112

CHAPTER 3

STUDY AREA

3.1 GENERAL

Karur lies between 10o63’ and 11o14’ north latitude and 77o90’ and 78o61 east longitude. town is located on the bank of Amaravathi river. Due to discharge of effluent by the textile bleaching and dyeing units, the river and the ground water is polluted. Before going into the detailed study of the above problem, a macro level study was carried out with the available study reports of i). State Ground and Surface Water Resources Data Centre, Water Resources Organization, Public Works Department, , ii). Central Ground Water Board, Chennai, iii).Loss of Ecology (Prevention and Payment of Compensation) Authority, Chennai, iv). Agricultural University, . The Administrative map of is given in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Karur District Administrative Map 113

3.2 GROUNDWATER PERSPECTIVES OF KARUR DISTRICT

State Ground and Surface Water Resources Data Centre, PWD had brought out a report on groundwater perspective of Karur District in year 2005. From the report the following are extracted. In Karur district, the surface water resources have been utilized fully. The surface flow in the rivers can be observed only during monsoon periods. The deficient monsoon rainfall has affected the flow of surface water into reservoirs, anaicuts, lakes etc. Hence under these circumstances the agriculturist has to totally depend upon an alternate source, viz. groundwater to meet-out their irrigation requirements. In Tamil Nadu, groundwater development is increased drastically for agricultural developments due to the non-availability of required surface water. This can be observed even in Karur district. Geologically the entire Karur district is underlain by hard rocks except a few patches of alluvial formation along the river Cauvery. Generally, hard rock does not contain potential aquifers to store large quantity of water and to transmit to other areas. Due to heterogeneous nature of the hard rock formations, it is really difficult to identify the potential areas of groundwater and adopt suitable strategy for its development. Indiscriminate pumping by agriculturists without following the groundwater norms such as spacing between wells etc., and the Government liberalized policy of free electricity for agricultural purposes has resulted in over exploitation of groundwater in certain areas.

3.2.1 Salient Features of Karur District

Area 2895.57 Sq.km Taluks 4 Nos. Karur, , , Blocks 8 Nos. Karur, Thanthoni, Aravakurichi, K.Paramathi, Kulithalai, Thogamalai, Krishnarayapuram, Kadavur 114

Villages 203 Physiography Maximum elevation – 945 metres above MSL, at Rangamalai (Arvakurichi Taluk). Minimum elevation – 91.5 metres above MSL, at Kumaramangalam village, Kulithalai taluk. Major river Cauvery Tributaries Amaravathi, Kodaganaru, Noyyal, Pungar, Nanganji River basin i. Kulithalai minor basin ii. Amaravathi minor basin iii. Trichy minor basin Watershed K.Paramathi Climate Sub tropical Temperature Mean max. temperature 38.56oC Mean min. temperature 18.7oC Rainfall stations 7 Nos. Average annual rainfall 635.68 mm NE monsoon rainfall 312.88 mm SW monsoon rainfall 177.80 mm Summer rainfall 122.16 mm Winter rainfall 22.84 mm Soil types Red soil, River alluvium, Red loam Cropping pattern Paddy, Pulses, Sugarcane, Cotton, Groundnut, Banana, Vegetables & Rainfed crops. Irrigation Sources Tanks – 270 Canals - 14 Energisation of irrigation 31567 to 35143 wells (Period 4/1995 to 3/2000) Rock types Granitic Gneiss, Biotite Gneiss & Charnockite 115

Investigation bore wells 86 Nos. drilled Aquifer parameters Alluvium Hard Rock Transmissivity (T) 45-205 m2/day 28 – 75 m2/day Permeability (K) 5 - 9 m/day 2 – 4.5 m/day Yield 8 - 17 lps 2 – 3 lps

Total No. of observation 20 wells (PWD) Groundwater quality Moderate in Aravakurichi, Karur and Kulithalai taluks. Good in . Piezometers drilled under 21 Nos. hydrology project (PWD) Digital water level 15 Nos. recorder (DWLR) Full climatic stations village (FCS) Automatic rain gauge Aravakurichi, Palaviduthi, Panjapatti and stations (ARG) of PWD Kulithalai.

Table 3.1 Groundwater Potential Assessment as on January 2003

Total Net Domestic Irrigation Total Balance Stage of groundwater groundwater and draft draft groundwater development recharge availability industrial projected available as on draft at to Jan. Jan.2003 Year 2003 2003 357.17 321.45 17.65 202.01 219.66 101.79 68%

Source: PWD. All values are in M.Cu.m 116

Table 3.2 Stage of Groundwater Development as on January 2003 – Block Wise

Over exploited Critical Semi critical Safe (> 100%) (100–90%) (90-70%) (< 70%) Kadavur, - Aravakurichi, Karur, K.Paramathi Thogamalai Krishnarayapuram, Kulithalai, Thogamalai

Source: PWD

3.2.2 Drainage

Major part of Karur district is drained by Cauvery River. Amaravathi, Kodaganar and Nangangi are the important rivers draining the western part of the district and the river Pungar drains in eastern part of the district. The drainage pattern, in general, is dendritic. All the rivers are seasonal and carry substantial flows during monsoon period. The river Cauvery is flowing on the northern and eastern boundaries. The river Amaravathi is flowing through K.Paramathi, Aravakurichi, Thanthoni and Karur blocks and joins with Cauvery at Kattali. Kodaganar, which is one of the important tributary of Amaravathi River, drains the western part of the district. Kodaganar is originating in Rangamalai hills located in the boarder of Karur and district. It flows from south to north and joins with the river Amaravathi at Karuvadampatti. The Nanganji river, flowing in the western part of the district, has its origin from the Kottaivali hills in . It flows towards north through Aravakurichi and K.Paramathi blocks and joins with the river Amaravathi at Aariyur. The Pungar river, flowing across the eastern part of the district, has its origin in the Kadavur hills located in the southern part of Karur district. It flows towards north through Kadavur and Krishnarayapuram blocks and joins with the river Cauvery at Timmachalapuram. Karur District River Basin & Minor Basin is given in Figure 3.2. 117

Figure 3.2 Karur District River Basin & Minor Basin

3.2.3 Land Use Pattern

The land use pattern of the district depends mainly on topography, land form, soil cover etc. Out of the total geographical area of the district, only 2.14 percent is covered by forest and 11.6 percent of the area is put into non agricultural use. Cultivable waste accounts for 23.5 percentage.

3.2.4 Rainfall and Climate

The district receives the rain under the influence of both southwest and northeast monsoons. The northeast monsoon chiefly contributes to the rainfall in the district. Most of the precipitation occurs in the form of cyclonic storms caused due to the depressions in Bay of Bengal. The southwest monsoon rainfall is highly erratic and summer rains are negligible. Rainfall data from three stations over the period 1901- 2000 were utilised and a perusal of the analysis shows that the normal annual rainfall over the district varies from about 620 mm to 745 mm. It is the minimum around Aravakurichi (622.7mm) in the western part of the district. It gradually increases towards eastwards and attains a maximum around Kulithalai (744.6mm). The average 118 annual rainfall of this district is 635.68 mm. The season wise normal rainfall values are given in Table 3.3-3.5. The district enjoys a tropical climate. The period from March to May is generally hot and dry. The weather is pleasant during the period from November to January. Usually mornings are more humid than afternoons. The relative humidities are generally between 40 and 80%. But in the period from February to July the air is comparatively drier in the afternoon. The mean maximum temperature ranges from 26.7 to 38.56 °C and the mean minimum temperature ranges from 18.7°C to 29.3 °C. The daytime heat is oppressive and the temperature is as high as 43.9°C. The lowest temperature recorded is of the order of 13.9°C.

3.2.5 Soil Types

Soil types of the area are more important, since they are the main criteria for agricultural production and also for the recharge of groundwater. Different types of soil are derived from a wide range of geological formations. A soil map of Karur district based on the survey by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Department indicates four different types of soils viz., Red Soil, Thin Red Soil, Red Loam and River Alluvium Soil. The red soils are predominantly seen in Kadavur, Kulithalai, Krishnarayapuram, Thanthoni and Thogamalai blocks. The thin red soils are seen in Aravakurichi and K.Paramathy blocks. Major portion of Karur block is covered by red loom. Details are given in Table 3.6. Karur district soil map is given Figure 3.3. Various types of crops raised in different types of soil in different parts of Karur district is given in Table 3.7. 119

Table 3.3 Monthly Normal Rainfall (in mm) for Selected Raingauge Stations (70 Years : 1901-1970)

Sl.No. Raingauge Maintained Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Location by

1 Karur Revenue 11.9 5.6 10.1 37.1 78.9 23 26.3 63.4 78 157.3 100.3 38 629.9 Dept.

2 Kulithalai Revenue 21.4 8.7 11.1 40.4 73.2 27.1 34.3 71.1 97.6 185.7 128.3 52 750.9 Dept.

3 Mayanur PWD 12.9 6.5 11 35.6 68.9 22 33.7 65.2 69.2 192 90.7 41.4 649.1

4 Anaipalayam PWD 10.4 8.8 15.8 44.1 56.9 11.5 18.4 49 43.6 153.7 78.2 33.5 523.9

5 Aravakurichi Sub- 21 7 14.8 43.3 69.6 16.8 19.9 45.2 73.7 149.3 121.7 42.3 624.6 Registrar

Source: PWD

Table 3.4 Normal and Actual Rainfall (in mm) for Raingauge Stations for the Period 1989 - 1999

Sl. Raingage Normal 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 No. Rainfall 1 Karur 629.3 690 668.8 645.5 531.5 816 400.3 250.4 673.5 713.4 694.7 861 2 Anaipalayam 523.9 659 370.5 657 501 403 352 366 660 704.6 554.75 805.5 3 Mayanur 649.1 726 574.8 586 541.3 720 766 518.7 628.1 853.3 636.5 1060.1 4 Kulithalai 750.9 605 304.2 377 590.1 776 551.9 638.5 1054 650.9 749.8 1175.7 5 Aravakuruchi 624.5 621 556.5 588.5 394.9 668 554.6 282.5 829 - - - Source: PWD 120

Table 3.5 Time Series Data of Rainfall by Seasons (1999-2009)

Sl. Year South West North East Winter Hot weather Total No. Monsoon Monsoon Season Season Normal Actual Normal Actual Normal Actual Normal Actual Normal Actual % Deviation (+or-or =) from Normal 1 1999- 189.8 90.2 317.9 525.8 24.2 4.5 122.6 53.4 654.5 673.9 +2.96 2000 2 2000- 0 180.2 0 218.5 0 1.0 0 129.1 867.8 528.8 -39.1 01 3 2001- 192.0 62.6 317.9 194.3 24.0 1.0 107.0 54.8 640.9 312.7 -51.2 02 4 2002- 209.5 110.6 141.8 330.1 24.7 0 105.7 90.7 681.7 531.4 -22.0 03 5 2003- 249.7 61.5 365.4 358 24.0 0 103.1 229.6 742.2 649.1 -12.5 04 6 2004- 249.7 310.3 365.4 279.3 24.0 0.7 103.1 223.7 742.2 814.0 +9.7 05 7 2005- 249.7 164.3 365.4 714.2 24.0 5.8 103.1 101.4 742.2 985.7 32.8 06 8 2006- 249.7 1810.9 365.4 3020.7 24.0 10.6 103.1 907.0 742.2 5749.2 +5007 07 9 2007- 249.7 164.3 365.4 714.2 24.0 5.8 103.1 101.4 742.2 985.7 32.8 08 10 2008- 249.7 1957.04 365.4 4341.44 24.0 16.8 103.1 210.2 742.2 6525.48 +5783.28 09 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chennai

Figure 3.3 Karur District Soil Map 121

Table 3.6 Distribution of Major Soil Types (Percentage)

Sl.No Taluk Red Thin Red River Total Loam Red Soil Alluvium Soil 1 Arvakurichi - 100 - - 100 2 Karur 60 - 40 - 100 3 Krishnarayapuram - - 70 30 100 4 Kulithalai - - 50 50 100

Source: PWD

Table 3.7 Cropping Pattern Adopted in Major Soil Types

Sl. Name of major Crops grown No. Soil group 1 Thin Red Soil Paddy, Pulses, Rainfed crops, Sugarcane, Vegtables 2 Red Soil Paddy, Pulses, Rainfed crops, Sugarcane, Vegetables 3 River Alluvium Paddy, Pulses, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane, Banana 4 Red Loam Paddy, Pulses, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane, Banana

Source: Agricultural Department, Karur

3.2.6 Irrigation by Surface and Groundwater

Generally, for agricultural purposes maximum amount of available water resources are utilized through minor irrigation. In Karur district, 270 tanks, 14 canals and one reservoir serve as the main source for irrigation, Cauvery river and Amaravathi river are two main rivers. The details of minor irrigation sources in the district are given Table 3.8. Due to vagaries of monsoon, the river systems, which are main sources of the surface water irrigation, fail to cater to the needs of farmers. Hence the chief source of irrigation in the district is through well which play a significant role in the irrigation of the district followed by surface water structures. The net area 122 irrigated by canals, tanks and tube wells are given in Table 3.9. List of tanks in Karur district is given in Table 3.10. Blockwise land use and well census details of Karur district as on March 2003 is given in Table 3.11.

Table 3.8 Minor Irrigation Sources of Karur District

Sl. Tanks No. Taluk Canals With With taluk (%) Total Reservoirs than 40 hectares Tanks in each Ayacut of and above ayacut less 40 hectares 1 Aravakurichi 3 1 4 2 6 2.22 2 Karur 3 - 2 7 9 3.33 3 Krishnarayapuram 3 - 8 115 123 45.66 4 Kulithalai 5 - 6 126 132 48.79 Total 14 1 20 250 270 100 Source: Department of Statistics, Karur

Table 3.9 Net Area Irrigated by Canals, Tanks and Wells

Period Irrigation development in hectares Canals and tanks Tube wells and open wells 1998 - 1999 24316 23706 1999-2000 24755 25798 2000-2001 27497 31124 2001-2002 22454 25214 2002-2003 12313 26374

Source: Department of Statistics, Karur

Table 3.10 List of Tanks in Karur District

Taluk Village Tank Name Tank Major Ayacut type basin area (hectares) Krishnarayapuram Balarajapuram Veerarakkiam Non- Cauvery 71.88 system 123

Table 3.10 (Continued) Krishnarayapuram Chitalavai Kovaikulam System Cauvery 82.79 Krishnarayapuram Kosur Ayyankulam Non- Cauvery 86.45 system Krishnarayapuram Pappakapatti Pappakapatti Non- Cauvery 42.68 system Krishnarayapuram Pudur (Renga) Pudur Non- Cauvery 114 (Renga) system Krishnarayapuram Sivayam Sivaya tank Non- Cauvery 136.8 system Kulithalai Rachandrathi Kapperi tank Non- Cauvery 49.5 system Kulithalai Vadacheri Vadacheri Non- Cauvery 64.78 tank system Kadavur Mavathur Mavathur Non- Cauvery 58.59 tank system Kulithalai Kulithalai Nalur periya Non- Cauvery 185.34 system

Source : PWD

Figure 3.4 Well Census of Karur District as on March 2003 124

Table 3.11 Block wise Land Use and Well Census Details of Karur District as on March 2003

Sl.N Name of the Geographica Area Hilly Water Ayacu Non Irrigation well census o Block l Area (hec) excludin area sprea t (hec) Ayacut Open Dug Well Shallo g hills (hec) d area (hec) w Tube (hec) Energize Diese Bulloc Total d l k Well drive bailing n 1 Aravakurichi 43,689 42,907 782 59 101 42,747 3,231 454 446 4,131 - 2 K.Paramathi 53,927 53,578 349 127 108 53,343 4,107 1,201 456 5,764 36 3 Karavur 42,714 37,029 5,68 412 37 36,580 4,738 905 122 5,885 12 5 4 Karur 24,335 24,127 18 97 97 24,123 3,468 504 - 3,972 63 5 Krishnarayapura 39,503 39,351 152 100 3,006 36,245 3,747 1,021 881 5,649 48 m 6 Kulithalai 18,903 18,336 537 1,083 2,957 14,326 1,275 184 9 1,468 12 7 Thanthoni 36,308 36,079 229 161 979 34,939 3,517 914 178 4,609 122 8 Thogaimalai 30,178 29,740 438 736 1,389 27,615 4,167 679 121 4,967 18 Total 2,89,557 2,81,367 8,19 2,775 8,674 2,69,91 28,250 5,862 2,333 36,44 311 0 8 5 Source: PWD 125

3.2.7 Geology

Geologically, the entire district can be classified into hard rock and sedimentary formations. Hard Rock Formation: - More than 90 percent of the district is underlain by hard rock of Archaeon age. The gneissic type of formation is the major formation among the various types of hard rocks. Charnockite occurs in this district as pockets in Karur and Aravakurichi taluks. Quartzites which are resistant to weathering are also seen as patches in Charnockite and gneissic varieties and the above rock types are shown in Figure 3.5. Sedimentary Formation: - Recent alluvial deposits such as sand, silt, clay, gravel etc. which are transported sediments by river are found on either side of Cauvery river in Karur, Krishnarayapuram and Kulithalai blocks. These formations are overlying the hard rock. Lithological details of selected boreholes in Karur district is given in Table 3.12

Figure 3.5 Karur District Geology Map 126

Table 3.12 Lithological Details of Selected Boreholes in Karur District

Sl. Borehole Taluk Name of village Lithology in metres No. No. 1 71011 Aravakurichi K.Paramathi GL-0.95 Top clayey soil 0.95-3.20 Kankar 3.20-61.00 Weathered biotite gneiss 2 71013 Aravakurichi Aravakurichi GL-0.30 Top soil 0.30-45.00 Weathered biotite gneiss 45.00-45.12 Massive biotite gneiss 3 71214 Aravakurichi Ichipatty Gl-2.00 Red soil 2.00-4.00 Kankar 4.00-14.00 Partly weathered charnockite 14.00-28.00 Jointed charnockite 28.00-88.00 Massive charnockite 4 71004 Karur Panduthakaranpudur GL-1.35 Top soil 1.35-14.10 Weathered biotite gneiss 14.10-21.76 Massive biotite gneiss 5 71005 Karur Chinnakalipalaym GL-1.30 Top soil 1.30-16.00 Weathered biotite gneiss 16.00-16.35 Massive biotite gneiss 6 71010 Karur Nedungur GL-0.90 Top soil 0.90-7.85 Weathered biotite gneiss 7.85-8.00 Massive biotite gneiss 7 71026 Krishnarayapu Kovakulam GL-3.00 Top soil ram 3.00-12.00 Weathered gneiss 12.00-46.00 Jointed Gneiss 46.00-60.60 Massive charnockite 8 71117 Krishnarayapu Kumbadipatti GL-2.20 Top soil ram 2.20-34.00 Weathered Gneiss 34.00-48.00 Jointed charnockite 48.00-61.00 Massive Charnockite 9 71216 Krishnarayapu Mayanur GL-2.00 Gravelly soil ram 2.00-4.00 Pegmatite 4.00-10.00 Kankar 10.00-16.00 Weathered charnockite 16.00-26.00 Jointed charnockite 127

Table 3.12 (continued) 10 71019 Kulithalai Mettumarudur GL-1.50 Top soil 1.50-3.15 Red soil with pegmatite 3.15-57.60 Weathered biotite gneiss 57.60-68.80 Jointed biotite gneiss 68.80-72.00 Massive granetic gneiss 11 71110 Kulithalai Pillapalyam GL-1.50 Top soil 1.50-20.00 Weathered granitic gneiss 20.00-45.00 Jointed granitic gneiss 45.00-60.00 Massive charnockite 12 71194 Kulithalai Thelungapatti GL-0.50 Block cotton soil 0.50-4.00 Highly weathered granitic gneiss 4.00-24.00 Partly jointed granite gneiss 24.00-38.00 Jointed charnockite Partly jointed 38.00-48.00 charnockite 48.00-50.00 Massive charnockite

Source: PWD

3.2.8 Geomorphology

The entire area of the district is a pediplain. The Rangamalai hills and Kadavur hills occurring in the southern side of the district constitutes the remnants of the much denuded Eastern Ghats and rise to heights of over 1031 m above mean sea level. From these hills the district slopes gently towards north east and forms a vast stretch of plain country till the eastern boarder of the district. There are numerous small residual hills represented by Ayyarmalai, and Velayuthampalayam hills. The general elevation of the area is ranging between 100 m and 200m above mean sea level. The prominent geomorphic units identified in the district through interpretation of Satellite imagery are 1) Structural hill, 2) Pediments, 3) 128

Shallow Pediments, 4) Buried Pediments and 5) Alluvial plain. An overall appraisal of groundwater occurrence in each geomorphic unit and the significance of its hydrogeological characters are given Table 3.13. Geomorphological maps of 1:50,000 scale are used. Geomorphology and lineament details are given in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Karur District Geomorphology & Lineament Map

Table 3.13 Description of Landforms and Groundwater Occurrence

Geomorphic Characteristics Hydrology Groundwater units potential Alluvial Plain It is gentle plain, adjacent High infiltration – Very good (ALP) to river recharge mainly from rivers and rainfall Buried It is a very low relief area Infiltration is good Good Pediment with fairly high (BP) weathered thickness – very good drainage net work. Shallow Intermediate zone Moderate infiltration – Moderate Pediments between pediment and recharge is through (SP) deep pediment hydrogeological features. 129

Table 3.13 (continued) Pediment (P) Out-crops with or without Run off zone Poor soil cover Structural Composed of composite Run off zone – Little Poor Hill (SH) ridges & valley traversed infiltration along by structural features. secondary features.

3.2.9 Lineament and Hydrofractures

Generally, lineaments are weaker zones, which might have been formed due to crustal movements of the earth. Lineaments may be indicative of fault or geological contact or shear or major joints. Lineaments are the proven secondary aquifers in hard rocks. Groundwater occurrence in the fractured aquifers is noted at relatively in deeper zones. After exploiting the shallow aquifers for agricultural and domestic purposes, targeting of groundwater is concentrated towards the investigation of heterogenetic deeper hydrofracture zones. Lineament map of Karur district has been prepared from Landsat and IRS, FCC imageries of scale 1:25,000 by visual interpretation, and limited filed checks have been carried out intersection of lineaments are considered to be good potential zones of groundwater. A base map is prepared from the imageries for field verification is given Figure 3.7. The yield from bore wells drilled in the lineament zone is moderate to very good. In Karur district, almost the entire shallow aquifer zone in tapped for agricultural development in hard rock areas. Hence to meet the future demand for groundwater, a detailed investigation is warranted in the fractured aquifers. At the same time, the open fractures can be utilized for artificial recharge and for storing groundwater in the under-ground reservoir.