effective School Teacher (A Comparative Study of Effective and Ineffective School Teacher) Ph.D. Thesis in Psychology. Kanpur University, Kanpur. 7 Kaul, L. (1974) A Factorial Study of the Personality Trails of Popular Teachers. Indian Educational Review, 9(66), 78.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Goel (1978) 8 reported extroversion as an important factor related to
Perspectives of Teachers. Using the Flander‟s Interactive Analysis System, he found extrovert teachers to have greater interchange of classroom events than introvert teachers. The extrovert teachers had large transition from pupil response to the categories of teacher praise; encourage and questions as compared to introvert teachers. It appeared that extrovert teachers had all the seven interaction models of critical teaching behaviour while introvert teachers had only first four models of teaching behaviour. In conclusion, it may be said that personality dimension of extraversion is important in shaping the teacher‟s behaviour.
Mutha's (1980)9 study attempted to identify the attitudinal, motivational and personality factors which differentiated effective teachers from ineffectiveness ones. The major findings of the study were that sex, professional training, nature of schooling and income level were significantly associated with the Perspectives of
Teachers.
Scott (1985) conducted a study to investigate the background variables of individuals employed and how those variables may be used to select effective substitute teachers on a sample of 206 substitute teachers. The findings indicate that one variable i.e. pedagogical course was an important discriminating factor regarding the identification of potentially effective substitute teachers.
8 Goel, S. (1978) Behaviour Flow Patterns of Extrovert and Introvert Teachers in Classroom at Secondary Level Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Meerut University, Meerut 9 Mutha, D.N. (1980) An Attitudinal and Personality Study of Effective Teachers, Ph.D. Thesis in Psychology, Jodhpur University.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Handayani (1985) 10 conducted a study to investigate the relationship between teacher motivation and Perspectives of Teachers on a sample of 100 teachers. The findings revealed that significant results were found only in case of the self actualization level of motivation vis-a-vis Perspectives of Teachers. It was, therefore, concluded that the teacher who possessed the highest level of motivation, self-actualization, tended to be more effective teachers.
Blalock (1985)11 attempted to study differences in student locus of control and self-concept under conditions of more effective and less effective teaching.
The results indicated no significant differences between students of more and less effective teaching at year‟s end.
Christensen (1986) conducted a study to determine which effective teacher characteristics were exhibited by associate teachers from the university of
Idaho on a sample of 35 teachers. The findings indicated that how well an associate teacher scores in a teaching strategies course is not related to the effective teacher characteristics, exhibited during the practicum experience.
10 Handayani, S.W. (1985) The Relationship between Teacher Motivation and Teacher Effectiveness among Selected Secondary Teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(12), 3550-A. 11 Blalock, R.E. (1985) The Relationship between Student Achievement as a Measure of Teaching Effectiveness and Student‟s Locus of Control and Self-Esteem. Dissertation Abstracts International, 6(11), 3289.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Cosper (1986)12 studied to identify the relationship between planning and teacher performance on a random sample of principals and teachers in public school system throughout the United States. The findings indicated a relationship between Perspectives of Teachers as rated by principals and teachers planning practices as reported by teachers.
Mauser (1986)13 examined the predictive validity of the teacher perceiver interview on it related to teacher as judged by the teacher‟s immediate supervisor on a sample of 77 teachers. The findings indicated that there was no predictive validity as no relationship emersed the teacher perceiver interview and
Perspectives of Teachers as judged by the teacher‟s supervisor.
Bennett (1986) 14conducted a study on a sample of 56 teachers and 633 students. The findings indicated that principal teacher relationship has an impact on teaching effectiveness and this relationship appears to have complementary dimension.
12 Cosper, B. (1986) An Analysis of Relationships between Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Planning Practice. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48(3), 523-A. 13 Mauser, P.J. (1986) The Predictive Validity of the Teacher Perceiver Interview to Teacher Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48(1), 21-A. 14 Bennett, S.R. (1986) The relationship between Administrator Leadership Style and Teacher Personality Variables as a Predictor of Teaching Effectiveness. An Exploratory Study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(6), 1938-A.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Purser (1986)15 investigated the relationship between a classification of
Perspectives of Teachers determined by student achievement on a set of teacher variables which include years of teaching experience on a sample of 87 high school teachers and found that there was no significant relationship between the collective set of selected teacher variables and Perspectives of Teachers.
Kirby (1987)16 conducted a study to operationalize the concept of reflective practice in teaching and to empirically test the relationship between reflective practice and Perspectives of Teachers. She found that measures of Perspectives of Teachers gathered through one hour classroom observation of 102 teachers were not significantly correlated with scores on the Reflected Teaching Instrument.
Noerrlinger (1987)17 concluded a study to examine student feedback on
Perspectives of Teachers and those factors, which might influence student feedback on a sample of 19 principals, 76 teachers and 1500 student. Result indicated that elementary students can be reliable source of information on
Perspectives of Teachers. The students agreed with the principles and rated the more teachers significantly higher than the less effective teachers on personal interest, classroom management, presentation, guided practice and independent interactions were found between students' feedback on teachers effectiveness and the teacher‟s age, sex, experience level, ethnic origin and educational level.
15 Purser, S.T.R. (1986) The Relationship between Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Evaluation and Selected Teacher Demographic Variables. Dissertation Abstracts International. 47(11), 3931-A. 16 Kirby, P.C. (1987) Reflective Practice as a Predictor of Teacher Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(7), 1771-A. 17 Neorrlinger, G.R. (1987) Student Feedback on Teacher Effectiveness for the Purpose of Improving Instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International 49(1), 22-A.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Baughn (1987)18 attempted to identify the standards established by school districts of evaluation of teachers and to determine whether the districts standards reflect the Perspectives of Teachers. The findings indicated that experience and training are not associated with the extent of utilization of Perspectives of
Teachers research findings by evaluators.
Stark (1987)19 determined whether placement on the Taxes Career Ladder at Level 11 had a significant impact on Perspectives of Teachers and the professional development of classroom teachers in the San Antonio Independent
School district on a sample of 337 teachers. The findings revealed that on Career
Ladder, 11 teachers are effective in the classroom and teacher with more than
20 years experience provide individuals assistance to students more often than teachers with less than 15 years of experience.
Egins (1987)20 conducted the study to investigate teacher‟s perceptions of the impact of the District of Columbia Teacher center upon Perspectives of
Teachers and classroom performance of 250 teachers. The findings revealed that years of experiences in teaching age and gender did not have significant impact on instructional effectiveness of participating teachers.
18 Baughn, C.A. (1987) An Investigation of the Utilization of the Teacher Effectiveness Research Findings as the Standards for Teacher Evaluation. Dissertation Abstracts International. 48(2), 259.
19 Stark, P.L. (1987) The Impact of the Career Ladder on Teacher Effectiveness and Professional Development in the San Antonio Independent School District. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(4), 691-A.
20 Egins, D.E. (1987) Teachers Perceptions of the Impact of the District of Columbia Teacher Center on Teaching Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(6), 1989-A.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Duschner (1987) 21 revealed that significant correlations were found between classroom teaching behaviour and overall Perspectives of Teachers.
Further most, relationship between classroom behaviours and overall effectiveness varied substantially in magnitude and direction depending on a grade level, academic level and subject area.
More (1988)22 concluded that out of the 16 personality factors, only six were found to be positively correlated with Perspectives of Teachers of which intelligence was the most important. The total personality of the teacher was found to be affecting his teaching.
Prakasham (1988)23 attempted to compare the strength of Perspectives of
Teachers in various types of school organizational climate as well as under different levels of teaching competency across sex differentiation and territorial variation. The sample comprised of 800 teachers along with 92 principals from 120 government local body, private non-Christian and Christian schools. The findings indicated that teacher of urban schools located in industrial areas significantly excelled over teachers employed either in semi-urban schools or school located in industrial areas on both teaching competency and Perspectives of Teachers and that there existed a significant relationship between teaching competency and
Perspectives of Teachers.
21 Duschner, P. (1987) Teacher flexibility in relation to classroom teaching behaviour and perceived teacher-effectiveness, Dissertation Abstracts International. 48(6), 1416-1417-A. 22 More, R.T. (1988) A Study of the Relationship between Personality Aptitude for Teaching and Effectiveness of Secondary Teacher Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Nagpur University, Nagpur.
23 Prakasham, D. (1988) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness as a Function of School Organizational Climate and Teaching Competency. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Ravishankar University in the Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988-1992), p. 1465-66, Vol. II, NCERT.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Mincucci (1988)24 examined whether background characteristics that are available prior to employment have any relationship to teacher satisfaction or
Perspectives of Teachers ratings. The results revealed that few background characteristics of teacher viz. educational levels, sibling status, birth rank, childhood socio-economic level, mother‟s education, father‟s education, years of teaching, decision to teach, extra-curricular involvement and equality point average quartile, show significant relationships either to teacher satisfaction reports or effectiveness ratings.
Gupta (1988) 25 attempted to study the intelligence, adjustment and personality needs of effective teachers in on a sample of 46 science teachers and
298 arts teachers from the 39 intermediate college of Aligarh district and concluded that Perspectives of Teachers was found to be related to the experience of the teachers. They were found most effective in the 11-15 years experience group after that it began to decline and also that Perspectives of
Teachers was found to be related to the age of teachers. They were found most effective in the age group of 30-39 years; after that their effectiveness went on diminishing afterwards.
24 Mincucci, S.A. (1988) The Relationship of Selected Teacher Biographical Characteristics with Teacher Effectiveness and Satisfaction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49(12), 3606-A.
25 Gupta, S.P. (1995) A Correlation Study of Teacher‟s Job Satisfaction and their Teaching Effectiveness. The Progress of Education LXIX(10), 207-208.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
Saruis (1989)26 compared the attitude of elementary 150 school teachers and 25 principals towards the importance of Perspectives of Teachers characteristics in evaluating teachers. The findings revealed that there was a strong agreement between teachers and principals with respect to which teachers and principals with respect to which Perspectives of Teachers characteristics are important for use in conducting teacher evaluation.
Spellman (1989)27 examined the Perspectives of Teachers in preparing an
Individualized Educations Plan (IEP) on 60 special education teachers. The findings revealed that issues involved in improving the IEP process are not limited only to Perspectives of Teachers in writing IEPI‟s but also include other factors within the educational system.
Fecser (1989)28 conducted a study to investigate whether highly effective sensitive teacher of severely behaviour disordered students demonstrate higher rates of effective teaching behaviour than teacher low in this dimension. It was found that there was no significant differences between the coded instructional behaviour of High Scoring Teachers (HST) and Low Scoring Teachers (LST).
26 Saruis, J. B.K. (1989) Comparison of Attitudes of Selected School Teachers and Principals towards the Importance of Teacher effectiveness Characteristics in Conducting Teacher Evaluation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50(11), 3469-70A.
27 Spellman, R.T. (1989) An Investigation of Teacher Effectiveness in Preparing the Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) as Mandated by Public Law 92-142. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50(9), 2862-A. 28 Fecser, F.A. (1989) Teacher effective sensitivity and knowledge of management principals as factor in effective teaching of behaviour disordered students Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(6), 1989-A.
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Daly (1990)29 attempted to analysis student perceptions of Perspectives of
Teachers in the Hanover Park high school in New Jersey on 864 student in 54 classes taught by 27 teachers and found that students' perception might be valid and reliable sources for faculty development.
Kingston (1990)30 conducted a study on teaching effectiveness scores based on student achievement data estimated by two methods; the classical method of analysis of co-variance and a within class regression technique. The sample comprised of eight classes of mathematics over a three year period. The analysis of variance comparing the two methods showed no significant differences between Perspectives of Teachers scores overall and overtime between the two methods.
Ross (1990) 31 determined if the purpose of an evaluation made a difference in the type of information collected and to reveal perceptions of a better system to measure teaching effectiveness on 199 administrators and 255 faculty members from private; liberal arts college in Michigan. The findings revealed that most of the respondents reported teaching effectiveness as the most important component of faculty evaluation.
29 Daly, J.R. (1990) An Analysis of Student Perceptions of Teacher Effectiveness in Hanover Park high School and Implications for Administrative Evaluation Procedures and Policies. Dissertation Abstracts International. 52(4), 1143-A.
30 Kingston, E.A. (1990) A comparison of the analysis of Covariance and the within class regression technique for estimating teacher effectiveness for student achievement data in non-random groups. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(7), 2357-A. 31 Ross, K.L. (1990) Practices in Evaluating Teaching Effectiveness in Private and Liberal Colleges in Michigan. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(2), 379-A.
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Halpin (1991)32 investigated the relationship between the cognitive style matching of elementary principals and teachers and teachers' perceptions of principal leadership effectiveness on 98 principals and 286 teachers. The results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in the mean effectiveness scores between teachers who had a cognitive style match with their principal and teacher who had a miss matched style with their principal.
Deshpande (1991)33 determined the effectiveness of teachers through the modified version of Popham‟s performance test on a sample of 27 randomly selected science teachers, 638 students in class IX and the heads of the schools of Hubli-Dharwad city. The findings indicated that Perspectives of Teachers as evaluated by the performance test in terms of student achievement was not related to other types of assessment like students' rating, heads' ratings or teacher behaviour indices.
Singh (1991) 34 conducted a study on the relationship of teaching effectiveness and creativity and intelligence and the composite effect of creativity and intelligence on teaching effectiveness in male and female secondary teachers.
The sample included 150 male and 150 female secondary school teachers of
32 Halpin, T.F. (1991) The Relationship between Elementary Principal‟s and Teacher‟s Cognitive Style Match and Teachers Perceptions of Principals Leadership Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(6), 1963-A.
33 Deshpande (1991) Evaluation of Teaching:A Multidimensional Approach. Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988-1992), Vol. II, NCERT 1445.
34 Singh, G. (2002) A Comparative Study of Job Satisfaction of Teacher Educators in relation to their Values, Attitude towards Teaching and Teacher Effectiveness. Ph.D Thesis Education, Punjab University Chandigarh.
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Punjab. The findings indicated that among the male and female teachers, teaching effectiveness was positively related with fluency, flexibility, originality, composite creativity and intelligence.
Edwin (1991)35 conducted a study to determine the relationship between
Perspectives of Teachers and stage of the teachers' career on 100 California elementary principals. The findings revealed that there was a relationship between being perceived as an effective or ineffective teacher and years at current site and also that performance of a teacher perceived as effective increased at a steady rate until mid- career and then performance drops during late phase of career.
Johnson (1992)36 attempted to examine the perceptions of 434 secondary school principals from across the United States as they consider the notion of
Perspectives of Teachers. The findings revealed that communication related skills, factors and courses were rated as of greatest importance by principals as they assess candidates for teaching positions and as they consider preparatory course work.
35 Edwin, S.A. (1991) The Perception of Principals on Teaching Effectiveness and the Midcareer Teacher. Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(5), 1589-A. 36 Johnson, GB Jr. (1956-57) An Experimental Technique for the Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness. Journal of Educational Research, 50: 679-689.
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Ballard (1992) 37 conducted a study to investigate the perceived effectiveness of teaching and non-teaching principals in the seventh day Adventist secondary educational system. The sample comprised of 840 teachers and 66 principals. The findings revealed that both principals and teachers perceived teaching and non-teaching principals to be equally effective in organizational development, organizational environment and educational programme development with regard to years of experience of the teacher or principal, the number of years the teacher had worked for the current principal or the highest degree completed by the teacher or principal.
Brodney (1993)38 attempted to study the relationship between student achievement, student attitude and student perception of Perspectives of Teachers and the use of journals as a learning tool in mathematics on a sample of 542 students. The findings revealed that students perceive that they have a greater opportunity to learn and perceive that their teachers are more effective when journal writing is used as a tool for learning mathematics.
Singh (1993)39 conducted a study to examine teacher‟s effectiveness in relation to gender, area and adjustment on a sample of 330 teachers (of both
37 Ballard, K.J. (1992) A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Teaching and Non-teaching Principles in Seventh Day Adventist Secondary Schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(1), 69-A.
38 Brodney, S.B. (1993) The Relationship between Student Achievement, Student Attitude and Student Perception of Teacher Effectiveness and the Use of Journals as a Learning Tool in Mathematics. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(8), 2884-A. 39 Singh, R.S. (1993) Teacher Effectiveness in Relation to their Sex, Area and Adjustment. Bhartiya Shiksha Shodh Patrika, 12(2), 17-21.
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sexes) from 22 higher secondary schools (belonging to rural and urban areas), and concluded that there was a significant difference between male and female teachers in adjustment in favour of male teachers. The co-efficient of correlation between Perspectives of Teachers scores and adjustment was significant for urban teachers and not significant for rural teachers.
Delso (1993) 40 conducted a study on veteran teachers who were interviewed using McCracken‟s (1988) qualitative long interview methods to ascertain what veteran teachers believe effective teacher do. The findings revealed that the teacher effectiveness literature focused more on pacing and increasing students' academic achievement, while good teachers place little importance on standardized testing and look to their students to evaluate themselves and improve their teaching practice. The beliefs of the veteran teachers seemed to align more closely with the teaching culture and teacher thought processes literature than the effective teaching literature.
Anyalewechi (1994) 41 attempted to identify characteristics traits of effective teachers and factors that teachers and principals consider influential in
Perspectives of Teachers on a sample of 30 secondary school teachers and 7 principals. The findings revealed that there was an agreement on 7 of the 13
40 Delso, (1993) What Good Teachers Do: A Qualitative Study Approach. Independent Study Karnataka University (UGC funded) in the Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988-1992), Vol. II, NCERT, 1445.
41 Anyalewechi (1994) A Comparative Study of Teachers and Principals Perception of Characteristics of Effective Teachers and Factors that are Influential in Teacher Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International. 55(4), 806-A.
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Chapter – II Review of related literature
categories identified as either characteristics/traits, if effective teachers or factors influencing in teaching effectiveness. These are the characteristics of the teacher, influential understanding students, managerial skills, planning education, background administrative support and instructional methods etc.
Seman (1994)42 examined the effect of a direct instruction programme and connecting math concepts on Perspectives of Teachers and student performance.
Two regular educators, nine main streamed students, and fifty regularly assigned students participated in the study. The results of the study indicated that when teachers achieved mastery in Direct Instruction Technique, the effective teaching behaviour of feedback, questioning and error correction increased.
Biswas, Chandra and Tinku (1995) 43 examined the effectiveness of secondary teachers in relation to sex of teacher, location of school (rural and urban), management (Government and Private), type (boys, girls and co- education) and organisational climate of schools. Results reveal that female teachers were more effective; whereas location and management of schools have no significant influence on Perspectives of Teachers; the teachers of schools with an open climate were most effective while those in schools with a closed climate were least effective.
42 Seman, Mary B. (1994) The Effect of Direct Instruction on Teacher Effectiveness and Student Performance is Integrated Math Class. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(8), 3082-A.
43 Biswas, P. Chandra and Tinku, D. (1995) A Survey on Effectiveness of Secondary Schools Teachers in Tripura. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 26(1), 17-24.
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Rao (1995) 44 studied relationship between Perspectives of Teachers, creativity and inter-personal relationship of teachers. The findings revealed that no significant relation was found between Perspectives of Teachers and the income or years of service of the teachers. However, significant relationship was found between Perspectives of Teachers, creativity and inter-personal relationships of teachers and significant differences existed between rural and urban teachers with reference to inter-personal relationships.
Gupta (1995)45 examined the relationship between job satisfaction and
Perspectives of Teachers of secondary schools teachers and their teaching effectiveness on a sample of 560 teachers of Uttar Pradesh and found that the coefficients of correlation between overall dimension of job satisfaction of teacher viz. salary and other benefits; community aspect supervision; family life; policies and practices; growth and practices were significantly related with Perspectives of
Teachers.
Sugiratham and Krishan (1995)46 studied the Perspectives of Teachers of 295 women teachers working in girls higher secondary schools. It was found that there was a significant difference among the different classes handling respondents on Perspectives of Teachers. As regards mean score, there was
44 Rao, K. Ganes Wara (1995) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness in relation to Creativity and Interpersonal Relationships, Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Andhra, University, Andhra Pradesh.
45 Gupta, Preety (2009) A Study of Values among School Principals, their Attitude towards Modernization and its Relationship with the Organizational Climate. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Jamia Milia Islamia University, New Delhi.
46 Sugiratham, P. and Krishnan, S. Santhana (1995) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness of Girl‟s Higher Secondary School in Tuticorin. The Progress of Education, LXX (1), 57-58.
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significant difference among the medium of instruction of respondents on
Perspectives of Teachers and among different qualifications of respondents on
Perspectives of Teachers.
Tisclale (1996)47 determined that self-perceived Perspectives of Teachers is congruent with Perspectives of Teachers as measured by three areas; teaching plans and materials, position skills and interpersonal skills. Conclusions from analysis of data indicated that the evaluation of career teachers using the teacher assessment instrument does not discriminate between levels of Perspectives of
Teachers. The majority of teachers were rated at extremely high levels, both by teachers and administrators.
Wilhem (1996)48 attempted a study focused on students' and teachers perceptions of Perspectives of Teachers on a sample of 41 full-time faculty and
560 students at a community college. The results revealed significant differences is perception between students, between students and faculty and between types of course, on seven categories of effectiveness, i.e. Learning/Academic value;
Instructor Enthusiasm; Organization / Clarity; Examinations / Grading; Assignment
/ Readings; Individual rapport and Overall Rating.
47 Tisclale, P.A. (1996) The relationship between self-evaluation of teaching effectiveness and administrator evaluation of teaching effectiveness as measured by a state adopted instrument. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(1), 54.
48 Wilhelm, J.D. (1996) Teacher Effectiveness in a community college: Student and Teacher Perceptions. Dissertation Abstract International, 57(03), 1103.
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Indira (1997) 49 tried to find the relationship between Perspectives of
Teachers, work orientation and stress of college teachers on a sample of 220 lecturers working in degree and junior colleges situated in Vizianegaram district and found that the general level of teacher effectiveness prevailing among college teachers was far greater than the mid-point of the scale.
Meadows (1997)50 explored the relationship between teacher leadership style and Perspectives of Teachers on a sample of 134 instructors and 2,141 students. The findings, through a post hoc analysis, revealed a significant relationship between instructor effectiveness and instructor leadership.
Socio-independent instructors received the highest student grades and students' views as enthusiastic mentors.
Sikora (1997) 51 conducted a study to examine relationship between personality types and Perspectives of Teachers of secondary family and consumer science teachers. The findings indicated that the teacher‟s personality may play a significant although limited role in Perspectives of Teachers.
Treder (1998) 52 compared the attitude of effectiveness and typical teachers towards inclusion of students with special needs in regular education
49 Indira, B. (1997) An Investigation into Teacher Effectiveness in relation to Work Orientation and Stress. Ph.D Thesis in Education, Indian Educational Abstract (4), 54.
50 Meadows, P.M. (1997) Teacher Leadership Style and Teacher Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International 58(12), 4555.
51 Sikora, D.A. (1997) Observable teacher effectiveness and personality types of family and consumer science teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(7), 2285-A.
52 Treder, D.W. (1998) Teacher Effectiveness and teacher attitudes towards children with special needs. Implications of inclusive education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(11), 4106.
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classroom and found that more effective teacher indicated greater interaction with special needs students and also indicated higher level of promotion of inclusive practice at their schools.
Bakke (1999)53 conducted a survey with teacher and administrators is the
Blue Valley school district in which they were asked to indicate which of a pair of two traits they considered most critical to Perspectives of Teachers in the classroom. The traits were grouped into clusters identified as Interpersonal,
Interpersonal and extra personal. Other variables considered were gender and number of years of teaching experience. A significant relationship was found between the perceptions of all groups examined with the exception of those disaggregated by years of experience and the secondary teacher and administrators groups.
Kumar, (1999) 54 studied Perspectives of Teachers among scheduled caste and non-scheduled caste teachers in relation to their teaching aptitude and self-concept Sample comprising 502 school teachers (206 SC and 296 NSC teachers) was drawn from government/high/senior secondary school of 8 districts of Punjab by employing multistaged stratified randominization technique. 2 x 3 x 3
ANOVA was used to study the interaction effect of caste teaching aptitude and the different aspects of self awareness upon Perspectives of Teachers of secondary
53 Bakke, P.A.L. (1999) Perceptions of Characteristics of Effective Teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International. 60(08), 2746-A.
54 Kumar, K. (1999) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness among Scheduled Caste and Non-Scheduled Caste Teachers in relation to their Teaching Aptitude and Self-Concept. Ph.D Thesis in Education, Punjab University Chandigarh.
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school teachers. Main findings were: (i) caste has no significant effect upon
Perspectives of Teachers irrespective of teaching aptitude and ideal self concept.
(ii) Significant difference exists in the teachers belonging to different levels of teaching aptitude (iii) Teachers having high teaching aptitude as well as ideal self concept are more effective. (iv) There is no significant interaction among the variables of caste, teaching aptitude and social concept on teacher‟s effectiveness.
Pandey and Maikhuri (1999)55 in their study attempted to explore the attitude of effective and ineffective teachers towards teaching profession. The major findings included; (i) There was no significant difference between effective teachers having high or low experience in terms of their profession. (ii) High experienced teachers' attitude was positive towards teaching profession than low experience ineffective teachers (iii) Age of effective teacher was not a differentiating factor in their attitude towards teaching profession. (iv) Young ineffective teachers had a negative attitude towards teaching than ineffective old teachers.
Allington and Johnson (2000)56 observed and interviewed fourth grade teachers in the United States who had been identified as excellent teachers; these excellent teachers used a variety of materials at different levels, including relevant
55 Pandey, M. and R. Maikhuri (1999) A study of the attitude of effective and ineffective teachers towards teaching profession. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 30(1), 43-46.
56 Allington, R.L. and Johnston, P.H. (2000) What do We Know about Effective Fourth Grade Teachers and Their Classrooms? www.eric.org.
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and meaningful resources beyond text books. Results also highlighted the nature of classroom talk, which was personalized and personal. There teachers found what was productive about a response or behaviour, supported the partially correct words, turned attention to the process and encouraged further thinking and reflection.
Marsland (2000)57 conducted a study to evaluate selected Perspectives of
Teachers research for elements of multiple intelligence (MI) theory. The results indicated a large discrepancy between the intelligence and their representation in
Perspectives of Teachers research. Interpretation of the results reveals that there is no clear balance in what is being measured or in what has emerged as themes in
Perspectives of Teachers research.
Khalaf (2000) 58 attempted to explore variables related to chemistry achievement of 12th grade science in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The sample included 204 males and 252 females in 66 classes in 60 schools from 10 districts or bureaus of education in the UAE. The results of the multiple linear regression indicated that the factors of prior Student Achievement, Student
Perception of Perspectives of Teachers and Teacher Experience and Expertise accounted for 45% of the variance in school chemistry achievement. The results indicated that the strongest predictors of chemistry
57 Marsland, Eric (2000) An Examination of the Role of the Multiple Intelligence in Studies of Effective Teaching. Dissertation Abstracts International, 39(3), 639, June 2001.
58 Khalaf, A.K. (2000) The Predictors of Chemistry Achievement of 12th Grade Students in Secondary Schools in the United Arab Emirales. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(2), 479.
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achievement and prior achievement in science, Arabic language and mathematics; student perception of Perspectives of Teachers or teacher experience and expertise.
Raj (2000)59 conducted a study on Perspectives of Teachers of secondary school teachers in relation to motivation to work and job satisfaction. The study was conducted on 100 secondary school teachers from 22 schools (both rural and urban) of Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh. The findings of the study showed that teacher motivation to work has significantly effect upon Perspectives of
Teachers, i.e. those having higher level of motivation to work do effective teaching.
The conclusions drawn from the study were that Perspectives of Teachers was positively correlated with the level of motivation to work and Perspectives of
Teachers was not significantly related to job satisfaction.
Quandahl (2001) 60 conducted a study to differentiate the instructional practices of Kindergarten teachers who were more effective, effective and less effective in producing high student achievement. The teacher sample consisted of nine Kindergarten teachers and 208 students from four schools with ethnically diverse students. These findings suggested that it was possible to discern some common characteristics of teachers who are more effective, effective or less effective producing high kindergarten achievement. Teachers who were identified
59 Raj, T. (2000) An Empirical Study of Correlates Teacher Effectiveness. The Educational Review. 107(1), 6-7.
60 Quandahl, J.E. (2001) The Instructional Practices of Kindergarten Teachers: Effects on Student Achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(2), 462-A.
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as effective generally self-reported a more developmental philosophy and practices. Interestingly, the effective teachers' students had high first grade academic achievement. Students of one teacher who was classified more effective and self-reported a developmental approach maintained high achievement in first grade.
Abler (2002) 61 examined the possible relationship of teacher organizational commitment and teacher efficacy to school academic standing and teacher experience. The sample comprised of 30 public school teachers who taught in high schools of the Large District Association (LUDA) in Illinois. Data analysis indicated that teachers' organizational commitment components of a positive sense of belonging and a commitment to collaboration demonstrated importance in their number and strength of relationships to teacher efficacy, indicators of academic standing, and teaching experience. Results suggest that administrators and policy makers may nurture and retain effective teachers who are committed to the school by fostering a friendly climate and a collaborative environment.
Allison (2002)62 conducted a study to compare the teaching effectiveness of part time and full time clinical nursing faculty. The sample included two groups:
61 Abler, D.A. (2002) Relationship of Teacher Organizational Commitment and Teacher Efficacy to School Academic Standing and Teaching Experience. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(10), 347.
62 Allison, L. (2002) Student and Faculty perceptions of teaching effectiveness of full time and part time associate degree nursing of full time and part time associate degree nursing faculty. Dissertation Abstracts International. 63(8), 2805-A.
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clinical nursing students in Associate Degree Nursing programmes at schools in a mid-Atlantic state and the part time and full time faculty who taught those students.
Results of the study indicated that student‟s rank part time faculty as significantly less effective than full time faculty on each of the five categories measured by effectiveness inventor as important in clinical nursing instruction i.e. Teaching ability, Nursing competence, Evaluation, Interpersonal relationship and
Personality traits. The findings support the result that there is no significant difference in the ways that the students rate the effectiveness of teachers and the self-ratings of the teachers themselves.
Ford (2002)63 attempted to determine the relationship among teachers induction programme variable, namely content, personnel and delivery modes employed and the perceived effectiveness and satisfaction of first year teachers of the 279 surveys sent to beginning teachers in twenty six randomly selected public school system throughout the state of Alabama and 63 subjects responded to most or all of the question is the survey. The findings revealed that there is a positive correlation between new teacher induction content addressed during teachers' first years and their levels of self-perceived effectiveness. Next, direct input on a specific task was the most common way new teachers were supported and produced a strong correlation with effectiveness and satisfaction while lectures, although used seldom, produced the least effect on Perspectives of
63 Ford, J.T. (2002) The Effects of New Teacher Induction of Self Perceived Effectiveness and Satisfaction in Beginning Teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(2), 438-A.
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Teachers and satisfaction. Finally, principals were most frequently involved in the induction of new teachers, while other teachers were also highly involved. The principals' involvement produced the strongest relationship with effectiveness and satisfaction.
Abler (2002) examined the possible relationship of teacher organizational commitment and teacher efficacy to school academic standing and teacher experience. The sample comprised of 30 public school teachers who taught in high schools of the Large Unit District Association (LUDA) in Illinos. Date analysis indicated that teacher‟s organizational commitment components of a positive sense of belonging and a commitment to collaboration demonstrated importance in their number and strength of relationships to teacher efficacy indicators of academic standing, and teaching experience. Results suggest that administrators and policy makers may nurture and retain effective teachers who are committed to the school by fostering a friendly climate and a collaborative environment.
Kagathala (2002) studied Perspectives of Teachers of teachers of secondary schools in Gujarat in relation to area of their schools, sex, educational qualifications, experience of teaching, type of school personality and caste.
Perspectives of Teachers scale (Developed by the investigator), creative personality inventory were administered upon 1800 teachers (1290 male and 510 female) of secondary schools of different parts of Gujarat. Result of the study show that: Perspectives of Teachers of teachers of secondary schools in Gujarat was found to be of average; The teachers of urban area are superior than rural area in
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Perspectives of Teachers; Sex of the teacher does not affect the Perspectives of
Teachers; The teachers with masters degree possess more Perspectives of
Teachers than bachelor degrees holders; The effect of experience of teaching on the Perspectives of Teachers is found increasing upto the experience of 19 years but it found decreasing after that level of experience; The teachers of boys schools are found to be effective than girls and coeducational school; The teacher having high creative personality are found superior to the teacher having how creative personality in their Perspectives of Teachers; No effect of caste of teacher on the Perspectives of Teachers was found.
Singh (2002) 64 conducted a comparative study of job satisfaction of teacher educators in relation to their values, attitude towards teaching and
Perspectives of Teachers. Results, of the present study show that job satisfaction is positively correlated with social value, hedonistic value, power value. Attitude towards teaching is positively correlated with job satisfaction. Perspectives of
Teachers is found to be positively and significantly correlated with job satisfaction.
Castle (2003)65 attempted a study to develop a transformative critical pedagogy for work with current state standards and skills that teachers are currently required to teach. The multisen serial component is designed to assist teachers in developing the experimental learning is part of effective learning and
64 Singh, G. (2002) A Comparative Study of Job Satisfaction of Teacher Educators in relation to their Values, Attitude towards Teaching and Teacher Effectiveness. Ph.D Thesis Education, Punjab University Chandigarh. 65 Costle, V. (2003) Development of a Critical Teaching Process: A Multisensorial Integrated Approach. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(9), 3097-A.
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pedagogy. The findings revealed that a rigorous academic programme combined with a critical socially constructed teaching/learning environment based on interaction, discovery and problem solving contributes to Perspectives of Teachers and student learning was effective.
Selsor (2003) 66 sought to examine differential importance in primary dimensions of effective teaching as perceived by a sample of rural and suburban community college students and to analyze the teaching had learning implications.
Students from 4 community colleges (N=337) were asked to rate 31 descriptive statements which encompasses 9 dimensions of effective teaching and respond to one open ended question as stated on the student‟s evaluation of educational quality. The quantitative results indicate that rural and suburban community college students rate dimensions related to communication skills highest; instructor enthusiasm, individual rapport and group interaction in that order conversely students rated dimensions related to learning and content among the lowest; learning value, breath of coverage and assignment/readings, is that order.
Vandana and Punia (2004)67 attempted to study intuitive abilities and human resource effectiveness of educational managers. The findings indicated that educational managers are well aware of the need to find problems and setting the objectives before reaching at the solution through their effective
66 Selsor, M.K. (2003) Rural and Suburban community college student‟s perceptions of teaching effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64(2), 380.
67 Vandana, B.K. and Punia (2004) Intuitive Abilities and Human resource Effectiveness; a Study of Journal of Educational Managers. University News. 42(5), 6-10.
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implementation. Here in the entire process of goal setting the intuitive abilities of the administrators have a great role to play. In fact in a situation when everything seems to be going out of control, intuitive abilities come alive in the reactions and decisions of those capable of crisis management leading to human resource effectiveness. Thus, the ability to diagnose problems created by rapid, complexity and conflict may require an intuitive frame of mind to achieve the best results meaning thereby that the term intuition does not denote something contrary to reason, but something outside the province of reasons.
Vijaylakshmi and Mythill (2004) 68 studied the influence of personal variables (Age, Marital Status, sex) and professional variables (Experience, qualification, subject of teaching, designation, level of college type of college management) on the Perspectives of Teachers and work orientation of 220 teachers working in junior colleges, degree colleges, and professional colleges of
Viziangaram district of Andhra Pradesh. Results showed that there was significant difference between the teacher‟s upto 35 years and above 35 years of age, married and unmarried, teachers with different designation and working in junior and degree colleges with regard to their teaching effectiveness. Regarding their work orientation, significant difference existed between married and unmarried, male and female teachers, teachers of different caders, between junior and degree college staff and government and private college teachers. Positive and moderate
68 Vijyalakshmi, G and Mythill, B., (2004). Impact of Some Personal and Professional Variables on the Teacher Effectiveness and Work Orientation. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology, 9(1), 15-21.
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relationship was present between Perspectives of Teachers and their work orientation. Teachers of above 35 years age, married teachers, female teachers, assistant professors and degree college teacher are more effective than their counterparts.
Amandeep and Gurpreet (2005)69 concluded that female teachers are more effective in their teaching than male teachers; male and female teachers do not differ significantly as far as their teaching competency is concerned; and variable of teaching competency plays significant role in Perspectives of Teachers of teachers.
Bansibihari Pandit and Lata Surwade (2006)70 in their study on effect of emotional maturity on Perspectives of Teachers found that female teachers were emotionally more matures table than male teachers, and emotionally more mature/stable teachers were more effective.
Cheung (2006) 71 found that female teachers were significantly more efficacious than male teachers. Years of experience were weakly but significantly related to levels of efficacy, and that educational level did not have a significant effect on efficacy level.
69 Amandeep and Gurpreet (2005) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness in relation to Teaching Competency. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology. 71(6), 137-140. 70 Amandeep and Gurpreet (2005) A Study of Teacher Effectiveness in relation to Teaching Competency. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology. 71(6), 137-140. 71 Cheung, H.Y. (2000) The Measurement of Teacher Efficacy : Hong Kong Primary In-Service Teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching, 32(4), 435-451.
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Douglas Rutledge (2007)72 compared research on the theoretical models and predictors of Perspectives of Teachers with those of other occupations, focusing on three specific predictors of worker effectiveness: cognitive ability, personality, and education. The comparison of the teachers and other workers studies yields a variety of ways in which research on Perspectives of Teachers might be improved and expanded: First, the worker literature illustrates specific theoretical models, such as job-organization fit, that complement existing models regarding the work of teachers. The potential value of extending worker models to teaching in this way is reinforced by the fact that the three teacher characteristics mentioned above predict effectiveness in similar ways among teachers and other workers. Second, by outlining multiple models of effectiveness, it is possible to identify the important dimensions on which they vary, such as the unit of analysis and the assumed roles of the individual worker in relation to the organization.
Third, research on other workers highlights some ways to improve the measurement of the three predictors and Perspectives of Teachers, going beyond the use of test scores.
Newa (2007) 73 studied Perspectives of Teachers in relation to work satisfaction, media utilization and attitude towards the use of information and communication technology among secondary school teachers of Nepal. The
72 Douglas N. et al (2007) Models and Predictors of Teacher Effectiveness: A Review of the Literature with Lessons from (and for) other occupations. 73 Newa, D.R., (2007) Teacher Effectiveness in relation to Work Satisfaction, Media Utilization and Attitude towards the Use of Information and Communication Technology among Secondary School Teachers of Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
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sample of the study consisted of 300 government and private school teachers of
Kathmandu valley. Results of the study show that : For the total sample of government and private schools, Perspectives of Teachers was found to be positive related with work/job satisfaction, media utilization and attitude towards information and technology; No significant interaction was found between school type and teachers of academic stream with regard to Perspectives of Teachers;
More effective teachers exhibited better work satisfaction, attitude towards media utilization and attitude towards information and technology; More effective teachers and less effective teachers of science, math, language, social sciences, of secondary school exhibited comparable work/job satisfaction, media utilization and attitude towards information and technology.
Kaur (2008) 74 studied job satisfaction, occupational, stress and value dimensions as correlates of Perspectives of Teachers. A sample of 1000 teachers was selected from Government secondary school teachers of four districts of
Punjab, namely, Ludhiana, Patiala, Mukatsar and Moga. Data was collected by different scales like Perspectives of Teachers scale by Kumar and Mutha, Job satisfaction scale by Sharma and Singh, study of value scale by Ojha and self constructed occupational stress scale. The result of present study reflects that:
The government secondary school teachers are average in their effectiveness; highly effective teachers were more satisfied with their jobs than less effective teaches. Further the study has shown that job satisfaction is a positive correlate of
74 Kaur, S. (2008) Correlates of Teacher Effectiveness. Patiala: 21st Century Publications.
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Perspectives of Teachers; Occupational stress is a negative correlate of
Perspectives of Teachers. Also the teachers who are under high occupational stress are less effective; Theoretical, aesthetical and social values are found to be positive correlate and economic and political values are found as negative correlates of Perspectives of Teachers.
Rockoff et al. (2008)75 in their in-depth survey on new Math teachers in
New York City, collected information on a number of non-traditional predictors of effectiveness including teaching specific content knowledge, cognitive ability, personality traits, feeling of self-efficacy, and scores on a commercially available teacher selection instrument. They found that individually only a few of these predictors had statistically significant relationship with student and teacher outcomes. However, when all of these variables were combined into primary factors summarizing cognitive and non-cognitive teacher skills, they found that both factors had a modest and significant relationship with student and teacher outcomes, particularly with student test scores. These results suggest that while there may not be a single factor that can predict success in teaching, using a broad set of measures can help schools improve the quality of their teachers.
75 Rockoff, Jonah E. (2008) Relationship between Teacher‟s Characteristics and Teacher Effectiveness of New Math Teachers in New York City. National Bureau of Economic Research.
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Schulte et al. (2008)76 analyzed the characteristics of effective high school teachers as perceived by 615 college students in relation to gender, ethnicity, student‟s status and generational status. Qualitative analyses revealed the presence of 24 themes: caring, communication, creative, disciplinarian, fairness, flexible, friendly, fun, knowledgeable, listening, manages classroom, uses different modalities, involving, motivating, organized, passion for teaching, patience, builds relationships, shows respect to others, challenges, service, teaches well and good personality.
Sridhar and Baidei (2008)77 compared the teacher efficacy in India and
Iran. Statistically no significant difference in general teaching efficacy scores were found between two countries. A statistically difference was found between male teachers in two countries in terms of personal teaching efficacy. Iranian male teachers had high personal efficacy than their Indian counterparts. However, female teachers did not report statistically difference in teacher efficacy. Also, no significant difference was found in teacher efficacy for number of years of teaching experience.
Verma (2010) 78 while discussing inclusive education lacks stress on teacher development, by building competencies of all „regular teacher‟ to deal with
76 Schulte, D.P., State, J.R. and Onwuegbuize, A.J.(2008) Effective High School Teachers : A Mixed Investigation. International Journal of Educational Research. 47(6), 351-361.
77 Sridhar, Y.N, Hamid Reza Badiei (2008) Teacher Efficacy Beliefs: A Comparison of Teachers in India and Iran. A Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34, 81-89.
78 Verma, S. (2010) Inclusive Education - Preparing Teachers to Meet the Demands of Inclusive Education. Edutracks, 10(4), 13-17.
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diverse population of students and to learn pedagogical strategies that facilitate the learning of all students in their classroom. These include certain specific competencies i.e. foundational, practical and reflective competencies.
Diwan (2010)79 too, lays stress on increasing teaching efficacy in order to strengthen under-resourced schools to serve the cause of educability of young learners in the disadvantaged groups of society such as urban slums, SCs/Sts and in remote forest and hilly areas. It is a gigantic task that can be accomplished with the support of competent teachers showing a feeling of empathy and compassion alongwith being knowledgeable and with good communication skills. In a similar vein, Hameed and Manjustha (2010) tried to explain teacher efficacy as a correlate of teaching styles and organizational culture and it was reported that school culture has a significant bearing on teacher efficacy.
STUDIES RELATED WITH SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
Sharma (1973)80 studied organizational climate an its relationship with pupil achievement. In this study he reported that there existed a significant positive relationship between organizational climate and school academic index.
79 Diwan, R. (2010) Small under Resourced Schools in India : Imperatives for Quality Improvement with Reference to RTE Act, 2009. Edusearch, 1(2), 8-18.
80 Sharma, M. (1973) An Investigation into Organizational Climate of Secondary Schools of Rajasthan, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Centre for Advance Study in Education, M.S. University of Baroda
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Shelat (1975)81, in his study of organizational climate, teacher morale and pupil motivation towards institution in secondary schools, found that the organizational climate in rural schools was autonomous and paternal while in urban schools closed and open type were predominant. Closed climate schools had low teacher morale while schools of open climate had higher teacher morale.
The findings revealed that there was no relationship between the age of the teachers and school climate.
Gandhi (1977) 82 conducted a study of school climate a function of personality of school personnel of pupil control ideology. The findings were: significant differences were found to exist among open, intermediate and closed climate school: teachers serving in relatively open school were significantly more humanistic in their pupil control ideology than their counterparts. Belief systems of teachers in open and closed climate differed significantly. The category of students did not bear any relationship with organizational climate.
Khera (1979)83 made a study of organizational climate and educational environment of Sainik Schools. One major findings was that, no two schools had a similar type of organizational climate which can be attributed to the differences in the personality traits of the principals and the members of staff.
81 Shelat, N.A. (1975) A Study of Organizational Climate, Teacher Morale, and Pupil Motivation towards Institution is Secondary Schools of Baroda District. (Unpublished) Ph.D. Thesis in Education, M.S. University, Baroda.
82 Gandhi, K.A. (1977) Personality Characteristics of Teaching Staff and Organizational Climate of School‟s Haryana. Journal of Education, XVI(182), January-April 1981.
83 Khera, D.A. (1979) A Study of Organizational Climate and Educational Environment of Sainik Schools (Unpublished) revised Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Punjab University, and Chandigarh.
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Criag (1979) 84 studied relationship of organizational climate, leader behaviour and job satisfaction. The population for this study was 271 teachers from 21 schools of two suburban school districts in Dollas Metropolex area. Some of the findings were: Teachers in the open climate had higher mean scores of teacher job satisfaction than did the teachers identified in schools of closed climate. Teachers in the closed climate identified ability, social service and moral values as important aspects of job satisfaction. Teachers in the open climate identified creativity, morale and social service as important aspects of job satisfaction.
Hummelke (1980) 85 found that there was no significant relationship between teachers‟ belief and perceptions of organizational climate in high and low change oriented elementary schools. It was concluded that teachers were not academically prepared to deal with personal philosophy about education theory and practices nor human relations and collaborative decision-making processes.
Simon (1980)86 explored change in the climate in nine Los Angeles
Unified School District (USD) elementary schools when racially different teachers were transformed into the schools. It was observed that (i) the percentage of teachers transferred into a school had no effect on percentage of
84 Craig, L.V. (1980) The Effects of Organizational Climate and Leadership behaviour on Teacher Job Satisfaction in Selected Schools. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, North Texas State University, Texas.
85 Hummelke, H.L. (1980) The Relationship between teachers Belief Systems and Perceptions of Organizational Climate in High and Low Change Oriented Elementary Schools (Ed.D) Klahoma State University in Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(1), 73.
86 Simon, C.H. (1980) Change in Organizational Climate as Perceived by Non-reassigned Teachers on Desegregated Elementary School Staffs (Ed.D) University of California, Los Angles Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(1), 45.
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organizational climate, (ii) there was no difference in perception of school climate between reassigned and established teachers; (iii) school characteristics had no relationship to perception of school climate (iv) faculty desegregation did not affect the climate of schools, but it did affect teachers‟ perceptions of change in their personal working situations, personal lives and morale; (v) teachers were more concerned about faculty desegregations effect on their personal working situations than its effect on the overall school organizational climate. Hilliand (1981) designed a study to examine the relationship between the origin, length of tenure and the authoritarianism of elementary school principals with the organizational climate and adaptability of their schools he found that (i) schools with more open organizational climates were more adaptable than schools with less open organizational climates, (ii) younger teachers perceived significantly more organizational openers in their schools than did the older teacher; (iii) female teachers perceived their school‟s climate as being significantly more open than the male teachers; (iv) teachers who had attained higher academic degrees perceived a significantly lower degree of organizational openers in their schools; (v) principals of inside origin and those of outside origin as well as those of short-tenure and long-tenure could be differentiated by the difference in their level of disengagement, hindrance, esprit, intimacy, consideration and aloofness; (vi) out side-origin, short-tenure and non-authoritarian elementary school principals had more open organizational climate and more adaptable schools than inside-origin long-tenure and authoritarian elementary school principals.
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Puranik (1985) 87 found autonomous climate, private management, unaided schools and urban location of schools to be the most conducive factors in the development of social maturity. Further, the controlled climate, government management and urban locality were found to be conducive to the development of morale of teachers. No single dimension of organizational climate was found to be effective for the development of social maturity of students.
Samad (1986)88 found that female teachers perceive their schools‟ climate as being significantly more open than did the male teachers. He also found that female teachers‟ perception of esprit was higher than that of the male teachers.
Veeraraghwan (1986)89 conducted a comparative study of organizational climate, leadership adaptability and Perspectives of Teachers in high, average and low performing schools. The major objectives of the study were (i) to find out whether there was any variation in the organizational climate that existed in the high, average and low performing schools (ii) whether Perspectives of Teachers varied amongst the high, average and low performing schools (iii) whether there were typical factors underlying Perspectives of Teachers (iv) whether job satisfaction amongst teachers and leadership adaptability in schools varied in terms of high, average and low performing schools. No significant results were reported to explain the phenomenon of high performance.
87 Puranik, S.D (1985) A Study of the Relationship of Social Maturity of Pupils with Organizational Climate and Teacher‟s Morale in the Primary Schools of Bangalore City. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Mysore University, Mysore.
88 Samad, A. (1986) A Study of Organizational Climate of Government High Schools Chandigarh and Its Effect on Job Satisfaction of Teachers (Unpublished) Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
89 Veeraraghwan, V. (1986) A Comparative Study of Organizational Climate, Leadership Adaptability and Teacher Effectiveness in High, Average and Low Performing Schools. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi.
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Leake’s (1987)90 observed that the perceptual congruence of elementary principals and teachers did not differ significantly from that of secondary principals and teachers with reference to school climate and organizational dimensions.
Vilaichone (1987) conducted a study on schools in Thailand, with enrolment of 300 students or less, and then these of more than 300 students. He chose one principal and two randomly selected teachers from 50 randomly selected small schools and 50 randomly selected large schools. The findings indicated that principals in small and large schools perceived the organizational climate of the schools to be significantly different from the perception of the teachers in small and large schools. Secondly, principals and teachers in small schools perceived that organizational climate of the schools to be significantly different from the perception of the principals and teachers in large schools. The hindrance, esprit and thrust means for the large schools were significantly greater than the corresponding means for small schools.
Turan (1988) 91 in his study examined the relationship between organizational climate and organizational commitment of teachers in Secondary
Public Schools in the city of Bursa in Turkey and reported the existence of the significant positive relationship between overall organizational climate of the
90 Leake‟s D.O. (1987) A Comparative Analysis Teachers and Administrators Perceptions of School Climate and Organizational Dimensions (Ph.D) the Ohio State University in Dissertation Abstracts International, March 1988, 48(A), 9 p.2209.
91 Turan, S. (1988) The relationship between Organizational Climate and Organizational Commitment in Secondary Public Schools in the City of Bursa in Turkey. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(4), 1038-A.
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school and the teachers‟ organizational commitment. The study concluded that there is significant relationship between organizational climate of the school and the teachers‟ organizational commitment.
Ahluwalia and Ahluwalia (1990) conducted a comparative study of organizational climate of three types of schools of Delhi. This study included four public schools, four central schools of six government schools. The findings of this study revealed that paternal climate was popular in central schools, whereas government schools had closed climate except one government school, which had controlled climate. Two public schools had open climate and two public schools had controlled climate. Thus, organizational climate of different schools was different from each other.
Solanki (1992) 92 studied the relationship between educational management and organizational climate of secondary schools of Saurasthra region. He found that the organizational climate of secondary schools appeared to be independent of organizational management, place of school and sex of the student population. There was a relationship between resource management and the organizational climate of the secondary schools.
92 Salanki (1992) A study into relationship between educational management and organizational climate of the secondary schools of Saurashtra Region. Fifth Survey of Educational Research (1988-1992), Vol. 1, NCERT, New Delhi.
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Sebastian (1993) 93 studied organizational climate of schools in Tamil
Nadu and impact of headmaster‟s power behaviour. The sample included schools and three districts. The study concluded that coercion and influence were inversely related i.e. coercion was positively related to conflict and negatively related to open school climate, whereas influence was positively related to open climate while authority was related only marginally either to open or close climate.
Patel (1994)94 studied organizational climate in higher secondary schools.
The sample of the study included girls, boys and co-educational schools of urban as well as rural areas of Gujarat. The investigation revealed that the girls‟ school were having open climate whereas the boys schools had mostly closed climate.
The percentage of familiar, controlled and open climate was found more in case of large size schools.
Heflich (1994)95 revealed that there were differences in school climate between public and private schools; specifically that independent schools had higher climate scores as compared to the public ones.
Taylor and Tashakkori (1994)96 examined the relationship of teacher decisional participation and school climate to teachers' sense of efficacy and job
93 Sebastian, S. (1993) Organizational Climate of Schools in Tamil Nadu. Impact of headmaster‟s power behaviour. Indian Educational Review, XXV (1).
94 Patel, R. (1994) A Study of Organizational Climate of Higher Secondary Schools. The Progress of Education, LXVIII(6),
95 Heflich, R.G. (1994) Comparing Teacher Perceptions of School Climate in Selected New Jersey Independent and Public High Schools (Ed.D). Columbia University Teacher‟s College in Dissertation Abstracts International, 55(A), 7, 1263-A.
96 Taylor, D.L. and Tashakkori, A. (1994) Predicting Teacher‟s Sense of Efficacy and Job Satisfaction using School Climate and Participatory Decision-Making. www.eric.org.
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satisfaction. Climate was found to be composed of three elements: principal leadership in faculty collegiality and management of student discipline. Each climate component has a relatively strong association with teachers‟ feelings of efficacy resulting in job satisfaction. Each component was as important to
Perspectives of Teachers and job satisfaction as each other component.
Coutts (1997)97 soughted to examine effect of each new principal with varying leadership styles had on the prevailing climate of his school, as measured after the first five months of operation. The significant predictors identified from the surveys for school climate were: effectiveness of instructional leadership; opportunity to learn; clarity of instructional goals and objectives; monitoring of student progress; student discipline; communications of expectations for success.
Naseema (1997) 98 studied secondary schools climate in Kerala. The sample of the study included fifty schools. The study revealed that school climate in Kerala varied from school to school. No significant difference was found to exist with regard to percentage of school climate between rural urban and private government schools.
Krishnan (1997)99 conducted a study on organizational climate of schools.
The findings of the study revealed that teachers working in high controlled climate
97 Coutts, D. (1997) Measuring the Degree of Success in Improving School Climate in Schools with New Principals. www.eric.org retrieved on July 15, 2008.
98 Naseema, C. (1997) Organizational Climate of Schools in Kerala. The Asian Journal of Psychology and Education. 30(7-8).
99 Krishnan, S. (1997) Organizational Climate of School – A study. The Progress of Education, LXXI(6).
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schools affected the organizational climate more than those who were working in low controlled climate teachers working in different types of schools i.e. boys, girls and co-educational differed significantly in their organizational climate score.
Handayani (1997) 100 addressed the effect of bureaucratic control on organizational climate and leadership behaviour indicating that the more autonomy to make work decisions and less standardized the work, the better the climate and the more support felt from supervisory and peers.
Gyanain (1998) 101 in her study indicated that the teachers who were working in closed or controlled type of organizational climate remained tense and developed some physiological as well as psychological deformities in their body, while the teachers working in autonomous or open type of organizational climate were mentally happy and healthy.
Lawrence (1999)102 investigated type of organizational climate existed in secondary schools and level of Perspectives of Teachers in the schools and also their attitudes, and whether school type or organizational climate, influential
Perspectives of Teachers and attitudes. There was no significant difference in the mean rating of Perspectives of Teachers on the basis of organizational climate.
There was also no significant difference in the mean rating of the teachers‟ attitude
100 Handayani, S.W. (1985) The Relationship between Teacher Motivation and Teacher Effectiveness among Selected Secondary Teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(12), 3550-A.
101 Gyanain, P.C. (1998) Stress and Strain among the Teachers Working in Higher Education Institutes of Different Organizational Climate. Indian Educational Abstracts, Issue, 7 & 8.
102 Lawrence, T. (1999) Organizational Climate and School Proprietorship as factors in Teacher Effectiveness and Attitudes to Teaching. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. University of Nigeria, Nigeria.
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on the basis of school type of organizational climate. There was also no significant interaction effect of school type and organizational climate on Perspectives of
Teachers and attitude towards to teaching.
Sajjabi (1999)103 studied Busoga and Buganda regions of Uganda and observed that the teachers working in government urban schools had a very slightly more favourable perception of organizational climate than did their colleagues working in the government rural schools of Busoga region, while reverse was true in Buganda region. The private rural as well as urban schools in
Busoga region had a much higher average score on organizational climate than did the private rural and urban schools in Buganda region. The major findings of the study revealed that it was possible to categorize the school in the two regions into the six climate types described by Halpin and Croft (1963). Out of forty schools taken for the study, eleven schools had open climate, seven schools had autonomous climate, four schools had controlled climate, three schools had familiar climate and eleven schools had closed climate. One school did not fall into any specific type of climate.
103 Sajjabi, F.B. (1999) A Study of the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Teacher Job Satisfaction in Secondary Schools of Buganda and Busoga Regions of Uganda. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Panjab University, Chandigarh.
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Kaisnath (2000)104 conducted a study on organizational climate in relation to adjustment of students in Jawahar Navodya Vidyalayas. The findings of the study concluded that organizational climate of Jawahar Navodya Vidyalyas and emotional adjustment, social adjustment, and educational and total adjustment were dependent on each other. Students studying in JNVs with open climate were emotionally, socially, educationally and totally better adjusted than students studying in JNVs with controlled climate.
Breckenridge (2000)105 in her study on exploration of the factors that influence leadership effectiveness in a corporate environment acknowledge that leadership training should be a blend of several prospective and, therefore, the survey affirm the hypothesis that the dependent variables of leadership style, cognitive style and perception of organizational climate are linked to organizational effectiveness.
Park (2001) studied the relationship between ministry satisfaction and organizational climate among sundry school teachers in the Korean Evangelical
Holiners Church. In his study he employed a causal comparative and correlation research design to explore the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational climate, selected socio-demographic variables, volunteer history
104 Kaisnath, H.M. (2000) A Study of students Adjustment and its relations to Organizational Climate in Jawahar Navodya Vidyalayas. Quest in Education Vol. XXIV(3).
105 Brown, O.M. (2001) To Determine the Relationship between Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction in the Clerk Country School District (Las Vegas, Nevada), Ph.D Thesis University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
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variables. While significant differences were found in several job satisfaction sub-scales, there was no significant differences in overall job satisfaction. Also, it was found that there were significant correlations between job satisfaction and organizational climate but these correlations were weak.
Brown (2001) in his study which purposed to determine the relationship between organizational climate and job satisfaction. It was found that there was a significant relationship between organizational climate and teacher job satisfaction. There were significant correlations found between the characteristics of job satisfaction and the characteristics of organizational climate. He further ascertained that, no significant relationship was observed of the variables of gender, years of teaching experience, educational level, and ethnicity with climate and job satisfaction. The study revealed that open climate and higher job satisfaction are positively with each other related.
Natarajan and Dhandapani (2002) 106 conducted a study on organizational climate and job satisfaction of teachers in schools. The findings were 1) the higher secondary schools of were found to have all the six types of climates viz. open, autonomous, familiar, controlled, paternal and closed (ii) open climate was found in more number of private schools and familiar climate was found in government school (iii) there exist a significant difference in the job
106 Natarajan, R. and Dhandapani, C. (2002) Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction of Teachers in Schools. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology. 7(I-II), 43-47.
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satisfaction between male and female teachers. The female teachers are enjoying more job satisfaction (iv) the married and unmarried teachers do not differ in their job satisfaction and also no significant difference was found among rural and urban teachers in their job satisfaction (v) there exist no significant relationship among the teachers in respect of their location of work, and type of school in marital status, location of work which they work with job satisfaction (vi) the teachers working in the open climate are enjoying very high level of job satisfaction.
Sumanlata (2005)107 conducted a study on educational attainment as a function of school organizational climate. The findings revealed that a perusal of the differentials between the means on the educational attainment of pupils of different school climates, namely open, autonomous, familiar, controlled paternal and closed indicates that relative significant difference have been obtained except between autonomous and closed type of school climate between familiar type of climate and controlled type of school climate which is not having significant difference between the mean and the highest difference has been found between educational attainment of pupils of the open type of school climate and educational attainment of pupils in closed type of school climate. The difference between the means of educational attainment of pupils in paternal type of school climate and closed type of school climate and between paternal type of school climate and autonomous type of school climate have been found significant. The other means
107 Sumanlata (2005) A study of educational attainment as a function of school organizational climate. Recent Researches in Education and Psychology. 10(III-IV), 100-103.
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of educational attainment of different school climate lie in between these two extremes.
Bandhu (2006)108 analyzed effect of institutional climate on burnout among college teachers and reported that better climate (having openness and autonomy) is promoting job satisfaction by keeping burnout at low levels, whereas poor climate (paternal and closed) leads to higher levels of burnout and thus low levels of effectiveness.
Day et al. (2007) 109 found that there is no systematic links between effectiveness and age, life phase, or gender. Commitment and resilience were found to be characteristics of effective teaches, while the quality of school leadership, professional development that addressed the needs and concerns of teachers and opportunities for collaboration with peers were key to retaining positive attitudes through the professional life phases.
Roul Sushanta (2007)110 in his study on teachers of autonomous and non-autonomous colleges found that teachers of autonomous colleges were more effective than the teachers of non-autonomous colleges and the organizational climate of autonomous colleges was more effective than that of non-autonomous colleges. He found that teachers in autonomous colleges got more freedom in all
108 Bandhu, T. (2006) A Study of burnout among College Teachers of Punjab in relation to Organizational Stress and Institutional Climate. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Shimla: Himachal Pradesh University.
109 Day, C.G.S., Sammons, P., Kington, A., G.U.Q., Smees, R., and Mujtaka, T. (2007) Variations in Teachers Work, Lives and Effectiveness. Research Report No. 743. London: Department for Education and Skills. www.dcsf.gov.uk.
110 Roul, Sushanta (2007) Teacher effectiveness of autonomous and non-autonomous college teachers. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 24(3), 326-339.
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respects including curriculum framing, flexibility in the academic reforms. On the other hand, teachers of non-autonomous colleges were burdened with more work: they faced interfaces from principals and management in their work and so on.
Saikia and Goswami (2010)111 in a study on teacher freezingness have found school organizational climate to be its significant correlate at secondary stage, thereby meaning that school climate has a very strong bearing to make teachers more effective.
Anushya (2010)112 has discussed role of professional rights of teachers in order to enable them to be more effective, especially in the context of implementation of „Right to Education‟, so that schools may effectively contribute to achieving the goal of universal school education.
Similarly Ghanti and Reddy (2010) have reported that principals‟ leadership characteristics have a positive effect on organizational climate make it more conducive for Perspectives of Teachers and student achievement.
Bhatnagar (1979) 113 conducted a study to investigate organizational climate of the teacher training institutions of Uttar Pradesh and its relationship with their effectiveness. The findings were that the organizational climate of teacher
111 Saikia, L.R. and M. Goswami (2010) Teacher Freezingness among Secondary School Teachers in relation to School Organizational Climate. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 41(1), 5-11.
112 Anushya, S. (2010) Professional Rights of Teacher. CTE National Journal: Quest for Excellence in Teacher Education, VIII (2), 14-18.
113 Bhatnagar (1979) A Study of Organizational Climate of the Teacher Training Institutions of Uttar Pradesh and its Relationship with their Effectiveness. Quoted from Third Survey of Research in Education. (1978-1983).
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training institutions in U.P. was characterized by higher level of hindrance factor, authoritarianism, high academic emphasis, low level of discipline and control and lack of facilities. The overall picture emerging was not impressive and good, the colleges differed among themselves significantly with regard to each dimension of organizational school climate; the stereotype of non-government teacher training colleges' organizational climate indicated higher hindrance, high democracy and freedom and high lack of facilities. The stereotype of organizational climate of government teacher training colleges, on the other hand, meant high social support, high authoritarianism, high trust, high academic emphasis, and high discipline and control. It was found that significant differences existed between them on all the nine dimensions of organizational climate; in large institutions, the climate was dominated by high authoritarianism high trust, high academic emphasis and high degree of discipline and control as compared to small institutions climate was characterized by high hindrance, high democracy and freedom and lack of facilities (v) the rural institutions had high level of discipline and control and high academic emphasis as compared the urban institutions. On the other hand the urban institution were high on democracy, freedom and lack of facilities; the men‟s training colleges had better social support, greater trust, more academic emphasis and better discipline and control than the women‟s training colleges‟; the trust and academic emphasis were more predominant in the climate of university departments of education than in the climate of the college departments. But on the whole, the climates of the two groups of teacher training colleges were similar; (viii) the organizational climate affected the effectiveness of the institution.
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Varshneya (1981) 114 conducted a study to investigate relationship between organizational environment and Perspectives of Teachers. The findings of the study were: (i) The percentage of the schools coming under the closed range was slightly higher than that of the open climate range. About ten out of fifty schools had autonomous climate, nine controlled climate, three familiar climate and five paternal climate (ii) there was no sex difference as far as the school climate was concerned (iii) open school environment produced very favourable attitude towards the teacher whereas familiar environment produced the least favourable attitude towards the teachers (iv) different organizational environment did not produce significant difference in the pupils attitude towards their schools but they produce significant difference in the pupils scholastic achievement. The scholastic achievement was the maximum where the environment was open and familiar and the least where the environment was controlled and paternal. Closed and autonomous environments were moderately and equally suitable for scholastic achievement (iv) out of 10 personal values, only social values differed significantly in the six different organizational environments (vi) open, autonomous and controlled environments were more favourable for the teacher‟s effectiveness than the other categories of environment (vii) organizational environment was significantly and positively related to the pupils, attitude towards the teachers (viii) organizational environment was significantly and positively related to scholastic
114 Varshneya, P.K. (1981) A Study of Relationship between Organizational Environment and Teacher Effectiveness. Quoted from Third Survey of Research in Education, (1978-1983).
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achievement but its relationship with pupils attitude towards the school was not significant. However, it was positively and significantly related to social environment and composite Perspectives of Teachers.
Bojar (1985)115 attempted a study to replicate, refine and extend previous investigations of management style and its relationship to organizational effectiveness and effective teacher behaviour. The findings indicated that when teachers' mean score on management style was correlated by school with the mean student scores in Perspectives of Teachers, no significant relationship was found. There was also no significant relationship between congruence of student perception and teachers effectiveness.
Singh (1985)116 conducted a study of school climate, leadership behaviour and moral development of the heads of elementary and secondary schools. The objective was to determine the patterns of organizational climate, leadership behaviour and moral development in the elementary and secondary schools, and to examine school to school differences. The findings revealed that elementary and secondary schools were found to be similar in teacher‟s behaviour in task oriented situation, teacher‟s thinking with regard to their principals and principal‟s efforts to move the organization. The leadership behaviour of the two types of schools didn‟t differ.
115 Bajar (1985) Congruence among Perceptions of School Management Systems and Teacher Effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(05), 940-A.
116 Singh Samurai (1985) A study of School Climate, Leadership behaviour and Morale Development of Heads of Elementary and Secondary Schools. Ph.D in Education, Punjab University.
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Wright (1988)117 studied teacher‟s perceptions of organizational climate and the ratings of Wyoming Elementary school principals on selected leadership behaviours. The major findings of the study were (i) there was significant difference between the organizational climate scores of sample schools (ii) schools with less than 200 students received the lowest scores in school climate regardless of the ratings of the principals on identified leadership behaviours (iii) principals who were rated higher by their teachers in „supports teachers‟,
„emphasizes achievement‟, and „provides orderly atmosphere‟, received higher scores on school climate as determined by the general openness score of school climate, and (iv) female administrators received higher school climate scores than their male counterparts when general openness scores were used as the dependent variable in leadership behaviours of female administrators also received consistently higher scores than males when school climate subtest scores for characteristics of the principal were used as the dependent variable on the ratings for „provides orderly atmosphere.
Chakraborti (1990)118 attempted to study the organizational climate of secondary schools in West Bengal and its correlation with other relevant variables and found that the paternal climate was the most frequently perceived climate
117 Wright, E.L. (1988) Teacher Perceptions of Organizational Climate and the Ratings of Wyoming Elementary School Principal on Selected Leadership Behaviours. Montana State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49 (8).
118 Chakraborti, Manas (1990) A Study of Organizational Climate of Secondary Schools in West Bengal and its correlation with Other Relevant Variables. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, University of Calcutta, Calcutta.
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(29.55%) followed by controlled (20.45%), familiar (15.91%), open (12.12%), autonomous (11.36%) and closed(10.61%) climates respectively. Further significant and positive correlations were found between the school organizational climate and the leadership behaviour of the principal, the job satisfaction of the teacher and school effectiveness.
Bulach and Peterson (2001) in a study found a positive relationship between leadership behavioural associated with instruction and the overall culture and climate of the school.
Mehrotra (2004)119 conducted a study on leadership styles of principals in relation to job satisfaction of teachers and organizational climate in the government and private schools of Delhi. The sample included 28 government and
28 private senior secondary schools of Delhi. The major findings of the study were
(i) the principals of government and private schools manifest different leadership styles. (ii) Majority of the government and private schools had autonomous climate. However controlled and closed climate was exhibited by equal number of government schools (10.71% each). On the other hand in private schools merely 8.92% showed closed climate. (iii) No significant relation was found between leadership styles of principals and the organizational climate in government as well as private schools.
119 Mehrotra, A. (2004) A Comparative Study of Leadership Styles of Principals in relation to Job Satisfaction of Teachers and Organizational Climate in Government and Private Senior Secondary Schools of Delhi. PhD Thesis in Education, Jamia Milia Islamia University, New Delhi.
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Kelley (2005)120 conducted a research to establish relationships among leadership, school climate, and effective schools. In this study, he compared relationships between selected dimensions of leadership and measures of school climate in 31 elementary schools. In addition, principal‟s perceptions of their leadership styles were compared with teacher‟s perceptions of their principal‟s leadership styles. Results indicate that teacher‟s perceptions of their principal‟s effectiveness are related to school climate.
Chu and Fu, Chi-Jung (2006)121 conducted a study to investigate the impact of leadership style and school climate on faculty psychological contracts.
Demographic variables were also included. The findings indicated that overall perceptions of the faculties toward leadership style, school climate and psychological contract were favourable. Moreover, leadership style and school climate did affect faculty psychological contracts. Age is also a factor differentiating faculty psychological contracts. It is concluded that employee perceptions of positive organizational climate would be associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and organizational performance and with lower levels of employee turnover: relation of organizational climate to organizational performance and to employee turnover would be mediated by employee job satisfaction: and Employee perceptions of positive organizational climate and job
120 Kelley, Robert C (2005) Relationship between Measures of Leadership and School Climate. University of Nevada, Department of Educational Leadership.
121 Chu, Hui-Chin: Fu, Chi-Jung (2006) The Influences of Leadership Style and School Climate to Faculty Psychological Contracts: A case of S University in Taiwan. Paper presented at Academy of Human Resource Development International Conference (AHRD), Columbus.
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satisfaction would be associated with less achievement disparity between minority students. Study results supported all but one hypothesis; there was no evidence for the mediating effects of job satisfaction on relation of organizational climate to organizational performance and to employee turnover. Results were consistent with the broader organizational literature, which has shown the importance of orderly work environment, collegial relations, and supportive leaders for effectively functioning groups and organizations.
Gulhane (2006)122 analyzed components of effective teaching and found its linkages with school effectiveness, nee climate for enhancing student learning.
Mohalik (2007)123 in an experimental study found significantly positive effect of in-service teacher training on Perspectives of Teachers and student achievement.
Gupta (2009) 124 in her study titled „a study of values among school principals, their attitude towards modernization and its Relationship with the
Organizational Climate‟ found that there was a significant difference in the climate of public schools and government schools. Public schools possessed controlled climate whereas the government schools possessed familiar type of school
122 Chu, Hui-Chin: Fu, Chi-Jung (2006) The Influences of Leadership Style and School Climate to Faculty Psychological Contracts: A case of S University in Taiwan. Paper presented at Academy of Human Resource Development International Conference (AHRD), Columbus.
123 Mohalik, R.K. (2007) Impact of In-Service Teacher Education Programmes on Teacher Effectiveness and Students‟ Achievement in English. Ph.D. Thesis in Education. Utkal University.
124 Gupta, Preety (2009) A Study of Values among School Principals, their Attitude towards Modernization and its Relationship with the Organizational Climate. Ph.D. Thesis in Education, Jamia Milia Islamia University, New Delhi.
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organizational climate. No significant relation was found between values or the modernization and the school organizational climate.
Nasser and Fathi (2009)125 in their study aimed at evaluating institutional performance in secondary schools in the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia. The study concluded that the efficiency of the institutional performance was weak and there was no significant difference in the institutional performance due to qualification and experience of administrators.
On the basis of review of related literature some pertinent observation may be made and summed up as under.
Effective teachers have better personality, adjustment (Chhaya, 1974;
Koul, 1974; Grewal, 1976; More 1988; Singh, 1993; Allison, 2002; Woolfolk,
2004; Mohanty, 2010)126. Gender, professional training, nature of schooling and income level, age, caste were significantly associated with Perspectives of
Teachers (Mutha, 1980; Nincucci, 1988; Biswas Chandra and Tinku, 1995;
Pandey and Maikhuri, 1999; Kgarthala, 2002; Mohalik, 2007; Ghosh and Bairagya,
2010).
125 Nasser A. and Fathi, M. (2009) Effectiveness of Institutional Performance of Public Schools in the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia from the Perspective of School Administrators. College Student Journal, 43(4), 1228-1237.
126 Chhaya (1974) An Investigation into certain Psychological Characteristics of an Effective School Teacher (A Comparative Study of Effective and Ineffective School Teacher) Ph.D. Thesis in Psychology. Kanpur University, Kanpur.
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There is significant relationship between Perspectives of Teachers and teacher competency (Prakasham, 1988; Gupta 1995; Kumar, 1999; Kaur, 2000;
Raj, 2000; Singh, 2002; Amandeep and Gurpreet, 2005; Newa, 2007).
There is significant relationship between the Perspectives of Teachers and school organizational climate (Bhatnagar, 1979; Bojar, 1985; Biswas, Chandra and Tinku, 1995; Kasinath, 2000; Bandhu, 2006; Mohanty, 2010). One major thing that was traced was that no two schools had a similar type of organizational climate which can be attributed to the differences in the personality traits of the principals and teachers.
It has been found that teachers in open climate are more effectively identified with creativity, morale and job satisfaction. Moreover, it was also concluded that there is a significant relationship between organizational climate of school and teachers organizational commitment.
No doubt, the concept of Perspectives of Teachers is well researched and well reported showing significant correlation between characteristics of job satisfaction and the characteristics of organizational climate (Anderson and
Brown, 2001; Woolfolk, 2004; Bandhu, 2006; Mohanty, 2010), still we are not conclusive to make a statement on the antecedents and effects of these variables in our schools. It would be worthwhile to quote Mehrotra (2006) that “effectiveness has been studied in relation to organizational climate, specific school subjects, children and specific groups (ii) all these studies are status studies and give a general picture of the determinants of effectiveness of teachers of various stages
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and (iii) yet, wholestic picture has not emerged and the concept of effectiveness is also required to be clarified alongwith the fact that the essentials of personal, organizational and socio-emotional environment which may result in making a teacher perform his/her duties effectively should be a constant, continuing concern of researches”.
Hence to probe into the truth and find out the relationship between these variables in the context of secondary schools of Karur, the present research has been undertaken with the following hypotheses.
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Chapter-I II Area Profile Karur District Chapter III
AREA PROFILE OF KARUR DISTRICT Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
CHAPTER – III
AREA PROFILE OF KARUR DISTRICT
History
One of the ancient cities in Tamil Nadu, Karur was ruled by the Cheras,
Cholas, the Naickers, and the British successively. There is proof that Karur may have been the centre for old jewellery-making and gem setting (with the gold imported mainly from Rome), as seen from various excavations. According to the
Hindu mythology, Brahma began the work of creation here, which is referred to as the "place of the sacred cow."
Karur has a very long history and has been sung by various sangam poets.
In history, it has been the battleground of various Tamil Kings like Chera, Chola,
Pandya and Pallavas because of strategic location. The district has a very rich and varied cultural heritage.
Karuvoor Thevar born in Karur is one among the nine devotees who sung the divine Music Thiruvichaippa, which is the ninth Thirumurai. He is the single largest composer among the nine authors of Thiruvichaippa. He lived during the reign of the great Raja Raja Chola-I. In addition to the famous Siva temple, there is a Vishnu temple at Thiruvithuvakkodu, a suburb of Karur, sung by famous
Kulasekara Alwar [7-8th century AD] who was the ruler of Kongu nadu. The same temple is presumably mentioned in epic Silappadikaram as Adaha maadam
Ranganathar whose blessings Cheran Senguttuvan sought before his north Indian expedition.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Karur is one of the oldest towns in Tamil Nadu and has played a very significant role in the history and culture of the Tamils. Its history dates back over
2000 years, and has been a flourishing trading centre even in the early Sangam days. Epigraphical, numismatic, archaeological and literary evidences have proved beyond doubt that Karur was the capital of early Chera kings of Sangam age. It was called Karuvoor or Vanji during Sangam days. There has been a plethora of rare findings during the archaeological excavations undertaken in
Karur. These include mat-designed pottery, bricks, mud-toys, Roman coins, Chera
Coins, Pallava Coins, Roman Amphorae, Rasset coated ware, rare rings etc.
Karur was built on the banks of river Amaravathi which was called Aanporunai during the Sangam days. The names of the early Chera kings who ruled from
Karur, have been found in the rock inscriptions in Aru Nattar Malai close to Karur.
The Tamil epic Silapathikaram mentions that the famous Chera King Cheran
Senguttuvan ruled from Karur. In 150 Greek scholars Ptolemy mentioned
“Korevora” (Karur) as a very famous inland trading centre in Tamil Nadu. After the early Cheras, Karur was conquered and ruled by Pandyas followed by Pallavas and later Cholas. Karur was under the rule of Cholas for a long time. Later the
Naickers followed by Tipu Sultan also ruled Karur. The British added Karur to their possessions after destroying the Karur Fort during their war against Tipu Sultan in
1783. There is a memorial at Rayanur near Karur for the warriors who lost their lives in the fight against the British in the Anglo-Mysore wars. Thereafter Karur became part of British India and was first part of Coimbatore District and later
Tiruchirappalli District.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Karur is also a part of Kongunadu. The history of Kongunadu dates back to the 8th century. The name Kongunadu originated from the term "Kongu", meaning nectar or honey. Kongu came to be called as Kongunadu with the growth of civilization. The ancient Kongunadu country was made up of various districts and taluks which are currently known as Palani, Dharapuram, Karur, Nammakkal,
Thiruchengodu, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Satyamangalam, Nilgiris, Avinashi,
Coimbatore, Pollachi and Udumalpet. Kongunadu was blessed with enormous wealth, a pleasant climate and distinct features. Kongunadu was ruled over by the
Chera, Chola, Pandya, Hoysala, Muslim rulers and finally the British.
History of Karur district deals with the rule of the Cheras, Cholas, the Naickers, and the British successively. Karur is one of the ancient places in the state of Tamil
Nadu state. There are evidences to suggest that the district of Karur used to be the centre for old jewellery-making and gem setting, gold being imported primarily from
Rome, as seen from a number of excavations in the district. According to the Hindu mythology, Lord Brahma started his work of creation at this place and therefore it is also known as the `place of the sacred cow`. The district of Karur holds a very long history and has been sung by several poets of Sangam Age. In history, this district formed the battleground of a number of Tamil Kings like Chera, Chola, Pallavas and Pandya because of strategic location.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Karuvoor Thevar, born in the district of Karur is one among the nine devotees who sung the divine Music Thiruvichaippa, which is the ninth Thirumurai.
He is the single largest composer among the nine authors of Thiruvichaippa. He lived during the reign of the great Rajaraja Chola I. In addition to the famous Shiva temple, there is also a Vishnu temple at Thiruvithuvakkodu, a suburb of Karur, sung by famous Kulasekara Alwar (7th-8th century AD) who was the ruler of
Kongunadu.
Karur town in the district of Karur is one of the oldest towns in the state of
Tamil Nadu and has played a very significant role in the history and culture of the
Tamils. Its history dates back over two thousand years, and has been a flourishing trading centre even in the early Sangam days. Epigraphical, archaeological, numismatic and literary evidences have proved beyond doubt that Karur was the capital of early Chera kings of Sangam Age. It was called Karuvoor or Vanji during
Sangam days. There has been a plethora of rare findings during the archaeological excavations undertaken in the district of Karur. These include mat-designed pottery, mud-toys, bricks, Roman coins, Pallava Coins, Chera
Coins, Rasset coated ware, Roman Amphorae, rare rings, etc.
Karur was established on the banks of Amaravathi River which was called
Aanporunai during the Sangam days. The names of the early Chera kings, who ruled from Karur district, have been found in the rock inscriptions in Aru Nattar
Malai close to Karur. The Tamil epic Silapathikaram mentions that the famous
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Chera King Cheran Senguttuvan ruled from Karur. In 150 Greek scholars Ptolemy mentioned `Korevora` (Karur) as a very famous inland trading centre in the state of
Tamil Nadu. After the early Cheras, Karur was conquered and ruled by the
Pandyas followed by Pallavas and later the Cholas. Karur was under the rule of
Cholas for a long time. Later the Naickers followed by Tipu Sultan also ruled Karur.
The British added Karur to their possessions after destroying the Karur Fort during their war against Tipu Sultan in the year 1783. There is a memorial at Rayanur near Karur for the warriors who lost their lives in the war against the British in the
Anglo-Mysore wars. Thereafter, Karur became a part of British India and was first belonged to Coimbatore district and later Tiruchirapalli district.
The district of Karur is also a part of Kongunadu. The history of Kongunadu dates back to the eighth century. The name Kongunadu originated from the term
`Kongu`, which means nectar or honey. Kongu came to be known as Kongunadu with the growth of civilization. The ancient Kongunadu country was constituted by a number of districts and taluks which are presently known as Palani, Dharapuram,
Nammakkal, Karur, Erode, Salem, Thiruchengodu, Dharmapuri, Nilgiris,
Satyamangalam, Avinashi, Pollachi, Coimbatore and Udumalpet. Kongunadu was having enormous wealth, pleasant climate and distinct features. It was ruled over by the Chera, Chola, Pandya, Hoysala, Muslim rulers and finally the British.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Karur was built on the banks of River Amaravathi which was called
Aanporunai during the Sangam days. The names of the early Chera kings who ruled from Karur, have been found in the rock inscriptions in Aru Nattar Malai close to Karur. The Tamil epic Silapathikaram mentions that the famous Chera King
Senguttuvan ruled from Karur. In 150 AD Greek scholar Ptolemy mentioned
Korevora (Karur) as a very famous inland trading center in Tamil Nadu.
Rulers of Karur
Karur may have been the center for old jewellery-making and gem setting
(with the gold imported mainly from Rome), as seen from various excavations.
According to the Hindu mythology, Brahma began the work of creation here, which is referred to as the "place of the sacred cow."
The Pasupatheesvarar Temple sung by Thirugnana Sambhandar, in Karur was built by the Chola kings in the 7th century. Karur is one of the oldest towns in
Tamil Nadu and has played a very significant role in the history and culture of the
Tamils. Its history dates back over 2000 years, and has been a flourishing trading center even in the early Sangam days. It was ruled by the Cheras, Gangas,
Cholas, the Vijayanagara Nayaks, Mysore and the British successively.
Epigraphical, numismatic, archaeological and literary evidence have proved beyond doubt that Karur was the capital of early Chera kings of Sangam age. And
Kongunadu is only the Chera Kingdom that extended up to the western coast till
Muziri in Kerala, South India when the empire was at its peak and which the
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Cheras made it as their main port city. The Chera Kings and Kongudesa Rajakkal were one and the same. In olden days it was called Karuvoor or Vanchi or Vanji during Sangam days. There has been a plethora of rare findings during the archaeological excavations undertaken in Karur. These include mat-designed pottery, bricks, mud-toys, Roman coins, Chera Coins, Pallava Coins, Roman
Amphorae, Rasset coated ware, rare rings, etc.
Karuvoor Thevar born in Karur, is one among the nine devotees who sung the divine Music Thiruvichaippa, which is the ninth Thirumurai. He is the single largest composer among the nine authors of Thiruvichaippa. He lived during the reign of the great Rajaraja Chola-I. In addition to the famous Siva Temple., there is a Vishnu Temple at Thiruvithuvakkodu suburb of Karur, sung by famous
Kulasekara Alwar, 7th century AD, who was the ruler of Kongu nadu. The same
Temple is presumably mentioned in epic Silappadikaram as Adaha maadam
Ranganathar whose blessings Cheran Senguttuvan sought before his north Indian expedition.
Later the Nayakars followed by Tipu Sultan also ruled Karur. The British added Karur to their possessions after destroying the Karur Fort during their war against Tipu Sultan in 1783. There is a memorial at Rayanur near Karur for the warriors who lost their lives in the fight against the British in the Anglo-Mysore
Wars. Thereafter Karur became part of British India and was first part of
Coimbatore District and later Tiruchirappalli District.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Karur is also a part of Kongu Nadu. The history of Kongu nadu dates back to the 8th century. The name Kongunadu originated from the term "Kongu", meaning nectar or honey. Kongu came to be called as Kongu nadu with the growth of civilization. The ancient Kongunadu country was made up of various districts and taluks which are currently known as Palani, Dharapuram, Karur, Nammakkal,
Thiruchengodu, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Satyamangalam, Nilgiris, Avinashi,
Coimbatore, Pollachi and Udumalpet.
Karur is one of the oldest towns in and has played a very significant role in the history and culture of the s. Its history dates back over 3000 years, and has been a flourishing trading center even in the early Sangam days. In the ancient and medieval times, the area was ruled by the Cheras, Gangas and Cholas. Karur was the capital of Cheras.The Pasupatheesvarar Temple sung by Thirugnana
Sambhandar, in Karur was built by the Chola kings in the 7th century. Later the
Nayakars followed by Tipu Sultan also ruled Karur. The British added Karur to their possessions after destroying the Karur Fort during their war against Tipu Sultan in
1783. There is a memorial at Rayanur near Karur for the warriors who lost their lives in the fight against the British in the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Thereafter Karur became part of British India and was first part of Coimbatore District and later
Tiruchirappalli District. Karur is also a part of Kongu Nadu. The history of Kongu
Nadu dates back to the 8th century. The name Kongunadu originated from the term "Kongu", meaning nectar or honey. Kongu came to be called as Kongu nadu
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
with the growth of civilization. The ancient Kongunadu country was made up of various districts and taluks which are currently known as Palani, Dharapuram,
Kangayam, Karur, Nammakkal, Thiruchengodu, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri,
Satyamangalam, Nilgiris, Avinashi, Coimbatore, Pollachi and Udumalpet.
Geography and climate
With headquarters at Karur, it is one of the centrally located district of
Nadu. It is bounded by Namakkal district in the north, Dindigul district in the south,
Tiruchirapalli district on the east and Erode district on the west. Karur is located at
10°57'° N 78°4'° E has an average elevation of 122 metres (400 feet). Its about
371 km (231 mi) south west of Chennai (Madras), the state capital of Nadu.
The highest temperature is obtained in early May to early June usually about 34 °C (93.2 °F), though it usually exceeds 38 °C (100.4 °F) for a few days most years. Average daily temperature in Karur during January is around 23 °C
(73.4 °F), though the temperature rarely falls below 17 °C (62.6 °F). The average annual rainfall is about 775 mm (30.5 in). It gets most of its seasonal rainfall from the north-east monsoon winds, from late September to mid November.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census Karur district has a population of 1,076,588,[2] roughly equal to the nation of Cyprus[3] or the US state of Rhode Island.[4] This gives it a ranking of 422nd in India (out of a total of 640).[2] The district has a
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
population density of 371 inhabitants per square kilometre (960 /sq mi) .[2] Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 15.06%.[2] Karur has a sex ratio of 1015 females for every 1000 males,[2] and a literacy rate of 75.86%.
Education
We have listed helpful information about Education details such as
Education in Karur, Education Business, Education Consultants, Education
Department, Education Fair, Education Hub, Education Games, Education Jobs in
Karur, Education Portal in Karur, Education Research, Education Reforms,
Education System, Education Sector, Technology Education, Education Websites in Karur, School Education, Colleges, Coaching Education, Distance Education in
Karur, Educational Loans in Karur, Technical Education, Education Tutorials,
Computer Education in Karur, Tuition Centers in Karur, Part time Education
Universities in Karur, English Education, Best Education in Karur, Medical
Education, Health Education in Karur, Education Zone, High class Education in
Karur, Educational Resources, Educational Standards, Overseas Education,
Technical Education, Educational Institutions, Leading Education, Top Education
Institutions, Fisheries Education in Nadu Special Website. In addition to the above, more Education Details are there in our Education Category of Karur, Nadu.
View business details of other Categories such as Dance, Yoga, Music,
Decoration, Doctors, Dog Care, Dyeing, Engineering, Entertainment, Electronic
Goods, Exports, Fashion Designing, Finance, Food, Foundry, Function
Arrangement from Karur district.
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
Figure 3.1: Karur District Map
List of Management Schools:
Bharathi Nursery & Primary School, Santhanakalipalayam 222350
(LNVN) Lakshmi Natarajan Vidya Niketan, 43 Rajaji St 233341
Lords Park Matric Hr.Sec.School, Near G Gramam 240854
Amaravathi Educational Trust, Erode Main Rd 226260
Andavar Matriculation School T Mali 241697
Balar Kali Koodam Nursery & Primary School, 29 Sannathi St 265328
Bhirundavan Matriclation School, G Gramam 240884
CSI Higher Secondary School 262469
Cheran Matriculation School 240884
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Chapter-III Area profile of Karur District
CJ Nursery & Primary Schgool, Narikattiur Industrial Estate 242280
CSI Girls Higher Secondary School 237352
Guru Vidhyalaya School, Madurai Rd 247267
CSI Shanthi Nilayam, V Medu 220125
Guru Vidhyalaya, 72 F CAK Rd 261454
Guru Dev Metriculation School, Vangal Rd 221692
MHS School Azad Rd 262073
Govt. Girls HS School Car St 237237
KVBOA English School, Kayathiri Ngr 225271
Karur Industrial School, Church Corner 230732
Kongu Educational Trust KR Puram 237430
Kongu Vellalar Matriculation School 237840
LNVN Educational Trust, 43 Rajaji St 238310
Little Angles English School 260639
Mac Millan Matriculation School, 90 Arunchalanagar, PP Palayam 241210
Rajapital Brahmakumarigal, Eswaraviswa Vidyalam, 8-A, Pugalur Rd 220072
Karur Municipal, Govt And Aided Schools Society 261819
Shanmuga School of Nursing and Paramedical Sciences, 3 Saibaba Ngr
241265
St. Antony's Convent School 225153
St.Mary's Aided Middle School, 1/21 Pradakshinam Rd 233200
St.Thereasa's Girls Higher Secondary School Thinnappa Ngr 241365
Pasupatheeswara Municipal Govt. Hr Secondary School 266066
Vivekananda Kalvi Nilayam 241301
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Chapter-I V Emerging issues on perceptiveness of Teacher Education in India Chapter IV
EMERGING ISSUES ON PERSPECTIVENESS OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN INDIA Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
CHAPTER-IV EMERGING ISSUES ON PERSPECTIVENESS OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
An Effective Teacher
According to Southern (1964), an effective teacher is the one who has a sense of humour, ability to understand the students and their problems, ability to explain things clearly so that students can easily understand what is being taught, ability to make any subject interesting to learn, ability to control the class, ability to be ready and willing to help students when they need, and ability to be as fair as possible in dealing with students.
The acronym used by Singh (1998) for the teacher spells out certain attributes of an effective teacher such as: T for Temperance; E for Empathy; A for
Academic Aristocracy; C for Commitment; H for Humour; E for Ethics; R for
Reflection.
Although this acronym does suggest some characteristics of a good teacher, it is not comprehensive enough to enliven the teacher to his ground level task of teaching in the classroom.
In the words of Anderson (1991), “An effective teacher is the one who quite consistently achieves goals, which, either directly or indirectly, focus on the learning of their students.”
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Fullan (1990) wanted to understand what it is about such teachers that make them effective. The knowledge and skills being taught to teachers are linked with what they already know and can do, teachers are encouraged to apply what they have learnt from their in-service experiences in their own classroom, and actually, teachers should be encouraged to “try, evaluating, modifying, and trying again”.
The National Policy on Education (1986) has also rightly stressed the significant role that teachers need to play in the improvement of the educational system and in the development and growth of education. The teacher‟s role is viewed in terms of a mediator, a facilitator and a director of learning, a helper and controller of the learning behaviour of the learner, a dispenser of knowledge; a counsellor; an evaluator of the learner‟s performance in the academic field; an expert in class management activities; and a link between school, parents, community and society. In fact, this policy perspective gives a very comprehensive operational definition of the role performance of teachers vis-à-vis what really makes them effective teachers in the context of the new emerging social order and the building of a learning society in this age of global communication and software technology in education and teaching.
Meaning of Adjustment
Many psychologists have given various definitions of the term „adjustment‟ to clarify the meaning and to help in understanding the concept properly. Some of these definitions stand out to make the concept clear.
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According to James Drever (1952) “Adjustment means the modification to compensate for or meet specific conditions”, while Webster (1951) defines adjustment as “The establishment of a satisfactory relationship, as representing harmony, conformance, adaptation or the like”. Similarly Good (1959) defines adjustment “The process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour suitable to the environment or to the changes in the environment.” Adjustment, according to
Warren‟s Dictionary of Psychology means. “Any operation whereby an organism or organ becomes more favourable related to the environment or to the entire situation, environmental and internal. In this way, as per dictionary meanings, adjustment is to be understood as a means „to fit‟, „to make correspondent‟, „to adapt‟, or „to accommodate.‟ Thus, when one adjusts something, one changes it in some way to make it appropriate to certain requirements, for example, extending a ladder to the right height so it may reach a second storey window. According to
Shaffer (1961), “Adjustment is the process by which a living organism maintains a balance between its needs and the circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs”. Shaffer‟s definition lays stress on needs and their satisfaction.
Human needs are vital, indispensable and urgently requisite. One feels adjusted to the extent one‟s needs are gratified or are in the way of being gratified. The individual tries to bring changes in his circumstances in order to overcome the difficulties in the realization of his needs. Sometimes, he reduces the quantum of his needs so that he may feel satisfied within the limited resources of his environment. In this way, he tries to keep a balance between his needs and the capacity of realising these needs. As long as this balance is maintained, he remains perfect understanding between one and one‟s environment. For example,
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if an urban girl is married to a rural boy and made to lead a village life, she is to change her behaviour, her habits and her ways of life for accommodating herself in the changed circumstances.
Vonhaller (1970) writes, “We can think of adjustment as psychological survival in much the same as the biologist uses the term adaptation to describe psychological survival”. Vonhaller‟s definition takes cue from Darwin‟s theory of evolution. Darwin maintained that only those organisms, who are most fitted to adapt to the changing circumstances survive. Therefore, the individuals who are able to adjust themselves in harmony lead a happy life. In this way, adjustment as a psychological term is a new name for the term „adaptation‟ used in the biological world. In all the senses, adjustment implies a satisfactory adaptation to the demands of day-to-day life.
Characteristics of a Well-Adjusted Teacher
In daily life, a particular teacher may seem to be better adjusted than others.
No teacher is well-adjusted in all aspects, as perfect adjustment is only an ideal.
There is a fine distinction between adjustment and mal-adjustment, as these lie on a linear continuum. A well-adjusted teacher usually possesses some characteristics in greater degree than the mal-adjusted one. Some of the main characteristics of a well-adjusted teacher are explained below:
(i) Integration
Integration means harmonious working of various components of personality. It provides a unifying direction to the behaviour and helps to resolve
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mental conflicts quickly. A well-adjusted teacher is free from inner conflicts and is, therefore, able to concentrate his energies towards his set goal. He has consistency in his behaviour and personality.
(ii) Ego –Development
The ego is known as incharge of the intellectual thinking, learning, reasoning, perception and memory. A well adjusted teacher is the one who has learned to apply his intelligence to effective solution of problems of real life. The highest evidence of successful adjustment is getting along well in the world around, particularly with one‟s fellow-beings. A well-adjusted teacher draws lessons from his failures in order to avoid earlier forms of errors. He has the capacity to plan for the success of his goals, for fulfillment of his needs. His behaviour is rationale and realistic. He possesses reasonable enthusiasm for his work and derives satisfaction and pleasure from that. A mentally healthy person possesses a same and constructive philosophy of life, chosen intelligently. It would help him to make decisions in conflicting situations and also enable him to meet his unique personal needs as well as the demands made on him by the society.
(iii) Self-Knowledge
Self-knowledge implies taking responsibility for one‟s actions and feelings. A healthy adjusted teacher takes independent self-decision and exercises self-control if need be. He has a positive outlook about his self and also about others.
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A well-adjusted teacher recognizes and accepts all aspects of the self. It includes his positive as well as negative qualities. He formulates his goals keeping in view his capacities and limitations. If he accepts the realities about himself, his achievement targets will neither be too low nor too high. The mentally healthy teacher is able to fit his abilities to particular tasks in line with his capacities and motives. He does not set his goals far beyond his reach to avoid the doom of failure. He learns to accept unavoidable losses or failures. He tries to drive satisfaction from his work and life.
(iv) Emotional Balance
A well-adjusted teacher has the capacity for self-control as well as ability to express his emotions according to the situations. He enjoys freedom and pleasures in the activities of life. He is free from excessive anxiety, depression, phobia and worry. There is emotional warmth in well-adjusted teacher‟s relationships, which are characterized by spontaneity and ease. He does not express his emotions violently and irrationally, but expresses them adequately.
(v) Social Relationships
A well-adjusted teacher lives at ease with other people and enjoys social contacts. He is able to establish rapport with other persons and the people also like him. They do not intend to avoid him. He is not self-centred but careful about the feelings of others. He does not harbour jealousy and hatred for others. He is rather able to give and receive love and affection of his fellow men. Often, the mentally ill
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teacher has a one-way flow of affection from other people, while he is not capable of enjoying or reciprocating this affection. The individual and society are both complementary and contribute mutually towards the development of each other.
Individual growth does not come out of vacuum but through social interactions.
(vi) Adequate Emancipation of the Group Culture
A well adjusted teacher has a unique, distinct and autonomous personality.
His self is not submerged or lost in the populist culture. Like Galileo, Christ or
Socrates, he may suffer for his district ways of thinking and faith in his search for truth. He contributes to the well-being of the society. But mere disagreement with existing traditions may not mean for him creativity. A normal teacher would not only maintain individuality but also have some degree of tolerance and a sense of proper appreciation of the culture.
(vii) Flexibility in Behaviour
A well-adjusted teacher is not rigid in his behaviour. He is able to adopt himself in the changing circumstances. His insight enables him to have proper view of the changing situations and he modifies his behaviour accordingly. He does not believe in a breaking tendency. He can make adjustment as the occasion demands. He may be flexible in his behaviour, but not at the cost of self-respect for the profession.
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(viii) Ability to be Productive
A well-adjusted teacher is generally productive and happy with his work. He is able to use his abilities in productive and constructive activities, in physical or mental form. He enters into the business of living with a certain mission, zeal and enthusiasm and works hard to earn his livelihood and feel happy. He does not avoid work. Fatigue and nervousness, the most common symptoms of an emotional or neurotic abnormal person, sky at being near a well-adjusted teacher.
(ix) Realistic Perception of the World
A well-adjusted teacher perceives objects and persons in the world around him objectively. He does not regard the world only as he wants it to be. He does not live in unusual fancies or imagination. Mentally ill teachers perceive the world in their subjective terms, expecting it to fit their forms, needs and values. One should try to live in the ground realities of life. A well-adjusted teacher understands the world with an open mind.
(x) Faith in Spiritual Essence
Human personality is multi-dimensional. It manifests the integration of the materialistic forces, the psychic faculties and the spiritualistic essence. Man is much more than his intellectual adventurism. He is also wedded to faith, which, in its genuine form, is the perception of truth according to its capacities. As the capacity of the intellect, so is the perception of the truth and as is the perception of the truth, so is the shaping of the man. Faith conforms enlightenment and contentment. “As is the faith, so is the man”. Thus says the Bhagvad Gita (17-3), “A
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well-adjusted teacher verily manifests as well as perceives the divine spirit in every form of creation, with man being the acme of all creation.”
JOB STRESS:
In today‟s world, the nature of work is changing at whirlwind speed. Perhaps now more than ever before, job stress possesses a threat to the health of workers and, in turn, to their organization. While stress is readily acknowledged to be a common feature of modern life, defining stress, its causes, symptoms and effects is a very complex matter. It is often characterized as a primitive stone-age reaction to modern organizational and social factors known as stressors (Hazards, 1994).
Let us try to understand the meaning of job stress in a simple way. Push, push, push. It hits us from all sides – school, work, relationships, family. Although we can‟t claim exclusive rights to the “age of stress”, we certainly live I a time of increased expectation. Everybody expects something from us, and they seem to want it now like our teachers expects the subject matter to be learned, the paper written: our boss expects overtime in addition to our regular hours; our parents expect that weekly phone call, delivered in a pleasant and friendly tone. Is it any wonder that we can‟t seem to shake that cold, or that you feel the need to leave the antacid tablets by your bedside at night.
To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places special physical or g demands upon a person, anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium.
And while the physiological response to such demand is surprisingly uniform, the
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forms of stress are innumerable, stress may be even but unconscious like the noise of a city or the daily chore of driving the car. Perhaps the one incontestable statement that can be made about stress is that it belongs to everyone-to businessmen and professors, to mother and their children, to factory workers.
Stress is a part of fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from human beings as is evident from various researches and studies. Stress can be managed but not simply done away with. Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are challenged by new research, and conclusions once firmly established may be turned completely around. The latest evidence suggested (Ogden Tanner, 1979). Some stress is necessary to the well being and a lack can be harmful-stress definitely causes some serious ailments-Severe stress makes people accident-prone.
Negative Impact of Empowerment on Job Involvement
Some research, however, reports that shared decision making can have serious negative outcomes on the lives of both principals and teachers. For example, Short and Rinehart found that as teacher “involvement in school decision making increases the opportunities for conflict increase due to disclosure of ideologies and perceptions that usually are not disclosed in the traditional school structure”. As teachers are more involved in critical decisions concerning the direction of the school and as they have more autonomy and input, their communication becomes more complex and may be a source of demotivation and job stress. In this sense, empowerment efforts that are based on shared power may have a negative influence on the lives of teachers.
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The effect of Personal Power and Motivation on Job Involvement
Another form of empowerment discussed in the literature centers on an individual‟s sense of personal power and motivation. An expert described teacher empowerment from this perspective. He viewed teacher empowerment as a major way “to make (teachers) more professional and to improve their performance.” The power is “the power to exercise one‟s craft with confidence and to help shape the way that the job is to be done.” It is proposed that personal power needs are met when individuals “perceive that they have power or when they believe they can adequately cope with events, situations, and/or people they confront”. Personal power, according to, emerges from choices one gets to make and from events in the environment. A research has shown this sort of empowerment to be correlated positively with job satisfaction and negatively with job stress. In this sense, a high level of intrinsic empowerment is associated in a positive way with the lives of employees in the workplace.
Empowerment of Teachers Enhances Job Involvement of Teachers Having
Leadership Qualities
Several authors have theorized that leadership plays an important role in creating an empowering environment, one that is positive and motivating, one that promotes self-determination and self-efficacy. According to Vogt and Murrell, leaders can nurture intrinsic empowerment in the workplace by encouraging and establishing positive, collaborative relationships and by facilitating decision making that enhances both personal and organizational growth. Nurturing intrinsic empowerment in the school setting may minimizes negative outcomes associated with shared decision making.
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How to Make Teacher Involve in Their Job
Teachers can be made involved by adopting the following strategies.
Teachers and education support staff can:
Be involved in the school policy development and planning
Help school leadership choose an organization structure that meets the
needs of the students - school-within a school, scheduling changes, and
smaller teaching units.
Work with the local Association to bargain or lobby for policies that
decentralize power and create more flexibility.
Work with the local Association to bargain or lobby for policies that ensure
additional planning and collaboration time
Help school leadership develop a systematic program to ensure safety and
order.
Help school leadership and the local Association identify qualified staff.
JOB SATISFACTION
What is Job?
Work is one of the most absorbing things, which a man can think and talk about. Work may be defined as “An activity that produces something of value for the other people”, John (1993). When the work is of some specific task, then we use the word “Job”. It means a single activity which keeps find satisfaction in work where as some others dislike it. The most general definition on term „Job‟ is given in the Coline English Dictionary (1980) is a piece of work. Burher (1986) define a
„Job‟ a complex of inter relationship of tasks, rules, responsibilities, interaction, incentives and rewards.
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Satisfaction
It is an essential factor in any profession. Unless a man is satisfied with his job, it is very difficult for him to carry on his duties honestly and efficiently.
Satisfaction may be defined as the extent to which the reward really received, meets or exceeds the perceived equitable reward. To the scale of degree, the equitable reward is less than the actual reward. Therefore, the equitable reward provides dissatisfaction where as the actual reward provides satisfaction.
Concepts of Job Satisfaction
The concept of „job-satisfaction‟ has come from Industrial Psychology and it is now one of very extensively explored aspect of human efficiency at work. When there is satisfaction in job, work is done with great care and sincerity
“Job-satisfaction is the whole matrix of job factors that make a person like work situation and be willing to lead for it without distaste at the beginning of this work day.” Job satisfaction essentially implies one of the most pleasant and keenly sought after state of mind. It can be made a vehicle for the achievement of a higher end. Undoubtedly, it can be said that the job satisfaction is widely accepted psychological aspect of effective functioning in any profession. However, a more comprehensive approach requires that many additional factors such as employer‟s age, health, temperament, desires and level of aspiration, family relationship, social status, recreational out-lets, activity in organizations etc. should be considered. Those who are satisfied with their firms and their work are called ideally adjusted. Job-satisfaction gives happiness, efficiency and success in
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one‟s professional-activity. A worker who is satisfied with his work is characterized by his spirit of devotion and determination for the fulfillment of the set goal.
Every profession has got certain aspects conducted for job satisfaction and at the same time other aspects leads to dissatisfaction. The nation‟s well being depend upon teachers well being. The teachers are the custodians of our future.
But it is very sad to note that the profession of teaching is losing its charm, day by day and there appears wide dissatisfaction in the teaching profession in India. All the tributes of “nation-builder”, “kings maker”, “noble soul” and the like which are paid to the person of the teacher have become nothing more than high sounded words, which sound much, but mean almost nothing. Job satisfaction is the result of various attitudes of an employee towards his job. These attitudes are related with specific factor such as salary, service condition, advancement opportunities and other benefits. In this case of job satisfaction of physical education and other teachers, there are certain other factors also which are more.
Teaching profession, now-a-days also attract intelligent and talented men and women. The teachers, in young age, are not satisfied because of unhappy condition of service, inadequacy of pre-service guidance, lack of in service training, absence of comparable benefits and privileges apart from limited opportunities for social advancement and professional growth. In this difficult situation teachers are not able to maintain their high standard. For the purpose various, education commission and several educationists have emphasized on the
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necessity of improving the status, salaries, service conditions etc. of the teachers.
The major factors of the job satisfaction of teacher in India are:
Infrastructural facilities
Meaning of Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the combination of two words “Job‟ and “Satisfaction”.
Job is an occupational activity performed by an individual in return for a reward.
Satisfaction refers to the way one feels about events, people and things. According to Oxford Dictionary, “Job is small definite piece of work done in a way of one‟s special occupation.” Job satisfaction as like as physical and mental satisfaction is inherent in human characters. It is closely related with the maintenance of the right spirit in one‟s work. In this way, there is a dignified positive co-relation between the extent of job satisfaction and the interest of an employee in his work. When the job satisfaction is higher in one‟s mind, then the chances of one‟s putting heart and soul with one‟s single minded devotion is greater and fairer and than the person draws undivided attention to give perfection to the task. Job satisfaction may be predicted due to the presence of a variable in the work, and this situation leads him to satisfaction. But the absence of a variable in the work situation will result dissatisfaction.
It is an established fact that job satisfaction usually leads to qualitative and quantitative improvement in performance. Satisfaction in job induces motivations and interest in work, when work becomes interesting; the worker gets pleasure for
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work. More especially, the personal pleasure that the worker gets from a job of his choice gives him tremendous psychological satisfaction. It is probably the major aim of every worker to get maximum satisfaction from his job. Employers feel equally that pleasure in job enhances production and mental satisfaction.
According to Tiffin and McCormick (1971), “The satisfaction which people experience in the jobs is in large part the consequence of the extent to which the various aspects of their work situations tend to be relevant to their job related value system.” Those jobs that provide the worker a chance to fulfill his interests and aptitudes, give him satisfaction and pleasure. Natural interest in jobs of his choice motivates him for efficient and qualitative performance.
Job satisfaction improves the performance as well as the effectiveness of an individual adjusted atmosphere teacher can contribute to the well being of his pupil students. On the other hand, the irritable, depressed, hostile tired neurotic teacher cannot concentrated on their studies which are disturbing to pupils students and which may permanently alter their outlook on life.
Moral and Self Confidence of Teachers
In fact, a positive and healthy school culture translates into increased teacher job satisfaction and productivity. School culture is a concept that came from the corporate workplace in hopes that it would improve the learning environment and increase productivity in schools, just as a positive climate or work environment does in the workplace. School culture includes the values and beliefs, traditions and myths, as the members of the school community understand them.
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This “culture” often affects what people within the school community think, and how they act (Stolp, 1994). It includes those aspects of school that people believe to be what Ellsberry (1999) called “quintessential strengths that give the school uniqueness”. It is about attitudes, opinions and beliefs, where perception becomes reality, or “truth is a function of one‟s point of view” (Ellsberry, 1999). School culture becomes significant to job satisfaction because commonly held visions or beliefs, coupled with a positive environment, carry with them the energy for success.
Realizing the impact school culture has on teacher attitudes and morale,
Hart, Wearing, and Cohn (2000) created an instrument to access organizational factors relating to school culture. Eleven such factors were identified to be assessed; appraisal and recognition, curriculum coordination, effective discipline policy, excessive work demands, goal congruence, participative decision-making, professional growth, professional interaction, role clarity, student orientation, and supportive leadership. Managing an appropriate balance of these factors appears to be a key to creating and maintaining a positive environment.
The workplace conditions had a positive relationship with a teacher‟s job satisfaction. Stolp (1994) indicated the school culture correlated directly with teacher attitudes about their work and that stronger cultures had more motivated teachers who experienced higher job satisfaction and increased productivity.
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In the last decade there has been a great deal of rhetoric and some movement in the areas of site-based management in the school setting. Teacher autonomy has been shown to impact job satisfaction. Pirie and Baker (1997) found that teachers with greater autonomy showed higher levels of job satisfaction than those with less autonomy, and suggested that school districts that are able to increase teachers‟ control over their classrooms and other school decisions stand to increase the long-term job satisfaction of its staff members. Empowering teachers and including them in the decision-making process can be a productive tool that appears to influence the school culture in a positive way.
Job satisfaction can be described in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Intrinsic factors are those factors surrounding the job itself and have the greatest impact on job satisfaction. These include such things like a feeling of accomplishment of self worth, personal growth and professional development, and a supportive environment in which to work. Satisfaction often comes as a result of daily activities, or interactions with students, which affirm that learning is taking place. According to Johnson and Johnson (1999), “We know, for example, that job satisfaction is related to intrinsic (internal) Factors, factors that relate to what an employee actually does (a person‟s relationship to the job itself). Strong contributors to job satisfaction include having individual responsibility, challenging work, opportunities for achievement and advancement, and achievement of the goal of performing a task effectively”. Moral and self-confidence follow.
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Davis and Wilson (2000) stated: “job satisfaction is clearly related to levels of intrinsic empowerment.” Research seems to indicate that extrinsic factors surrounding the job including things like salary, fringe benefits, school safety, level of support by administration, and job security, do not significantly impact the level of job satisfaction of teachers (Baughman, 1996). “Very few teachers enter the profession because of external rewards such as salary benefits, or prestige” (Perie
& Baker, 1997). Many teachers enter the profession because they enjoy working with children. While extrinsic factors do not strongly impact the level of job satisfaction for teachers, there is a connection. Absence of these factors, or a deficiency in the level of these factors is often associated with job dissatisfaction
(Johnson & Johnson, 1999), and no doubt effects attitudes surrounding the work environment. Extrinsic factors ultimately affect staff morale and teacher productivity.
Job satisfaction is critical to teacher commitment and school effectiveness, and actions by school administrators create distinct environments that are highly predictive of the level of job satisfaction for the teaching staff. Charismatic and supportive school leadership which creates an environment focused on academic excellence, provides a positive role model, and allows teachers to focus on teaching rather than bureaucratic rules and procedures, are factors that contribute to a productive environment. Teacher satisfaction is a pivotal link in the chain of education reform. Teacher satisfaction influences job performance, attrition, and ultimately, student performance.
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Teacher Morale
Morale is a feeling or state of mind, a mental or emotional attitude centered about one‟s work. A level of well being that individuals or groups experience in reference to their work. Evans (1992) has described morale as the extent to which an individual‟s needs are satisfied and how that individual perceives the satisfaction relates to his total job satisfaction. Evans goes on to explain that while morale and satisfaction are connected they are not one in the same. While it is possible to have high morale when you are dissatisfied with your job satisfaction, but are working to improve it, high levels of morale are depended on achieving high levels of job satisfaction. Morale is built with job satisfaction, commitment, enthusiasm, and a sense of common purpose. When a healthy school environment exists and teacher morale is high, “teachers feel good about each other and, at the same time, feel a sense of accomplishment from their jobs” (Hoy and Miskel cited in Lumsden, 1998). There is no doubt that teacher morale is important and that it helps to create an environment that is conducive to learning.
Despite its importance, White (2000) has encountered many teachers who have experienced problems with morale; she indicated low morale is a problem in many schools today. One possible cause for this problem is that education is an institution i.e. in transition considering the current level of attention afforded public education in this country. According to Briggs and Richardson (1992), change can be threatening as it “is usually in direct conflict with the most stabilizing characteristics of habit, status, tradition, and experience.” they go on to indicate
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that low teacher morale may be the direct result of sweeping changes, for while change is inevitable, it should be evolutionary rather than revolutionary. Teachers, who probably suffer the greatest anxiety, are not the ones that initiated the change, but will be the ones most affected by it.
Expectations placed on teachers seem to be growing exponentially and is another possible cause for morale problems. Teachers are expected to perform many duties in order to meet the needs of students that may have little if anything to do with teaching the curriculum. These extra duties often cause feelings of frustration for teachers, or a feeling of being overwhelmed as they attempt to “do it all”.
Schools mirror society; they do not operate in a vacuum, and so must deal with the same social problems that exist throughout our country. Many students come from single parent households or homes where both parents work. The increased demand on time parents spend at work in order to make ends meet have contributed to a lack of parental involvement at school. This is not to imply that parents are no longer concerned about their children‟s performance, only that demands on time have caused some tough choices to be made. According to Weil
(1997), schools have assumed many of the roles that have traditionally belonged to parents. As schools create programs to address various problems, they inadvertently obtain a larger portion of the responsibility for raising those children, clouding the division between parent responsibility and the schools responsibility.
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A short time ago education was considered a collective effort shared between the schools, the home, and the community. That balance appears to have shifted and although there is an awareness of the problem, there are no simple remedies for it. “Ironically, the public schools themselves created the situation whereby they have become almost solely responsible for educating young people.
When societal problems found their way into the schools, the schools enthusiastically accepted the challenge of managing those problems within existing school framework. But public schools are not designed to address many of the complex problems that have now become their role” (Weil, 1997).
As the public schools increase their level of responsibility, they have discovered that you cannot please everyone, and in the process of attempting to do so, have lowered, or in some cases lost parental, and thus public support. The
National Center for Education Statistics in a 1997 report found a strong correlation between schools with strong parental support and teacher job satisfaction.
The importance placed on education at home, or parental influence on performing well in school cannot be over emphasized. Parents need to take an active role in the education of their children. While many parents are concerned about their children‟s performance, there are situations where, for whatever reason, there is a lack of direct influence. In one recent study, Shann (1998) found that parent teacher relationship were rated by teachers on par with student achievement, administrative support, and curriculum in the schools in terms of
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importance, while teacher satisfaction with this item ranked near the bottom. She gave the following example as a typical teachers‟ response from her interviews:
“when I have parental support here, it works…the problem is parents who do not support their kids going to school.” Schools need to find creative ways to reach out to parents in order to foster their participation in the education process (Ascher,
1988). Schools tend to benefit from parents that are involved not only from improved student performance, but as Becher (1986) found, involved parents tended to have more positive attitudes about school and school personnel than uninvolved parents.
Flanders & Simon (1969) have defined that teacher effectiveness is an area of research which is concerned with relationships between the characteristics of teachers, teaching acts and their effects on the educational outcomes of classroom teaching. Ryans and Cooper (1972) have correctly suggested that teachers should be better educated, better prepared to make a difference for the students with whom they work.
According to Southern (1974), "An effective teacher is the one who has a sense of humour, ability to understand the students and their problems, ability to explain things clearly so that students can easily understand what is being taught, ability to make any subject interesting to learn, ability to control the class, ability to be ready and willing to help students when they need and ability to be as fair as possible in dealing with students." In the words of Anderson (1991) "An effective
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teacher is the one who quite consistently achievers goals, which either directly or indirectly focus on the learning of the students." It has rightly been said in the report of common wealth conference (1974) that in order to be competent: "the teacher must have knowledge of child development, of the culture of his pupils and of some interest of his own, his skills must enable him to teach, advise, and guide his pupils, community and culture with which he is involved, his attitude should be positive without being aggressive, so that his example is likely to be followed as he transmits and implicitly the national aims, ideas and moral and social values.
Teacher Effectiveness Course change in the overt and covert behavior of the learner, for learning is nothing but a change in the behavior of the pupil suiting the social and cultural expectations and norms of the society of which he is a member.
The better a teacher can manifest this change in the students, the more effective he is.
The most significant factors which influence the quality of education and its contribution to national development are the quality, competence and character of teachers. "Teachers are vital to education and one key element for the facilitation of students learning." Milan & Darling (1990) revealed that teacher effectiveness is the effect that the teacher's performance has on pupils. Teacher effectiveness depends not only on the competence and performance but also on the responses pupils make. (As cited in Malik, 2005). American Commission on teacher education (1974) remarked: "the quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its citizens. The quality of its citizens depends, not exclusively but in critical measure,
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upon the quality of their education. The quality of their education depends, more than any other single factor, upon quality of their teachers." The research by
Bennett (1976) which argued that teachers who taught "formally" obtained better results in basic primary school subjects than teachers who taught "in-formally".
They produced not only international debate about teaching style but replication studies (Galton and Simon 1980). Somers and Southern (1974) have discussed teacher effectiveness in terms of certain qualities. According to them, and effective teacher is he who has a sense of humour, ability to explain things clearly so that students can easily understand what is being taught, ability to make any subject interesting to learn, ability to control the class, ability to be ready and willing to help students when they need, and ability to be fair as possible in dealing with students.
According to Sheela Mangla, (2001), "Good teachers show a balance of qualities -continuous growth for excellence, readiness for guidance, set high value standards so that they can equip the children wisely and effectively, they are purposeful whose energies and values are organized and focused on their teaching work; they are thinkers and constructive workers with intellectual bent for achievements; they warm up the students, appreciate their efforts and encourage them to work harder; they have a hunger for vividness, for wholeness and completeness in their ideas, they are sensitive and responsive, they have a conscience and patient and persistently curious." Nitsaisook (1987) described the activities that make teachers effective like: "variety to activities and experiences e.g. case studies demonstration videotape recording of teachers in classrooms,
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discussion group and peer teaching are provided to the teacher during the education or training programme." Tagore has aptly said, "A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame: a teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself." Pritam Singh (1998) said that, who are: teaching instead of tutoring, checking practices in examinations instead of encouraging them: commanding respect rather than demanding it from their students, observing professional ethics instead of violating it. Such half-backed teachers, who might have had good graduation degrees in their respective subjects, lack the needed professional competence to teach and make pupils good learners and good human beings. He found out certain attributes of effective teachers:
T Temperance E Empathy
A Academic Aristocracy
C Commitment
H Humor
E Ethics
R Reflection Thus the task of identifying effective teachers is crucial to teacher education certification, selection and promotion and in so far as teaching contributes to the total social welfare.
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A Proposed Definition of Teacher Effectiveness
Effective teachers consistently achieve goals that focus on desired outcomes for their students. Teacher effectiveness is encompassed in knowledge, attitudes, and performance.
Knowledge
Teachers have excellent verbal and written communication skills. Teachers have thorough knowledge of the subjects they teach and pedagogical methods for teaching those subjects to students. Teachers know a variety of pedagogical strategies, and when and with which students these are appropriate and likely to be effective. Teachers have a thorough understanding of the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of their students and how best to maximize learning for students with diverse needs and characteristics. Teachers know how to organize and manage classrooms, using time effectively. Teachers know how to assess student learning, both formally and informally, how to vary instruction for students based on these assessments, and how to select and make resources that are appropriate for student learning activities. Teachers understand language development and children's developmental stages at the level they teach.
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Attitudes
Teachers respect their students regardless of their background, language, or ethnicity. Teachers have high expectations for the learning of all students.
Teachers view student errors as a window to their thinking that can be used to improve student learning. Teachers are reflective about their practice. Teachers believe in collaboration with others toward common goals for student learning.
Teachers are receptive to involvement of parents and community members in their classrooms. Teachers are eager to continue to learn and to improve their practice.
Teachers are committed to their profession.
Performance
Teachers' classrooms are well organized, providing an environment that fosters an interest in learning. Teachers develop classroom rules with students and maintain safe and orderly classrooms in which all students are treated fairly and equitably. Teachers make effective use of time, both of overall classroom time and the time of individual students. Teachers use effective teaching techniques: planning lessons, presenting new material clearly, helping students connect new learning with previous learning, and providing guided and independent practice for new material taught. Teachers provide opportunities for students to be actively involved in their own learning. Teachers respond to student errors in positive ways that help students understand and learn the concepts involved.
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Teacher effectiveness depends not only on the competence and performance but also on the responses pupils make. (As cited in Malik, 2005)
Many times the terms teacher performance and teacher effectiveness are used synonymously. Medley (1982) made an attempt to clear the distinction between teacher performance and teacher effectiveness, saying that teacher performance.
Implies what a teacher does a job, the ability to apply his competence to his task, at any given point of time and teacher effectiveness includes both teacher performance and its effect on pupils while on the job. Padmanabhaiah (1986) observed that region, designation, age, experience and size of the family of teachers could significantly influence the level of teaching effectiveness.
Factors Influencing Teacher Effectiveness
Some of the factors that could have great influence teacher Effectiveness apparently would be:
Locus of control
Psycho-social maturity
Organizational conflicts
Intelligence
Academic back ground
Altitude towards teaching profession
Socio Economic status
Age
Self-Concept
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Teaching Experience
Professional Training Center
Level of Aspiration
Climate
Job Satisfaction
Attitude towards Teaching
Attitude is such a complex affair that it cannot be completely described.
Attitude plays a very important role in the life of a teacher. Children remain under their care in the most impressionable years of their lives and the attitude of teachers is bound to influence them. This influence is likely to remain throughout their lives. Crow and Crow (1973) say in this connection. "Children tend to initiate the attitude of their older. These attitudes affect all human values and are effective in their realization of successful accomplishment of desired goals." Attitude towards teaching profession is an emotionalized tendency, organized through teaching experiences to react positively towards teaching. It is a learned emotional response, set for or against teaching. Individuals will have positive attitudes towards those objects which enable them to achieve the values held and form negative attitudes towards objects which hinder the achievement of value.
Thurstone (1936) described "An attitude as the degree of positive and negative effect associated with some psychological object." Attitude may be defined as a feeling or disposition to favour or to go against an object, idea, person or group.
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Allport (1937) defines attitudes as "A mental or neural state of readiness, organized through experience a directive or dynamic influence upon the individuals to all objects and situations with which it is related." What an individual feels or what an individual believes is his attitudes. Attitudes can be defines the sun total of man's inclination and feelings prejudice or bias, pre conceived nations, ideas, evils threads and convictions about any specific topic. The attitude as a degree of positive or negative effect associated with some psychological objects.
The definition of attitude reveals the following facts concerning attitude:
Attitude is the mental or neural state of readiness.
Attitude influences the reactions of the individuals.
Attitude changes the reactions of the individuals.
New Comb says, "An individual's attitude towards something is his pre- disposition to perform to perceive think and feel in relation to it." Attitude has certain characteristic:
Attitude is related with images, thoughts and eternal objects.
Attitude guides the behavior of any individual in one particular direction.
Unconscious motive is an important factor in the creation of attitude
Attitude is related to the person's needs and problems.
Although attitude is described as permanent, but it do change and develop.
The stability of the attitude is relative. The change of attitude can't be all of the sudden but it is the result of steady development. Teaching is the best profession.
Attitude towards teaching is a psychological determinant where effective
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experience brings changes towards teaching. Teacher's attitude towards teaching may be positive or negative but are of great significance for efficient and profitable functioning of any institution. Teacher who have great satisfaction with their job and positive attitude towards teaching, enjoy their profession and prefer teaching in spite of many economic or social abuses. On the other hand, a teacher who has a negative attitude will not enjoy teaching rather feel like a fish out of water. If a teacher has a positive attitude towards teaching, he can bitterly satisfy his inner self.
Social well being of social advancement of pupils of depends to a great extent on the enthusiasm and professional skill of the teachers. The dispositions of the teacher should always be implied because the growth of the generation ultimately depends on the quality of education they receive from the teachers. Who should be hard working, conscious dutiful, aspirant affectionate and interested in the welfare of their job. In India, Dutt 1951, undertook the study to see the attitude of teachers in Delhi towards teaching profession and he found negligible relationship between attitude and age. Women teachers were found possessing higher co-efficient of correlation than their male counter parts.
Dass (1951) found that women joined this profession from all classes of families. On the other hand, men who drawn largely from the families engaged in somewhat inferior profession. Evans (1952) concluded in her study on attitude of teachers towards teaching. She concluded that there was significant difference
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between the attitude of male & female, young and old teachers. Mathai (1992) found that attitude towards teaching profession is a significant predictor variable of success in teaching. Skariah (1994) studied creativity of teacher trainees' in relation to their self concept, attitude towards teaching profession and success in teaching and found that high teaching success group and high attitude towards teaching group are more creative than the other groups. Samantray (1971) found that there exists degree of positive relationship between teacher attitude and teaching efficiency. Efficiency is affected by the attitude teachers having positive attitude towards their profession will be more devoted to their job. They would have sense of responsibility. An attitude had been described by Himmelfarb and Eagly
(1974) as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional perceptual and cognitive processes with respect some aspect of the individual's world. Many self reporting instruments have been developed to measure attitude towards teaching educations, school and course among teachers and students. The Minnesota teacher Attitude inventory (MTAI) and the survey of study habits and attitude have been extensively used in research on teachers and student's attitudes (Travers,
1973) Loree (1971) did a review of research on attitude under four areas which included the attitude measurement and attitudes related to teacher effectiveness.
Studies on relationship of teacher attitudes with teacher effectiveness have also reported by Loree (1971) Singh (1974) measured teacher's values and found significant positive relationship with teacher's attitudes and job satisfaction. Patel
(1977) while working on job satisfaction of high and higher secondary school
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
teacher did not differ so far as their attitude towards teaching is concerned, sex, age, marital status and academic qualifications have no effect on the attitude of teachers towards teaching. Ramkrishnaiah, (1980) revealed through his study, that women teachers have a significant and more favourable attitude towards teaching than men teachers. Gupta, (1984) conducted a study on Attitude of
Teachers and found that male and female teachers differ significantly in attitude towards teaching profession. Rawat and Sreevastava (1984) conducted a comparative study of the attitude of male and female teacher trainees towards teaching. Significant difference was found between male and female teacher trainees in their attitude towards teaching profession. Poozhikuth (1989) found that female teachers have high attitude towards teaching than male teachers and age is not significantly associated with attitude towards teaching whereas length of service is associated with attitude towards teaching.
Mohanty (1990) made critical analysis of reactions of pupil teachers towards teaching profession. It was found that majority of the pupil teachers are interested in the field of education. Mathai (1992) found that attitude towards teaching profession is a significant predictor variable of success in teaching. Skariah (1994) studied creativity of teacher trainees' in relation to their self concept, attitude towards teaching profession and success in teaching and found that high teaching success group and high attitude towards teaching group are more creative than the other groups. Kumar (1995), in a study, found that there is significant difference in the attitude of male and female teacher trainees towards teaching
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profession. Jarrett (1999) examined the effects of previous experiences in science learning on prospective elementary teacher's interest and confidence in teaching science. The study reported on the effect of an inquiry-based science methods course on teacher interest and confidence. They found that elementary school experience, plus the number of science courses taken in college, predicted initial confidence and teacher interest. Ruhland (2002) studied factors important to determine a business teacher's interest in continuing or not continuing in the teaching profession. The survey consisted of four sections: educational preparation, teaching experience, skills and interests in teaching, and demographics. Findings were (1) the retention rate of respondents is very good (2)
86% are still teaching (3) secondary business teachers who initially did not have teaching interest and a strong commitment to the teaching profession are more likely to leave the teaching profession.
Suja (2007) in a study found that attitude towards teaching, interest in teaching and teaching experience have significant main effect on job commitment of teachers. In other, Usha & Sasikumar (2007) revealed that teacher commitment is the best predictor of job satisfaction among school teachers. Sylvester (2010) held that the factors like gender, location of institute, educational qualification and years of teaching experience of teacher educators have no impact on their attitude towards teaching profession as well as level of job satisfaction.
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Self-Concept
The study of 'self and 'self concept' has attracted the attention of psychologists and educators for quite some time past now. It has been suggested that the overall performance of a teacher in the class room is largely dependent on his self concept. Accordingly it has been emphasized that the total effectiveness in any domain of teaching work is to a very considerable degree swaged by the self concept. Recently, it has transpired that emotional adjustment, is also dependent on self concept of the person Viewed in this light both 'self concept' and emotional adjustment as concept seem to become significant variable for determining task orientations and their success in so for as planning and implementing of instructional designs and strategies are concerned.
Needless to mention that teacher's attitude towards teaching and like his professional and emotional adjustment is bound to influence his self concept' which implies his own image in his own eyes. Thus an important mental apparatus of a teacher may be considered to be his self concept which influences every function of his life. In the present study an attempt has been made to examine how self concept and Attitude of teachers may affect their performance in the class rooms.
A teacher role involves a triadic function. Firstly, a man making process, which is quite onerous and challenging. Secondly, a duty towards the nation, society and children which is reflected in his practical job. Thirdly, his own role
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perception which is significant for his professional growth. An insightful teacher can correct his faulty, "Self-Concept" through self- discipline and by keeping into his own self images for judicious evaluation. It needs hardly any stating that a realistic 'self concept' helps a teacher to grow professionally and also helps in proper emotional adjustment with his environment. It now generally stands established that positive 'self-concept' strengthens the ability of reasoning the problem solving attitude, speed, accuracy and efficiency of a teacher.
Changing focus on Self
The concept of 'self has a long past but a short history. This field in educational research has not yet been extensively or intensively explored by the researchers or even self psychologists for that matter. The formation of 'self concept' is a continuous and life long process and it is related basically to the problems thinking. The way one thinks about oneself and constructs of image of oneself that gets projected are crucial in this regard. The role perception of an individual through image building influences the concept of 'self very much. Human behavior is a very complex phenomenon and as such as is very difficult to understand and predict. But 'self concept' has tended to become an important means in the recent years to understand, inter pret predict it. Rogers believed that
'self is a basic factor in the formation of personality and in determining behavior but according to him it had entered the field of psychology as a problem of research in the later quarter of 19 century. As early as 1890 William James, developed the nation of 'self around which he could construct a grand picture of mental life. Such a nation of self gave way to concepts such as 'personality traits' and the
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
dimensions of personality which eventually led to towards statistical formulations objective measurement and assessment in quantitative terms.
In the modern age 'self concept' has been recognised as a patent means for making a deep study of personality as it helps in understanding human behavior. It is now believed that self is a principal controlling agent, which shapes human destiny. In reality 'self is view by the majority of self psychologists as the nucleus of human body. Thus the self is not only related to motivational activity alone, but acts as a regulating and coordinating factor in perceiving, learning, remembering, planning risk taking, decision making situations. While solving a problem or in undertaking some work, the level of performance is determined not only by the difficulty or case of the problems but also by the image one has built about oneself in general.
Self- Psychological Thought
Boldwin (1895) gave an interactions, account and attempted the study of
'self on scientific footing. Cooley (1902) viewed 'self through social interaction as a
'looking glass for the self. Mead (1913) also adopted a similar approach based upon the lines indicated by Cooley and analysed the 'role taking process of the self. Peaget and Wallen (1932) declared 'self as the product of social interaction with the members of social or linguistic groups. Chapman Vokaman (1939) declared that the concept of self is a powerful determined of one's level of aspiration. Lundholm (1940) made a clear cut distinction between 'subjective self and objective self According to him, subjective self present symbols, words and self awareness and objective self consists of those symbols in terms of which other persons describe the individual. It was Chein (1944) who under took a still finer
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
distinction between 'self and 'ego' by declaring that 'self is what one is aware of while 'ego' is a group of processes. Later Murphy (1947) propounded the idea of
'self as the individual known to the individual. It may be voted that views of such self psychologists appear to have shifted in favour of the importance of 'self both as an object and process and efforts were made to provide the concept of self as a meaningful place.
Self- Process and Object
Hall, (1957) suggested that the term 'self has come to connects two distinct meanings to psychologists self as object and self as process. Self-as object may be defined simply as the aggregate of attitudes feelings judgments and values which an individual holds with respect to his behavior his ability, his worth as a person in short how to perceives and evaluates himself self as process is defined in terms of activities such as thinking, perceiving and coping with the environment some individual have used the term 'ego' to denote the same construct The self concept described in terms of self-as- object is considered to be a potent aspect of personality and that individually differences are regarded as meaningful as differences in abilities, values, motives, and attitudes. The self-as-process governs behavior and adjustment.
Self-Versus Ego
In developing the concept of self as distinct from ego, William James analysed self in terms of constituent parts self feelings, and actions of self seeking and self preservation. The constituent parts of the self included the sum total of what an individual considered to be his body, traits, characteristics, abilities,
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aspirations, family, work and other such affiliations. He further advanced the concept of the pure ego, which was explained in terms of the stream of consciousness constituting one's sense of personal identity. Regarding the concept of self based on the theory propounded by James, some prefer to treat the respective concept of self and ego as separate. There are some who have no objection to the use of these two terms interchangeably. Thus, according to Koffka
(1935) self is the core of nucleus of the ego and the ego is conceptualized both as doer and object. Chein (1944) made reference to the prevalent view of self and ego. According to himself is what one is aware of, where as ego is a processes.
The motives and ideas of the ego serve the purpose of defending extending, enhancing and preserving the self. The threat to the self is sought to be countered by the ego. He feels that self is thought to be a part of the total personality of an individual. The self follows a course of continuous development and growth and becomes more and more complex and involves with the emerging of individual into adulthood.
According to Bertocci (1945) self process' is labeled 'self and 'self-as-object' is called 'ego' following the traditional meanings attached to these two terms. His use of the term 'self corresponds to Frued's use of the term 'ego' as unitary activity of sensing, imagining, remembering, willing, feeling and thinking. The ego as
Bertocci conceived it, is a cluster of values which may become embodies in the form of traits with which the self identifies its success rather similar to the use of this term by Sherif and Cantrill (1947) who are of the view that the ego is a
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constellation of attitudes for example when I think of myself, what I value, what is mine and what identify with. Thus, their ego is something more than self as object, for if the ego become involved, it motivates behaviour. As set forth by them ego involved behavior is more effective than its non ego involved part. Inspite of their best efforts, the self as object and ego ads process remain less differentiated and clear. Murphy (1947) described 'self as the individual known to the individual and ego as group of activities concerned with the enhancement and defence of 'self.
Thus, self would consist of varied attitudes and feelings in regard to the person himself and ego would refer to associated processes and activities. In this framework, self is object, where as ego is process.
In this way, those who distinguish between 'self and 'ego' seem to be generally agreed on regarding self and entity and ego as a group of processes.
Snygg and Combs (1949) talk of the phenomenal self, since all the behavior without exception is completely determined by and contingent on the phenomenal field of the behaving organism. Further, they maintain that the phenomenal field consists of totality of experiences of which the individual is aware at the time of action. Varying awareness influence the behavior of the individual.
On this view the phenomenal self serves both as the object and the doer. It is a doer because it is an aspect of phenomenal field. Which determines all bahaviour? It is also an object because it consists of self experiences. Hilgard
(1949) regard behavior not as a product of the self but rather as a complex of
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psychological processes aroused by proximal and distal stimuli of which a person is largely unaware. He accords weightage of forces of factors or factors outside the self. Ausubal (1952) proposed a scheme of self made up primarily of perceptual ingredients where as ego, according to him, consists of effectively charged conceptual ingredients such as self ideals and self values. Sarabin (1943) regarded self as a cognitive structure consisting of various aspects of an individual being somatic, receptor, effecter and social. Since all these are based on experience. Sarabin speaks of the empirical selves using the term self and 'ego' synonymously. Shoben (1962) defined self as a relatively stable organization of values that mediates and focuses on that component of behavior which influences very much day life of human beings. Since he makes hardly any mention of ego, it may be presumed that he construes self both as object and doer. Miller (1962) defined ego as the individual conception of himself. He differentiated between ego and self still further. He laid stress on individuals' conception of himself rather than on socially perceived self as reflected in other frames of references referred to earlier. It is obvious, therefore, that ego and self have been by and large considered to be two different concepts the ego in the sense of an executive and self as a group of attributes reflected in constellations of perception and attitudes of person about himself.
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Rogers Theory of self
Rogers (1947) who was influenced by the theory of phenomenal self believed that in additions to the self structure there is an ideal self which indicates what the person would like to be. For him, the self or self concept denotes the organized, consistent and conceptual gestalt composed or perceptions of the characteristic of 'I" or "ME" and the perception of relationship of I" "ME" to others and the various aspects of life together with the values attached to these perceptions. It is regarded as a gestalt, which is available to awareness through not necessarily in awareness thus, it is conceived of as a specific entity.
The theory of conceptual gestalt propounded by Rogers is perhaps the most important theory reported in the West. It differs from other Western theories of self particularly of Frued and his dissenting associates emphasizing the self as an 'I-ME' reaction of mental processes and other theories of self referring to 'I-ME' reactions of individual because Rogers concept of self apart from individual 'I Me' relationship includes relationship with other 'I-ME' also. Rogers further argues that the self is a basic factor in the formulation of personality and in the determination of behavior. The phenomenological theory of self as advanced by Rogers relies heavily upon the concept of self as an explanatory concept.
It may be observed that the study of self concept could get the necessary, the fillip for making depth study of personality partly due to the direct consequences and bearing the mental hygiene and clinical movement but more
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
because of the realization that psychology without self cannot succeed in knowing human behavior.
Rogers theory of self influenced clinical psychology and special perception.
Halland Lindzey (1957) explained of the chief conceptual ingredient of Rogers theory of self as under:
The organism is a total individual.
The phenomenal field is the totality of experience.
The self is differentiated portion of the phenomenal field and consists of a
pattern of conscious perception and values of T or 'ME'
It may be worthwhile to point out that the nuclear concept of Rogers theory of personality is the self which has numerous properties and some may be indicated as under:
It develops out of the organism's interaction with the environment.
It may be introvert the value of other people and perceive them in a distorted
fashion.
The self strives for consistency.
The organism behaves in ways that are consistent with the self.
Experiences which are not consistent with the self structure are perceived
as threats.
The self may change as a result of maturation and learning.
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
Rogers discussed the nature of these concepts and their inter relationship in a series of nineteen propositions formulated by him. According he made the self and object of empirical research and changed the theoretical status of self given by the psychologists previously. It is interesting to note that he proposed a theory of personality development, a personality functioning and personality change with the concept of self as its central focus.
Self-A Centre
The self is considered as that segment of an individual which is known to an individual. It is one own image in one's own eyes, as perceived, felt and thought of by oneself. On perceives others and can perceive oneself also, but this perception of one and others cannot be objective and correct. For an individual his own self is at the core of everything that matters. A person behaves in accordance with the self. Two things are assumed to be vital in the life of an individual the concept of self and perception of the environment. The other reality, however objective it may be, shall not affect the behavior of a person unless it gets to self. Whenever two people meet there are really six people present. There is each person as he sees himself, each person as the other person sees him, and each person as he really is.
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
Evolution of Self
In tracing the evolution of the self concept it may be observed at the outset that psychologists drawn towards it believed that the self of a person develops from birth onwards through the process of differences between 'ME and not ME' It was regarded as the outcome of the product of interaction from infancy with an individual's physical and social environment. Baldwin (1989) thought that the ego and the alter-ego are thus born together. Cooley and Mead in (1902) and (1913) developed the concepts of self as based on social interaction. Piaget (1932) through his early researches studies conceived of the self as a product of interaction with others. Clark (1947) and Horowitz (1944) also found that self attitude is greatly influence by verbal interaction s and conceptual classification
Therefore, the origin of the self may be said to be derived from interaction between two series of events of many experiences with the environments and social contacts help self concept to develop. The company of fellow children, the family environment, adult's guardianship, parental care and treatment exercise deep influence and the nature of the quality of the classificatory scheme defining, what one is and what one is not. By using a series of ego norms Sheriff and Sheriff
(1956) stressed on consistency in competing. With other in comparing, with others in experiences sympathy with another's distress, in responsibility for self. Also setting of goals on one's own performance appears gradually as the child participates in social and co operative forms of play as contrasted with side by side or parallel play. In this way let the child achieve adulthood and become a socialized member of the society. Due to body's growth and change in life, a transition in the
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
self concept also occurs from childhood to old age.
Dinkmeyer (1965) has laid emphasis on the developmental character of the self. And described that the interaction continues, throughout the life and is linked with the old, familiar sensations, pleasure, pain, resistance, acceptance, rejection and gratification with the passage of time. As the child grows, he learns about the world and also about himself. Thus, three inferences may be adduced evidently in respect of self development from the above explanation. First, the self is a development formation in the psychological process of the individual. Secondly, the self consists of interrelated and acquired aspects of life; and thirdly the individual's relations to others are defined to be regulated by self in various concrete situations and activities.
Parameters of Self
The self analyses have been attempted with four major dimensions popularly known as perceived self real self, social self and ideal self. They are briefly being explained as follow:
Perceived self: Perceived self simply implies what a person thinks he is.
This is influences by the physical self of the person, his physical appearances, his dress and grooming his abilities and dispositions, his values and his beliefs and aspirations. Thus it represents traits of one's nature, which have been detected and integrated into a pattern. It constitutions the idea or concept one forms about oneself. Perceived self is often called self concept of an individual Sutherland
(1956) referred to it as the individual known to the individual. It is the T and 'ME' his
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
constant frame of references, the proud possession which he wants to maintain and enhance at all costs. This part of individual's make up determines his behavioural expressions.
Real Self
Real Self means that the person really is. It also includes what the individual is aware of and one as such it is characteristic of the person as assessed objectivity or as seen sometimes by other people. It is also called the perceived self plus unconscious self.
Social Self
This self refers to the self as one thinks or others view it. It may not correspond with other's perception of himself. But even then this self has a very major effect upon one's behavior. It is actually the self as looked upon or estimated by persons other than the individual himself.
Ideal-Self
This self implies what an individual thinks he would like to be. Butler and
Haigh (1954) observed that the ideal self implies the organized conceptual patterns of characteristics and emotional states which an individual consciously holds desirable or undesirable for himself. Some investigations have resorted to the use of ideal self a means of determining the self aspiration of the persons. This concepts has been shown to be valuable tin determining the relationship between how the person sees himself and what he thinks he should be like. The ideal self begins when the child identifies with a parental figure. They also indicated that
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
during middle childhood and early adolescence. It moves through a stage of romanticism and glamour, and culminates in late adolescence as a composite of desirable characteristics which may be symbolized by an attractive, real, and visible young adult, as perhaps even an imaginary person. This classification of the self has helped in revealing many interesting facts. Many researchers have been done to bring to light this fact. Taylor and Combs (1952), Bills and Vance
(1953), Zimmer (1954), Zukerman and Monashkur (1957) have done interesting studies in this field. Sharma and Others (1967) observe that self acceptance can also be as effectively measured by positive-negative dimension as perceived ideal self discrepancies.
Components of Self-Concept
According the Hurlock (1974) the concept of self has three major components, the perceptual, the conceptual and the attitudinal. The perceptual components is similar to physical self concept which includes the image of one's appearance, the attractiveness and sex appropriateness of body and the importance of different parts of body. The conceptual component is similar to psychological self concept which relates to the origin of the individual, his abilities and disabilities his social adjustment and traits of personality. The attitudinal component refers attitudes of a person about his present status and future prospects, his feelings about this worthless, his attitudes of self esteem and price and shame. It also includes his beliefs, convictions and values.
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
Self-Concept as Behavior Determinant
An individual behavior is a function of his self- concept and depends upon the way in which he perceives the situation. An individual behaves in a particular situation according to his self concept and that self concept of an individual dictates and directs his response in any setting. Adler, as early as 1931 observed how the feelings of inferiority (components of self-concept) affect an individual behavior and his attitudes towards the society and situation in the family. Snygg and Combs (1949) suggest that behavior is entirely dependent on organism's perceptual field, which means the entire universe, as it is experienced by the individual at the time of action. Thus, behavior and self-concept interact with each other and influence each other. Bugental (1955) states that the success with which the individual adjusts to the problems of adult life is bound to have some influence upon his self concept. A positive correlation has found between successful adjustment and stable self concept. An individual behavior is dictated by his self-concept in a particular situation and is influenced directly indirectly by this.
Thus, it may be taken to imply that self concept plays a vital role in the behavior determination of an individual.
Self as an Actualisor
A.H. Maslow (1998) has developed a new thesis by formulating a paradigm showing a hierarchical nature of need mix to support it. According to him the two higher needs viz. Self esteem and self actualization are dependent on the fulfillment of basic physiological needs, safety needs for love and belongingness.
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
The emphasis has been laid on the highest type of need in this scale, which refers to self actualization. Maslow assumed that those needs, which have the greatest potency at any given time, dominate behavior and demand satisfaction. The individual feels driven so to say by a high priority need. When the need is satisfied, a high order motive (need) makes its appearance and demands its satisfaction.
And so on to the top of the hierarchy. The highest need, which is called self actualization, is defined by Maslow as follow. "A Musician must make music, an artist must point, a poet must write, if he is ultimately to be at peace with himself what a man can be he must be." This need we may call self actualization. It may be observed that self actualization needs not take the form of creative characteristics a genius. A fine mother, an athlete, a good workman, or a teacher may be actualizing their potentialities in doing well, what they can do best; it is never the less true that self actualiseres, are comparatively rare and proportionately presented among the gifted. Most of us apparently are seeking satisfaction of lower order needs."
Man lives in society, He interacts with the environment according to his needs and wants. The inner image of the man is known as 'self it is defined as the perception by the individual of his own inner feelings. Eysenck (1972) has stated that the self may be understood as the perception, which the individual has of himself. In modern psychology self has been related with the individual's identifies.
Horrocks (1976) has emphasized the importance of self in these words. "It is not an exaggeration to say that the process of self and identify building is the chief
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
development task in the psychic or affective cognitive area of the human organism." Self is a process by means of which the organism derives and constructs self products which taken together represent the organism's interpretation and meaning of itself. In this relationship, the organism is the entity and self is the process the evolves representation of its own entity and it is related with mental bahaviour activities. Horrocks and Jackson (1972) define that "self is the inner image of one's personality and self disclosure is the capacity of the individual to express his inner feelings ideas, deeds and reactions in the outer world by receiving some inner or outer stimulus. This estrangement alienation from one's real-self as is it the root of neurotic personality of our time. Thus self disclosure i.e. letting another person know what one thinks, feels or wants is the most direct means by which an individual can make himself known to another person and it is a must for healthy mental personality. Just as thermometers, sphygmomanometers disclose information about the physical state of the body; self disclosure reveals the real nature of inner self of the man.
During the past decades there has been a greater emphasis on the study of vital component of self i.e. self-concept for understanding and predicting the many facets of human behavior which is a vital component in the process of education.
Since it has been observed that these are intricately and closely related to each other. Self- concept is one of the most dominating factors influencing the individual behavior on the other hand life experience too affect the self-concept. Successes and other pleasurable events in life lead to the enhancement of the self concept of while failure, frustration and other denigrating experience tend to lower the
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
concept of one. Self- Concept which originally was considered to be the keystone in non directive counseling by Rogers, is now taken as of major importance in the field of education also, because it is observed that self concept has close connections with some personal aspect like learning, motivation attitudes, perception and adjustment which determine the academic and other successes of the individual in and out of the school. Self-concept is considered to be the most significant factor in human life as everyone in continuously striving towards self actualization self realization and self enhancement and is constantly wishing to avoid self condemnation and overt forms, emerges as the governing component amongst the force determining the action. Self-concept is best conceived as a system of attitudes towards oneself. Just as a person as a result of experiences, form attitudes which he organizes into a self consistent system and defends against threats and attacks. So the person also forms attitude towards himself.
Self-Concept consists of all the perceptions, feelings, attitudes, aspirations and values of oneself concerning oneself.
It appears that a person is no born with self-concept but gradually forms one as a result of his interaction with the environment. The development of self concept involves a slow process of differentiation in which the child gradually emerges into focus out of his total world of awareness and defines progressively more clearly just who and what he is and his position in reaction to his environment. Underlying the development of self concept are the person's assets and liabilities in relation to his environment. The adequacy of the development of self-concept is to a large extent a result of the early parent child relationship the learning process through which the child passes continuously and maturity.
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Chapter-IV Emerging issues on perceptiveness of teacher education in India
The major aspects of self undertaken for studies are mainly three; the perceived self which related to what the person thinks he is, the ideal self is what the person actually is and the social self is how the person thinks other people perceive him. All these aspects of a person's self-concept may be very similar to each other or they may vary from each other. Large discrepancies between any aspect of the self spell out of maladjusted personality showing little insight into oneself and having no self-confidence. The discrepancy between the perceived and the ideal self is taken as a measure of self confidence, sometimes called self acceptance or self regard. The discrepancy between perceived and real self is an index of self insight. There is a close and linear relationship between discrepancy scores and the indices of maladjustment Sense of deprivation of defined as the feeling of deprivation caused by the non fulfillment of needs due to the deficiency in various aspects of the home and school environment of the child. A scale entitled Self expression inventory' was designed to measure sense of deprivation of the high school students. It is given such a title so that the students could not decipher the real purpose of the test and fake good results. Self-Concept has been referred by Lowe (1961) as one's attitude towards self, and by Paterson (1965) as an organized configuration of perception, beliefs feelings and attitudes and values which the individual views as a part of characteristics of him. The concept of the self in relation to other and to the environment the value qualities which are perceived as associated with experiences and objects, and the goals and ideals which are perceived as having positive or negative equivalence. Saraswati and
Gaur (1981) described self-concept as the individual's way of looking of him, it also signifies his way of thinking, feeling and behavior.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation of Data Chapter V
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
CHAPTER –V
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The Profession of Teaching
Teaching is the most arduous and complex profession in our society, and also an important job. Yet teachers are often overworked, underpaid and underappreciated. There is a common bond which unites all teachers, i.e. the desire to help students reach their maximum potentials as human beings. When they achieve this goal, when they see students grow as a result of their teaching, they know that all the training and hard work have been worth the effort.
Thus, teaching is behaviour, an organized set of cognitive acts or operations of teaching, overt and covert, organized logically and meaningfully. It has a configuration, which can be analyzed, reasoned out, described explained and changed for improvement. These behaviours can be systematically and hierarchically arranged in categories called taxonomy. The effectiveness of teaching is the competency of a teacher, the attributes of instructional process and the teacher impact on pupil behaviour. The growth of all these dimensions of this broad and diverse discipline of teacher education is, like any other discipline, extensive research survey, in search of what really contributes to effective teaching.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Effective Teaching
It is very difficult to define good teaching. This term is so value-laden that what appears to be good teaching by one person may be considered poor teaching by another, because each one values differently on the process of teaching – its techniques, outcomes or methods. One teacher may run the classroom in an organized, highly structured manner, emphasizing the intellectual content of academic discipline, while another may manage it in a less structured environment, allowing the students much more freedom to choose subject matter and activities that interested them personally.
Ryans, puts it this way: ―Teaching can be effective to the extent the teacher acts in ways that are favourable to the development of basic skills, understandings, work habits, desirable attitude, value judgment and adequate personal adjustment of the pupils.‖ But such a definition is very general and abstract because a teacher‘s role may vary in relation to the characteristics of the pupils, to grade level, and to the field of learning, that is, of the subject matter. For example, an aloof academic teacher might be liked by students who are bright and academically-minded. But such a teacher is not suited to teach those students who need sympathy and understanding about everything else.
Therefore, according to Ryans, effective teaching should be relative to three major sets of conditions:
The social or cultural group in which the teacher operates, involves social
Values which frequently differ from person to person, community to
community, culture to culture and time to time;
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
The grade level and subject matter taught; and
Intellectual and personal characteristics of the pupils taught Respect to which
teacher is better; again because of different set of values that govern one‘s
choice.
While it remains difficult to agree on what constitutes ―good‖ teaching,
―Effective‖ teaching can nearly be demonstrated in terms of what is really intended as the outcome of teaching. An effective teacher is able to bring about intended learning outcomes, though the nature of learning is still more important. The two different teachers, as in the example above, may strive for and achieve different outcomes and both be judged effective. The two critical dimensions of effective teaching are intent and achievement. Without intent, student achievement becomes random and accidental. However, intent is not also enough by itself. If students do not achieve their intended learning goals, the teacher cannot be truly effective.
Thus, effective teachers may be defined as those who can demonstrate the ability to bring about intended learning outcomes that enable them to achieve the desired results for their students.
―Teachers in today‘s schools can be rewarding but it can also be filled with stress, frustration and little time to take care of oneself (White, 2000). Teachers are
―not only teaching specific contents and mentoring in love of learning. But functioning as front line social workers‖ (Lunesdin, 1998). These increased expectations, along with the negative public perceptions of schools, have contributed to an erosion of teacher‘s adjustment.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Concept of Adjustment
Adjustment is a commonly used word in everyday life. It is equally popular in the disciplines of Psychology, Sociology and Education. Adjustment and accommodation are needed in all walks of life. Life is a continuous process of changes and challenges. Every person is facing such situations for his survival or growth which arise as a result of individual‘s physiological, psychological or social needs. Different persons use different ways to satisfy their needs. The strategy used by an individual to manage these needs i.e. satisfaction is called adjustment. When the efforts of an individual are successful and satisfying, then it is good adjustment.
But, if a person meets frustration in his efforts continuously the personality adjustment may not be proper; then it might be a case of maladjustment.
Adjustment and adaptations are frequently used in the same sense. Initially,
‗adaptation‘ was used by biologists. It means an attempt to survive in physical conditions of environment. Later on, behavioural psychologists came out with the new term ‗adjustment‘, denoting a broader concept i.e ‗Adjustment‘ means behavioural reactions to personal demands and social pressures.
Lazarus (1976) explains, ―the psychologist is more concerned with what might be called psychological survival or adjustment rather than psychological concept of adaptation as adjustment to demand‖. Good adjustment is indeed essential so that an individual grows fully and also contributes to the society.
A maladjusted person has frustrations and suffers from conflicts. He is not able to lead a contented life. It is a common place experience that a physically
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
healthy person is less susceptible to disease than a physically weak one. Similarly, a well adjusted person is better able to withstand psychological stress and social pressures than the one who is mal-adjusted. A well adjusted person possesses good mental health and, hence, is able to maintain balance between his biological, psychological and social needs.
The purpose of the present study was to look into Teacher Perspectives among secondary school teachers of Karur in relation to school organizational climate along with exploring the interaction effect of school organizational climate with location of school, gender, teaching experience and discipline of teaching. For this purpose analytical approach to analysis i.e. analysis of variance and t-test was followed to meet the objectives of the study. It may be mentioned once again that assumptions of analysis of variance (ANOVA) were not tested with regard to
‗Teachers Perspectives‘, as a dependent variable keeping in view the observations of
Norton and Box study (Guilford and Fruchter, 1981, pp.283-84) that F-test is robust to any kind of deviation in normalcy of data. It may be mentioned that sampling of secondary school teachers was made on random basis and equal number of cases in each cell of factorial designs was ensured again using random method. The formation factorial defining for ANOVA and results are discussed as under:
All the teachers teaching science, social science and language (i.e. English and Tamil) were administered the ―Teacher Perspectives Scale and School
Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire‖. The distribution of sample, across four main personal variables namely gender, location, stream and teaching experience may be shown in table 5.1.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.1
Distribution of Sample
S.No. Variable N=180 % 1 Gender Male 90 50 Female 90 50 2 Location of School Rural 120 66.66 Urban 60 33.33 3 Stream of Teaching Science 100 55.5 Social Sciences 70 39.0 Languages 10 5.5 4 Teaching Experience (in years) < 8 years 92.0 92.0 9 – 15 55.8 5.8 16 (and more) 2.2 1.2
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Chart : 5.1
Distribution of Sample
Gender 50% 50%
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 Percentage 15 10 5 0 Male Female
Location of School
66.66% 70
60
50 33.33% 40
30
Percentage Percentage 20
10
0 Rural Urban
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Stream of Teaching
55.5% 60
39% 50
40
30
Percentage Percentage 5.5% 20
10
0 Science Social Sciences Languages
Teaching Experience (in years)
100 92% 90 80 70 60 50 40 Percentage Percentage 30 20 5.8% 10 1.2% 0 < 8 years 9 – 15 16 (and more)
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Teacher Perspectives Scale (2000)
For assessing Teachers Perspectives, Kulsum ―Teacher Perspectives Scale‖ was used. The author recorded in the instructions, the self-anchoring striving scale of
Teacher Perspectives used to assess the general as well as the educational aspirations. It is further added that conceptualism of the top and bottom anchoring points with the help of the picture of a ladder that was quite familiar to the teachers, was thought to be much easier and meaningful, scale based on first person approach. It was thought to be more empirical, did not involve any rigidity, predefined dimensions, verbal categories, prepared phases of sentences, facts of the scale would be easily understood by the teachers, to reflect on characteristics of teacher, his personality, attitudes etc. in terms of five areas that cover almost all aspects of teacher‘s functions and hence have the merit of adequate conceptual frame work and content validity. A brief description of each of these areas is given below: (A)
Preparation and Planning for Teaching:
This area includes statements pertaining to the ability of the teacher in preparing, planning and organizing for teaching in accordance with the course objective by using different source material.
(B) Classroom Management:
This area includes statements pertaining to the ability of the teacher to successfully communicate, motivate the students and evaluate the teaching learning process and also to maintain discipline in the classroom within the framework of democratic setup.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
(C) Knowledge of Subject Matter; Its Delivery and Presentation including B.B.
Summary:
This area includes statement on the ability of the teacher in acquiring, retaining, interpreting and making use of the contents of the subject he/she is dealing within the classroom situations. Delivery of course contents, and its presentation including B.B. summary constitute essential aspect of the teaching-learning process.
(D) Teacher Characteristics:
This area includes statements pertaining to the personality make-up and its behavioural manifestations that have their own level of acceptability or unacceptability in the teaching profession.
(E) Interpersonal Relations:
The ability of the teacher to adopt himself/herself to maintain cordial relations with his/her colleagues, pupils, their parents and other persons in the community with whom she/he is to interact as part and parcel of his/her profession from the basis to have statements pertaining to this area.
Response Mode
This scale has a list of 60 items. There is no time limit and there are no right or wrong responses. Hence the individuals are quite free to express their responses as they perceive, keeping in view the maximum possible effectiveness (Most) of teachers and the least possible effectiveness (Least) of teachers, as frame of reference for individual rating.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Scoring of Items
Each item elicits two responses (i) step number one now, and (ii) step number two aspiring to attain in the next three years. The time dimension of the next three years was to score as a frame of reference for the ‗now‘ (present) effectiveness.
Hence the step number two given for each item for present time was taken as the score of the effectiveness of each of the respondent teacher. Total score of the respondent ranges from 0 to 600, a high score indicating more effectiveness and vice-versa.
Reliability
The split-half reliability was found to be 0.68 for a sample of 180 prospective teachers. The test-retest reliability co-efficient, after the interval of 16 days, was found to be 0.63. After applying the Spearman Brown prophecy formula, the reliability co-efficient went upto 0.94.
Table : 5.2
Reliability of Teacher Perspectives Scale Validity
S.No Reliability Co-efficient of Reliability Index correlation ®
1 Split half reliability 0.68 Rtt=0.82
2 Test retest reliability 0.63 Rtt=0.79
Source: Primary Data
Three types of criterion-related validity have been established for the scale.
These were based on:
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
The correlation between headmasters ratings with teachers‘ effectiveness
score;
The correlation between the scores of the criterion item namely ―In general
how effective are you in your job‖ and the scores on teacher‘s effectiveness
scale; and
‗t‘ value calculated with the scores of the contrasted groups identified by the
headmasters as effective and ineffective teachers.
For this purpose a rating scale was developed by the investigator, which is a numerical rating scale with five areas of five items. Each area was operationally defined which had five alternate responses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively.
Inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability were established to the rating scales. In this process 60 teachers selected at random from eight schools of Karur were rated by their headmasters and also assistant headmasters separately at a point of time. The correlation between these two ratings by test retest technique, the rating of head masters for teacher‘s effectiveness was found to be
0.79.
Correlation of the scores between each of the items of the ratings scale and
each of the corresponding areas of the Teacher Perspectives scale for all the
respondents have been found. In addition to this correlation between the total
scores of the rating scale of the total score of the effectiveness scale had also
been found.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.3
Total and Area-wise Correlations of the Teacher Perspectives Rating
Scale and Teacher Perspectives Scale
S.No Teacher Perspectives Teacher Perspectives Scale „ r‟ Rating Scale (Self) 1 Preparation and Preparation and planning for 0.64 planning for teaching teaching 2 Classroom Classroom Management 0.72 Management 3 Knowledge of subject Knowledge of subject matter 0.57 matter 4 Teacher characteristics Teacher characteristics 0.78 5 Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal Relations 0.66 Source: Primary Data
The co-efficient of correlation between each of the areas of the Rating Scale
and the Teacher Perspectives Scale are high and their range is between 0.57 to
0.78. The correlation between the total score of rating scale is 0.85, These values
indicate that Teacher Perspectives scale has high criterion-related validity.
The contrasted group validity was established by finding out the two contrast group of teachers as rated by their respective headmasters in term of effective and ineffective teachers. Based on this criterion the protocols of these 180 teachers were separated to form two groups, one of effective and the second of ineffective teachers. The ‗t‘ value was calculated to find out whether there is any significant mean difference in the two groups.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Characteristic of the process of Adjustment
Some characteristics of the process of adjustment are well illustrated in these definitions.
The adjustment is a process of interaction between individual self and his
environment.
The self and the environment are either amenable or changeable.
Adjustment is a continuous process in life. It is not static. It is never
complete but attempts to encounter new problems in every-changing life
situations.
Adjustment enables the person to satisfy his needs, maintain harmony with
the environment.
Adjustment behaviour is determined by social and cultural values.
Adjustment pattern (response) is unique for individuals, depending upon their
personality.
Adjustment gives strength and ability to bring desirable changes in the
conditions of one‘s environment.
The Process of Adjustment
The psychological study of personal adjustment is an examination of the process by which people fulfil their needs and cope with the frustrating situations. An individual behaviour is able to indicate the process and quality of one‘s satisfactory adaptations. In general, the process of adjustment involves four main aspects as:
Existence of a motive
Obstacles
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Varied responses
Success/Goal
There are certain basic motives in all human beings: Biological, Psychological and Social. Their emergence energizes our behavioural efforts to satisfy them. If the motives are satisfied immediately without any problem, the adjustment is simple.
Usually, the needs are not satisfied and are blocked by some obstacles. A person‘s physical, not mental abilities or the social factors might prove such barriers.
Individuals make various attempts to win over and reach the goal.
One of the results may be that if the obstacle is overcome through his increased effort, the person achieves adjustment. In another situation, the individual revises his plan, changes the goal and succeeds to reach the goal of adjustment.
Besides the above two forms of adjustment, there is a third possibility also. A person not able to overcome the obstacle gets frustration. Sometimes, frustration might lead to minor or major personality maladjustment. The efforts which get success in response to particular motives or situations get reinforced and the person adopts them as his pattern of adjustment and habit.
Areas of Adjustment
Obviously, an individual adjustment should consist of personal as well as environmental factors. These two broad aspects of adjustment can further be sub- divided into smaller aspects of personal and environmental factors/adjustment, in this way, although seeming to be a global characteristic or quality, may have different aspects or dimensions.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
In various attempts of measuring adjustment through inventories and other techniques, these varying aspects have been identified and various tests have been constructed to assess these dimensions. For example, Bell (1958) has taken five areas or dimensions in his Adjustment Inventory i.e., Home, Health, Social,
Emotional and Occupational. Similarly, Arkoff (1968) in his book, ―Adjustment and
Mental Health‖ has suggested family adjustment, school or college adjustment, vocational adjustment and marriage adjustment as important areas of adjustment.
Recently, Joshi and Pandey in their mimeographed research study have given the following 11 areas of dimensions of an individual adjustment in respect of School or College Students i.e. health and physical development, finance living conditions and employment, social and recreational activities, courtship sex and marriage, social and psychological relations, personal psychological relations, moral and religious, home and family, future vocational and education, adjustment to school and college work, curriculum and teaching. In this way, adjustment of a person is based on building harmony between his personal characteristics and the demands of the environment, of which he is a part. Personal and environmental factors work side by side in bringing about this harmony.
Motives in Adjustment
In its broadest sense, adjustment may be evoked by any kinds of motives.
Vital psychological needs for air, water, food and the like, when thwarted arouse repeated adjustive behaviour. But they are not of wide psychological interest for two reasons. First, they are reasonably well satisfied under the usual conditions of civilized culture; and secondly, the thwarting of the most vital needs may lead not to substitute adjustment but to death.
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Of greater significance in human adjustment are the social motives that are learned from the culture in which an individual develops. In our culture, the needs for affection, security, approval, recognition, mastery, prestige and self-realization are among the stronger social motives. This group also includes the sex motives which, although fundamentally biological, are strongly influenced by cultural learning. All strong motives are persistent; once aroused, they continue until reduced by an adjective act. The principal psychological mechanism of social motives seems to be tension. Developmentally, the tension of strong motivation is related to the psychological changes that occur in emotional states.
Thwarting of Motives
The thwarting of non-fulfilment of an aroused motive constitutes an important aspect of the adjustment process. Thwarting may occur in a number of ways. A simple and common type of thwarting is the blocking of an adjustment by a material obstacle or by the opposition of other people. This is often called frustration; many a time due to man-made thwarting, laws, customs, competitive activities etc. which can also be fixed objectively. The usual response to frustration is an intensification of activity and effort. If the frustrator is a person, an aggressive attack by him is a common action, and this attitude is often shown against inanimate things also.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
A second general type of thwarting is conflict. A conflict situation evokes two or more motives, the satisfaction of which is incompatible. An individual cannot fight against his conflict directly, as he can against his simple frustrations. For that reason conflict underlines most instances of futile and maladapted behaviour.
There is relationship between frustration and conflict. The usual first response to frustration is an aggressive attack on the person or thing that causes it. In a child, this aggression may be very direct and obvious and usually meets with punishment.
After the connection between aggression and punishment has been learned, the overtly aggressive behaviour may be inhibited and replaced by a fearful and insecure attitude.
The presence of thwarting implies that an individual‘s first response to a need is unsuccessful. The subsequent course of his activity is, therefore, to try another response and then another, until some action is discovered that leads to adjustment.
Measurement of Adjustment
Measurement as an instrument of enquiry is now frequently used in behavioural sciences. At a general level of classification, in behavioural science, the following five different types of meaningful techniques are used:
Testing Techniques
These techniques are mostly used in the task of measuring achievement in intelligence and aptitudes of the individuals at the conscious level.
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Projective Techniques
These techniques are used for testing at the non-conscious level.
Socio-metric Techniques
In socio-metric techniques, the members of a group or class are asked to indicate individual‘s preferences by some social criterion and as such these techniques are mostly used in studying social relationship adjustment of the individuals.
Scaling Techniques
The techniques of rating, rank order scales and the like are widely used in collecting opinion from the respondents about other persons. These techniques may be therefore, used to assess the personality traits or adjustment of the individuals as understood by the respondent. More often they are used for validating the self- reporting inventories.
Inventory techniques
The only techniques that are mostly and effectively used in the area of personality measurement are inventory techniques. Interests, temperaments, attitudes, adjustment and other traits of one‘s personality are assessed through the inventories.
Merits of Measuring Techniques
In ordinary sense, an inventory is nothing but a self-reporting questionnaire that deals not only with overt behaviour but also with the person‘s own feeling about himself, other persons and his environment, resulting from introspection. In this way,
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with the help of an inventory, one tries together responses of an individual to the various questions as he feels and reacts to them. In the area of measurement of adjustment, the inventory technique is most popular in comparison to other measurement techniques. That is so because the inventory technique has so many advantages over other techniques. Testing techniques can only be used to assess the characteristics of individual at the conscious level while projective techniques only at the unconscious level. The adjustment behaviour, adaptation to the changed circumstances, involves both the conscious as well as unconscious behaviour.
Therefore, both of these techniques separately are unable to give a proper assessment of an individual adjustment. Socio-metric techniques help in the measurement of social relationship. They can provide clues for the social adjustment or mal-adjustment. Social adjustment is only a part of an individual total adjustment.
The other aspects of one‘s adjustment like physical, mental, emotional, social and occupational are not explored by the socio-metric techniques and therefore, they cannot be safely used for the assessment of an individual‘s total adjustment. In scaling techniques, opinions are collected from some other person or persons about the adjustment pattern of a particular individual known to the respondents.
Adjustment as a wide phenomenon carries so many things with it that one cannot judge the adjustment pattern of another individual overtly. The inner private world or reactions of an individual cannot be assessed by the scaling techniques.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Measuring Teacher Adjustment
Quality of a nation depends upon the quality of education imparted to its citizen which in turn depends upon the quality of its teachers. The quality of a teacher is judged through his work and behaviour which in turn depends upon the degree of his adjustment with his self and his environment. The assessment of the degree of a teacher‘s adjustment or mal-adjustment may prove helpful in controlling the hazards and bringing improvement in the field of education.
Teacher Adjustment: A Vital Necessity
Teacher is a key figure in the life of a nation. For many reasons, he has a unique place in the society. The member of no other profession is so intimately involved in the lives of almost all the people of the community – so involved in the task of improving the community, its economic, political, social and cultural life as is the teacher. Therefore, the adjustment or mal-adjustment of a teacher casts more deepening effect on the community and the nation than that of a member of any other profession. In no other profession, a satisfactory adjustment is as essential as in teaching. The profession demands stability — a capacity to withstand pressures and most important, the skill of working aggression off into channels different from the work situation. In other words, the teacher must learn to keep his aggression and personal difficulties out of the classroom. Actually, the advancement in the field of education very much depends upon the degree of adjustment and satisfaction of those who are in the field and are enhancing the cause of education. It is practically the teacher who is at the pivotal position and is up-holding the task. The fulfillment of the task depends upon the degree of involvement of the teacher in his work which in turn depends upon the degree of adjustment of the teacher with himself and his own
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environment. High level of the adjustment of the teacher is directly linked with his efficiency in his work.
According to Blair, Jones and Simpson (1956), ―Adjusted teachers do much to bring about pupil adjustment and the converse is also true. Probably, the most satisfactory way of measuring whether or not a class-room is smooth running and effective would be to measure the degree of personal adjustment of the teachers.‖
In this way, the fate of the pupil as well as the success or failure of an educational programme hangs on the degree of adjustment of the teacher himself.
Continuity and quality of the work is affected favourably when the teacher is well- adjusted. On the other hand, mal-adjustment of a teacher results in mental tension and unrest. As a result, there is very possibility of a teacher missing his class, misbehaving with his students, their parents and his colleagues and officers, shirking his work, complaining about the working conditions and work-load and even misguiding and spoiling his students. Maladjusted teacher is a potential cause of the problem of indiscipline and delinquency among the students. Not only does the quality and quantity of work suffer but also the development of the personality of the children under his charge is badly hampered.
In this way, there, probably is no doubt that the friendly, enthusiastic, secure and well-adjusted teacher can contribute much to the well-being of his pupils. On the other hand, the irritable, depressed, hostile, tired and neurotic teacher can create tensions which may be disturbing to pupils.
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Table 5.4
Value of the Effectiveness Scores of the two Groups of Teachers who have
been Rated by the Headmasters as Effective and Ineffective Teachers
S.NO Effective Ineffective „t‟ value
Teachers teachers
1 N=92 N=88 9.9*
2 M=398.70 M=287.40
Source: Primary Data
The obtained‘ value of 9.9 is significant beyond 0.01 level of probability indicating that the scale has capacity to differentiate the effective teachers from ineffective teachers. This measure of the scale is yet another indication to show that it is valid and is measuring what it purports to measure.
Inter-correlations among various areas of Teacher Perspectives scale (N=180) were found as reported in table 5.5.
JOB INVOLVEMENT
Level of involvement is directly related to achievement of a goal. There are different aspects of judging levels of job involvement in a job. Job satisfaction is of foremost importance. Job satisfaction is related to the work environment, attitudes of the seniors, relationship with the junior staff and, of course, salary package that an employee gets from the organization in which he or she works.
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Every person has his own preferences in life. First most of the people, their family has the most important place in their lives. Some scholars opine that too much preference to the family adversely affects the level of involvement in job. Sometimes, a person bears different sorts of pressures from his or her family. This also has an effect on the job involvement of an employee. But it is also observed that family preference often boosts up the spirits of an employee and he works with more zeal and zest and involvement in order to support his family by coming in good books of his seniors through performance. In Pakistan, nature of job also counts for the involvement of an employee. It is often observed that level of job involvement of the people working in Public Sector, Semi Government Organizations is different than that of the people working in Private Organizations. In Public Sector Organizations, performance of an employee is not weighted for promotion or increase in salary. It is done according to a routine procedure that is called ―Proper Channel‖. As a result, level of involvement in job in employees is considerably low in Government sector.
As far as Private Organizations are concerned, situation is very much different than Government Sector. Here an employee has to perform and show positive outcome of his efforts in order to increase his salary and get promotion. In many cases his survival is related to his efficiency in his job. As a result, an employee has to make him involved in his or her job in order to achieve the targets that are given to him. So, the level of job involvement is considerably high in the people working in
Private Sector Organizations. Another factor that affects the level of involvement in people is their salary package. If a person thinks that his or her salary is appropriate
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to the duty he or she is performing, then his or her job involvement will be increased.
In the same way, if an organization is not giving enough salary according to the employee‘s abilities and needs, then it is natural that he will look for the alternate ways to make both ends meet. This will lower the level of job involvement.
If we study the job involvement in teachers, we have to consider many factors.
As mentioned above, the level of involvement in teachers also differs among those who work in Private Sector and those who work in Government sector. The involvement level of the teachers working in Private Schools is higher than that of teachers working in Government Schools. Private Sector Schools‘ survival is related to their good repute among the parents as well as students. If they show good results, then everyone is satisfied. Results are related with the performance of the teachers. So, the teachers have to perform in order to show the results.
Administrators of private schools adopt different strategies to enhance the performance level of the teachers. Some offer incentives like increase in salary, extra bonuses, promotion etc. to boost the morale of the teachers. Some administrators pressurize the teachers to get the same outcome from them. The latter technique is not considered to be a good one among most of the educationists.
As far as Government Sector Schools are concerned, it is observed that the level of involvement among the teachers is not that high as it is in the Private Sector schools. The teachers working here have no pressure to show the outcome of their performance. They only have to go and show their presence during the duty hours. In
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
most cases, their salary package is also more than that of the Private Sector teachers. As a result, the level of job involvement in Public /sector teachers is much low.
Another factor that affects level of job involvement in teachers in Pakistan is the social status that is given to them by the society. It is observed that teachers are not given that status in our society which their nature of job demands. As a result they suffer from frustration. This frustration is clearly visible when we analyze job involvement in them.
Job Involvement is an Attitude
The factors that produce job involvement, the effects of greater job involvement generally on workers and particularly on teachers, and the strategies that have been employed by the organizations; it is appropriate to ponder over the nature and definition of job involvement. A detailed study of related literature suggests that job involvement is an attitude.
The working capacity and ability of a worker is judged by the attitudes he or she shows while working in an organization. First of all we have to define different types of attitudes.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
What are attitudes?
Definition:
“Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.”
Different components of an attitude:
The related literature points out the following components of an attitude.
Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude.
Behavioural component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.
The most important types of attitudes that are observed are; Job satisfaction, job involvement and Organizational Commitment. These attitudes are interrelated and interdependent. The types of attitudes are defined as under:
Types of Attitudes of personnel management and perspectives
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds towards his or her job.
Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.
Job Involvement
Hence job involvement is one of the attitudes that are required for the ideal working of an organization and for the achievement of the desired gals. Interest in the concept of job involvement has grown in recent years, beyond its value as an index of the quality of work life (Cherns & Davis, 1975), because of the concept‘s fundamental importance to the understanding of work behaviours like turnover, tardiness, and absenteeism (Blau, 1986; Mathieu & Koohler, 1990). Job involvement has been variously conceptualized in the literature as (a) the degree to which one is actively participating in one‘s job (b) the degree of importance of one‘s job to one‘s self image (Lawler & Hall, 1970), and (c) the extent to which one‘s self-esteem is affected by one‘s perceived level of performance (Gurin, Veroff, & Feld, 1960). Of the three conceptualizations, Blau (1985) reported that only the self-image-job involvement conceptualized here as the degree to which one psychologically identifies with one‘s job (Kanungo, 1982a, b) and therefore, one‘s motivational orientation to the job.
As job involvement is the major concern of this research, hence the researchers have sorted out other definitions of job involvement also.
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Definitions:
The degree, to which an employee identifies with his job, actively participates
in it, and considers his job performance important to his self-worth.
Job involvement is also defined as ―psychological identification with a job‖
(Kanungo, 1982).
Job involvement is the ability of feeling strong association with the job and its
environment and to improve continuously one‘s competence according to
one‘s worth (Self).
Employee involvement is perceived to be a ‗softer‘ form of participation, to
imply a commonality of interest between employees and management, and
stresses that involvement should be directed at the workforce as a whole and
not restricted to trade union channels. As Guest states, involvement is
considered to be more flexible and better geared to the goal of securing
commitment and shared interest.
The process of employee involvement should provide employees with the opportunity to influence and, wherever possible, take part in decision making on matters which affects their working lives. The most prevalent classification is that which differentiates direct from indirect participation. The term ‗direct‘ is used to refer to those forms of participation where individual employees, albeit often in a very limited way, are involved in the decision-making process that affects their everyday work routines. Direct participation, such as briefing groups or the creation of new
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work organization arrangements (self-managed teams), is viewed as a device to increase labour productivity and implicitly to improve job involvement.
Personality Characteristics and Job Circumstances
The pattern of antecedents of job involvement for male and female teachers revealed that demographic and family variables had the least effect as determinants.
On the other hand, personality characteristics and job circumstances had the most effect. Within these classes of antecedents, work role salience, need for achievement and job satisfaction were significant predictors for both male and female teachers, while work challenge was significant for male teachers and organizational support for female teachers. Work role salience, which is conceptually similar to Protestant work ethic, has been consistently shown to be a significant positive predictor of job involvement (Hollenbeck et. al., 1982). Regarding need for achievement, Kassner
(1981), for example, reported a significant positive correlation between need for achievement and job involvement. Hollenbeck et al. (1982) noted that instead of generalized higher order need strength being related to job involvement, it is specifically need for achievement which positively influences the level of job involvement. As a common significant predictor, the job satisfaction -job involvement relationship, is consistent with previous findings (Chusmier, 1986; Mortimer &
Lorence, 1989), though the relationship is said to be reciprocal (Hollenbeck et al.,
1982). Mortimer and Lorence (1989) explained that job satisfaction enhances job involvement because job satisfaction stimulates greater involvement with the job, in that satisfaction with the job enhances the importance of the work identity. The negative impact of initiating structure on job involvement implies that our simple of
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
female teachers prefer some autonomy in the discharge of their responsibilities and that enhances their job involvement. The significance of work challenge as a predictor of job involvement for male teachers is consistent with previous studies that have shown that job/work challenge correlates highly with job involvement, even after controlling for other variance (Buchanan, 1974; Sekaran & Mowday, 1981). Perhaps a challenging job not only provides an opportunity to use one‘s skills, but also satisfies one‘s need for achievement, which in turn translates into a higher level of job involvement. The finding that together, personality characteristics and job circumstances had the most effect on job involvement provides support for
Kanungo‘s (1982b) finding, that job involvement is affected more by proximal than distal antecedents like demographic variables.
The Effect of Teacher Empowerment on their Job Involvement
Teacher empowerment in many schools has expanded the role and involvement of teachers in planning and decision making regarding school goals and policies (Blasé and Blasé 1994; Blasé et al. 1995; Glickman 1993; Sprague 1992).
This form of empowerment is what Conger and Kanungo (1988) refer to as relational power. In this context, power involves the formal authority or control over organizational resources, and empowerment is the process of sharing that power.
Among educators, the belief is widely held that the more teachers share in decision making the greater their job satisfaction.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.5 Inter-correlations among various Areas of Teacher Perspectives Scale (N=180)
S.No Areas Prep.& Classroom Knlg. Intr.Persnl. Intr.Persnl. Total Plan.For Manag. Relns. Relns. Score Teach 1. Preparation & 0.24 0.36 0.50 0.40 0.76 Planning for Teaching 2. Classroom 0.29 0.16 0.46 0.69 management 3. Knowledge of 0.44 0.43 0.73 subject matter, etc. 4. Teacher 0.41 0.71 Characteristics 5. Interpersonal 0.76 Relations
Source: Primary Data All these coefficients of correlation are positive and significant, thereby
showing an internal consistency among five areas constituting Teachers
Perspectives. The specimen copy of Kulsum Teacher Perspectives Scale is given as
Appendix A.
School Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (SOCDQ)
The most popularly and widely used technique for the assessment of the
organizational climate of the schools has been the ‗School Organizational Climate
Description Questionnaire (SOCDQ)‘ partly because of the clarity of the the concept
of organizational climate and partly because of its relatively simplicity with which it
can be used in the actual school situation.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
The rational underlying the SOCDQ assumes two things: first, that something actually exists which can be called organizational climate and secondly, it is assumed that organizational climate is closely related to the perceived behaviour of teachers and principals.
Sharma (1973) makes use of Help in and Croft‘s 64 items in his study of organizational climate of secondary schools of Rajasthan. But being confronted by differences in educational setting, functional conditions and relationships and constraints, he had to modify some of these items and these made a study of 1915 respondents of 95 schools and factor analyzed the above items accordingly.
In case of four factors, namely, ‗Disengagement‘, Esprit‘, ‗Intimacy‘ and
‗Production Emphasis‘, factor structure is found to be identical (with that of Halpin and Croft). But in the case of SOCDQ that comprised the four factors (‗Hindrances‘,
‗Alienation‘, ‗Thrust‘, and Consideration‘) or such sub-tests in the original study by
Helping and Croft did not in the present study, show the same pattern (Sharma,
1973, p.193).
Sharma‘s exercise at factor analysis level for all item levels marks an advance, for educational conditions, for Help in and Crofts conceptualization. Sharma (1978) has done conceptualization at the sub test level. He had further divided eight dimensions into two groups. They are Group Behaviour Characteristics and Leader
Behaviour Characteristics.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Group Behaviour Characteristics
1. Disengagement: It refers to the teachers‘ tendency to be ―not with it‖. This
dimension describes a group which is ―going through the motions‖ a group that
is ―not in gear‖ with respect to the task at hand. In short,
this subtest focuses upon the teacher‘s behaviour in a task-oriented situation
(Halpin, 1969, p.150).
2. Alienation: It refers to the behaviour patterns among the group (faculty),
including the leader (the principal, which are characterized as highly formal
and impersonal. It reveals the degree to which the principal ‗goes by the book‘
and adheres to policies rather than dealing with the teachers in an informal,
face to face situation. It also indicates the emotional distance between the
group and the leader, and at the same time, among the group members
(Sharma, 1973, p.199).
3. Esprit: It refers to morale. The teachers feel that their social needs are being
satisfied, and that they are, at the same time enjoying a sense of
accomplishment in their job (Halpin, 1969).
4. Intimacy: It refers to the teachers‘ enjoyment of friendly social relations with
each other. This dimension describes a social needs satisfaction which is not
necessarily associated with task accomplishment (Halpin, 1969, p.151).
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Leader Behaviour Characteristics 5. Psycho-Physical Hindrance: It refers to the feeling among the group members that the principal burdens them with routine duties, management demands and other administrative requirements which they consider as unnecessary. At the same time they perceive the principal as highly dictational in his behaviour. He is not adjusted to feedback from the staff, his style of communication tends to be one-dimensional (Sharma, 1973, p.204). 6. Controls: It refers to the degree to which the principal‘s behaviour can be characterized as bureaucratic and impersonal in nature; although task-oriented in behaviour the extent to which he tries to raise the degree of effectiveness and efficiency by helping the group work towards the common goal by providing adequate operational guidance and secretarial service (Sharma 1973, p.205). 7. Production-emphasis: It refers to behaviour by the principal which is characterized by close supervision of the staff. He is highly directive and plays the role of a ‗Straw boss‘. His communication tends to go in only one direction, and he is not sensitive to feedback from staff, (Halpin, 1969, p.161). 8. Humanized Thrust: It refers to the behaviour of principal which is marked by his attempts to motivate the teachers through personal example. He does not ask the teachers to give themselves any more than they willingly give of themselves. The behaviour of the principal though unmistakably task-oriented, is at the same time characterized by an inclination to treat the teachers humanly and tender heartedly. He attempts to do something extra for them in humanistic terms, and consequently his behaviour is viewed favourably by the teachers (Sharma, 1973, p.209).
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Organizational Climate can be constructed as the organizational personality of the school‘ (Halpin and Crofts, 1963). Analogously ―Personality‖ is to the individual but organizational climate is to the organization. Sharma (1971), after analyzing the definitions given by different authors came to the conclusion that though different authors use different terminology in defining this complex concept almost all agree that organizational climate could be defined in terms of interaction that takes place between members of the organization when they fulfill their prescribed roles while satisfying their operationally individual needs. He further specified, to operationalize the concept in the context of a ‗school‘ that it is the resulting condition, within the school, of social interaction among the teachers and between the teachers and the principal.
Sharma (1973), using both the R-Technique and the Q-Techniques, identified six types of climates which have been identified here.
1. Open Climate refers to an environment in which teachers obtain social needs
satisfaction as well as job satisfaction and enjoy a sense of accomplishment in
their job. They perceive their principal (leader) as highly considerate and
democratic in behaviour and hence the group members as well as the principal
feel ‗all of the piece‘. So the group enjoy a high degree of integration and
authenticity of behaviour (Sharma, 1973, p.252).
2. Autonomous climate refers to an environment in which the teachers enjoy a
friendly relationship and a high degree of group morale. They satisfy their
social need to a great extent moderate and enjoy a degree of job
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
accomplishment. Absence of active leadership mixed with average controls on
the part of the principal is perceived as an element of psycho-physical
hindrance (Sharma 1973, p. 254-255).
3. Familiar climate is characterized by the conspicuously friendly behaviour of
both the principal and the teachers. The teachers have established personal
friendship among themselves and socially, at least, everyone is a part of large
happy family. Social needs satisfaction is extremely high. The principal
exercise leadership is an indirect manner and tries to keep production
satisfactory. His behaviour is job oriented but does not hinder the social needs
satisfaction on the part of the teachers (Sharma, 1973, pp. 256-57).
4. Controlled climate refers to an environment which can be characterized as
highly task-oriented at the cost of social needs satisfaction of the members
(teachers). Leadership acts stem from only one side and in a dictatorial
manner group involvement is never encouraged. The human aspects of the
individual is neglected and communication is always one sided. Teachers get
job satisfaction out of task-accomplishment (Sharma, 1973, p.261).
5. Paternal climate refers to a situation in which there is very little scope for the
members to satisfy their social needs and drive job satisfaction. The factuality
has to work in the way the principal wants but at the same time the principal as
a paternal guardian of the school faculty, does not ignore the individual interest
and hence his behaviour is perceived as highly considerate (Sharma, 1973,
p.264).
6. Closed climate is characterized by a high degree of apathy on the part of all
members of the organization. The organization is not moving. This climate lack
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
authenticity of behaviour. The principal constraints the emergence of
leadership acts from the group. The group member secure neither social needs
satisfaction nor job satisfaction stemming from task-accomplishment (Sharma,
1973, p.266).
The SCODQ is a Likert type questionnaire of simple statements, administered individually or in a group. The respondent teachers are asked to indicate their responses to each of the 64 items on a four point scale as follows:
Rarely occurs
Sometime occurs
Often occurs
Very frequently occurs
The four categories of responses can be scored by simply assigning them to the respective category and integers. In the present study the responses are scored as 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively for generating eight dimensional scores.
Reliability
KR-20 (Kuder-Richardson formula) was used for calculating the coefficient of reliability (internal consistency) for each of the subtests. The communalities of each subtest were also calculated. High communalities can be regarded as evidence of equivalence or adequacy of item sampling and consequently the communality itself may be viewed as coefficient of equivalence (Halpin and Crofts, 1963).
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.6
Estimates of Internal Consistency and of Equivalence for the Eight SOCDQ
Subtests
Subtests Coefficients of Communality Communality estimates for Estimates for internal consistency individual school scores based on KR-20 (N=1915) scores (N=1915) (N=95)
Disengagement 0.67 0.18 0.51
Alienation 0.61 0.24 0.52
Esprit 0.73 0.43 0.69
Intimacy 0.34 0.28 0.10
Psycho- 0.68 0.61 0.60 physical
Hindrance
Controls 0.59 0.37 0.50
Production 0.81 0.54 0.70 emphasis
Humanized 0.72 0.51 0.65
Thrust
Source: Primary Data
Validity
This tool was given to 15 experts in the field of educational administration. All the experts with minor differences were found to agree with each other to a great extent. This indicated high face content validity of the SOCDQ.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Secondly, no significant difference was found between the proportionate climate-distributions in the two samples that of Halpin and Crofts Study (1963) and
Sharma‘s study (1973) having different organizational structure and located in two different cultures. This further ascertained the validity of the tool.
Again, Sharma (1973) developed a rating scale and sent the same to the district inspectors of schools of each district, along with the definitions of eight dimensions and climate types, and requested them to rate the schools of their respective districts included in Sharma‘s study (1973). Coefficient of correlation between the ratings of the inspectors and the results observed the investigator
(Sharma, 1973) by administering the SOCDQ was calculated. It was found to be 0.63 which was significant at 0.01 level of significance. This further indicated the validity of the tool SOCDQ. The specimen copy of SOCDQ is given as Appendix B(i) and response sheet as Appendix B(ii).
Teacher Attitude Inventory
To evaluate teacher attitude, S.P. Ahluwalia‘s ―Teacher Attitude Inventory
(TAI)‖ was used. It is a dependable multidimensional attitude inventory for measuring teaching professional attitude and its allied aspects. It is further added that it is a worthwhile tool for the educational training institutions not only for diagnostic and prognostic purposes but also for the possibility of its use in changing the attitudes of the teachers through a positive programme of inculcating favourable attitudes in teacher-trainees by changing the organizational climate of training in institutions and
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
by enriching the social emotional climate of their class rooms. It is a questionnaire which purports to measure the degree to which in-service teachers and pupil teachers (education students) have attitude toward-teaching profession, class-room teaching, child-centered practices, educational process, pupils and teachers. He also added that the most direct use to which the ‗TAI can be put in the selection, of better teachers and students for teacher preparation. Due to the above facts this inventory has selected and used as one of the tools to know the attitude of successful teachers.
This inventory is a 90 item Likert type instrument consisting of six sub-scales.
These sub-scales were developed by the Likert summated ratings procedure. Each scale has 15 statements that pertain to a particular aspect of prospective and practicing teachers‘ professional attitudes. The six aspects dealt within the inventory pertain to attitude towards: teaching profession; class-room teaching; child-centered practices; educational process; pupils; teachers.
Originally 300 attitude statements, 50 on each sub-scale were collected from diverse sources. After careful discussions and cautions, deliberations in two seminars of educators, teacher-educators, measurement specialists and knowledgeable persons in the fields of education, psychology and sociology, weak and poor items were either modified and improved or dropped. The selected 180 attitude statements, 30 on each sub-scale were discussed in a small group (N=25) of pupil teachers and teachers. On the basis of their judgment and reasoning, only 150
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
attitude statements, 25 on each sub-scale, were retained for inclusion in the preliminary form of the Teacher Attitude Inventory (TAI) for wide scale tryout.
The answer sheets were scored and arranged in descending order. The upper
27% and lower 27% of cases were taken to find out the t-value of each attitude statement by using the formula given by Edward (1959, p.152).
Keeping the rationale of attitude scale construction, in mind 90 psychometrically ―good‖ attitude statements, 15 on each sub-scale were selected to constitute the final form of the TAI. Out of 90 items 56 are in positive declarative form and 34 of them are in negative form. Thus the favourable-unfavourable continuum adequately measured the fore said six selected areas.
The TAI consists of a bilingual (English and English) reusable test-booklet with a separate answer-sheet.
Response Mode
Likert continuum ranging from ‗strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree to strongly disagree‘ has been provided for each item. The subject responds to each item by putting a tick mark in the square of the chosen alternative against the serial number of the attitude statement in the answer sheet. Subjects are required to respond to all the items likewise. They do not have the option to leave any item unanswered. The subjects are not permitted to make any mark on the test-booklets as they are re-usable.
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Scoring
Each item alternative is assigned a weight ranging from 4 (strongly agree) to 0
(strongly disagree) for favourable items. In the case of unfavourable items range of weights is reversed i.e. from 0 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). The attitude score of a subject is the sum total of item scores of all the six sub scales. The theoretical range of scores is from 0 to 360 with the higher score indicating the more favourable attitude towards teaching and allied aspects.
Reliability
Reliability by the split-half (odd even) method was found to be 0.79 (corrected to 0.88) for a sample of 239 prospective teachers. The test-retest reliability co- efficients after the interval of 3 months and 9 months were found to be 0.59 (N=102) and 0.64 (N=299). The details of reliability coefficient indicators of reliability, corrected reliability coefficients and standards errors of measurement are given in table 5.7.
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Table 5.7 Reliability Coefficients, Indicators of Reliability, Corrected Coefficients and Standard Errors of Measurement
S.No Method Reliability Coefficients Index of Standard Obtained Corrected Reliability Error r r Measurement r100 1 Splithalf 0.79 0.88 11.37 11.37 (odd even) 2 Test-retest 0.58 0.75 0.76 16.17 ( 3 months) 3 Test-rest 0.64 0.78 0.80 15.16 (9 months) 4 Rational 0.54 0.70 0.73 20.10 equivalence (KR 21)
Source: Primary Data
Validity
The inventory appears to have content validity, and the method of selecting
item supports this supposition. In addition, differences in mean scores were found
among some selected ―known‖ groups. The mean scores for +1 and +2 students
offering and not offering Education as an elective subject, B.Ed. trainees and
practicing teachers were computed and compared. The observed differences
were found to be in the expected direction. The validity was also determined
through stimulus group technique.
The inventory is easy to administer and score and its wide usage is reasonably long and has appreciably high reliability and validity.
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Teacher Job-Satisfaction Questionnaire
To assess the job satisfaction, Teachers Job Satisfaction Questionnaire was developed by Kumar and Mutha (1996). The authors have pointed out that the present job satisfaction questionnaire was developed with the view of providing handy instrument to assess the job satisfaction of secondary school teachers for fundamental and applied research.
The teacher job-satisfaction questionnaire, being self-administering, emphasized that no item should be omitted and there was nothing ‗right‘ or ‗wrong‘ about these questions. They were encouraged to answer each item according to their personal agreement or disagreement. It was assured that their replies would be kept confidential. No time limit was assigned. The teacher job satisfaction questionnaire consists of 29 highly discriminating ‗yes-no‘ type items. The area wise description of questionnaire items purports to measure the degree to which the teachers have attitudes towards profession, working conditions, authority, institutional plans and policies. It is also added that the most direct use to which teacher job satisfaction questionnaire can be put in selection of better teachers.
Reliability
The split-half reliability (correlating the odd-even items) of the test applying.
Spearman Brown formula is 0.95 (N=100) with an index of reliability of 0.97.
The test-retest reliability of the test is 0.73 (N=60; time interval=3 months), with an index of reliability 0.95.
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Table 5.8
Showing Split-Half and Test-Retest Reliability
N r-value Index of
Reliability
Split-half 100 0.95 0.97
Test-retest 60 0.73 0.85
Source: Primary Data
The r-values have been found to be significant at 0.01 level, showing that the questionnaire is highly reliable both in terms of its internal consistency and stability of scores.
Validity
Only highly discriminating items were included in the questionnaire following
item analysis (Gerrett, 1961), in which the upper 27% and the lower 27% of the
subjects served as criterion groups (Kelley, 1939). The face validity of the measure
is very high. The content validity is ensured as the items for which there has been
100 percent agreement amongst judges regarding their relevance to teacher job
satisfaction area included in the questionnaire. The male and female teachers are
to be interpreted in the conventional manner as per norms given in table 5.10.
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Table : 5.9
Showing the Percentile Norms (N=180)
Job-satisfaction Percentile Male Female Total Categories
90 25.85 25.89 25.92 Very good
80 22.01 22.63 22.32
75 20.62 21.28 20.95 Good
70 19.00 19.24 19.12
60 17.01 17.39 17.20 Average
50 15.38 15.66 15.52
40 13.30 13.70 13.50
30 11.10 11.54 11.32 Poor
25 9.90 10.14 10.02
20 9.00 9.08 9.04 Very poor
10 6.34 6.56 6.45
Median 15.38 15.66 15.32
Source: Primary Data
The mean scores are used along with comparing percentiles to
assess level of job satisfaction of teachers as a group. The specimen copy of
Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire is given as Appendix-D.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
ADMINISTRATION OF TOOLS
To summarize, the priority of the present investigation was to study the determinants of school organizational climate and its effect on Teachers
Perspectives. In other words it aimed to evaluate how more effective teachers differ from less effective ones in terms of their perception with regard to different dimensions determining different types of school climate, job-satisfaction and teacher attitude. All the tools were administered to selected school teachers personality by the investigator.
SCORING OF TOOLS
Keeping in view the purpose of the study and statistical treatment of data, the scoring of different research tools was done as explained in the description of different tools namely Teacher Perspectives scale, school organizational description questionnaire, job satisfaction questionnaire and teacher attitude inventory.
The raw data was organized to find out Teacher Perspectives of secondary school teachers in relation to school organizational climate in combination with gender, location, stream of teaching and teaching experience.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
FORMULATION OF FACTORIAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF
DATA
The major objective of the study was to explore relationship of teaching effectiveness with school organizational climate along with some other personal variables; a factorial design was used in the following manner:
School organizational climate X Gender (6 x 2).
School organizational climate X Location (6 x 2).
School organizational climate X Stream of Study (6 x
School organizational climate X Teaching Experience (6 x 3).
Also 3 way analysis of variance was employed to find out Teacher Perspectives among secondary school teachers in the following manner:
Gender X Location X Stream of Study (2x2x3).
Gender X Location X Teaching Experience (2x2x3).
Gender X Stream of Study X Teaching Experience (2x3x3).
Location X Stream of Study X Teaching Experience (2x3x3).
The t-test was used to test the significance of the mean difference between more and less effective teachers in terms of:
Different dimensions of school organizational climate.
Job satisfaction.
Teacher Attitude.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table: 5.10
Reliability levels of the four scales in the survey
Scale Number of Items α
Computer Attitudes 40 0.9
Technological Affinity 10 0.77
Technological Aversion 9 0.73
Confidence and Comfort 9 0.87
In the survey, demographics information was also sought including years of teaching experience, field of teaching, computer experience, computer education
(training in using computers), computer/Internet availability, gender and age.
Response options for teaching experience and age were provided as year ranges.
Field of teaching was asked as an open ended question and then coded separately for science/mathematics, social sciences (i.e., history, geography, philosophy), literacy (including Turkish and foreign language), physical education and arts/music.
Computer and Internet connection ownership items required a yes/no response. The item concerning computer experience provided response categories based on experience ranging from none to integrating computers in classroom teaching. The item concerning computer training involved similar categories of computer experience in a formal training context (categories are detailed in Tables 3 and 4).
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Chart 5.10
Reliability levels of the four scales in the survey
0.9 0.87 0.9 0.77 0.8 0.73
0.7
0.6
0.5 α 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Scale
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Survey Participants and Demographics
Convenience sampling (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003) was used in the selection of participant teachers from three different AHSs, two of which were the schools where the second and third authors worked. The third school was one with which the third author was in close contact. One hundred and thirty teachers participated in the study voluntarily.
As unraveled by demographics statistics, the sample consisted of 76 female
(58.5%) and 54 male (41.5%) AHS teachers. Forty five of them (34.6%) were in the science/mathematics field, 26 (or 20%) in the social sciences, 36 (or 27.7%) in literacy, four teachers in physical education and six teachers in arts/music. Mode of age range was found to be 31-35, and 46.2% of the teachers were 35 years old or younger. Only five of the teachers had teaching experience of 2-5 years with the rest having experience more than that (Table 2).
Table: 5.11 AHS teachers‟ teaching experience
Teaching Experience f P
2-5 years 5 3.8
6-10 years 53 40.8
11-15 years 28 21.5
16 years and over 44 33.8
TOTAL 130 100
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
The majority of the teachers (109, or 83.8%) had their own computer at home and 95 of them (73.1%) had an Internet connection. With regards to computer experience, more than half of the teachers (67, or 52.8%) stated regularly using application software such as word processing and spreadsheets (Table 3). With regards to formal computer training, learning to use application software received the highest percentage with fifty two teachers (or 40%).
Chart: 5.11 AHS teachers‟ teaching experience
45 40.8 40 33.8 35
30
25 21.5 P 20
15
10 3.8 5
0 2-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16 years and over Teaching Experience
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
TABLE : 5.12
AHS TEACHERS‟ COMPUTER EXPERIENCE
Computer Experience f Valid P
I have never used a computer and I do not plan to use one 1 0.8
I have never used a computer but I would like to learn 15 11.8
I use application software such as word processing and 67 52.8 spreadsheets
I use computers for teaching in the classroom occasionally 19 15.0
I use computers for teaching in the classroom every day 13 10.2
I use computers for teaching in the classroom every week 27 9.4
Total 127 100
Source: Primary Data
Table: 5.13
AHS teachers‟ training in computer use
Computer Training f Valid P
No training 35 27.1
Basic computer literacy (on/off operations, how to run 31 24 programs)
Computer applications (word processing, spreadsheets) 52 40.3
Computer integration (how to use in classroom curriculum) 11 8.5
Total 129 100
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Likert data were scored on a five-point scale. For all of the items in the four scales of the survey, the response “strongly disagree” was scored as 1, while the response “strongly agree” was scored as 5. The range for possible scores was 1-5. An option of “not sure” response was also available which was scored as 3. The range for the midpoint 3 of “not sure” being 2.45-3.44 was assumed to be inclusive of scores of “not sure,” thus, a mean score higher than 3.44 meant at least “agree.” The scoring was reversed for negative statements. Higher scores on the Computer Attitudes, Technological Affinity and Confidence and Comfort scales meant more positive attitudes, higher affinity for and higher confidence and comfort in using computers, respectively. However, higher scores on the Technological Aversion scale meant higher state of technological dislike.
Prior to analyses on relationships among scale variables, normality checks were performed for each of the scales. According to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests performed, all four scales showed normal distribution of data (with p‘s > .05). Thus, parametric tests could be utilized in further analyses. General Linear Model and subsequent relationship analyses were performed to understand effects of the independent variables and differences in terms of the dependent variables emerging from the perceptions instrument.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Relationships between Demographic Variables
The teachers who owned a personal computer were significantly more likely to have computer experience at higher levels (χ2(6) = 16.370, p = .012, φ = .36) (Table
5). Also, there was a significant relationship between computer ownership and computer training received. Computer owners appeared to have had more training on utilizing computers in education (χ2(3) = 9.729, p = .021, φ = .28) (Table 6). From these results, the extent to which the teachers had computer experience and received training seemed to depend on their computer ownership.
Table: 5.14 The relationship between computer ownership and computer experience of the AHS teachers Computer Experience Own a computer Total Yes No I have never used a computer and I do not plan to 0 1 1 use one. I have never used a computer but I would like to 7 8 15 learn I use application software such as word processing 11 56 67 and spreadsheets I use computers for teaching in the classroom 0 13 13 occasionally I use computers for teaching in the classroom every 0 12 12 day I use computers for teaching in the classroom every 2 17 19 week Total 20 107 127
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table: 5.15
The relationship between computer ownership and computer training of the
AHS teachers
Computer Training Own a computer Total Yes No No training 4 31 35 Basic computer literacy (on/off operations, how 10 21 31 to run programs) Computer applications (word processing, 6 46 52 spreadsheets) Computer integration (how to use in classroom 0 11 11 curriculum) Total 20 109 129
Source: Primary Data
Computer experience and computer training also differed significantly in terms of the teachers‘ age. The teachers between ages 31-40 were more likely to use computers in their classrooms (χ2(30) = 101.350, p < .005, φ = .89). Teachers 41 and over mostly used application software and wanted to learn more about computers (Table 7). As shown in Table 8, as age increased the number of teachers having received training on using computer applications and integrating computers in their teaching, decreased (χ2(15) = 27.768, p = .023, φ = .46).
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table: 5.16
AHS teachers‟ computer experience by age Computer Experience
Computer Experience Age 18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and Total above I have never used a computer and I 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 do not plan to use one I have never used a computer but I 0 1 3 1 2 8 15 would like to learn I use application software such as 1 14 19 12 13 8 67 word processing and spreadsheets I use computers for teaching in the 0 4 4 4 0 1 13 classroom occasionally I use computers for teaching in the 0 1 2 7 1 1 12 classroom every day I use computers for teaching in the 0 2 6 5 3 3 19 classroom every week Total 1 22 34 29 20 21 127
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table: 5.17
AHS teachers‟ training in computer use by age
Computer Experience Age
18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and Total
above
No training 0 4 7 14 4 6 35
Basic computer literacy (on/off 2 2 7 7 6 7 31 operations, how to run programs)
Computer applications (word 0 11 19 7 9 6 52 processing, spreadsheets)
Computer integration (how to 0 5 2 1 1 2 11 use in classroom curriculum)
Total 2 22 35 29 20 21 129
Source: Primary Data
Teachers‘ Perceptions: Computer Attitudes, Technological Affinity,
Technological Aversion, Confidence and Comfort AHS teachers‘ overall attitudes
toward computers and technology were found to be positive (M = 3.69, SD = .43),
with 73.8% of the teachers having attitude scores above the ―not sure‖ range (Table
9). On average, the teachers scored highest on the Technological Affinity scale (M =
3.90, SD = .55). On the Technological Aversion scale, only one teacher had a score
above the ―not sure‖ range, which meant that almost all of the teachers did not agree
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
with items expressing computer and technology dislike. The mean score for the
Confidence and Comfort scale was found to be in the ―not sure‖ range and less than half of the teachers agreed or strongly agreed that they were confident and comfortable in using computers. The higher standard deviation score for this scale implied higher perception variability in terms of confidence and comfort.
Table: 5.18
AHS teacher‟s computer perceptions
Scale Minimum Maximum M SD n %
Computer Attitudes 2.35 4.60 3.69 0.43 96 73.8
Technological Affinity 2.50 4.90 3.90 0.55 108 83.1
Technological Aversion 1.00 3.56 2.09 0.53 1 0.8
Confidence and Comfort 1.11 5.00 3.41 0.73 51 39.2
Source: Primary Data
Relationships between Computer Attitudes, Technological Affinity,
Technological Aversion, and Confidence and Comfort Unsurprisingly, bivariate correlation analysis based on the Pearson product-moment coefficient demonstrated that positive Computer Attitudes corresponded to higher Technological Affinity, higher
Confidence and Comfort, and lower Technological Aversion scores (Table 10).
Significant positive correlations were also found between Technological Affinity and
Confidence and Comfort. Technological Aversion was found to significantly negatively correlate with these two scales.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Chart: 5.18
AHS teacher‟s computer perceptions
90 83.1
80 73.8
70
60
50 39.2
40 Percentage 30
20
10 0.8 0 Computer Technological Technological Confidence and Attitudes Affinity Aversion Comfort Scale
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table: 5.19
Pearson product-moment correlations among perceptions scales.
Computer Technological Technological Confidence Attitudes Aversion Affinity and Comfort Computer 1.000 Attitudes Technological -.637(**) 1.000 Aversion Technological .616(**) -.552(**) 1.000 Affinity Confidence .619(**) -.462(**) .577(**) 1.000 and Comfort
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Differences in Computer Attitudes, Technological Affinity, Technological
Aversion, and Confidence and Comfort based on Demographics
General Linear Model analysis of data was performed to explore any significant effects of demographic characteristics on the perceptions scores. In the model, nominal independent variables were considered as fixed factors while ordinal independent variables were considered as covariates. Multivariate tests revealed significant effects of computer experience (F(4, 82) = 3.10, p = .020), computer training (F(4, 82) = 3.91, p = .006), gender (F(4, 82) = 2.61, p = .049), and field of teaching (F(4, 82) = 1.69, p = .049) on one or more of the dependent variables.
Further, to understand the direction of the relationships or the differences between
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
the means of the demographic variable categories in terms of computer perceptions, correlational and mean differences analyzes were performed.
Crosstabulation analysis for the relationship between computer experience and the four dependent variables revealed significant relationships between computer experience and Computer Attitudes (X2(360) = 420.687, p = .015, r, = .46), and between computer experience and Confidence and Comfort (X2(168) = 210.910, p = .038, r, = .38). More teachers who had computer applications experience or have used computers in their teaching had higher Computer Attitudes scores. The teachers who used computers in their teaching scored higher on the Confidence and
Comfort scale compared to the teachers who did not. As compared with others, more teachers with computer applications experience scored in the ―not sure‖ range for
Confidence and Comfort signifying that in some way, being informed was paired with being cautious.Computer training was found to be related to three dependent variables. Tukey‘s HSD post hoc tests revealed that the teachers who had training in using computer applications as well as in computer integration in teaching had significantly more positive Computer Attitudes than those who had basic computer literacy, p = .009 (for both). Also, the teachers with computer training in using computer applications had significantly higher Affinity scores than those who did not receive any training, p = .009. In terms of Confidence and Comfort, the teachers with training in using computer applications scored significantly higher than those with basic computer literacy, p = .015.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Gender had an effect on computer attitudes and confidence and comfort.
According to the independent samples t-tests conducted, male teachers had significantly higher mean scores on Computer Attitudes ( t (128) = -2.122, p = .036) and Confidence and Comfort ( t (128) = -2.969, p = .004) than female teachers (Table
11). The female teachers‘ mean score on Computer Attitudes was 3.62 while that of the male teachers was 3.79. Given that both of these means were above the cut point of the ―not sure‖ range (3.44), on average, both genders agreed with positive
Computer Attitudes with male teachers appearing to be located at the more positive end of the range. The teachers‘ mean scores for Confidence and Comfort were 3.25 and 3.63 for females and males, respectively. According to these results, on average, female teachers appeared to be unsure of their Confidence and Comfort in using computers while male teachers agreed that they were confident and comfortable.
Table: 5.20
AHS teachers‟ gender differences in Computer Attitudes and Confidence and
Comfort
Gender N M SD SEM
Computer Attitudes Female 76 3.6247 0.45 0.05
Male 54 3.7860 0.39 0.05
Confidence and Comfort Female 76 3.2500 0.69 0.08
Male 54 3.6263 0.74 0.10
Source: Primary Data
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
The teachers also showed significant differences in their perceptions based on their teaching fields. Although weak, crosstabulation analyses revealed significant relationships between teaching field and Technological Aversion (X 2(92) = 124.155, p = .014, r, = .13), and between teaching field and Confidence and Comfort (X 2(120)
= 148.605, p = .039, r, = .16). These relationships were further examined within the categories of Internet connection ownership. Resulting from this analysis, the relationships between teaching field and computer perceptions appeared to be significant only for those teachers who had Internet connection (Table 12) and insignificant for those who did not. Among the respondents with Internet connection, the social sciences teachers scored lower in Computers Attitudes (usually below the
―not sure‖ range) contrary to the teachers in the other fields. The arts/music teachers scored also lower in Technological Affinity. Also, the physical education and arts/music teachers scored slightly higher in Technological Aversion (corresponding to the ―not sure range‖) and lower in Confidence and Comfort as compared with the rest.
Table: 5.21 Teaching field and computer perceptions relationships for AHS teachers with Internet connection Df P H Computer 293.293 220 0.001 0.26 Attitudes Technological 124.862 84 0.003 0.24 Aversion Technological 112.698 84 0.020 0.12 Affinity Confidence 166.691 108 <.005 0.27 and Comfort
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Findings of this study underline computer ownership as an important predictor of higher level computer experience and training. Computer owners were more experienced in computer use and more likely to have attended a computer training program. In addition, the teachers with higher level computer experience in teaching with technology had more positive attitudes and higher confidence and comfort.
Based on these results, ownership of personal computer emerged as a key factor in improving both computer expertise and attitudes towards computers of secondary teachers. In the context of AHSs where sufficient technological infrastructure was available and the teachers had access to computers during school time, these findings highlighted the importance of personal computer ownership. Teachers at school might be busy with lesson planning or other duties which might limit their interactions with the school computers. Clearly, teachers owning computers would have more opportunities of tinkering as compared with teachers with access to computers only at school.
This study revealed that teachers with no or basic computer literacy training significantly differed from their counterparts in terms of Computer Attitudes, Affinity and Confidence and Comfort. As in other studies, training emerged as an important factor that affected teacher perceptions (Badagliacco, 1990; Levin and Gordon,
1989). Teachers having received formal computer training can be more positive about computers and more confident about their knowledge. On the other hand, teachers with no training and with knowledge acquired primarily by trial and error
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
cannot be certain to the same degree. Thus, teachers with formal training are more likely to have higher levels of confidence and comfort in computer use.
In Turkey, it is most likely that teachers in their 40s and over had their earliest computer training in college. Informal conversations with the teachers revealed that a number of them learned basic computer programming languages in theory at college with little or no opportunities to practice, similar to the teachers in Cypriot primary schools, who also do not have a sufficient technology training at college (Vrasidas &
McIsaac, 2001). On the other hand, most likely younger teachers encounter application software such as word processing earlier than college and utilize these in preparing homework. This generation difference as well as the recent widespread availability of desktop or portable laptop computers might have led to the younger teachers‘ adopting computers more readily.
In general, the AHS teachers had positive computer attitudes. Their scoring the highest in Technological Affinity implied not only that they were positive about computers but also that they felt sympathy. Scoring low in Technological Aversion was consistent with the high scorings on attitudes and affinity, indicating a valid measurement. However, despite their positive attitudes most of the teachers were unsure if they were confident and comfortable in using computers for teaching. In other words, teachers carried positive attitudes towards computers, felt affinity for computers and were not averse to computers. Though, they did not seem to be sure about their confidence and comfort. Several reasons may account for this. First of all, to be confident and comfortable in computer use, previous experience is essential.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Furthermore, mastering certain computer skills -in this case, computer supported teaching-would be a major factor in having confidence in computer use. Personal rather than pedagogical uses of computers might have been impediments to needed confidence and comfort. Finally, computer integration in teaching may be viewed by senior teachers as challenging their traditional authoritative role in the classroom as their students would likely be more knowledgeable about computers. Thus, they may find it uncomfortable to give up their teacher-centered methods where the teacher is the only authority and primary source of knowledge.
Findings also unravelled that having an Internet connection seemed to benefit more the teachers in the science/mathematics and literacy fields in terms of computer utilization as they scored higher in the perceptions scales in comparison with the teachers in physical education and arts/music. Because of the more practical nature of the physical education and arts/music fields these teachers might have not felt the need to utilize computers as much as the teachers in the other fields. Thus, the
Internet and computers might not have been used for more than personal purposes by the physical education and arts/music teachers.
For the particular context, ownership of personal computer appeared to be an important factor in computer experience and training and thus, in computer perceptions. Attending to these results, administrators and policy makers may plan for funding opportunities for teachers who do not have personal computers to become computer owners. For instance in the past, the Ministry of National
Education in Turkey made efforts to make every teacher a computer owner by
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
providing teachers more affordable payment options. Similarly in Israel, an essential aspect of a new model for computer integration in primary school teaching was to establish a broad computer infrastructure and provide every teacher a laptop computer (Tubin & Chen, 2002). Taken together, these and similar efforts point to the centrality of computer ownership for teachers in developing positive computer perceptions through training and experience.
Investigation of teachers‘ perceptions of computers is rather important in the process of shifting to student-centered education supported with computers and technology. Although the findings of the current study are not statistically generalizable, a number of factors such as computer ownership, gender and age emerged as shared patterns with international research findings. These factors were found to be also influential in the Turkish teachers‘ computer perceptions. Results of the current study may be used to inform policy makers, curriculum developers, teacher educators, and all stakeholders involved in the design of effective teacher preparation and in-service professional development programs. Possible recommendations for practice are summarized as follows:
STATISTICAL EVIDENCES
The Meta-production Function Approach
We applied the meta-production function approach for estimating aggregate production functions with pooled cross-sectional and time-series data, pioneered by lau et al. (1993). The basic assumptions are all provinces have access to the same technology, which means that their aggregate production function is the same and
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
despite differences in the technical efficiency of production and in the quality of inputs across provinces, the measured inputs and outputs of different provinces can be converted into ‗efficiency-equivalent‘ units of inputs and outputs.
The aggregate production function takes the following form.
-1 * * * Yit=Aio(t) F(K it, L it, ED it,), i=1,…,n.
* * Here Yit is the measured quantity of output; K it, and L it are the ‗efficiency- equivalent‘ quqantities of capital and labor respectively for the it province at time t;
* ED it is an ‗efficiency-equivalent‘ measure of human capital for the it province at time t and n is the number of provinces. The output-augmentation factor Aio(t) can be interpreted as the time-varying level of the technical efficiency of production in the it province at time t. the time-varying province and commodity-specific augmentation factors, Aim(t) (i=1,….n, j=K,L,ED), are introduced to capture differences in climate, topography, natural resources and infrastructure; differences in definitions and measurement; differences in quality; differences in the composition of output; and differences in the technical efficiency of production across provinces. The commodity augmentation factors for output, physical capital and labor are assumed to have a constant exponential form with respect to time. The augmentation factor for human capital is assumed to be linear with respect to time. Thus, we have the following:
* Y it=Ai0exp(ci0t) Yit,
* K it=Aikexp(cikt) Kit,
* L it=Aikexp(cilt) Yit, and
* ED it=Ed it+AiE+ciEt, i=1,….n.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Here Aio, Aij, cio and cit are constants. The aggregate meta-production function is specified as having a Cobb-Douglas functional form. With three inputs-physical capital, labor, and human capital-the production function can be expressed as:
* * * 1nYit=-1nAi0(t)+1nY0+ak1nK it+aL1nL it+aEED it
Substituting Equations (2) through (5) into Equation (6) we obtain equation (7):
* * 1nYit=-1nY0(t)+1nA io=0+aK1nKit+aL1nLit+aEEDit+c i0t,
* * Here A i0 and c i0 are province-specific constants. By taking the first difference
* * of Equation (7) and assuming c i0=c i0; that is, the rate of technical progress is the same across the provinces, we derive the following equation to be estimated:
* 1nYit-1nYit-1=c 0+ak(1nKit-1nKit-1)+aL(1nLit-1nLit-1)+aED(1nEdit-1nEDit-1)
Data
Data on the educational attainment of the total population in each province are only available from the fourth national census in 1990 and the fifth national census in
2000. Thus, we are restricted to using data from individual provinces for the years
1990 and 2000. Data for Chongqing is combined with that of Sichuan. Therefore, in total, there are data for 30 provinces for which we have real output (Y), capital input
(K), labor input (L) and human capital/educational stock (H) (See Appendix Table 1).
Provincial Human Capital Stock:
In this study, we used two approaches to construct provincial human capital stock and the corresponding average annual change over the course of the decade.
First, data for educational attainment of the labor force by province were taken from the national censuses for the years 1990 and 2000. Based on the data on attainment levels, the average years of schooling (AYS) for the labor force was calculated as:
AYS=(5*H1+8*H2+10.5*H3+14*H4)/POP
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Where He is the number of persons for whom t is the highest level of schooling attained; t=1, for primary, 2 for junior secondary school, 3 for senior secondary school and secondary technical school and 4 for college and above (the duration of the it level of schooling is adopted from Wang and yak(2003) and POP is the number of people aged 15-64, regardless of employment status. Using this method, we obtained the average change in the educational attainment of the labor force from
1990 to 2000 for each of the 30 provinces as well as the average increase in educational attainment for all provinces over the decade. The national average education increased 1.36 years during this period; that is, an additional 0.136 year of schooling every year. Given the size of China‘s population, an average annual increase of 0.136 year of schooling per person in the labouor force over the 1990s is substantial.
Empirical Results
The empirical specification to be estimated is as follows:
* 1nYit-1nYit-1=c 0+ak(1nKit-1nKit-1)+aL(1nLit-1nLit-1)+aED(1nEdit-1nEDit-1)Et
2 Here Et, is assumed to have a mean of zero and variance ; that is, the stochastic disturbance terms have identical variance and are uncorrelated across provinces.
We begin through testing the hypothesis of no educational effect and the hypothesis of constant returns to scale for the physcial inputs, capital and labor. Both hypotheses are rejected at the 5 per cent level of significance. Table 2 reports the results. The results for Equation (10)are presented in Table 3. The coefficient on human capital stock, which is 0.251, is statistically significant at the 5 per cent, 85.9
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
per cent and 2.6 and 2.6 per cent, respectively. All effects are statistically significant at the 5 per cent, 85.9 per cent and 2.6 per cent and 2.6 per cent, respectively. All effects are statistically significant at the 5 per cent level. Based on the coefficients from Equation (10), the decomposition of economic growth in China in the 1990s are presented in Table 4. Table 4 shows that physical capital accounts for 37 per cent and is the most important source of growth. Technical progress, human capital and labor account for 26 per cent, 19 per cent, and 18 per cent, respectively.
Table : 5.22
Test of „No Education Effect‟ and „Constant Returns to Scale‟ Hypotheses
Hypothesis F-Statistic Probability
No education effect 7.23 0.0123
Constant returns to scale 4.38 0.0464
Table : 5.23
Estimates from First-differenced Equation
Variable Parameters
K 0.312(2.79) 0.436(5.42) 0.392(4.26)
L 0.859(2.98) 1.061(3.93) 0.658(2.64)
H 0.251(2.69) 0.342(4.21) -
C 0.026(2.09) - 0.039(3.68)
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.24 Percentage Distribution of Economic Growth in China (1990-2000) Technical Physical Capital Labor Human Capital progress 37.3 17.5 18.8 26.4
To explore plausible explanations for the strong effect of education on economic growth, we tested for threshold and complementarily effects following Lau et al.(1993). It is possible that a high measured effect between two points in time reflects a threshold effect if the threshold is crossed during that period. If the development of Chinese education reached a certain level, to which the measured effect per additional year of schooling applies, there is a threshold effect. Over a longer time, with a larger range of variation for education, the measurement effect per additional year will be lowered. To test for a threshold effect we used the following framework:
EDU1, EDU2, EDU3, EDU4, EDU5, EDU6, EDU7 and EDU8 is defined as:
EDU1it = EDit-1,EDit2 >EDit ≥ 1
1, ED1it ≥ 2
EDU2it = 0, EDit ≤ 2
EDit-2,3 > EDit > 2
1, EDit≥ 3
EDU2it = 0, EDit ≤ 3
EDit-3,4 > EDit > 3
1, EDit≥ 4
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
EDU3it = 0, EDit ≤ 3
EDit-3,4 > EDit > 3
1, EDit≥ 4
EDU4it = 0, EDit ≤ 4
EDit-4,5 > EDit > 4
1, EDit≥ 5
EDU5it = 0, EDit ≤ 5
EDit-5,6 > EDit > 5
1, EDit≥ 6
EDU6it = 0, EDit ≤ 6
EDit-6,7 > EDit > 6
1, EDit≥ 7
EDU7it = 0, EDit ≤ 7
EDit-7,8 > EDit > 7
1, EDit≥ 8
EDU8it = 0, EDit ≤ 8
EDit-8,9 > EDit > 8
1, EDit≥ 9
1nYit-1nYit-1=c0+ak(1nKit-1nKit-1)+aL(1nLit-1nLit-1)+ )
We estimate Equation (11), the results for which are presented in Table 5.
There is a rise and fall pattern in the magnitudes of the estimated parameters of
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
average education. Only the coefficients for five and six years of average education are statistically significant at the 5 per cent level. As neither of the coefficient for five or six years of average education is close to the estimate of the coefficient on human capital stock (in Table 3), we are unable to conclude that there is a threshold effect; however, the hypotheses of identical marginal effects of education and no education effect are rejected at the 10 per cent level of significance. The results of the tests of the two hypotheses are reported in table 6 and table 7.
Table : 5.25
Estimates from First-Differenced Equation with Disaggregated Average
Education Variable
Variable Coefficient Std.Error t-Statistic Prob. K 0.413113 0.097235 4.248615 0.0004 L 0.563481 0.294731 1.911850 0.0696 EDU2 -0.008306 0.053057 -0.156575 0.8771 EDU3 -0.018177 0.16241 -1.119197 0.2757 EDU4 0.013569 0.13463 1.007897 0.3250 EDU5 0.028804 0.012224 2.356392 0.0282 EDU6 0.033003 0.12611 2.617079 0.0161 EDU7 0.13229 0.010574 1.251105 0.2247 C 0.23347 0.14294 1.633290 0.1173 Adjusted R- 0.558390 Sad. depended vary 0.017995 squared
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
Table : 5.26
Test of Identical Marginal Effects of Education
Hypothesis: C(3)=C(4)=C(5)=C(6)=C(7)=C(8)
F-statistic 11.02000 Probability 0.000026
Chi-square 55.10001 Probability 0.000000
Table : 5.27
Test of No Education Effect
Hypothesis: C(3)=C(4)=C(5)=C(6)=C(7)=C(8)
F-statistic 10.30704 Probability 0.000023
Chi-square 61.84222 Probability 0.000000
It is possible that capital and education, and education and technical progress acre complements. If so, this could also be a plausible explanation for the strong effect of education. Next, we implemented Lau et al.‘s (1993) two complementarily tests to ascertain whether education, capital and technical progress are complements.
Capital-education complementary can be modeled using a transcendental logarithmic production function. The equation to be estimated can be specified as.
* 1nYit-1nYit-1=c 0+ak(1nKit-1nKit-1)+aL(1nLit-1nLit-1)+aED(1nEdit-1nEDit-1)Et
2 2 + BKK((1nKit) -(1nKit-1) )/2
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
2 2 + BLL((1nLit) -(1nLit-1) )/2
2 2 + BEE(E it-E it-1)/2
+ BKL(1nKit1nLit-1nKit-11nLit-1)
+ BKE(1nKit1nEit-1nKit-11nEit-1)
+ BLE(1nLit1nEit-1nLit-11nEit-1)
If BKE>0, there is evidence of capital-education complementary. The results from estimating equation(12) are presented in Table8. According to the first column of Table 5, BKE is positive and the coefficient is statistically significant at the 10 per cent level. This result supports the existence of complementarily between human capital and physical capital. In other words, the high measured effect of average education found above may be due to the high rate in physical capital.
For education-technical progress complementarily, the hypothesis is the higher the rebate of technical progress, the higher the level of average education and vice versa.
A simplified model is given by:
* 1nYit-1nYit-1=c 0+ak(1nKit-1nKit-1)+aL(1nLit-1nLit-1)+aED(1nEit-1nEit-1)BEtBit-1
Where aE = aE+aEt.
Clearly, from the findings reported in the right column of Table 8, the estimated value of BET is positive. And the coefficient is statistically significant at the 5 per cent level. This result supports the existence of education-technical progress complementarily as an explanation of the high estimated effect of average education in China.
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Chapter-V Analysis and Interpretation
In this study, we have applied the meta-production function approach introduced by Lau et al. (1993)to examine the effect of education on economic growth in China. We have also introduced an explicit proxy for educational attainment and have constructed human capital stock for each of the 30 provinces in China during the period. We found that growth in human capital made a statistically significant contribution to China‘s economic growth and that growth in human capital accounted for approximately 19 per cent of growth in real GDP from 1990 to 200.
Empirical evidence obtained from further estimation suggested that capital-education, and education-technical progress complementarities may be a plausible explanation for the high measured effect of education on economic growth.
Table : 5.28
Further Estimates
Variable Parameters K 0.141686 0.425306 L -0.924267 0.457778 E 0.926784 0.180089 * E t - 0.006308 K2 1.01E-08 - L2 0.17276 - E2 -0.033318 - K*L -0.008846 - K*E 0.020999 - L*E -0.002287 - C 0.048053 - Adjusted R-squared 0.680935 0.549132
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Chapter-VI Summary, Conclusions and Suggestions Chapter VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
CHAPTER – VI
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION
Teaching is the establishment of a situation conditioned to bring effective learning and good teachers are the ones that are capable human engineers. Most of them are effective moulders of learners behaviour. Remmers (1952) defines effectiveness by remarking. “Effectiveness is the degree to which an urgent produces effect”. The effectiveness of instruction in a school depends upon the quality of the teacher who is the pivot of educational system. Teacher
Perspectives concerns only those outcomes that reflect the efficiency of the teacher and the objective of the education. It is therefore, quite accurate to say that the school effectiveness depends directly on the effectiveness of its teachers.
Teacher Perspectivesis the competence and ability of a teacher to teach effectively. Teacher Perspectivesis a matter of central importance to all educational institutions as it affects the process of learning and classroom management. Numerous theorists and researchers identified a variety of individual factors essential for facilitating students‟ achievement in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor 'learning or in promoting effective learning'. Teacher
Perspectivesinvolves a set of teaching behaviours which are specially effective in bringing about desired changes in students' learning. Effectiveness of the teacher depends on the ability of the teacher to get along with the pupils in inter-personal relationship. There is another assumption that the effective teacher is one who is, to some degree, satisfied with teaching as a profession i.e. his attitude towards profession.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
IMPORTANT FINDINGS CONTRIBUTIONS /FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
For the main effects of gender, stream and teaching experience on teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers came out to be 0.11, 2.35 and
2.71. None of these F-values is significant at .05 level, thereby meaning that teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers does not differ significantly across gender, location and teaching experience groups.
Further, it may be noted from table 4.24 that the F-value for the double interaction effects of gender x stream, gender x teaching experience and stream x teaching experience turned out to be 0.26, 0.19 and 0.38, being not significant even at 0.05 level. Also, the F-value for the triple interaction effect of gender x stream x teaching experience came out to be 0.24, not significant at 0.05 level.
The main effects of location, stream and teaching experience on teacher effectiveness came out to be 0.09, 1.79 and 2.10. None of these F-value is significant even at 0.05 level. Further, the table 4.29 shows that the F-value for the double interaction of location with stream and teaching experience on teacher effectiveness did not turn out to be significant (Fs=0.16, 0.12, p>0.05).
The F-value for the interaction effect of stream x teaching experience on teacher effectiveness turned out to be non-significant (F=0.62; p>0.05) and the
F-value for the triple interaction of location x stream x teaching experience, came out to be 0.31 which is again not significant even at .05 level.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
This means that teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers does not vary significantly across location, stream and teaching experience, either as main effect or in interaction with each other.
Less effective teachers have mean scores of 28.25, 12.39, 18.47 and
17.32 on dimensions of disengagement, alienation, espirit and intimacy determining type of school organizational climate.
The respective mean scores of more effective teachers on these four group characteristic based dimensions came out to be 21.78, 9.56, 24.62 and
26.29.
The t-values testing the significance of mean difference between less and more effective teachers turned out to be 9.56, 4.22, 8.78 and 12.63 for the disengagement, alienation, espirit and intimacy dimensions measuring group characteristics respectively.
These are significant at 0.01 levels Less effective teachers have mean scores of 15.88, 16.56, 16.75 and 34.26 on psycho-physical hindrance, control and production emphasis and humanized thrust dimensions of leadership characteristics determining type of school organizational climate.
The mean scores of more effective teachers on these dimensions turned out to be 12.26, 12.84, 22.65 and 38.77 respectively. The t-values testing the
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
significance of mean difference between less and more effective teachers came out to be 5.74, 6.09, 12.04 and 4.69 on the dimensions of psycho-physical hindrance, control, production emphasis and humanized thrusts. These are significant at 0.01 level.
All educational thinkers, policy-makers, administrators and all educational committees and commissions-Indian as well as foreign-hold that the effectiveness of instruction depends vitally upon the quality of the teacher, who is the pivot of an education system. Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) observed that:
The most important factor in the contemplated educational reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities his educational qualifications, his professional training and the place that he occupies in the school as well as in the community.
Teacher effectiveness is the competence and ability of a teacher to teach effectively and effective teaching involves a set of teaching behaviours which are specially effective in bringing about desired teaching is an active affair and the class room demands the actions of a leader on the part of a teacher. A successful teacher becomes better and better because his actions are not based simply on intuition but on careful analysis, reflection and planning. A good working view point is that the successful teacher is not a perfect one, but one with aptitude for teacher and favourable attitude towards teaching who stays busy at the job of self improvement. Thus to sum up as Majasan (1995) has said:
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
Teaching is certainly one of the oldest professions. In modern formally situations especially with young ones the teacher builds up instruction trains, moulds and guides for healthy growth and stable adult life. The teacher is the main dynamic force in the school; everything else is meaningless in school situations unless associated with the teachers.
School organization is the major determinant factor of the teacher effectiveness. The organization of the class-room teaching process, performance evaluation, handling of the curriculum, sharing of responsibility by the staff, involvement of the community and acquiring and administrative support etc. are different characteristics on which schools perform differently.
It was in 1954 when the idea of a study of organizational climate of schools was discussed (Halpin 1954). Halpin and Croft (1963) defined, personality is to the individual as climate is to the organization. They have defined climate as the personality of an organization. School climate as the personality of a school has been often described in terms of the social interactions between the teachers and the principal and among members of the teaching staff. The climate of an institution means the interpersonal relationship within the group and between the groups and its leader i.e. staff, personnel and head of the institution) respectively.
It is the social milieu, the human behaviour or social atmosphere that pervades all activities in the educational institution. These issues are interrelation and determinants of school effectiveness (Verma, 1998; Bhardwaj, 2004; Mohanty,
2010).
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
Objectives
The present study was undertaken with the following objectives:-1. To study
teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers of Punjab
in relation to their school organizational climate.
To study teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers of
Punjab in relation to gender location, teaching experience and stream
(science, social science and languages).
To study interaction effect of school organizational climate separately with
gender location, school, teaching experience and of stream on teacher
effectiveness among secondary school teachers of Punjab.
To study interaction effect of location of school, gender, teaching
experience and stream on teacher effectiveness among secondary school
teachers of Punjab.
To study and compare more effective and less effective teachers on their
attitude towards teaching, job satisfaction and different dimensions of
school organizational climate.
Hypotheses
To meet these objectives following hypothesis were formulated:
1. Secondary school teachers teaching in open autonomous and familiar
school climate will have significantly higher level of teacher
effectiveness as compared to their counterparts teaching in paternal,
controlled and closed climate.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
2. There will be no significant gender difference in teacher effectiveness
among secondary school teachers.
3. There will be no significant difference in teacher effectiveness among
teachers belonging to rural and urban secondary schools.
4. Secondary school teachers having different levels of teaching experience
(less than 8 years, 9 – 15 years, 16 and more than 16 years) will exhibit
significant mean differences in their teacher effectiveness.
5. The more effective secondary school teachers will differ significantly from
less effective teachers in their attitude towards teaching, job satisfaction
and eight dimensions of school organizational climate.
The data were collected from 3 districts of the Punjab selected randomly.
Language teachers included in the study were Hindi and Punjabi teachers
only.
Analytical approach to analysis i.e. analysis of variance and t-test were
used in the analysis of data to explain relationship of teacher effectiveness
with school organizational climate vis-à-vis other pertinent selected
personal variables.
School Organizational Climate: It refers to school organization and its functioning, which may be classified into six types:
Open Climate refers to an environment in which teachers enjoy a high
degree of integration and authenticity of behaviour.
Autonomous Climate refers to an environment in which teachers enjoy a
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
high degree of group morale. They satisfy their social needs to a great
extent moderate and enjoy a degree job accomplishment.
Familiar Climate refers to an environment in which everyone is a part of
large happy family. Social needs satisfaction is extremely high. The
principal exercises leadership in an direct manner and tries to keep
production satisfactory. His behaviour is job oriented but does not hinder
the social needs satisfaction on the part of the teachers.
Controlled Climate can be characterized as highly task-oriented at the cost
of social needs satisfaction of the members (teachers0. Group involvement
is never encouraged, human aspect of the individual is neglected and
communication is always one sided.
Paternal Climate refers to an environment in which the faculty has to work in
the way the principal wants but at the same time the principal as a paternal
guardian of the school faculty, does not ignore the individual interest.
Closed Climate is characterized by a high degree of apathy on the part of all
members of the organization. The organization is not moving. This climate
lacks authenticity of behaviour. The group members secure neither social
needs satisfaction nor job satisfaction stemming from
task-accomplishment.
Teacher Effectiveness: Effective teachers are those who possess the
knowledge and skills needed to attain goals which either directly or
indirectly focus on the learning of their students. Teacher performance is
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
often used as a base from which teacher effectiveness can be derived
(Medley, 1982), and in the present study it refers to: self-perceived
behaviour of teacher with regard to his/her role
performance covering five areas:
Preparation and Planning for Teaching includes statements pertaining to
the ability of the teacher in preparing, planning and organizing for teaching
in accordance with the course objectives by using different source material.
Classroom Management includes statements pertaining to the ability of the
teacher to successfully communicate, motivate the students and evaluate
the teaching learning process and also to maintain discipline in the
classroom within the framework of democratic set up.
Knowledge of Subject Matter; Its Delivery and Presentation including B.B.
Summary includes statement on the ability of the teacher in acquiring,
retaining, interpreting and making use of the contents of the subject he/she
is dealing with the classroom situations. Delivery of course contents and its
presentation including B.B. summary constitute essential aspect of the
teaching learning process.
Teacher Characteristics includes statements pertaining to the personality
make up and its behavioural manifestations that have their own level of
acceptability or unacceptability in the teaching profession.
Interpersonal Relations includes the statement concerned with the ability of
teacher to adopt himself/herself to maintain cordial relations with his/her
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
colleagues, pupils their parents and other persons in the community.
Attitude towards Teaching is the sum total of teacher‟s inclinations and
feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats and
convictions about specific situation. A teacher who has favourable attitude
towards teaching is able to maintain a state of harmonious relations with his
pupils characterized by mutual affection and sympathetic understanding,
covered under six sub areas: attitude towards teacher profession,
classroom teaching, child-centred practices, educational process, pupils
and teachers.
Teacher Job Satisfaction refers to the contentment on the part of teacher
which he receives from the job and the job situation in the school covered
under the sub-areas, namely, job prospects, teacher-principal relationship,
teacher-teacher relationship and opportunities for self expression etc.
In order to study teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers in relation to school organizational climate and certain selected personal variables, namely gender, location of school, teaching experience and stream a sample of 75 senior secondary schools (45 Rural and 30 Urban) were selected. Further all the teachers (Totalling 451) working in these schools were administered following research tools:
School Organizational Climate to assess school climate in six types of
climate namely open, autonomous, familiar, controlled, paternal and
closed.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
Teacher Effectiveness Scale to assess teacher effectiveness.
Teacher Attitude Inventory to assess attitude of teachers towards teaching
only in terms of „more effective‟ and „less effective‟ teachers.
Job Satisfaction Scale to assess job satisfaction of teachers towards
teaching only in terms of „more effective‟ and „less effective‟ teachers.
Descriptive statistics was used to explain school organizational climate prevailing in secondary schools of Punjab alongwith and teacher effectiveness.
Analysis of variance, followed by t-test was used to study main and interaction effects of school organizational climate in combination with gender, location, teaching experience (less i.e. below 5 years, average i.e. 5-10 years, and more i.e. above 10 years) and stream on teacher effectiveness among secondary school teachers.
The t-test was applied to test significance of mean difference between more effective and less effective teachers in their attitude towards teaching, job satisfaction and eight dimensions of school organizational climate description questionnaire, namely disengagement, alienation, espirit, intimacy, psycho-physical hindrance, controls, production-emphasis, humanized thrust.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
SUGGESTIONS
Research in any field is a continuous process and no research in itself is considered complete. Every research is based upon previous studies and lays down the foundation for a new study. The present study also was delimited in terms of a number of variables, to explore the relationship of teacher effectiveness with school organizational climate. Hence some suggestions are being made for further research:
1. The study could be extended to other parts of country and different grades
of educational institutions i.e. the primary, senior secondary or even at the
college level.
2. It is desirable for exploring the relationship of teacher effectiveness with
institutions variable to compare different school systems such as
government and private, Navodya and Central, and Public and Private on
the phenomenon studied in this investigation.
3. In order to improve the school organizational climate, there is a need to
change its socio-psychological dynamics, which calls for further research to
look into teachers' perception with regard to school conditions vis-à-vis
teachers own personality make-up comprising of teaching competencies,
attitude towards profession, value pattern, job satisfaction and
psychological well-being.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
No doubt teacher effectiveness is a personal characteristic comprising of intellectual capacity, knowledge and attitude of a teacher in educational setting, still it has its antecedents in environment i.e. school organizational climate.
It is found that school climate with a blending of socialising and supporting role of head of institution and colleagues is facilitative in teacher effectiveness.
Hence it is important to introduce autonomous and familiar types of school climate.
It is not the physical infrastructure but human networking that is important. This revolves around inter-personal relationships and teacher-head relationship
(Bhardwaj, 2004; Kaur, 2008). A school teacher, irrespective of location and gender is showing a good level of teacher effectiveness when school climate is more humane. The educational administrators at state level and also at district level need to play a facilitating rather than inspection and supervision with iron hand – role in helping teachers to show their best of abilities and interests (Das,
2005). The stream of teaching i.e. science, social science and language, seems to affect teacher effectiveness. Let all teachers, irrespective of stream should be given in-service training. This is likely to help teachers to be more effective – both intellectually and attitude wise. Alongwith use of mass media especially e-media should be made integral part of teaching-learning process and all teachers should be made technology savy. It is felt and believed by many that teaching experience does affect teacher effectiveness. But it needs to be re-looked that experience may not be that important. Hence favouring either young (with less, experience) or elder (with more experience) should be discarded and all teachers need to be
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
treated as unique human beings in educational system. It is need of hour that teachers are to be sensitized towards socio-psychological needs of students that will enhance psycho-social environment. Let the environment be more conducive and supporting to enable school teachers to provide education to young generation for achieving excellence in school education. No doubt teacher effectiveness is a personal attribute, but it has its connotations in school climate and other behavioural aspects of teachers‟ personality. It is a complex phenomenon and needs a careful observation and analysis on the part of educational planners and administrators.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Research in any field is a continuous process and no research in itself is considered complete. Every research is based upon previous studies and lays down the foundation for a new study. The present study also was delimited in terms of a number of variables, to explore the relationship of teacher effectiveness with school organizational climate. Hence some suggestions are being made for further research: The study could be extended to other parts of country and different grades of educational institutions i.e. the primary, senior secondary or even at the college level. It is desirable for exploring the relationship of teacher effectiveness with institutions variable to compare different school systems such as government and private, Navodya and Central, and Public and Private on the phenomenon studied in this investigation. In order to improve the school organizational climate, there is a need to change its socio-psychological dynamics,
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
which calls for further research to look into teachers' perception with regard to school conditions vis-à-vis teachers own personality make-up comprising of teaching competencies, attitude towards profession, value pattern, job satisfaction and psychological well-being. The teacher effectiveness is usually based on the self-perceptions of teachers. Learning outcomes could be a useful measure of teacher effectiveness, and hence a study could be conducted to find out the relationship between teacher effectiveness and student achievement. Also effect of school organizational climate on students' achievement and student morale can be focus of some studies. A number of teacher training institutions such district institutes of education and training often conduct various seminars or training programmes for teachers to enhance the quality and standard of teaching. A study of change in teacher effectiveness after such type of trainings should be undertaken to establish the usefulness of such training programmes. There is need to assess teacher effectiveness with the help of a new measurement technique. Hence research efforts should be made to develop indigeneous tools of research to assess teacher effectiveness in a new perspective on the framework of national curriculum demanding system to be more child centered. The secondary school teachers perceiving autonomous and familiar type of school organizational climate have exhibited significantly higher levels of teacher effectiveness as compared to those perceiving school climate to be of closed type.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
There are no significant gender differences in teacher effectiveness of
secondary school teachers.
There are no significant mean differences in teacher effectiveness of rural
and urban secondary school teachers.
There are significant mean differences in teacher effectiveness of secondary
school teachers teaching in science, social studies and language streams.
There are no significant mean differences in teacher effectiveness of
secondary school teachers varying in their teaching experience.
There is significant interaction effect of school organizational climate with
gender, location and streams on teacher effectiveness of secondary school
teachers.
There is significant interaction effect of gender, location and stream on
teacher effectiveness of secondary school teachers.
Less effective secondary school teachers are significantly higher on
disengagement and alienation dimensions of group behaviour characteristics
and psychophysical hindrance and control dimensions of leadership
behaviour characteristics.
More effective secondary school teachers are significantly higher on espirit
and intimacy dimensions of group behaviour characteristics and production
emphasis and humanized thrust dimensions of leadership behaviour
characteristics.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
Significant mean differences of job satisfaction between more effective and
less effective groups indicate that more effective teachers have a higher level
of job satisfaction as compared to less effective teachers.
The analysed data depicts that teacher effectiveness is highly and positively
related to teaching attitude. It also shows that more effective secondary
school teachers have significantly more healthy and favourable attitude
towards teaching than less effective teachers. It can also be concluded that
teaching attitude is the significant determinant of teacher effectiveness. In nut
shell it may be stated that:
The main effect of school organizational climate on teacher effectiveness is
dependent on gender and stream of teaching of secondary school teachers
and is also location specific.
The non-significant main effects of gender, location and stream have their
effect as teacher effectiveness of secondary school teachers in terms of their
conjoint effect.
Thus teacher effectiveness of secondary school teachers of Punjab showing
a positive relationship with school organizational climate need to be
understood in terms of certain personal variables. To sum up, teacher
effectiveness is characterized by positive attributes such as job satisfaction,
attitude towards teaching and psychological attributes of school climate,
namely espirit, intimacy, humanized thrust and production emphasis and
hence climate is more important than any other factor to explain teacher
effectiveness.
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Chapter-VI Summary of Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion
CONCLUSION
The Higher secondary school teachers perceiving autonomous and familiar type of school organizational climate have exhibited significantly higher levels of teacher Perceptiveness as compared to those perceiving school climates to be of closed type. There are no significant gender differences in teacher Perceptiveness of Higher secondary school teachers. There are no significant mean differences in teacher Perceptiveness of rural and urban Higher secondary school teachers.
There are significant mean differences in teacher Perceptiveness of Higher secondary school teachers teaching in science, social studies and language streams.
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