Volume 7 Issue 1, June 2019 Universitas Bangka Belitung

Volume 7 Issue 1, June 2019

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage Rice: A Study about Food Security and Claudia Seise Indigenous Communities 1-10 Lengga Pradipta 37-47

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Party (PKS) to Maintain Its Existence by Election Existences, Forms, and Developments Year 2014 Deska Fitriyani, Yoyok Hendarso, Yunindyawati Yusa Djuyandi, Fifi Lutfiah Sodikin 48-58 11-20

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle Rizky Octa Putri Charin, Arief Hidayat 21-36

Society Volume 7 Issue 1 - June 2019 ISSN: 2338-6932

Social Engineering Laboratory Faculty of Social and Political Sciences Universitas Bangka Belitung

P-ISSN 2338-6932 E-ISSN 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id/index.php/society

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P-ISSN 2338-6932 E-ISSN 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id/index.php/society

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Herdiyanti Universitas Bangka Belitung

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Putra Pratama Saputra Universitas Bangka Belitung

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Pawito, Sebelas Maret University Fitri Ramdhani Harahap, Universitas Bangka Belitung Mahendra Wijaya, Sebelas Maret University Ismi Dwi Astuti Nurhaeni, Sebelas Maret University Wahyu Budi Nugroho, Udayana University Okta Hadi Nurcahyono, Sebelas Maret University Nanda Harda Pratama Meiji, State University of Malang

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Asrul Munazar, Universitas Bangka Belitung

P-ISSN 2338-6932 E-ISSN 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id/index.php/society

Reviewers

We would like to thank reviewers for their insightful comments on this edition

Takeshi Hamano, The University of Kitakyushu Japan Sharifah Nurul Huda Alkaff, Universiti Brunei Darussalam Brunei Darussalam Siti Sarawati Binti Hj. Johar, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Malaysia Alfian Rokhmansyah, Mulawarman University Indonesia Malike Brahim, Universiti Utara Malaysia Malaysia Dadang Hikmah Purnama, Sriwijaya University Indonesia Drajat Tri Kartono, Sebelas Maret University Indonesia Tomofumi Oka, Sophia University Japan Melanie P. Tolentino, Central Luzon State University Philippines Tserenbazar Pioner, National University of Mongolia Mongolia

P-ISSN 2338-6932 E-ISSN 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id/index.php/society

Table of Contents

Volume 7 Issue 1 June 2019

Claudia Seise “I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage ...... 1-10

Yusa Djuyandi, Fifi Lutfiah Sodikin Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) to Maintain Its Existence by Election Year 2014...... 11-20

Rizky Charin Octa Putri, Arief Hidayat The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle ...... 21-36

Lengga Pradipta The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities ...... 37-47

Deska Fitriyani, Yoyok Hendarso, Yunindyawati Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existences, Forms, and Developments ...... 48-58

Society, 7 (1), 1-10, 2019 P-ISSN: 2338-6932 | E-ISSN: 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage

Claudia Seise International Islamic University Malaysia Corresponding Author: [email protected]; [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Publication Info: This article aims to understand what it is that has made and Research in Progress Article still makes millions of Muslims taking great physical and financial hardship to go on the Muslim pilgrimage. It seems How to cite: that the reason why Muslims yearn to visit Mecca has to be Seise, C. (2019). “I want to go understood by looking at what emotions, and especially again and again”: Spiritual spiritual emotions, are triggered through this visit or even Emotions And Self-Improvement through the imagination of visiting the holy land. This Through Pilgrimage. Society, 7(1), yearning cannot just be understood based on wanting to fulfill 1-10. one of the five pillars of Islam. Religious or spiritual travel like the journey to the holy land of Islam needs to be understood DOI : 10.33019/society.v7i1.75 within the context of an individual’s emotional landscape, spiritual development and urge for spiritual self-improvement Copyright © 2019. Owned by to become a better person and Muslim. This article used Author(s), published by Society qualitative method, particularly semi-structured interviews with the informants. The results showed that pilgrimage to the Muslim holy land in Mecca can be a changing experience for the pilgrim undertaking the journey. This is an open access article.

License: Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike Keywords: Hajj; Islam; Muslim Women; Pilgrimage; (CC BY-NC-SA) Spiritual Emotions; Umrah;

Introduction who has the financial means to go on the Visiting the Muslim holy land, the Muslim pilgrimage, hajj, once in his lifetime. house of God and the mosque of the Holy However, it is not only about the obligation Prophet Muhammad has been the to fulfill God's command that is behind this destination and dream of millions of enormous movement of people but the deep Muslims from all around the world. In emotional connection to a place that is Islam, it is obligatory upon every Muslim viewed to be the center of the Muslim world “I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage and the center of a person's worship. It is spiritual emotions and especially the towards Mecca where Muslims turn in their emotion of khushu (commonly referred to as five daily obligatory ritual prayers. Pilgrims focus of mind and heart during prayer). I peregrinate toward what they perceive as will show that learning how to feel spiritual their sociocultural center (Cohen 1992). That emotions is desirable both in terms of is also true for the pilgrimage to Mecca in knowledge acquisition as well as for the present-day Saudi Arabia. Muslims have collection of divine reward. Furthermore, to gone through arduous journeys to reach the learn spiritual emotions also impacts on a place of their spiritual dreams; crossed person‟s worldly life. The second part of this desserts and oceans, war-torn lands and article will turn to spiritual self- arbitrarily fixed national boundaries improvement with a concrete example from (Tagliacozzo 2013). They have saved up the Leila‟s narrative, a Muslim woman. Her money for ten, twenty, thirty years, every narrative illustrates how the urge to day a little amount to come closer to their improve a person‟s spirituality through lifetime dream. For many, it is a journey pilgrimage leads to changes in her life both they intend to do only once in their lives. A in terms of spiritual and more worldly journey, they do not know whether they elements. This quest for piety (Nolan & will ever return from. Many Muslims Nolan 1989), I argue, is also partly reported carrying the wish in their hearts to calculative in nature. Calculative reason die in the holy land. In their journey to the applied by the pilgrims to gain divine holy Kaaba, they follow the established way reward and to improve their worldly lives passed down by the Prophet Muhammad. cannot be overlooked. They form an He, in turn, followed what has been essential intention and a driving force to revealed to him about the pilgrimage of the undertake the Muslim pilgrimage. father of Islam, Christianity and Judaism, This study used qualitative research the Prophet Abraham, called Ibrahim in the methods, particularly semi-structured Islamic tradition. interviews with Indonesian Muslim women Since Islam reached the Indonesian living in Germany. My informants, Leila archipelago from the 8th century onward, and Maryam, have told me extensively Indonesian Muslims, like their brothers and about their experiences and spiritual sisters elsewhere, have also strived to reach emotions during their hajj and umrah1. This the holy land and ritual center of Islam. article focuses on Indonesian women Indonesia is the most populous Islamic because, coming from a Southeast Asian country in the world. Around 200 Million studies background, my primary research people who identify themselves as Muslims focus is Islam in Indonesia2. This article is live in this biggest Southeast Asian country and the world‟s largest archipelago. However, their geographical location, which 1 Besides the accounts of Leila and Maryam is often understood to be in the periphery of presented here, my findings and discussion in this the Muslim world, and the distance from article are also influenced by personal talks with the so-called Muslim heartland used to Muslim friends who returned from hajj or umrah. Since my conversion to Islam in 2010, I have been make their journey, at least in the past, an listening to dozens of Muslim friends who related even greater challenge compared to their experiences and feelings during hajj or umrah. Muslims from other parts of the world. 2 I chose to focus on Indonesian women because I Following, this article gives a short feel it easy to talk to them about this topic and introduction to pilgrimages and especially especially their emotions. I have been doing research the Muslim pilgrimage. I will focus on in Indonesia for a total of almost two years and have lived in Indonesia for a total of around four years. I

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage discussing research in progress. By (traveling for educational purposes) publishing this article at a rather early stage, (Eickelman & Piscatori 1990; Tagliacozzo I aim to generate feedback on the concepts 2013). However, I argue, that religious or and approaches introduced here. spiritual travel like the journey to the holy land of Islam needs to be understood within the context of an individual‟s emotional Findings and Discussion landscape, spiritual development and urge 1. Pilgrimages for spiritual self-improvement to become a More and more people from different better person and Muslim. It seems that religions go on different kinds of individual's spiritual emotions, triggered pilgrimages. Pilgrimage is experiencing through personal experiences while in the resurgence around the world (Digance 2003, holy land, move a person to improve her 2006). The Muslim pilgrimage, hajj, or the relationship with the divine as well as her small Muslim pilgrimage, umrah, to Mecca, interpersonal relationships. These is no exception. Pilgrimages have powerful improvements can eventually make her a political, economical, social, and cultural more active and productive member of implications, and can even affect glo al society due to her heightened spiritual trade and health ollins- reiner . or awareness and commitment. The some countries and cities, it has een a knowledge gained through direct spiritual primary economic activity ar er experiences can lead to improving a ukonic 1996, 2002), including the Muslim person's religious practices, deeds and pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. actions. It seems that this kind of knowledge However, as I will show in this article, is obtained easier while on hajj or umrah pilgrimages, and in my case the Muslim compared to the theoretical knowledge pilgrimage to Mecca, also has an immense gained by reading books or attending emotional implication. Emotions religious lectures. experienced during pilgrimage can trigger Collins-Kreiner (2018) argues that spiritual transformations in the pilgrims. pilgrimage must be defined holistically, And these, in turn, can affect the encompassing both traditional religious surroundings and society of the individual pilgrimage and modern secular journeys3. experiencing these emotions. However, this article focuses on a Muslim doctrine enjoins and encourages traditional religious pilgrimage and the certain forms of travel like the hajj, hijra emotions that are inherent in it. Because, (leaving a place where the practice of Islam while I agree with Collins-Kreiner that is restricted for a place where no such traditional religious pilgrimages are restrictions exist), ziarah (visiting graves of becoming more and more entwined with Muslim saints or scholars), or rihla modern secular journeys, I also observed that the urge for traditional religious pilgrimage only is also present. Among speak fluently Indonesian and have come to know Muslims, there exists an urge to focus on the the people, their way of thinking and how to best religious aspects only. However, the approach an interview. Interviews for this article features of modern secular journeys such as were conducted in Indonesian. Furthermore, I decided to focus on women because after doing buying gifts and the like, are present as well. research with mainly male informants for my Ph.D. which came with several challenges, I think that as a female Muslim researcher, talking about spiritual 3 Here secular journeys refer to journeys that are not emotions would not be quite as easy with male undertaken for a specific religious or spiritual informants as it would be with female informants. purpose.

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage

By focusing on the individual's spiritual the typically modern contrast between emotions and development experienced reason and emotion, or subordinates the during pilgrimage, I aim to speak to the latter to the former" (Riis & Woodhead 2010: study of pilgrimage tourism that has 3). Concerning Islam, they speak of the focused more attention on individuals and Qur'an as an "emotionally self‐aware and his or her personal experience since the self‐reflective source (that) repeatedly insists 1990s (Smith 1989, 1992; Cohen 1992; on the importance of feeling, and contains Collins-Kreiner & Gatrell 2006; Poria, Butler intra‐textual prompts on the emotions that it & Airey 2003, 2004). Furthermore, current is intended to inspire” i id: . „ elievers‟, it research on pilgrimage emphasizes the says, „are those who, when God is aspect of subjectivity (Collins-Kreiner 2018). mentioned, feel a tremor in their hearts, and when they hear His signs rehearsed, find 2. Talking About Spiritual Emotions their faith strengthened, and put (all) their Spiritual emotions, experiences, and trust in their Lord‟ see Qur‟an : i id . spiritual growth are mostly discussed in However, I prefer to speak of spiritual research about Christianity and especially emotions. I take my use of „spiritual‟ from Pentecostalism (e.g. Gallagher & Newton the emic perspective4 in Islamic teachings 2009) and the veneration and experience of about the human spirit or soul called ruh in the so-called holy spirit. Emotions Arabic. In the Islamic science of tasawwuf, connected to Sufi rituals are also discussed which is usually dubbed Islamic spirituality, in contemporary literature (e.g. Parveen it is taught that it is the ruh and especially its 2014; Wolf 2000; Powers 2004; Malamud spiritual heart, the qalb, that is the seat of a 1996). In addition, spirituality is also person‟s emotions. ecause ruh, spirit, refers discussed when it comes to relating religion, to the inside of a person‟s eing, it is more religious practices, belief or spirituality to adequate to speak of spiritual emotions health or psychological well-being (e.g. instead of religious emotions. Religious Sharp 2010; Fredrickson 2002; Greenfield et. emotions, on the other hand, refer to outside al. 2009; Ahmad et. al. 2011). However, the emotions. Because, again taking the emic way I would like to talk about spiritual perspective into account, religion, here emotions takes a different approach. I Islam, refers to the outside manifestations of propose to distinguish between religious a person‟s worship that can e o served y emotions (Riis & Woodhead 2010) that are other people. This is based on the division usually expected of a practitioner of religion of Islam in Islam, which is the outside by the respective religious doctrine, and manifestation of worship, Iman, which is spiritual emotions that are individually felt usually referred to as belief, and Ihsan, and experienced by a person through which is the inner, emotional manifestation devotional practice, spiritual experiences or of worship and a person‟s relationship with religious travel and pilgrimage. the divine. It is in the third category, Ihsan, In their book The Sociology of Religious where a person‟s spiritual development, Emotion (2010), Riis and Woodhead argue spiritual emotions, spiritual self- that scriptural and theological traditions improvement, good behavior and include religious emotions among their relationship with the divine are located, central objectives of religious life. This trained, developed and preserved. It is this means that to feel religious or spiritual emotions belongs to a believers religious reality. And "neither the Bible nor the 4 I was trained in area studies. Taking a view from Qur'an - nor the Hebrew scriptures - draws the inside, emic concepts are an important part of area studies‟ findings.

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage inner reform that happens in a person‟s ruh Leila and Maryam tried to describe their that can cause a person to become spiritual emotions during their hajj and spiritually balanced, which again reflects on umrah travel and the experiences that her role as an active and productive member triggered them. The talks were very of society. That is why, a journey like the emotional and tears of remembrance, hajj or umrah, which leads to the yearning, and gratefulness filled the silence geographical and collective spiritual heart of between the sentences when words could Islam is most likely to affect a person‟s not describe the emotions they probably felt spiritual heart and spiritual emotions. at the moment. One predominant emotion To talk about personal spiritual that both women felt was peacefulness. A emotions and what they change in a person, peacefulness that made them did not want and connected with these the experiences a to leave the places of pilgrimage anymore. person had that led to the spiritual Leila tried to explain how she felt when emotions, form something very personal. sitting near the Kaaba in the mosque in The accounts presented here tell us about Mecca. This place is referred to as the Haram the innermost self of a person and how or Al-Haram Mosque, because its sanctity traveling to the holy land changed her life. cannot be violated: Different to other accounts of the hajj that “When in the Haram it felt so pleasant, mainly focus on the outside aspects of this peaceful and secure. I felt like I do not want important travel, as described by to leave ever again. All thoughts about my Tagliacozzo (2013), the data I present here, worldly life that usually preoccupy me were focuses on the inner aspects of a person‟s just gone. I felt so connected to God. So experiences. calm.” Leila further told me that her ritual 3. Feeling Khushu prayer felt different as well. She felt as if Leila came to Germany for her Ph.D in God was talking to her through the chemistry and has lived there for more than recitation of the imam, the person leading ten years. She is about 40 years old, married the communal prayer. Although she did not and has one daughter. She currently works understand the exact meaning of the words in a Post-Doc position in a laboratory at a because she does not know Arabic and the university in Berlin. Maryam has lived in litany used in the Islamic ritual prayer is Berlin for over 30 years. She is about 60 always Arabic. Before visiting the holy land, years old, a widow, has two children and Leila often went just through the works as a professional cleaner. Leila has movements of her prayer without her heart been on hajj twice and thrice on umrah. She being present. While on hajj and umrah she is currently planning her sixth visit to learned to feel this special feeling called Mecca. Maryam went on hajj once and on khushu in her prayer. When she described umrah twice. Her last time in Mecca was this feeling, she was unable to do so. Instead together with Leila at the beginning of the she compared it with the feeling when she year 2016. Both see their residence in stands alone in prayer at night when Germany as a chance and possibility to go everybody else is asleep and she can pour on hajj or umrah as often as possible. out her heart to God. Maryam also referred Undertaking the pilgrimage from Indonesia to this special emotion of khushu, which was is not as easy as from Germany because long much stronger during prayer in Mecca and waiting lists, especially for the hajj, and Medina compared to praying at home. higher prices make it more difficult to Khushu is usually translated with focus of embark on this journey. mind and heart during prayer. However, it

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage can also be translated with feeling humility include the search for religious knowledge or humbleness in prayer. In addition, it also and to gain divine reward (Tagliacozzo includes feeling connected to God, 2013; van Bruinessen 1990). At the same concentrating on God and eliminating any time, to learn these spiritual emotions like other thought except about God from one's khushu help a person to spiritually improve mind. It includes quietude out of love and herself and her relationship with God. This fear for God, gentlenes, and yearning. spiritual self-improvement cannot be Khushu in prayer is an essential emotion separated from influencing the person‟s in Islam. It is also mentioned in the Qur‟an: worldly life and, as will be described below, “It is the elievers who are successful: those can help to make a person a more active and who are hum le in their prayer” : -2). In productive member of society. the Qur'an it is seen to be an important From the limited accounts presented element of a successful prayer and manuals here, it can be concluded that learning to have been written on how to develop khushu feel khushu during pilgrimage seems to be a in prayer. It is this element of prayer that turning point in a pilgrim's life. The connects a believer to God. In this sense, narratives illustrate that the whole hajj or khushu can be counted as a religious umrah experience is life-changing. There is a emotion that is expected of the believer by time before a person went to Mecca and a the religious emotional regime of Islam. time after it. To use Leila's words "You are However, how to feel khushu is very not the same person when you go back personal and therefore, it is a spiritual home". In this sense, one can describe the emotion that can only truly be felt by the process of the Muslim pilgrimage as a stage individual. It is a state of the heart of a of liminality (Turner 1969), in which believer. For example, it can be described as pilgrims find themselves in the transitory feeling khushu what Leila explained about stage between two established social and her feeling that God was talking to her also emotional and spiritual stages. Being in during the prayer in Mecca. To feel khushu Mecca is a special transitory stage that and to learn how to feel it during prayer is impacts heavily on the individual's spiritual something both informants learned during emotions, development, and self- their travels to the holy land. improvement. The last point is illustrated by Although emotions are something Leila‟s case describe below. rather intangible to the outsider and only really concrete to the individual that feels 4. Spiritual Self-Improvement them, they, nevertheless, impact on a Traveling to the holy land of Islam is person‟s life. In this sense to feel khushu is a chosen for several reasons, one of them has form of knowledge that is sought after while been discussed above. Another reason for going on hajj and umrah. At the same time, traveling to Mecca and Medina, is to Maryam explained that to be able to feel facilitate a person's spiritual self- khushu will bring more divine reward for improvement. Different studies show that the person feeling it during prayer. both religious and secular pilgrims often Therefore, learning how to feel emotions share the trait of searching for meaningful during worship, to learn how to feel and spiritual experiences, which can be connected to God, to learn how to feel love, described with different words, including yearning, humbleness and humility for and transformation, enlightenment, life- in front of God can be counted to belong to changing and consciousness-changing the traditional reasons why Muslims go on events (Digance 2006). As I have shown hajj and umrah. These traditional reasons above, this is also the case for Muslims

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage going on the Muslim pilgrimage. However, also reflects a sense of economic rationality I propose that searching for meaningful and and calculative reason. Because, according spiritual experiences is only the first step. to Leila, it is only in Mecca, close to the As I will show with Leila's story, pilgrims Kaaba, that she can improve herself also search for a way to spiritually improve spiritually the most. It is only there, where their everyday lives back home. Spiritual she feels closest to God and where she can self-improvement is seen as an impetus to come closer to her goal to become a better improve the overall spirituality of an Muslimah. Furthermore, it is only through individual's everyday life. the different personal spiritual experiences Similar to Rudnyckyj‟s „spiritual she encounters on hajj or umrah that help reform‟ in the macro context of an her to improve her life back in Germany. Indonesian company and post-new order One example illustrates this connection economy in general, I see spiritual self- between spiritual experience in Mecca and improvement as a way for a person to Leila‟s life in Germany. While in Mecca, she become a more active and productive attempted to pray in the holy mosque as member of society. Here, society also often as possible. However, sometimes, she includes the smallest unit, which is the said, her laziness still overcame her and she nuclear family. Rudnyckyj argues that stayed back in the hotel room to perform the “efforts to develop faith represent not the ritual prayer. Once she finished her prayer, end of development” : 4 ut she saw the live broadcast from the holy “economic rationality and calculative mosque on television and suddenly felt a reason” are introduced “into domains from tremendous loss because she was not there which they were previously limited or in the mosque but prayed by herself in the excluded” i id. . These previously hotel room. excluded domains include religion and The loss she felt missing the spirituality. congregational prayer was eventually This economic rationality and transformed by Leila into a motivation to calculative reason can also be observed in take greater care of her ritual prayers. After Muslim women's choices to visit the holy she returned home and resumed work at the land again and again as done for example laboratory, she began to take great care of by Leila. Economic rationality can be always praying in time and if possible as observed in the way she approached the early as possible within the given time realization of her wish to visit the holy land. frame for the respective prayer. This in turn, When the urge to visit Mecca and Medina as she described, had a positive effect on her arose, Leila was still a Ph.D student who work in the lab because she was now able to lived off a small stipend and was not able to work more effectively. She was able to finish afford the amount of money necessary to the prepared samples quicker and was even fulfill her wish. This fact did not deter her capable to achieve more than what was and she started to write letters to different required of her. This experience at her work embassies to sponsor her travel to the Hejaz. place was sufficient proof for Leila to plan However, none of them replied and she had to travel to Mecca again. She felt that the to wait until she was financially capable of spiritual experiences and lessons she had affording to pay for herself and her made in the holy land had an immediate husband. effect on her life back home. Her Furthermore, although very much tight performance as a Muslimah as well as her together with her spiritual emotions, the performance as a worker in the laboratory urge to go on hajj or umrah again and again improved.

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage

In addition, Leila's spiritual experiences to play a significant role in why Muslims also have to be understood with regards to choose to go again and again to the holy her expectations for her afterlife because she land. Muslims believe that the pilgrimage believes that her spiritual self-improvement itself and the places visited have an inherent will benefit her in her life after death. To divine blessing in them. The appointed time become a better Muslimah does not only for the hajj in the Islamic month of Dhul influence her worldly life but first and Hijjah is supposed to carry additional foremost is expected to have a positive effect blessings. Pilgrims hope that these special on her afterlife, so she hopes. The belief in divine blessings are transferred to them and paradise and hell forms a strong force in into their lives. The length of this paper does pushing Muslims to change their lives to the not allow to discuss this concept in detail better and to become pleasing to God. To do here. a good deed and to abstain from bad deeds is believed to affect one's afterlife. While it is especially desirable to do good deeds solely Conclusion for the sake of God, certain economic In this article, I tried to show how rationality and calculative reason traveling to the Muslim holy land in Mecca (Rudnyckyj 2010) cannot be denied entirely on hajj and umrah can be a life-changing because one expects a reward in the afterlife experience for the pilgrim undertaking the for the actions done in this world. Therefore, journey. Furthermore, I showed that there Leila's pilgrimage to the holy land has to be exist multi-layered reasons to undertake the also understood in terms of her aim to Muslim pilgrimage. People's reasons for improve her afterlife and to avoid going on hajj and umrah need to be punishment for bad actions and sins understood by looking at what kind of committed in this life. spiritual emotions are triggered through the I argue that Leila‟s realization about the experiences they make in the holy land, and impact of her spiritual experiences in the how these spiritual emotions eventually holy land on her life in this world can be impact the person's spiritual and worldly understood on two different levels. Firstly, life. Spiritual self-improvement can lead to economic rationality and calculative reason, change in a person‟s worldly life and is a le as described by Rudnyckyj (2010), certainly to contribute to making the person a more play a role in Leila's choice to go again and active and proactive member of society. again to the Hejaz in order to improve her Furthermore, I tried to show that spirituality and in consequence her worldly spiritual self-improvement in itself contains life as a working woman but also the economic rationality and calculative reason prospects for her afterlife. Secondly, because one of the main reasons a person emotional satisfaction and the spiritual high wants to improve herself is to gain benefit in Leila felt during her stay in Mecca cannot be the afterlife. Here, I explicitly illustrated my overlooked. That is why for future studies point with the spiritual emotion of khushu on pilgrimage and spiritual travel, I propose that both of my informants learned while on to focus on pilgrim‟s spiritual emotions to hajj and umrah. better understand why people undertake In addition, I argued that spiritual pilgrimages and many travel to the same emotions can be viewed as being part of the pilgrimage destination again and again. knowledge a person aims to acquire during Another important concept, barakah, her journey to Mecca. At the same time, to roughly translated as divine blessing, was learn how to feel spiritual emotions can lead mentioned by both informants. It also seem to additional divine reward, another reason,

“I want to go again and again”: Spiritual Emotions And Self-Improvement Through Pilgrimage why Muslims choose to undertake the hajj Perspectives from Malaysian Muslim or umrah. Spiritual emotions that derive Women. Journal of Religion and from different experiences while on hajj or Health, 50 (1) 36-45. umrah play an important part in Barber, R. (1993). Pilgrimages. London: The understanding why Muslims choose to visit Boydell Press. the holy land again and again. Similar to Cohen, E. (1992). Pilgrimage Centers, what Collins-Kreiner (2018) described about Concentric and Excentric. Annals of Westerners visiting the Dalai Lama, the two Tourism Research, 19 (1) 33-50. women described in this article, undertook Collins-Kreiner, N. (2018). Pilgrimage- their journeys with specific educational and Tourism: Common Themes in Different spiritual motivations, in order to return Religions. International Journal of home feeling spiritually stronger and more Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 6 fulfilled. (1) 8-17. I have further shown that mobility in Collins-Kreiner, N. & Gatrell, J. D. (2006). connection with going on hajj or umrah is Tourism, Heritage and Pilgrimage, The both internal as well as external. The Case of Haifa’s Baha’i Gardens. Journal women have undergone and are still of Heritage Tourism, 1 (1) 32- 50. undergoing internal mobility because of the Digance, J. (2003). Pilgrimage at Contested impact their pilgrimages and the spiritual Sites. Annals of Tourism Research, 30 experiences they made have had on them. (1) 143-159. Something has been changing within them. Digance, J. (2006). Religious and Secular They have made a move towards a different Pilgrimage, in Timothy, D.J. & Olsen, life or have changed part of their lives. The D.H. (Eds.) Tourism, Religion and external mobility is the journey itself. Spiritual Journeys. London: Routledge, However, this point needs further 36-48. investigation in a later article. Eickelman, D. F., & Piscatori, J. (1990). Social Further research will be investigating Theory in the Study of Muslim Societies. what spiritual emotions Muslims feel In D. F. Eickelman & J. Piscatori (Eds.), during their pilgrimage and how these Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, spiritual emotions impact on their lives. It is Migration and the Religious necessary to understand on a broader scale Imagination. Berkeley, Los Angeles: Muslim‟s spiritual motivation in deciding to The University of California Press. visit the holy land and why many of them Fredrickson, B. L. (2002). How does Religion want to and plan to go again or dream of Benefit Health and Well-Being? Are going again. In order to obtain a more Positive Emotions Active Ingredients?. comprehensive view, around twenty people Psychological Inquiry, 13 (3) 209-213. will be interviewed about their pilgrimage Gallagher, S. K., & Newton, C. (2009). experiences. In addition, it would be Defining Spiritual Growth: interesting to compare what kind of Congregations, Community, and spiritual emotions are felt by people of other Connectedness. Sociology of Religion, religions and beliefs who undertake their 70 (3) 232-261. Greenfield, E. A. (2009). Do Formal Religious specific pilgrimages or spiritual journeys. Participation and Spiritual Perceptions

Have Independent Linkages with Diverse

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Society, 7 (1), 11-20, 2019 P-ISSN: 2338-6932 | E-ISSN: 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

Yusa Djuyandi 1*, Fifi Lutfiah Sodikin 2 1 Department of Politics, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia 2 Political Insight, Bandung, Indonesia * Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Publication Info: Political parties prepare prospective national leaders through a Research Article political recruitment process. The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), one of the Islamic parties In Indonesia, has a Regional How to cite: Leadership Council (DPD) in each district or city. Regional Djuyandi, Y., & Sodikin, F. L. Leadership Council (DPD) of Bandung City is interesting to (2019). Regeneration Process of study since it has a unique regeneration process and the The Prosperous Justice Party organizations (under brow) have scored excellent cadres. This (PKS) to Maintain Its Existence study aims to analyze the regeneration process of DPD PKS by Election Year 2014. Society, at Bandung City to maintain its existence in the 2014 election 7(1), 11-20. using the theory of political recruitment through the regeneration pathway proposed by Almond and Powell. The DOI : 10.33019/society.v7i1.72 research was a qualitative method with data collection techniques carried out through secondary data collected by the Copyright © 2019. Owned by General Elections Commission (KPU) of Bandung City. The Author(s), published by Society primary data collected from PKS cadre interview process. This study found that the DPD PKS regeneration process of Bandung City affected the quality of promoted cadre, thus influencing the quality and existence of the party. The process This is an open access article. of regeneration has produced excellent cadres through education and training stages that make it exist.

License: Attribution- Keywords: Existence; Regional Leadership Council; The NonCommercial-ShareAlike Election Year 2014; The Process of (CC BY-NC-SA) Regeneration; The Prosperous Justice Party

Introduction the party in producing qualified cadres The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) is an because they will be the next figures both in Islamic Political party considered having a PKS itself and national leaders (Suroto dan good strategy to select its candidate of Rudianto 2003; Tunjungsari, Lestari, and cadres. Regeneration pattern is primary for Sumarno 2017). Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

This article is to study the regeneration politic. Not only that, the People's process running by The Regional Conscience Party (Hanura) and the National Representative Council (DPD) of The Democratic Party (Nasdem) have also Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) of Bandung implemented a similar strategy with the City. The process runs three patterns, one of Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle them is by involving the cadres to join (PDI Perjuangan). Therefore, to keep it exist, political leadership training. The training is PKS begins to look at new activities in its to prepare them comprehensively about pattern of regeneration (Juliano 2014). knowledge of political parties, social issues, As a political party based on religion, PKS and other related to government. Besides, it has ordained as a da'wah party from the also aims to produce qualified and Islamic beginning, new activities in the regeneration characteristic cadres since they will be the pattern regarded as a brave movement. The next leaders both in public and internal party modifies its political movements and party (PKS itself).1 bore enormous consequences through Tight competition among political reorganization and change the regeneration parties, moreover, new parties present with strategy pattern. its reorganization is carried much political modality due to the pattern out by taking into account important factors of relations or access to the media becomes a that come from society need and the context challenge for PKS to maintain the party exist of democracy in Indonesia, by softening the in the 2014 election. One of its regeneration line of ideology in the context of short-term patterns Jamaah Tarbiyah (Islamic strategic interests to gain votes. Proselytizer community) movement on PKS needs to show the public about Universities (Anismar 2014) begins to face how the party very concerns about issues intense competition. The old and the new that are in demand or demanded by the parties begin to enter and strengthen their public, ranging from political and legal influence in universities by recruiting issues, such as anti-corruption issues and students as the young wing of the party consistent in guarding good governance, to through movements. The parties are not the issue of people`s economic only doing socialization of their vision, development. mission and work program but also holding Aminuddin (2010) considered that the activities that can embrace student voters strategy provides a great advantage for PKS groups such as Leadership training to because if this party only moves to maintain entrepreneurial seminar activities. the old ideological base, it will only get The Indonesian Democratic Party of votes from its ideological voters only, while Struggle (PDI Perjuangan) had already been others will not. networks in universities through the This study is to discover how the Indonesian National Student Movement regeneration process of the Prosperous (GMNI). However, it has begun using new Justice Party (PKS) in maintaining the party strategies in embracing millennial groups exist ahead of the 2014 General Election for through activities that are not engage with Bandung City ? There are several studies or previous research that have proximity or relevance to 1 http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/bandung- this study. The first is a study by Anneu raya/2016/11/25/pks-jawa-barat-gelar-sekolah- Dahliany (2012) entitled "Recruitment kepemimpinan-partai-385846 (PKS Jawa Barat Gelar Sekolah Kepemimpinan Partai) 11 Juli 2018 pattern of Political Party Leaders in

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

Increasing Political Parties work (Case Theoretical Framework Study in DPD PKS Bandung City)". The 1. The Function of Political Parties results of the study discuss the mechanism In countries that use a political system carried out by DPD PKS in Bandung City of democracy, the existence of political during the recruitment process of party parties is considered important as a leaders conducting Pemira (Great Election) representation of representatives of with consideration from the Shura Majlis community groups. The presence of political (consultative assembly or legislative body). parties is very important in a modern and The second is a study by Akbar Sandro complex structure of society because Yudho Dhiharso (2011) entitled "Cadre political parties consider having the ability System among Islamic Parties (Study of to channel complex political participation in Tarbiyah PKS in Yogyakarta)". The thesis society (Djuyandi 2018: 150). discusses the Tarbiyah mechanism in the Although political parties in PKS as a condition and recruitment of constitutional democracies (liberal) and prospective cadres. authoritarian countries (communists) play a And third is a study by Aminuddin different role, they have similar functions: (2010) regarding "Reorganizing the a. As political socialization, namely Prosperous Justice Party in Indonesia". This transmitting political culture in the study explains more about the framework of forming attitudes and metamorphosis of PKS as part of a medium- orientations of community members as term strategy for mental constituent bases citizens (political education). that step by step has begun to form and b. As political recruitment, namely the cover a wider area of social-political party selects and selects and appoints a awareness. person or group of people to carry out Therefore, this research is broadening several roles in the political system in and enriching the literature from previous general, and the government studies. The three previous studies do not specifically. discuss political parties that exist as a focus c. As political participation is to become a of research analysis. means of activity for the community in This study explains how the influencing the process of forming regeneration process running by the DPD government leaders through elections PKS of Bandung City produces qualified and the creation or implementation of cadres and can maintain a mass base that government policies. influences on the party exist. Beside, d. As political communication, namely as Bandung City is the largest PKS base since the conveyer of information about the Governor of West Java elected for two politics from the government to the periods. community and from the community to Based on the background, this article the government. will discuss and analyze in this paper are e. As political parties as a means of the cadre regeneration process of cadres that regulating conflict, namely helping to influences PKS exist. overcome or at least minimize the occurrence of conflict. This condition is also based on the view of Lijphart (1968) who said that the existence of differences or divisions at the lower

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

mass level can be overcome by Research Methodology cooperation between political elites. The method used in this research is a (Djuyandi 2018: 152-154). qualitative method. Qualitative research is a Some of the functions of political parties method for exploring and understanding above have in common with the views meaning derived from social and expressed by Budiardjo (2009: 405-409) that humanitarian problems. This method is political parties in democratic countries considered appropriate for researching have several functions, namely: political parties, such as PKS because in a. As a means of political communication. addition to being able to describe a b. As a means of political socialization. phenomenon in more detail it can also help c. As Political recruitment facilities. this research to diagnose problems that d. As conflict management tools. occur. This study also uses a descriptive The difference between Djuyandi (2018) approach that allows describing how the and Budiardjo (2009) related to their regeneration process carried out by the DPD functions is in political participation PKS in Bandung City as a party that has a function. strong enough exist in Bandung city. The determination of case studies in 2. Regeneration of Political Parties qualitative methods is considered strategic Based on one of the functions of the in this study because it can investigate political party above, namely the function of carefully an event or activity that occurs political recruitment, that cannot be somewhere. In the case of studies, research separated from that function, such can also choose suitable information and regeneration process exist. The regeneration data to get maximum results (Creswell process is important for an organization as 2014: 278). With case studies, research can it in a political party, this reason is based on analyze the regeneration process carried out Harahap (2017: 1-2) which reveals that by PKS to get superior cadres who are cadre, the party prepares or produces wanted by the community and can carry out candidates who are ready to continue the the objectives of the interests of political baton of the struggle of an organization to parties. Data collection in this study used become a leader in the future that is ready to the technique of determining informants by run the organization. purposive or deliberately by the Cadre preparation is carried out to requirements required. The criteria for educate someone to continue the baton of a informant requirements are: (1) Having party or organization (Partanto and Al- knowledge and understanding of the Barry 1994: 293-294). In other words, the history and movement of the PKS; and (2) regeneration process is expected to produce Having extensive knowledge and insight, cadres who can play an important role in an and knowing and contributing to the organization in the future. regeneration process. In Western countries, regeneration to By choosing people who are considered prepare political party leaders has been to be the most knowledgeable of the done very mature. Personal skills of cadres information being studied, they are themselves play an important role, also, to expected to be able to explore the object or support from the party (Parwadi 2006: 7). social situation under study, then analyze Cadres have a strategic position for the the results of the research with the research existence of political parties. theory.

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

Discussion and Result Da'wah Institution (LDK). Both of them also 1. PKS Regeneration in Da`wah developed a typical pattern of formation movements and cadre. The formal party cadre PKS collaborates in various strengths to regeneration process is carried out officially uphold the values and Islamic system that is by party management, which consists of Rahmatan lil alamin (mercy for the universe) seven levels, namely: TOP I (One Party and accelerator with the realization of civil Orientation Training), TOP II: TD I (Basic society in Indonesia. With this mission, PKS Training One), TD II: TL I (Advanced One began to expand Islamic da'wah and print Training), TL II, and Training in Social cadres who could then develop Islamic Management and Leadership (TMKS). This social institutions in various fields as markaz formal regeneration process is also a means taghyir (center of change) and solution of coaching as well as cadre gaps which will center. The development carried out by PKS have implications for the distribution of included campus missionary movement roles and structure in PKS (Dhiharso, 2011). which was a movement calling for religion by students on campus. The missionary 2. Implementation of Regeneration movement is transformed into a Student Strategy Activity Unit (UKM) or Campus Da'wah The regeneration process of DPD PKS in Institution (LDK) as a forum for all da'wah Bandung City was analyzed using Almond activities to expand networks. (Muhtadi and Powell's theory of political recruitment. 2012: 32-39). Almond and Powell's political recruitment The regeneration pattern for the theory emphasizes the selection of Prosperous Justice Party is outlined in the candidates for political party leaders and Articles of Association (AD/ART) issued by administrators by providing three paths as the PKS Central Executive Board (DPP) the process of running political recruitment. Article 5 Chapter III. As for every member Almond and Powell's theory of political who registers voluntarily, they must be able recruitment is different from other theories to participate in every training held, and of political recruitment because this theory cadre formation carried out by the party. is an ongoing theory of political parties. Tarbiyah is a small group-based Because it can be applied to the recruitment formation under the guidance of someone of prospective legislators so that it does not murabbi which is carried out through party only look at the activities of political parties non-formal activities. Tarbiyah plays an that carry out political recruitment activities. important role in the regeneration process. Besides, each pathway can be applied to a PKS underbrow organizations such as whole series of political party recruitment Garuda Keadilan (GK), Salimah Workers' activities. Political parties can use political Union (SPK), Indonesian Prosperous recruitment to improve regeneration Fisheries Farmers Association (PPNSI), activities starting from the selection process, Indonesian Muslim Student Action Units improving and maintaining the quality of (KAPMI), and Indonesian Muslim Students cadres, to produce superior cadres to Action Unit (KAMMI) developed patterns improve party votes. and models individual regeneration. The The process of political recruitment groups that formally are not PKS under bow aims to produce qualified cadres by but ideologically have quite close to the PKS applying several qualification criteria. are Islamic Spirituality (Rohis) and Campus Before carrying out the political recruitment

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014 process, political parties naturally carry out specific guidelines used by political a regeneration process to produce qualified parties. cadres who can be placed as public officials 2) Regeneration through the family, the through elections. practice of applying direct regeneration The regeneration process is a program to the families of each cadre. that contains an activity of forming 3) Cadre Through Local Environment, character and personality through a process there are two paths, such as vertical, of education and training that aims to where each cadre is tried to have produce qualified cadres. Through elections, another position and organize in a political parties must submit candidates community environment, where they who are acceptable to the public so that they are expected to be able to make a can increase the number of party votes. positive contribution to the community. Quality cadres have a very important Then the horizontal path, each cadre role in the existence of political parties. must be able to prove and apply the People can get to know political parties learning outcomes that have been through party activities carried out by their received to the environment of political cadres. A qualified cadre can be a bridge for parties. the community to channel their aspirations to the government. By maintaining public b. Formal Regeneration relations and trust, it is expected to increase The formal regeneration process is an its electability in Bandung City. effort made by DPD PKS Bandung City in shaping an education that is implemented a. Informal Regeneration programmed and integrated to achieve the Informal Kaderiasi in DPD PKS goals expected by the party. The formal Bandung City is one of the efforts to give regeneration process must follow a birth to superior and qualified cadres. This predetermined curriculum that is carried regeneration pattern is carried out in a long out within a certain period. DPD PKS and long period. This long-term education Bandung City conducts evaluation activities was carried out by the DPD PKS cadres in based on a specified period to maintain and Bandung City to their families, ranging from improve the quality of cadres as party children to their teenage years. In addition representatives in the community. to education, DPD PKS Bandung City also The regeneration process has a positive establishes a character for each candidate value that can encourage and improve cadre and his family. Each cadre is given a achievement by increasing competence and guide to "10 Characteristics" which is a fair competition. DPD PKS Bandung City mainstay in the formation of personality memorizes Al-Qur’an activities with a and the application of Islamic values in weekly period to foster motivation to everyday life to achieve the aspects needed develop themselves. This can increase to be able to compete. In informal cooperation between cadres by practicing regeneration there are principal values or together in reading and memorizing the Al- points of application of regeneration that Qur'an. This teaches an important stage support regeneration success, namely: process that is spreading goodness to the 1) Cadre Based on manual, such as people around beforehand before spreading Statutes/Articles of Association and goodness to the community.

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

1) The formal internal regeneration time. One of them is by spreading process is a regeneration process that goodness to the community. Through aims as a leadership exercise. Each this process, it is expected to be able to cadre is given alternate assignments to produce qualified leaders who can show lead each other to give rise to a sense of the party's background. responsibility as a leader and as a led The DPD PKS of Bandung City does not cadre. DPD PKS Bandung City through question the prospective cadres from the field of Human Resources is outside the party who do not have responsible for handling the process and family relations. One of the main implementation of Basic Leadership priorities of prospective cadres is Training (LDK) activities. There are 2 expected to be a Khanif (good person). stages of the process in implementing For example, PKS cadres in the leadership exercises including (1) Tasikmalaya area have made changes to Members are initially led by young someone so that someone is included in members, (2) Young members are led by the PKS cadre section. This is an middle members. Each member will application or task that has been carried have the opportunity to lead and be led out by PKS cadres in the form of at each stage of the process. Every stage interactions with individuals or the of the leadership training process has an community. assessment report book as an evaluation Gema Keadilan, one of the under brows and development material. who is active in the community, The workshop activity is a follow-up conducts activities to educate children, activity after leadership training youth, youth, and society in general. activities. This activity is an activity Those who have interacted with PKS agenda set by the center which aims to have also established communities on establish PKS cadres. This stage is a campus. As there are universities, if training step for each cadre to apply the there are students who follow and knowledge gained during the training apply PKS thoughts, it is the result of period. DPD PKS Bandung City has education from families who are part of prepared various facilities for cadres to the PKS or they have participated in carry out these exercises. To maximize coaching as a partnership with PKS. the results of education and training, DPD PKS Bandung City requires each c. The Existence of DPD PKS Bandung cadre to carry out activities in the field. City This aims as a means for cadres to apply DPD PKS Bandung City requires all the knowledge gained during education prospective cadres to become members first and training to the real conditions that before participating in the regeneration occur in society. process. In carrying out the regeneration 2) The process of formal external process, prospective cadres must pass in regeneration is the process of selection performing obligations in the education stages as candidates for legislative and process until they can be declared executive leaders. Each prospective graduated. cadre is given the obligation to The influence that the cadre has on the participate and participate in activities existence of political parties is very held to become leaders for a certain important. Cadres who will be known and

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014 accepted by the community become the key cadres will increasingly introduce PKS in to the existence of political parties. Besides, the community. political party activities carried out with the The PKS voting base in Bandung City is community and inviting the public will the highest compared to other Islamic based make political parties more remembered by parties. This was evidenced by the results of the community. PKS is an Islamic party with the vote in the legislative elections of the a level of existence that has reached a stage Bandung Regional Representatives in 2014. that is well known and known to the people PKS Bandung City in 2014 got a valid vote of Bandung. Cadres who are promoted by of 136,983 and became an Islamic party with PKS are cadres currently needed by the the most voted. Followed by the United people of Bandung City. PKS cadres often Development Party (PPP) ranked in second carry out activities together with the place with a vote of 64,993. Then the community such as holding recitation National Awakening Party (PKB) followed activities or workshops for the community as in the third position with a total of 42,906. and other direct activities with the PKS votes are very large compared to other community. Islamic party letters. Even as a whole PKS The existence of political parties is also has succeeded in shifting nationalist-based influenced by the presence of qualified parties such as the Party of Functional cadres around the community so that they Groups (Golkar) and the Democratic Party can make the community have the necessary (Demokrat). DPD PKS Bandung City leadership leaders. It is undeniable that the became the third place as the most voted public still judges the person or person. after the Indonesian Democratic Party of DPD PKS Bandung City must prepare Struggle (PDI Perjuangan) and the Great various levels of leadership that can be Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra). The accepted by the community. The difference in vote acquisition is not so great. regeneration process is not an easy thing This proves that the PKS supports base in because many cadres who look good and Bandung is quite convincing. Based on these are considered great by internal parties are votes, the PKS of Bandung City won as not necessarily accepted by the community. many as 6 seats for Bandung Regional Therefore DPD PKS Bandung City People's Representative Council in 2014 conducted an electability survey of (KPU of Bandung City 2014). prospective leaders. This activity is a means DPD PKS Bandung City is known for its of measuring the ability of prospective interesting in regeneration process, disaster leaders and accepting the opinions and response actions and faith-based activities desires of the community about the criteria that involve the local community. PKS is needed by leaders. very close to the community through its DPD PKS Bandung City activities are qualified cadres. This illustrates that PKS as considered acceptable in the community a political party has achieved sufficient and able to increase the party's voice in the existence. city. The approach was also carried out by all levels of prospective leaders prepared. Also, PKS cadres must maintain their Conclusion idealism. PKS cadres must prioritize the The results showed that the resource people interests, not only personal interests. person was very confident and believed in A direct approach to the community by PKS the regeneration process carried out by the

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

DPD PKS in Bandung City to produce thoughts that are built personally by cadres. qualified and accepted cadres in the (Almond 2000). community. The regeneration process is carried out based on guidelines that have been made nationally. DPD PKS Bandung References City has an interesting regeneration process Almond, A. (2000). Sosialisasi Politik Budaya compared to other political parties, Politik dan Rekrutmen Politik dalam especially Islamic political parties. From The Mocthae Masoed dan Colin Mac theory of political recruitment, the Andrews. Yogyakarta: Universitas regeneration process of DPD PKS of Gadjah Mada Press. Bandung City runs well. On the other hand, Aminuddin, M. (2017). Reorganisasi Partai there are several different implementations. Keadilan Sejahtera di Indonesia. In other words, the DPD PKS of Bandung Sumber: City improvised in several parts of the https://ww.researchgate.net/publication/2 regeneration process. This is done to achieve 77967941. the party's vision, mission, and goals. Anismar, E. (2014). Kaderisasai pada Basis DPD PKS Bandung City runs the Sosal Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS) di regeneration process informally and Perguruan Tinggi (Studi Kasus Jamaah formally. Qualified cadres present is very Tarbiyah UI). Skripsi. Jakarta: influential on the party exist among people. Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Therefore, the DPD PKS of Bandung City Universitas Indonesia. carried out a regeneration process to Budiardjo, M. (2009). Dasar-dasar Ilmu produce excellent cadres needed by the Politik. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka community and political parties. The Utama. regeneration process carried out by the PKS Cecep, W. (2016). PKS Jawa Barat Gelar DPD in Bandung City reached a good level Sekolah Kepemimpinan Partai. Sumber: because each cadre spreads a positive side https://www.pikiran- to the family so that good things related to rakyat.com/bandung- religion can make someone closer to God. raya/2016/11/25/pks-jawa-barat-gelar- DPD PKS Bandung City has carried out sekolah-kepemimpinan-partai-385846. the regeneration process by producing Creswell, J. (2014). Research Design cadres that enthusiasm in community Pendekatan Metode Kualitatif, Kuantitatif, dan Campuran. activities. DPD PKS Bandung City fully understands that by improving the quality Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Pola Rekrutmen and capabilities of cadres can maintain the Dahliany, A. (2012). Pemimpin Partai Politik Dalam party exist. The existence is measured by the Meningkatkan Kriteria Partai Politik vote and the victory of political parties in (Studi Kasus di DPD PKS Kota the General Election as well as the results of Bandung). Bandung: Universitas the political party coalition victory as long Pendidikan Indonesia. as it benefits the PKS. Also, the growing Dhiharso. (2011). Sistem Pengkaderan di number of members is an indicator of the Kalangan Partai Islam (Studi tentang existence of political parties. This is because Tarbiyah PKS Yogyakarta). Yogyakarta: PKS is a political party that is considered to Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan be a party that is in line with political Kalijaga.

Regeneration Process of The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) To Maintain Its Existence By Election Year 2014

Djuyandi, Y. (2018). Pengantar Ilmu Politik. ______Depok: Rajawali Pers. Firdaus, R. (2014). Pengaruh Rekrutmen Partai Politik Terhadap Kepemimpinan About the Authors Pemerintah di Kabupaten Sukabumi Tahun 2005-2010 (Studi Terhadap Bupati Drs. H. Sukamawijaya, MM 1. Yusa Djuyandi obtained his Doctoral yang berlatar belakang kader PKS). Degree in Politics with Cumlaude at Bandung: Universitas Padjadjaran. Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Harahap, I. (2017). Kaderisasi Partai Politik Indonesia. He was a lecturer in dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Department of Communication, Bina Kepemimpinan Nasional. Jurnal Politik, Nusantara University, Jakarta, Hlm. 1-9. Sumber: Indonesia (2010-2017), Specialized Staff http://repository.bakrie.ac.id/id/eprint/12 for Commission 1, Member of 46. Parliement, The House of Juliano, S. (2014). Seminar Strategi Kampanye Representatives of the Republic of Partai Politik Menjelang Pemilihan Indonesia (2006-2009), and a reseacher Umum Tahun 2014. Sumber: at Indonesia Institute for Defense and http://fisip.unikom.ac.id/id/page/seminar- Strategic Studies (LESPERSSI) (2009- stategi-kampanye-politik-2014.html. present). Now Yusa Djuyandi is a Muhtadi, B. (2012). Dilema PKS. Jakarta: lecturer at Department of Politics, Gramedia. Padjadjaran University and he is also a Partanto, P. A. & Barry, M. D. (1994). Kamus head of The Centre of National and Ilmiah Populer. Surabaya: Arloka. Global Security Studies at Padjadjaran Purwadi, R. (2006). “Kaderiasasi Organisasi University. dalam Perubahan”. Jurnal Wawasan, 2. Fifi Lutfiah Sodikin obtained her Vol. 12 (1), Hlm. 1-10. Bachelor Degree in Politics at Rahadi, F. (2014). Kota Bandung Basis Suara Padjadjaran University, Bandung, PKS. Sumber: Indonesia, in 2018. Now she is a https://nasional.republika.co.id/berita/nas researcher at Political Insight (Polsight), ional/jawa-barat- Bandung, Indonesia. nasinal/14/03/13/n2d7ei-survei-kota- bandung-basis-suara-pks. Suroto & Rudianto, D. (2003). Partai Politik di Indonesia. Jakarta: PT. Citra Mandala Pratama. Tunjungsari, A.R., Lestari, P., & Sumarno. (2017). “Gerakan Dakwah sebagai Sistem Kaderisasi Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (Studi pada Dewan Pengurus Wilayah PKS Provinsi Jawa Tengah”. Unnes Political Science Journal, Vol. 1 (1), Hlm. 21-28.

Society, 7 (1), 21-36, 2019 P-ISSN: 2338-6932 | E-ISSN: 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Rizky Octa Putri Charin 1, Arief Hidayat 2* 1, 2 Department of Politics and Government, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia * Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Publication Info: The resources of Customary Forest play an important role in Review Articles Talang Mamak Indigenous People to survive. The exploitation of the forest by private companies and investors has caused violent conflict. The situation of the indigenous people How to cite: becomes worsen since the local government does not fully Charin, R. O., & Hidayat, A. protect their rights of the forest. Even, the local government (2019). The Efforts of Talang tends to defend private company and investor in addressing Mamak Indigenous People to the conflict. Customary forest of Talang Mamak indigenous Maintain Their Existence in people is in the oligarchs grip and conflict of interest with Customary Forest Resources their elder. The Indigenous people are in crossroad; to preserve Battle. Society, 7(1), 21-36. or to release their heritage and right. This study aims to determine the efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to maintain their existence in the customary forest resources DOI : 10.33019/society.v7i1.78 battle with private company and investor. This study used qualitative descriptive method. The data collection were documentation analysis and other relevant literature. This Copyright © 2019. Owned by study used Theory of Oligarchy (Winters 2011) as grounded Author(s), published by Society theory. The result found that the efforts of the indigenous people to fight for their rights getting weak. Some of them begin to accept compensation from the company and investor, in other word, some of them are willing to release their heritage and right on the forest. This is an open access article.

License: Attribution- Keywords: Customary Forest; Oligarchy; Private NonCommercial-ShareAlike Company; Resources; Talang Mamak (CC BY-NC-SA) Indigenous People;

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Introduction viewed as empowered by wealth for Conflict on customary forest centuries. The common thread for oligarchs exploitation of Talang Mamak Indigenous across history is that wealth defines them, people is not only with private company but empowers them and inherently exposes also several new entities such as the local them to threats. The existential motive of all elite and the government. oligarchs is wealth defense. How they Local Elite, The indigenous chief and respond varies with the threats they the village head, acts as a broker trading the confront, including how directly involved customary land to private company for they are in supplying the coercion personal gain without permission of the underlying all property claims and whether community. This is a strategy of private they act separately or collectively. These company and capital owner to take over variations yield four types of oligarchy: indigenous forest resources. Not only land Warring, ruling, sultanistic and civil. grabbing for plantation area expansion, but Related to this study, the indigenous companies engaged in paper production chief of Talang Mamak plays a rule as also do illegal logging. warring category, if at first the power in the This study discusses about the conflicts form of coercion from the Indigenous Chief between Talang Mamak indigenous people or indigenous used for collective interests who live in Indragiri Hulu, Riau Province such as maintaining land claims or other and private companies engaged in palm oil resources shared with other dominant actors and paper production. Both the people and as common enemies, it can then be used to the companies have struggled for ulayat make wealthy enriching and strengthening land since the beginning of 2000 and ending individuals or groups as chief, who in 2017. maintain and control their own groups first Since the indigenous people have loss and then others around whom they succeed their customary land and forests, they are in defeating1. Although it will eventually be increasingly losing economic resources, concentrated only under individual control, traditional wealth and culture. material power is initially organized into By investigating the dynamics of the "collective social power" because it is based conflict occurred between private on resources in the form of village assets, companies, investor, and the indigenous small clans, and families, which are people in early 2000 to 2008, and comparing prepared and maintained as "together". The it with the development of conflicts in the legitimacy of the Indigenous Chief or village end of 2010 until 2015, this study aims to head is exploited arbitrarily, the claim of discover the efforts of Talang Mamak these resources will implicate for the Indigenous people to maintain their material resources united over individual existence in customary forest resources ownership rather than the collective. In battle. other words, the expression "ours" becomes "mine".

Theoretical Framework 1. Theory of Oligarchy: Customary forest

tenure Local Elite shifting Jeffrey A. Winters, in his book entitled Oligarchy, states that oligarchs were 1 Jeffrey A. Winters. 2011. Oligarchy. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. p. 64

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

2. Theory of Conflict Approach people is an Indragiri Indigenous Conflict means perceived divergence of community and often calls themselves as interest, a belief that the parties current Tuha people, means the first men live in aspirations are incompatible (Pruit and Indragiri Hulu. Their distribution Riau is Rubin, 2009). the power of oligarchs will spread in four sub-districts, they are in immerse conflicts among the indigenous Batang Cenaku Sub-district, Kelayang Sub- people with private companies have been district, Seberida Sub-district, and Batang related each other. Gasal Sub-district. Two sub-districts, Kelayang and Batang Cenaku Sub-districts, covered 17 villages specifically in Talang Research Methodology Mamak has two Communities: Firstly, This study used qualitative method Talang Mamak Tiga Balai Community Area with descriptive. Sugiono (2008: 15) states in Kelayang District, Secondly, Malay that it is in constructive paradigm research Community Area in Batang Cenaku in design and the researcher is a key Batang Cenaku District3. instrument when the study conducted in Their livelihood is farming and planting natural objective. The data sources were especially rubber plantation. Rubber is main media, related research articles, and commodity of the community. Before that, legislation. Data collection were analyzed as since the beginning of the 19th century the it reflected on the title. Data Validation test forest products are varies, like dragon's and information of this study based on blood palm dragon (Daemonorops specific criteria; data validation and level of didymophylla Becc), jelutung (Dyera costulata), trust in describing finding and discussion, red / white balam (Shorea balangeran) and conclusion, and explanation. This study aloes tree (Aloidendron barberae) and rattan used data as comparison for various (Calameae). The people income increases information by organizing, compiling into with demand for forest products. Rubber pattern and category, and interpret them planting certainly makes them more settled using some schema. and at the same time as a tool to maintain their land and forests. Forests are the main source of livelihood for the Talang Mamak Discussion and Result indigenous people as their main livelihood, 1. A brief history of Talang Mamak forests is a great cultural value for them. Indigenous People in Riau Land and forest as living areas are an The indigenous entity live along the inseparable part. Since hundreds of years Indragiri River, Indragiri Hulu district, Riau Province. This tribal community belongs to the Old Malay race (Proto Malay). The Republic of Indonesia. The Constitutional Court of customary forest area reaches around the Republic of Indonesia. P. 102 400,000 hectares and it has been approved 3 Gilung. Talang Mamak: Hidup Terjepit Di Atas Tanah by the Dutch colony through the Resident of dan Hutannya Sendiri-Potret Konflik Kehutanan Antara Indragiri in 19252. The Talang Mamak Masyarakat Adat Talang Mamak Di Kabupaten Indragiri Hulu, Provinsi Riau Dengan Industri Kehutanan. Presented as additional material witnesses on Constitutional Court Review No.41 year 1999 about 2 Court Decision Number 35/PUU-X/2012 about forestry in The 1945 State Constitution of the Constitutional Review Number 41 Year 1999 about Republic of Indonesia at Constitutional Court of the Forestry in The 1945 State Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, June 14, 2012, p. 2

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle ago, the community has become unity with 3. Dynamics of Conflict: Talang Mamak nature. The environment in which they live Indigenous People and Palm Oil is regulated through customary law, and the Plantation Company management decision is regulated by Patih The conflicts of land between Talang or the indigenous chief who is the highest Mamak Indigenous People to claim their power for Talang Mamak under the customary forest and the company occurred Indragiri Sultanate. complicatedly. From year 2000 to 2007, the The importance of forests for their life indigenous people made various efforts to has been loudly delivered by one of the stop the companies that were considered to chief named Laman; "I'd better be shot dead, occupy the customary forests of the Talang than the customary forest runs out". Forest Mamak indigenous, such as throwing stones which is a communal property, in terms of at the operational vehicles of private its arrangement is carried out by a Patih companies, asking for "road money" to which is a symbol of the highest power of drivers of private companies operating the community. There is an old saying that vehicles4. According to James C. Scott, The is well-known among them : "it is better a efforts are a form of resistance from those child dies, rather than tradition”. It indicates who lose. He examines the lives of farming that their identity cannot be separated from communities in the Sedaka area (not real customary forests managed by customary name) in the State of Kedah, Malaysia, with law under the supervision of Patih. the aim of observing the lives of farmers and the form of "daily resistance" that occurs. 2. Rights of Talang Mamak Indegenous Resistance takes place with unique forms, People on Lands resistance is not in a structured form, but in The first chief of the Talang Mamak the form of small daily resistance such as Community was Datuk Patih Nan Sebatang, small-scale stealing, slowing down, in beliefs as oral tradition, their ancestors pretending to be sick, pretending to be gave three regions as inheritance for their stupid, swearing behind, pretending to children and grandchildren, they are the agree, and doing sabotage at night5. The Talang Parit area which means land where resistance carried out is not in a massive and trenches (streams) , Talang Perigi where in structured form, but only in the form of that area there are perigi (wells) and Talang small resistance from those who are Durian Jajar which means there are durian powerless and not so capable of planted in raw in the region as customary destabilizing the group of private boundaries. companies as "winners". The indigenous The community has measured their people of the Talang Mamak indigenous Indigenous Forests which are bordered by people take on the role of "losers", namely trenches, perigi and durian lanes which still those who do not have power, must carry exist today, with the total area of customary forests is 451,411 hectares. This customary land ownership was also recognized by Haji 4 MongabayIndonesia.com. Talang Mamak Hak Ulayat Indragiri Hulu, the king in the past and Musnah Diterjang Budaya Uang. Accessed from http://www.mongabay.co.id/2013/01/19/talang- documented in the Resident of Indragiri in mamak-hak-ulayat-musnah-diterjang-budaya-uang/ 1925. on December 17, 2018, on 13.20 WIB 5 C. Scott, James. 2000. Senjatanya Orang-Orang Yang Kalah, (Bentuk-bentuk Perlawanan Sehari-Hari Kaum Tani). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. p. 318

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle out "daily resistance" to continue their lives drivers of the company's operational while avoiding greater risks. The resistance vehicles just to guarantee their survival is to be understood if it traces the conflict threatened because of private companies between the community and private presence that seize the forest and land that companies which have grabbed the initially became their place of life. customary forests. When compared with the strength of the company, the resistance action did not bring any impacts. As Scott explained, they ask for money for the

Dynamics of Conflict occurrence were as followed6:

Table 1. Dynamics of Conflict between Indigenous People and Company in 2019

Years Incidents Triggers Parties Involved Results or Loss 2000 Marched to against PT Regunas Agri Utama (PT. Talang Mamak Indigenous People Regunas Agri Utama RAU) opened new land about Indigenous People marchedin the offices of Ltd (PT. RAU) to 10,000 ha for oil palm plantation vs PT. RAU, this regional house of expand Oil Palm in three locations, they are conflict were representatives and Plantation area Talang Selantai village, Talang mediated by DPRD Indragiri Hulu head of Perigi village and Talang Durian Indragiri Hulu sub-district. The people Cacar village. The locations are demanded the Ulayat land, customary land of plantation as theirs. Talang Mamak Indigenous DPRD suggested PT Community RAU to give the indigenous people new land which can be planted oil palm as they need. However, the people refused it.

July 2002 Conflicts occured in National Land Agency (BPN) Talang Mamak Review on land village of Talang Indragiri Hulu issued land Indigenous certificate issued by Sungai Limau Rakit certificate about the conflicts community in BPN especially in Kulim Indragiri Hulu between private company and Talang Sungai conflict land of 200 ha, subdistricts Indigenous people for land village vs Inecda which has been grabbed battles about 200 Ha in 1.056 Ha, Plantation Ltd. and by . Mega Nusa Sawit, land area of Inecda Plantation Mega Nusa Inti Ltd as it land abudance Ltd which handed over Sawit, Ltd of Inecda Plantation,Ltd ownership to Mega Nusa Inti Sawit, Ltd. Indigenous People of Talang Sungai Limau argued that they never had any compentations on the 200 Ha. Also there are no agreement with Pola Inti Plasma maupun pola PIR (Perkebunan Inti Rakyat). The indigenous people have clear certificate both land certificate and right of Ulayan land ownership

6 Johny Setiawan, et al. Laporan Final Penelitian: Analisa Konflik Pertanahan di Provinsi Riau Antara Masyarakat dengan Perusahaan. Research and Development Team FKPMR 2007. p. 89-103

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Years Incidents Triggers Parties Involved Results or Loss November Audiences to DPRD Mega Nusa Inti Sawit Ltd and People of Talang Regent of Indragiri Hulu 2002 Indragiri Hulu and the Talang Sungai Limau Village Sungai Limau issued a letter so that regent of Bupati people visited the Indragiri Hulu village and Mega Mega Nusa Inti Sawit, Indragiri Hulu DPRD office. In the same month Nusa Inti Sawit, Ltd Ltd. resolve cases of they met the Regent through the land disputes with Regional Secretary of Indragiri indigenous peoples as Hulu. well as possible.

2004 The people of Talang Continuing conflict with Inecda Inecda Plantation No result Sungai Limau Village Plantation Ltd regarding the Ltd vs people of and Talang Sungai control of 200 ha of land for the Talang sungai Parit Village, Rakit company's oil palm plantations Limau and Talang Kulim Subdistrict, Sungai Parit villages Indragiri Hulu conducted a march on Inecda Ltd. office. and the office of the Regent and the Indragiri Hulu DPRD.

2004 people of Talang Sei The people claimed as land PTPN V vs people No result Parit and Talang Sei owners of PTPN V area about of Talang Sei Parit Limau Villages, Rakit 1.700 ha. and Talang Sei Kulim Subdistrict, Limau villages Indragiri Hulu held a demonstration in the PTPN V company area

June, 2006 Since 1997, Inecda Ltd Indigenous community refusal People of Talang The mediation with has built a new 9000 ha on development of oil palm Sungai Parit and DPRD Riau province, oil palm plantation in Inecda Plantation Ltd about 9000 Desa Talang Sungai FKPMR and WALHI but the communal land of ha Limau villages vs no result the Talang Mamak Inecda Plantation, indigenous community, Ltd and they did not know that presence

2005- In 2002 PT Bukit Indigenous The Indigenous People September Betabuh Sei Indah The community was angry and Community vs PT. Destructed acacia plants 2006 obtained a business took action to extract the acacia Betabuh Sei Indah owned by Beautiful permit for the planted on the communal land of Ltd Batabuh Sei, Ltd utilization of forest the Talang Mamak native products in the form of indigenous. timber and plantations covering an area of 13,450 ha. In 2005 - mid 2006, the company destroyed the community rubber plantations and oil palm plantations to replace acacia plants.

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Years Incidents Triggers Parties Involved Results or Loss June 2005 Residents of Talang The villagers demand that the Indigenous People The mediation Mamak, Talang Sungai land owned by residents be vs Inecda agreement with Regent Limau Village, counted returned to an area of 1,600 ha Plantation, Ltd of Indragiri Hulu, 7 times to visit the Thamsir Rachman, DPRD office to about 1,600 ha of land complain about the managed by Inecda, Ltd looting of communal returned land by PT Inecda Platation covering 3,200 Ha. Hundreds of times residents came to the Indragiri Hulu DPRD office to ask for clarity. But because the Indragiri Hulu DPRD did not provide concrete solutions. The community then complained to the Riau DPRD. Residents only demand 1,600 hectares of land from 3,200 hectares of communal land controlled by PT Inecda

2006-2007 Talang Mamak The community demands the Indegenous No result indigenous, Rakit return of the area because of its community vs Bukit Kulim District and status as ulayat forest, it cannot Sei Betabuh, Ltd Peranap Indragiri be converted into Industrial Hulu. Conducting Plantation Forest (HTI) demonstrations on massive activities taking place on their land which took place since 2002 by PT. Bukit Betabuh Sei Indah which is customary forest

2006 Indigenous Forests The The community wants Indigenous people Unrealized loss or no Talang Mamak customary forests to be returned vs Inecda, Ltd, result indigenous was to citizens with a more Bukit Sei Betabuh scheduled to comprehensive legal umbrella Indah , Ltd and etc. strengthen its legal umbrella through regional regulations in accordance with the Joint Decree (SKB) Number 31 of 2006 concerning the Indigenous Forest of the Talang Mamak indigenous.

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Years Incidents Triggers Parties Involved Results or Loss 2007 A total of 13,450 The community refused to take Indigenous People No result hectares of customary land by Bukit Betabuh Sei Indah vs Betabuh Sei, Ltd land of the Talang Ltd Mamak indigenous, Peranap District and Kulak Inhu Rakit were taken over by PT Bukit Betabuh Sei Indah

2008 SAL Ltd entered into a The community refused it Indigenous People No solution cooperation agreement because the community felt vs SAL, Ltd with three village disadvantaged by the system of heads, namely the partnership initiated by the Head of the Selantai company. Village, the Talang Durian Cacar Village Head and the Talang Perigi Village Head. Based on the agreement, where PT. SAL is allowed to control a forest area of 1000 ha.

2013 Conflict occurred The community collects the Indigenous people between the promise of PTPN V which will vs PTPN V community and empower the people by building in fact, they only built Perkebunan Nusantara oil palm plantations covering 680 200 hectares for six V Ltd, the company ha thousand families of the promises to build an oil Talang Mamak palm plantation with a Indgenous Community KKPA pattern of 680 ha

Source: data analysis of researcher, 2019.

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

4. A total of land area grabbed by Private Companies7 There are four customary forest areas; 330,933 hectares of river, 98,577 hectares of Tabel 2. Durian Cacar forest, and 21,901 hectares of A total of land area grabbed by Private Kelumbuk Tinggi Baner forest8. The forest Companies in 2019 area spread in Rakit Kulim and Rengat Barat Districts which total area is 451,411 A total of hectares. However, Mongabay Indonesia's Land Years Incidents grabbed by Areas report which conducted an empirical study Private stated that in 2013 there were only 2,300 Company 2003 Land 9000 ha Villages of hectares of Talang Mamak forest, which is occupation Talang Sungai approximately 20 percent of the total by Inecda Parit and customary forest area, 2,300 hectares of this Plantation, Talang Sungai area functioned for six thousand people. Ltd Limau Rakit Kulim sub- This 2,300 hectare area also includes a count district of the buffer zones of Bukit Tiga puluh Okupasi oleh 10.000 ha Talang Durian National Park. In an interview of PT. Regunas Cacar village Agri Utama and Talang Mongabay Indonesia with Talang Mamak (PT. RAU) Perigi, village indigenous young man named Abu Sanar, of Talang "just taking wood for home is now being Selantai Rakit 9 Kulim sub- held by officers" . district In its journey from 2000 to 2007, the Occupation 13.450 ha Talang Tujuh community continued seeking ownership by Bukit Buah Tangga Betabuh Sei village, Rakit rights of their customary lands to the Indah Ltd Kulim sub- government continuously making demands (PT. BBSI) district on the accountability of private companies Indragiri Hulu district, Riau that grabbed their customary forests. But in 2005 Occupation 3.200 ha Rakit Kulin 2008 to 2013, there was no longer any by Inecda sub-district resistance from the community over private Plantation, Ltd companies and the government, while the Talang Mamak Customary Forest area 2007 Occupation 13.450 ha Kecamatan continued to decrease. As in 2013 there were by Bukit Peranap sub- only 2,300 hectares, compared to 2007 Betabuh Sei district and Indah Ltd Rakit Kulim people who continued to demand 49,100 (PT. BBSI) Inhu hectares of forest rights, but in 2013, only

2013 Land 2.300 ha Sub-districts of remained for Peranap and Talang Rakit Kulim 8 Kompas.com. Talang Mamak dan Masyarakat Adat mamak Inhu yang Merana. Accessed from indigenous http://sains.kompas.com/read/2010/04/03/232047 community 93/Talang.Mamak.dan.Masyarakat.Adat.yang.Mera na on December 17, 2018, at 13.00 WIB Source: Data of Research Analysis, 2019. 9 MongabayIndonesia.com. Talang Mamak Hak Ulayat Musnah Diterjang Budaya Uang. Accessed from http://www.mongabay.co.id/2013/01/19/talang- mamak-hak-ulayat-musnah-diterjang-budaya-uang/ 7 Ibid., p. 104-107 on December 17, 2018, at 13.20 WIB

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

2,300 hectares remained. This means that Indigenous Chief was also a cukong or throughout 2013 until 2017, the community broker who sold customary land to private has lost 400,011 hectares of land. However, companies. This is to survive because every the conflict was not so prominent in the year the number of customary forests lost media as in previous years. So the question due to being seized by private companies is is, what kind of compromise or transaction increasingly widespread. Herbert Spencer occurred in 2007 to 2013? explained social change and related it to the Theory of Evolution put forward by 5. The role change : Indigenous Chief to Darwin, Spencer explained in social be Cukong or Broker interaction, change would always exist and The decision-making system in Talang be dynamic, change would start from the Mamak indigenous people is through tribal stage which is hegemony and simple customary deliberations. Decision making to modern and complex stages of society. In through this system is to determine all line with what Darwin said, Spencer argued matters of a general nature, such as the that the strongest would be the one who management of pool prohibition, won, who was capable and passionate and management of communal land, both in the able to adapt to changes that would win the rules of management and determination of struggle for life, weak people would be harvest time. Communities can take actions marginalized and marginalized10. regarding the use of customary forests Patih Gading, the grandson of Patih under Indigenous Chief supervision. The Laman who is now the successor to the chief chief position is important even it confirmed of the Talang Mamak, explained that the in their adage "better to die children than forest has been a victim of greedy people customary death" which means that the who do not care about the environment. As position of customary is at the top of the stated in the Commander's Oligarchy theory hierarchy. Elected leader is not descendants by Jeffrey A. Winters, within the customary of ordinary people, but descended from structure there is the Customary previous traditional leaders. Chairperson whose initial is Patih "Y" and From 2000 to 2007, all Patih, Talang several people who are included in his Mamak indigenous Chief, and the people alliance to trade customary forests, felt that they shared a common enemy, but a participate in this group Durian Cacar private company that grabbed their land, Village Head initials "H". The mechanism is various resistance efforts were made to that the Village Head makes a document demand the return of Talang Mamak regarding the ownership of recognized customary forest. From 2007 to 2013, the customary land through the signature of large number of forests lost and turned into Patih "Y" who is also the grandson of Patih oil palm plantations no longer gave birth to Laman, then the results of j transactions resistance from the community as happened carried out with private companies are not in 2000. Based on collected sources , both distributed to the public but are enjoyed by from newspapers and simple interviews groups this group. with one colleagues who visited to examine the life patterns of the Talang Mamak in one village. Son of one of the Indigenous Chiefs acknowledged that his father's 10 Herbert Spencer. 1896. Principles of Sociology, in profession in addition to being the Aminudin Ram. 1992. Sosiologi. Jakarta: Erlangga. p. 208

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Although the consequences of the oil palm seedlings in customary forests of actions were dismissal as chief by King the Talang Mamak indigenous will pay Indragiri on charges of betraying customary compensation for customary forests use. oaths on inheritance debts, the reality that Second, the company will buy community occurred in the field, the position of Patih land and then exchange it with one oil palm "Y" was still very strong and could not be plot, which can then be sold to the company prevented from the trading. Even the when the harvest period arrives12. community that is also a community of the Compromise happened because the Talang Mamak who are members of the community felt that it was the only way that sale and purchase of this land is increasing. was felt most likely to survive in the midst Patih Laman also reported the case of of greater power control, because the trading to the police, but it had no resistance effort was unable to deal with the continuation, while the practice of strength of the company. As stated by customary forest trade and purchase Spencer, a person or group must be strong continued. This has an impact on the in order to survive and adapt to change, overlapping of land ownership, on the one known as the concept of survival of the hand private companies feel that they have fittes. carried out customary forest sale and Nevertheless, there are still groups that purchase transactions with the community, continue to try to maintain their customary so that customary forests changed forests such as a group of indigenouss ownership11. named Tiga Balai under Patih Laman, in order to fight for rights to customary forests. 6. Private Companies and Talang Mamak They reject and oppose all forms of Indigenous Community Compromises development and are willing to die to People who realize that the resistance defend the forest. The reason they maintain efforts carried out so far have only been in their customary land is due to the vain because there is no settlement from the narrowing of the environment of Talang company on their demands, plus some of Mamak forest which has an impact on the the land they consider has been taken over difficulty of carrying out a farming system by the private companies actually has and must adapt, for those who are unable to official ownership documents that are adapt their lives will be threatened13. endorsed by The Indigenous Chief and The company and capital owners made village head who has changed roles as a an offer under the pretext of wanting to broker. So, by comparing the dynamics of prosper the Talang Mamak indigenous the conflict that occurred in 2000 to 2008 and community. They persuaded that customary thereafter, from 2008 to 2013, the conflicts lands and forests be submitted for that occurred in 2008 to 2013 were no longer processing. In this case, of course the related to the return of customary forests, indigenous people did not agree with the but demands for compensation or compensation money. This means that most people choose to compromise the situation 12 MongabayIndonesia.com. Beginilah Nasib that has occurred. The compromise that Masyarakat Adat Talang Mamak Bagian 1. Accessed occurs is: First, companies that have planted from http://www.mongabay.co.id/2016/07/24/beginilah- nasib-masyarakat-adat-talang-mamak-bagian-1/ on December 15, 2018, at 21.30 WIB 11 Jhony Setiawan, op.cit, p. 3 13 Ibid., p. 16

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle offer, but the private companies continued of the ILO Convention 1989. Regulated also their efforts by approaching the Customary in the United Nations Declaration on the Chair and the Village Head. Because of this, Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), in society is divided into two parts; First, the article 8, paragraph 2 b) stipulates that states community agreed to the company's offer must be responsible for providing effective and Secondly, the community refused to instruments to prevent any action, which approve and continue to try to defend causes the disposal of land, territories and Customary Forest. Because of the divisions resources of indigenous peoples. Added in that occurred in the bodies of indigenous article 10, the declaration guarantees that peoples and also traditional elders, the indigenous peoples cannot be forcibly company took advantage of this situation transferred from their lands and territories, and then freely obtained the approval of and that no relocation occurs without their individual indigenous chief and Village free, prior prior approval. The act of Heads. Then for this reason, private relocation must also provide fair companies and owners of capital submitted compensation and the possibility to return. permits to the government, saying they had Then, through articles 25 and 26, the obtained the consent of indigenous peoples. declaration recognizes the spiritual and Even though the agreement in question is cultural relations between indigenous only the approval of the Indigenous Elders peoples and traditional lands that have been and the Village Head and not through owned, occupied or used. Based on these customary deliberations14. provisions, the state must provide legal recognition and protection of these lands 7. Private Companies presence and Poor and resources with respect to traditions, Government Roles to protect customs, and ownership systems that are customary forest owned by indigenous peoples16. Land is very important for indigenous Based on Schutter report on the right to people since it contains many important food to the United Nations, he came to the things to support themselves, such as conclusion that indigenous peoples were economic resources, identity, self- vulnerable to the seizure of large-scale land determination and their cultural interests15. in the world. In a larger domain such as In the Universal Declaration of Human Southeast Asia, Magallanes & Hollick shows Rights (UDHR) Article 17 guarantees rights that as the most vulnerable group in society, to property, including land. Specifically indigenous peoples have suffered a lot from regarding the issues of indigenous peoples, the influence of development in Southeast several international legal mechanisms guarantee access of indigenous peoples to their lands through Article 13 to Article 19 16 Schutter, O. d. (2009, June 11). Large-scale land acquisitions and leases - Special Report on the Right To 14 Ibid., Food. Retrieved October 31, 2014 from Organisation 15 Gilbert, J. 2007. Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights for Economic Co-operation and Development: Under the International Law: From Victims to Actors. http://www.oecd.org/site/swacmali2010/44031283. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff. p. Xv-xvi in Dini Suryani pdf, p 8, in Dini Suryani. Structural Violation Of Structural Violation Of Indigenous Human Rights In Indigenous Human Rights In Indonesia: A Case Study Of Indonesia: A Case Study Of Merauke Integrated Food And Merauke Integrated Food And Energy Estate (Mifee) In Energy Estate (Mifee) In Papua. Journal of society and Papua. Journal of Society and Culture, Volume 18 No. Culture, Volume 18 No. 1 year 2016, p.100 1 year 2016 p. 100

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

Asia, which has taken the form of losing Report from the letter, the Indragiri their land17. Hulu Government only recognized the The loss of the customary forests in rights of the Talang Mamak indigenous addition to land grabbing carried out by which included rights to their customary private companies was also supported by forests on August 24, 201719. The the poor performance of the Indragiri Hulu government only acted when the customary the local government to save the rights of forests of the Talang Mamak were already the indigenous community over their gone and cultures that had taken root in forests. Hundreds of times people people's lives almost extinct because land complained about the land grabbing grabbing happened. problems they faced to Regional House of Representatives (DPRD) Indragiri Hulu but none of the cases were resolved. This Conclusion requires more in-depth and comprehensive Customary forests exploitation has research on whether the Regional destructed economy, environment, and Government of Indragiri Hulu Regency is water around the Indigenous people involved in a compromise with private neighborhood. As a result, their life and companies. culture has been changed, their customary In 2006, the Regional Government of wealth and existence extinct. The people Indragiri Hulu Regency was scheduled to who were very early on working as strengthen the legal umbrella for the fishermen and farmers, conducting barter customary forests of Talang Mamak system as their ancestor doing. Nowadays, through Regional Regulations. The regent of their indigenous chief has been a broker Indragiri Hilir and the Chairperson of the although he broke the customary law by Indragiri Hulu DPRD agreed on a Joint trading the forest to private companies. Agreement Letter (SKB) Number 31 of 2006 Some people have been becoming oil palm concerning the Indigenous Forest of the farmers and working as laborers in the indigenous community. However, since the private companies. The changes, as Spencer decree was signed, there has never been a states, must be done to survive. On the other continuation of the regional regulation. hands, there are other people against the There is no concrete evidence for the decision working at the companies, implementation of the SKB. The Indragiri unfortunately the people work at the Hulu Regency Government does not care companies increased. In the year 2000 and about land grabbing that continues to 2007, the companies were public enemy, occur18. resisted the land grabbing, now they take and accept the companies presence. In the

17 Magallanes, C., & Hollick, M. (Eds.). 1998. Land Conflict in Southeast Asia: Indigenous People, http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2010/05/17/103 Environment and International Law. Bangkok: White 24076/Punahnya.Hutan.Suku.Talang.Mamak on Lotus Press, p 6-7 in Dini Suryani Structural Violation December 15, 2018, at 20.00 WIB Of Indigenous Human Rights In Indonesia: A Case Study 19 Riauonline.com. Pemkab Indragiri Hulu Komitmen Of Merauke Integrated Food And Energy Estate (Mifee) Akui Hak Adat Suku Talang Mamak. Accessed from In Papua. Journal of society and culture, Volume 18 http://www.riauonline.co.id/riau/read/2017/08/2 No. 1 year 2016 p. 101 4/sejarah-pemkab-IndragiriHulu-komitmen-akui- 18 Kompas.com. Punahnya Hutan Suku Talang Mamak. hak-adat-suku-talang-mamak on December 15, 2018, Accessed from at 21.00 WIB

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle year 2008 until 2013 they worked at the Constitution of the Republic of companies to survive. The indigenous Indonesia at Constitutional Court of people did it since their efforts to claim the the Republic of Indonesia, June 14, forest did not meet any good responses both 2012. from private companies and the local Setiawan, J., et al. (2007). Laporan Final government of Indragiri Hulu district. Penelitian: Analisa Konflik Pertanahan Even, in 2013, an NGO, has supported di Provinsi Riau Antara Masyarakat the people to return their rights on the land, dengan Perusahaan. Research and however, did not solve the battle. The NGO, Development Team FKPMR 2007. Mongabay Indonesia, only issued their Kompas.com. Punahnya Hutan Suku Talang findings related to the forest conditions. The Mamak. Accessed from zero action, both NGO, moreover http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2 environmental NGO, and the local 010/05/17/10324076/Punahnya.Hut government to return the indigenous rights an.Suku.Talang.Mamak on December on the forest, only aggravated the conflicts. 15, 2018, at 20.00 WIB. Kompas.com. Talang Mamak dan Masyarakat Adat yang Merana. Accessed from References http://sains.kompas.com/read/2010 Court Decision Number 35/PUU-X/2012 /04/03/23204793/Talang.Mamak.da about Constitutional Review Number n.Masyarakat.Adat.yang.Merana on 41 Year 1999 about Forestry in The December 17, 2018, at 13.00 WIB 1945 State Constitution of the Magallanes, C., & Hollick, M. (Eds). (1998). Republic of Indonesia. The Land Conflict in Southeast Asia: Constitutional Court of the Republic Indigenous People, Environment and of Indonesia. P. 102 International Law. Bangkok: White Gilbert, J. (2007). Indigenous Peoples' Land Lotus Press, dalam Suryani, D. Rights Under the International Law: (2016). Structural Violation Of From Victims to Actors. Leiden: Indigenous Human Rights In Indonesia: Martinus Nijhoff, in Suryani, D. A Case Study Of Merauke Integrated (2016). Structural Violation Of Food And Energy Estate (Mifee) In Indigenous Human Rights In Indonesia: Papua. Jurnal Masyarakat dan A Case Study Of Merauke Integrated Budaya, 18 (1), 97-109. Food And Energy Estate (Mifee) In MongabayIndonesia.com. Beginilah Nasib Papua. Jurnal Masyarakat dan Masyarakat Adat Talang Mamak Bagian Budaya, 18 (1), 97-109. 1. Accessed from Gilung. (2012). Talang Mamak: Hidup Terjepit http://www.mongabay.co.id/2016/07/24/ Di Atas Tanah dan Hutannya Sendiri- beginilah-nasib-masyarakat-adat-talang- Potret Konflik Kehutanan Antara mamak-bagian-1/ on December 15, Masyarakat Adat Talang Mamak Di 2018, at 21.30 WIB Kabupaten Indragiri Hulu, Provinsi MongabayIndonesia.com. Talang Mamak Riau Dengan Industri Kehutanan. Hak Ulayat Musnah Diterjang Budaya Presented as additional material Uang. Accessed from witnesses on Constitutional Court http://www.mongabay.co.id/2013/ Review No. 41 Year 1999 about 01/19/talang-mamak-hak-ulayat- Forestry in The 1945 State

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

musnah-diterjang-budaya-uang/ on A Case Study Of Merauke Integrated December 17, 2018, at 13.20 WIB Food And Energy Estate (Mifee) In Pruitt, D. G., & Rubin, J. Z. (2009). Teori Papua. Jurnal Masyarakat dan Konflik Sosial. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Budaya, 18 (1), 97-109. Pelajar. Scott, J. C. (2000). Senjatanya Orang-Orang Riauonline.com. Pemkab Indragiri Hulu Yang Kalah, (Bentuk-bentuk Perlawanan Komitmen Akui Hak Adat Suku Talang Sehari-Hari Kaum Tani). Jakarta: Mamak. Accessed from Yayasan Obor Indonesia. http://www.riauonline.co.id/riau/r Spencer, H. (1896). Principles of Sociology, ead/2017/08/24/sejarah-pemkab- dalam Ram, A. (1992). Sosiologi. IndragiriHulu-komitmen-akui-hak- Jakarta: Erlangga adat-suku-talang-mamak on Sugiono. (2008). Memahami Penelitian December 15, 2018, at 21.00 WIB Kualitatif. Bandung: IKAPI. Schutter, O. d. (2009). Large-Scale Land Winters, J. A. (2011). Oligarki. Jakarta: PT. Acquisitions and Leases-Special Report Gramedia Pustaka Utama. on the Right to Food. Retrieved October 31, 2014 From Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: http://www.oecd.org/site/swacmal i2010/44031283.pdf, in Suryani, D. (2016). Structural Violation Of Indigenous Human Rights In Indonesia:

The Efforts of Talang Mamak Indigenous People to Maintain Their Existence in Customary Forest Resources Battle

______

About The Authors

1. Rizky Octa Putri Charin. A Master Degree student in Indonesian Politics at Department of Politics and Government, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. She obtained her Bachelor Degree in International Relations from University of Riau in 2016. Corresponding: [email protected]. 2. Arief Hidayat. A Master Degree student in Indonesian Politics at Department of Politics and Government, Gadjah Mada University , Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He obtained his Bachelor Degree in Government Affairs from Padjajaran University, Bandung, Indonesia in 2008. Corresponding: [email protected].

Society, 7 (1), 37-47, 2019 P-ISSN: 2338-6932 | E-ISSN: 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Lengga Pradipta Research Center for Population, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Publication Info: Food security is still becoming a crucial issue in developing Research Article countries nowadays, either in urban or rural areas. There are many factors triggered this condition, such as the increase in population pressure and conflict, privatization and changing How to cite: tenure arrangements, poverty, social differentiation and also Pradipta, L. (2019). The Shift of environmental degradation. It‟s undeniable that food security Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A is a multidimensional problem, especially for people who lived Study about Food Security and in rural or isolated areas. In Mentawai Islands, a district Indigenous Communities. Society, located in the western part of Indonesia, the indigenous people 7(1), 37-47. depend on forest product (sago) as their main source of food. However, since 2012, the government has destroyed their food culture by establishing the „National Food Security Improvement Program‟ and conducting the agricultural DOI : 10.33019/society.v7i1.76 intensification as well as establishing 600 hectares of new rice fields in six sub - districts; South Pagai, North Pagai, Sikakap, South Sipora, North Sipora, and South Siberut. This study is Copyright © 2019. Owned by conducted comprehensively using the Food Security and Author(s), published by Society Vulnerability Analysis (FSVA) to understand and describe the exact profiles of food-insecurities and vulnerable households. Furthermore, it also identified the risks and vulnerabilities of food consumption in Mentawai communities. Findings depict that shifting or transforming the food culture from sago to rice is a serious issue because socio-cultural aspects influence it and This is an open access article. surely the government has to make a parallel policy that can accommodate the people needs, not only prioritize the national development agenda. License: Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike Keywords: Food Security; Indigenous Communities; (CC BY-NC-SA) Mentawai Islands

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Introduction organizations (NGOs) and even world One of the biggest issues faced by organizations such as World Bank and developing countries is providing proper United Nations. As In Bangladesh, Ethiopia, food for community, both urban and rural Guatemala and South Africa, they were communities. In the context of the rural funded by USAID. On the other hand, In community, the problem is commonly Ecuador, Ghana, Nepal, the Philippines and caused by the scarcity of natural resources, Zimbabwe were funded under a grant from in this case, “food”. It is also difficult to the U.K Department for International access food because of its agricultural Development (DFID) and IFPRI condition. Furthermore, internal factors, (Quisumbing, A and McClafferty, B., 2006). such as the increase in population pressure Food provision activities and nutrition and conflict, privatization and changing in Indonesia are also supported by financial tenure arrangements, poverty, social and technical assistance from World Bank, differentiation, and environmental Asian Development Bank and many other degradation have affected the type, quality, agencies. Until now, the food and nutrition accessibility and reliability of food1. issue in Indonesia still focused on physical As stated at the World Food Summit in sector (Quisumbing, Estudillo and Otsuka, 1996, managing the natural resources, 2000). especially food, should be based on the To enhance the sustainability of the food participatory approach, involving provision scheme, many agricultural community, planners and also policy projects, whether facilitated by government makers. Involving community is a formula or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and strategic way to inform them about have applied participatory approach in the food demand and it can guide them to project cycles, including planning, maintain or even sustain the natural implementation, and also monitoring and resources (Braun, 2014). All the information evaluating process. Unfortunately, food related to community demand noted by the management is not fully over handed to the planners and policy makers as the community as the beneficiaries. As important points to consider the evaluation has shown, that the past food formulation of the policies, rules and project provision and malnutrition problems arrangements. Demanding responsive supported by aid agencies in Indonesia project that involve community, it can create poorly addressed access equity for the poor the sense of belonging and contribute to the community. Regarding to this condition, project sustain. actually since 2012, Indonesian government Many efforts have been established to has already established the regulation about cope with food provision and malnutrition food security in Act No. 18/2012, where its problems. Many projects also held to secure clearly stated that “food security is the the food provision for rural communities, condition which all people, in all households, at whether they are conducted by the all times have sufficient food in both quantity government, non-governmental and quality to enable them to live healthy, active, productive and sustainable lives, and that the food is safe, diverse, nutritious, equitably 1 In South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, population distributed and affordable, and does not conflict growth has pushed people to settle in ecologically with religion, beliefs or culture”. But in contra, sensitive area such as hilltops and wetland. It will this regulation is triggered many conflicts in makes them loss the availability of food and difficult for them to find food in new settlement (Dyson, Mentawai Islands. It happened because et.al). national government tried to apply

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities agricultural intensification and establishing Figure 1. Food security conceptual 600 hectares of rice fields in those Islands, framework (adapted from WFP, 2009) but ignoring the crucial needs of people. As a matter of fact, Mentawai people are really depended on forest products as their food, such as sago, yam and cassava. Furthermore, the demographic factor like soil condition, human resources skill to manage the rice fields, as well as the technology that will be applied on did not fit with their life. Transforming the food culture is a crucial thing and needs to consider socio – cultural aspects of the people. The national regulation should be parallel with the culture of indigenous people and also their ecological condition. It is important to ensure the sustainability and security of food, and surely prioritize their basic needs.

Methodology Hence, the primary data were collected Food security is multidimensional through field research. Data collection problems and requires an analysis of a techniques consisted of field survey in six parameter range which consists of three sub-districts of Mentawai Islands (South indicators; aggregate food availability, Pagai, North Pagai, Sikakap, South Sipora, households‟ access to food, and individuals‟ North Sipora and South Siberut), as well as food utilization. Since the complexity, this in-depth interviews with ten indigenous study was conducted comprehensively people (including men, women, and Sikerei; using the Food Security and Vulnerability indigenous leader) and also focus group Analysis (FSVA). This analysis was very discussions. The secondary data were crucial to understand and describe the exact collected from government documents, profiles of food-insecurities in communities NGOs report, reports on previous relevant or households. Furthermore, this study also study to the research topic. These data identified the risks and vulnerabilities of collection supported the Food Security and food consumption in Mentawai Vulnerability Analysis (FSVA). As communities. Moreover, this study mentioned in previous paragraph, this observed facts and situation related to analysis attemped to describe the profile of perspective of indigenous people and how the food-insecure and vulnerable they engaged in food provision and households, as well as to identify the causes security, it was crucial to provide an of food insecurity, risk and vulnerabilities important insight into a food security within the community (WFP, 2009). In this situation. study, FSVA was very crucial because it strengthened the findings and results related to food security and how indigenous people were involved and engaged on it.

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Result and Discussion In Indonesia, improving food security is Defining the food security means there really depended on knowing who is should be a sufficient food condition, and at vulnerable to food, the size of the food- the same time, the food has to be accessible. insecure population, where people live and Four basic concepts in food security are: what makes them vulnerable. Nonetheless, sufficiency, temporal considerations, access, there is also a concerned with the and security (Maxwell and Frankenberger, availability of food, started from 1992). Sufficiency of food is often a production, distribution process until subjective measure; in this issue it was a consumption. All the cycles are influenced measure of the frequency and severity of by many factors, such as; climate, soil type, means for coping with food insufficiency. rainfall, agricultural inputs, irrigation Sen (1981) also found that access to food systems, technologies and farming practices, is determined by food entitlements, the sum and the most crucial one, policy or of assets - human, physical or financial - regulation. In this chapter, there will be which an individual or household can use to holistic explanation about food security in acquire food, and the rate at which those Indonesia, especially in Mentawai islands, assets can be converted into food, either and how indigenous communities tied to through exchange or production. Security of their food culture, as well as responded the access is the converse of the risk of shifting process from sago to rice in their entitlement failure; the higher the share of a daily life. household‟s resources devoted to the acquisition of food, the greater the risk of 1. Food Security in Indonesia failure (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). Food security issues always have Talking about individual and interconnection with many aspects, such as community condition in gaining the access agricultural aspect, social aspect, economic to food, it cannot be separated with aspect, and even legal aspect. Food security livelihood assets, and it‟s definitely related is a complex problem and there are multiple to the sustainable livelihood frameworks2. causes for its existence in many developing The sustainable livelihoods framework is countries. In Southeast Asia, especially in concerned about five essential things; there Indonesia, it is such a vivid condition, that are human capital, natural capital, financial there are many poor people closely related capital, social capital, and physical capital. to poverty and hunger. In Indonesia, food is One of the outcomes of this framework is to the most fundamental right for everyone improved food security. and it needs to fulfill every time. It was clearly stated on article (27) of Indonesian Constitutional Law or UUD 1945, and Act 2 Sustainable livelihoods: Putting people at the centre No. 7/1996 about food. The lack of food can of development (Adapted from Chambers, R. and G. make a bad impact on human‟s life Conway (1992) Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical (Purwaningsih, 2008). concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. Brighton: IDS) implies that; the livelihoods approach In Indonesia food always identified as is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope and rice. It has been assumed because rice is a priorities for development. A specific livelihoods kind of staple food for Indonesian. Many framework and objectives have been developed to experiences had been proven that if the assist with implementation, but the approach goes instability of food were happened, it can beyond these. In essence it is a way of putting people at the center of development, thereby increasing the reflect as an economic crisis. For example in effectiveness of development assistance. 1997/1998, Indonesia was trapped at the

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities multidimensional crisis, which was made a Sumatra the amount was increased from tremendous impact to social and national 3.16 million ha to 3.52 million ha for a atmosphere. It was contradictive with decade (BPS, 2018). Indonesia‟s national development goal, In Sumatra, rice production or paddy which clearly defined „food security‟ as one reached the highest peak in 2013, while of the important thing to achieve. other staple food such as maize, cassava and Subsequently, Indonesia has sweet potatoes remained stable. And as diversification of foods; there are about 400 described in the previous paragraph, sago varieties of fruit, 370 varieties of vegetable, consumption could not be measured as it 70 varieties of tuber and 55 varieties of only consume in Nias and Mentawai. The spice. However the main staple food in all data about staple food production in over Indonesia is rice; but in some other Sumatra as show in the graphic below: places people consumes potatoes, maize, cassava, taro and sago. Regarding to this Figure 2. Staple food production in Sumatra situation, Indonesia has set food policy to from 2004 – 2013 (ha) achieve self-sufficiency in food production, mainly rice, maize and soybeans. This policy aimed to promote agricultural production and increase the productivity of farmers. Based on the data from Ministry of Agriculture, agricultural sector has been contributed 14.71% to Indonesian gross domestic product (Kementerian Pertanian, 2015). Rice, as the worldwide staple food is very dominant crop which grew in more than 13 million hectares of land in Indonesia. Since its massive production, *data from BPS government has tried to decrease the needs for imports and fulfill the indigenous rice Even though the production of food consumption. At the other side, Indonesia increased yearly, yet agricultural sector in also has cassava, maize and sago as staple Indonesia has to bear with tremendous foods, especially in eastern part and also challenge such as climate change, some in western part (like Nias and unpredictable weather and also natural Mentawai). But unfortunately, there is only disaster (floods, droughts, etc) which may few data available about cassava, maize and threatening the progress of food security sago production. (LIPI, 2016). According to the data of National For more than a decade, undeniably, Statistics Agency (BPS), the biggest Indonesia has achieved self-sufficiency in production of rice or paddy in Indonesia rice. It makes the dependency with rice as occurs in Java and Sumatra. These two main source of food was very significant. islands have variability in climate and big Although in some parts of Indonesia, people intensity of rainfall which suit to rice or still consume cassava, maize and sago but paddy. From 2004 to 2013 the rice government wanted to change the food production in Java increased rapidly from culture. Shifting food culture or food 5.71 million ha to 6.47 million ha, while in preferences are becoming the big agenda for policy makers. They completely forgot that

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities there are some challenges that need to be Access to food is also very crucial in solved related to food production food security issue. Access to food is (especially rice production): determined by food entitlements (Sen, 1981), - The land conversion issue has become the sum of assets - human, physical or the biggest challenge, especially in Java, financial - which an individual or household where people tried to convert can use to acquire food, and the rate at agricultural land become non – which those assets can be converted into agricultural uses (such as for industries, food, either through exchange or settlements, etc). production. Security of access is the - The land degradation that caused by converse of the risk of entitlement failure; environmental damages or destructions. the higher the share of a household‟s - The limited water sources that cause by resources devoted to the acquisition of food, forest degradation. the greater the risk of failure (Maxwell and - The irrigation systems that is not Frankenberger, 1992). Which means sufficient for rice or paddy fields. accessing the food is attached to - Natural disasters such as floods and household‟s ability to obtain sufficient, safe droughts that may impact on food and nutritious food from a combination of harvest. sources including own production, stocks, - The farming systems in Indonesia are purchases, bartering, gifts, borrowing and still not prioritizing the small farmers food aid. Food may be physically present in a Due to many obstacles of food security region, but not accessible to certain issue, Indonesia government then set up the households because of some limited access Nine Priority Agenda (Nawa Cita) on 2014 like: a) physical access – market which emphasized food sovereignty as a infrastructure, ways of reaching markets, guiding principle to achieve food security. and the functionality of markets; b) Then those priorities are regulated in the economic access – the financial capacity to National Medium Term Development Plan purchase adequate and nutritious food; (RPJMN) 2015-2019 under five key and/or c) social access – the social capital strategies: needed to engage in informal support mechanisms such as bartering or borrowing, Five strategies in food security or the presence of social support programs. Increase food availability by enhancing Improving and achieving food security domestic production of key crops (rice, are equal to maintaining household maize, soybean, meat, sugar, chili and onion purchasing power. To improve purchasing Improve the quality of food distribution and power is a multifaceted effort. Maintaining the accessibility of food food prices and controlling inflation – Improve the overall quality and nutritional especially for food products – are crucial value of the Indonesian diet factors. However, a holistic review on Protect food security through preparedness agricultural policies found that an emphasis for natural disasters, mitigating the impact on domestic food production and the of climate change and preventing infections provision of various kinds of support to and diseases in pest or animals food producers have significant impact on Improve the livelihoods and welfare of the general population‟s access to food, not farmers, fishermen and other food least by maintaining relatively high food producers prices (OECD, 2015). A holistic review of

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities agricultural policies is very useful to and South Pagai. The biggest island is analyze the imbalances between Siberut, and it covered 4,090 km2 and strengthening domestic food production consists of two sub districts, north and and protecting poor consumers. But still, south Siberut (Persson, 1997). The capital, there is awareness that global demand could Tuapejat is located in Sipora. In Mentawai, be another big obstacle in food security the population is about 70.000 people but it issue. is very difficult to obtain the reliable Furthermore, another indicator to statistical information about the archipelago ensure food security is its utilization. Food (Nordholt, 2007). The majority of clan that utilization refers to a household‟s use of the occupied is indigenous people, which count food to which it has access; and an for about 23.000 people in Siberut, and then individual‟s ability to absorb nutrients. Food there are the Minangkabau people who utilization usually depends on: migrated from mainland Sumatra which - The facilities available for food storage count for about 2.000 people. and processing In the New Order era, Mentawai - Knowledge and practices in food experienced the massive project called preparation and the feeding of young „transmigration‟. This project aimed to children and other dependent relocate people from overpopulated islands, individuals – including sick and elderly so the demographic development could be people – which may be impaired by the balanced. More than 70% of Indonesian low education of mothers and other population lived in Java, as the main island. caregivers, cultural beliefs and taboos And over two decades, there were 170 - Food-sharing practices within the million inhabitants from Java, Madura, household Lombok and Bali were relocated (World - The health status of the individual, Bank, 1999). Transmigration has a long which may be impaired by disease, poor story; it has been started in 1950 which hygiene, water and sanitation and lack replicated the Dutch colonial government of access to health facilities and health program, and later continued by Indonesian care. government after 1945, year of These three indicators; availability, independence. Earlier, transmigration has access and utilization of food are not positive purposes, (1) to relocate millions of applicable in Mentawai case because in that people from most populated islands such as area, those indicators are not always become Java, Bali and Madura to less populated the parameters. There should be an islands, (2) to reduce poverty by providing acknowledgment to community and their land and employment opportunities for food culture, so that we can analyze and Indonesian, and (3) to find other resources understand their food security condition. In in those less populated islands. But the upcoming discussion, an explanation unfortunately, this programmed seems regarding to indigenous people in unsuccessful (DTE Five Years Report, 2011). Mentawai and their food culture will be The findings also supported by Action shown. in Solidarity with Asia and the Pacific (2019), which stated that the transmigration 2. Indigenous Communities in Mentawai process in „outer islands‟ especially in and Their Food Security Mentawai has triggered the conflict among The Mentawai Islands consists of four trans-migrants and indigenous people. The main islands; Siberut, Sipora, North Pagai, native or indigenous people claimed that

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities the national government gives the limited and that makes indigenous people lost their access for them, which could be said that homes and their source of food (DTE Five contra with the trans-migrants. And on the Years Report, 2001). Undeniably, the other hand, indigenous people seem did not objective of transmigration may destroy the obtain sufficient infrastructure to support live of indigenous people. Transmigration their lives (such as roads, health facilities, made it possible for landless peasant and school etc). In the other hand, the land homeless people from urban Java. But, with ownership status also become very this action, they destructed the forest and important, because indigenous people felt distributed to environmental degradation in that indigenous government did not give Mentawai. It can be assumed that the their rights and land certificate even though transmigration program have failed so far to they have legal evidence of their land. More lower the population pressure in Java, and than 60% of rainforests in Mentawai has congers poverty. been cut-down for transmigration program,

Table 1. The transmigration phase in Indonesia

Colonialized Period Pelita Period Reformation Period (New Order Era) (2000 – now) from 1969 – 1999 1st transmigration occurred in  Pelita I Transmigration in this Lampung (1905 – 1941) (1969/1970 – 1973/1974) phase is focusing on There were about 175.867 In this phase, the establishing the people moved from Java to regulation about independent and Lampung, and it divided transmigration was integrated town (Kota through 5 phase: established (Act No. Terpadu Mandiri), so that  1905-1921 3/1972) it could boost the  1921  Pelita II regional economy and  1922 (1974/1975 – 1978/1979) development.  1923 For about 65.517 people  1932-1941 from Central Java was moved to West Sumatra  Pelita III (1979/1980 – 1983/1984)  Pelita IV (1984/1985 – 1988/1989) Transmigration has focused on opening the rainforest area into industrial forests  Pelita V (1989/1990 – 1993/1994)  Pelita VI (1994/1995 – 1998/1999) Source: Ministry of Village, Development of Disadvantaged Regions and Transmigration, 2015.

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Based on the field interview that has been do not only like to consume rice, they prefer conducted by LIPI (2016), it gave the sago. The preference as rice is a prestigious hypotheses that the most difficult part of the symbolic food, due to its price tag and the transmigration process is always attached challenge of them to reach it. In Mentawai, if with indigenous people who lived in a person is able to consume rice a few days Mentawai. There is a critic about in a week, then that person could be transmigration program, because classified as the „haves‟. Furthermore, indigenous people that it‟s violating their indigenous people value rice not only rights. The migrants implied that because they view it as a luxurious food for transmigration program was only about the wealthy, but also because they value it political tools and power. as being „modern‟ and „developed‟. The reasons make them consider sago as a Figure 3. The settlement of trans migrants in „primitive‟ food, which mostly consume by Sipora remote Papuans, upstream Dayak or by people in islands a long distance away, such as in Maluku. Regarding this condition, Indonesian government tried to reinforce food program “Raskin”, which is short for „beras miskin‟ or „rice for the poor‟. In Mentawai, as elsewhere, that program does not supply the indigenous sago staple food, but rice for poor families. The social signal this program

sends is that „everyone should have rice to As mentioned in previous part, eat‟, reinforcing the message that sago and transmigration program has destroyed the taro are second grade foods. Sago grows in forests as the food sources of indigenous wet and waterlogged soil. When people cut people. It can be seen because the economic down a sago tree there are always some system in Mentawai remained slow since saplings in the vicinity which will take its most indigenous people do not have money place. After about eight years, the new trees and they just depended on the food product are ready to be harvested. Normally, one they produce themselves. There is only few good mature sago tree can produce people can afford rice and chicken, because sufficient starch for a family of four or five mostly they eat the food from forest (such as for about eight to ten weeks. sago) and ocean (such as fish). Sago, as their main staple food is obtained from the sago Figure 4. The household chores to process pal, and it grows wild in their surroundings. sago in Mentawai Then they have root crops, bananas, and fruit trees (Persson, 1997). Rice is not a common part of Mentawai people‟s diet, because it is not cultivated in Mentawai. It has been imported from Padang, the capital city of West Sumatra. Rice is then, for the poorest people too expensive (Johansen, 2008). Another study conducted by Erwin (2017) argues that most of Mentawai people

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Besides being a staple food, the sago to acknowledge the indigenous people tree provides other benefits to them. Sago needs. leaves can be used as one of the sturdiest thatched roofs in Indonesia They are a Conclusion useful wrapper for roasting sago bread Food security issue in Mentawai islands sticks or for making tapir, as mentioned is very crucial because even though above. They are also made a resilient wall government tried to apply agricultural material. In addition, the strong sago palm intensification by putting rice as the staple bark can be used for flooring and it burns food, but they did not consider the well in the kitchen fireplace. Parts of sago indigenous people needs, they still depend trees‟ such as the crown, which does not on forests product (sago). The missing gap contain starch, will eventually drop to the between these two should be solved by ground and in combination with other tree using the Food Security and Vulnerability litter, will decay and become the perfect Analysis (FSVA) to understand the exact host for sago beetles. The grubs of this problems of food security in from beetle are an easy catch and a delicious and households until community level. For much sought after protein source. In sum, Mentawai people, sago is not only their the sago palm is a valuable multipurpose staple food, but it has many functions to plant for the people of Mentawai. support their life. Despite of the good Recently, the local office of the Ministry intention and program of national of Agriculture has assisted in the government to shift the food culture should introduction of rice as main staple food in be appreciated, but they are supposed to Mentawai. It makes the existence of sago conduct and in-depth studies related to food become smaller. When Mentawai people culture and society, so that the objective is grow rice as their source of foods, they run not against the socio and cultural aspects risks because it does not suit their culture. within indigenous community. Adapting to the new food culture needs more than a decade, especially if the ancestors had introduced sago as the food References and philosophy of life (Johansen, 2008). Action in Solidarity with Asia and the Until now, sago is still valued in the Pacific. (1999). Country Reports on community. In many indigenous rituals, Human Rights Practices. Mentawai people still use sago. Undeniably, Badan Pusat Statistik. (2018). Ringkasan it cannot be separated from Mentawai Eksekutif Luas Panen dan Produksi people life, even though government Beras di Indonesia pushed them to change their food culture. DTE, Down to Earth. Five Years Report. And again, shifting or transforming the food (2001). Indonesia‟s Transmigration culture from sago to rice is a serious Program, An Update. Retrieved from problem, because it cannot be separated http://www.downtoearth- from socio – cultural aspect of the people. indonesia.org/sites/downtoearth- Finally, the consideration to implement the indonesia.org/files/Transmigration National Food Security Improvement %20update%202001.pdf Program has to be parallel with their food Erwin. (2017). Ketahanan Pangan Rumah culture and also their ecological condition, Tangga dan Wilayah Berbasis Pangan because sustaining and securing food have Lokal Sagu, Keladi dan Pisang di Kabupaten Kepulauan Mentawai. Seminar Nasional Perencanaan

The Shift of Staple Food from Sago to Rice: A Study about Food Security and Indigenous Communities

Pembangunan Inklusif Desa Kota. Purwaningsih, Y. (2008). Ketahanan pangan: Universitas Andalas. situasi, permasalahan, kebijakan, dan Estudillo, J. P., Quisumbing, A. R., & pemberdayaan masyarakat. Jurnal Otsuka, K. (2000). Income Ekonomi Pembangunan: Kajian Masalah distribution in rice–growing villages Ekonomi dan Pembangunan, 9(1), 1-27. during the post‐Green Revolution Quisumbing, M. A. R., & McClafferty, B. F. periods: the Philippine case, 1985 and (2006). Food security in practice: Using 1998. Agricultural Economics, 25(1), 71- gender research in development. 84. International Food Policy Research Johansen, L. (2008). A Chance of Self- Institute Washington, DC Reflection Searching for Information Sen. A. (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay Among People of Mentawai. Master on Entitlement and Deprivation. Thesis. Norwegian University of Life Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sciences. von Braun, J. (2014). Food Demand, Natural Kementerian Pertanian, (2015). Analisis PDB Resources and Nature. Pontifical Sektor Pertanian Indonesia. Academy of Sciences Extra Series, 41. LIPI. (2016). Kajian Kawasan Hutan Retrieved from Mentawai. Pusat Penelitian http://www.pas.va/content/dam/a Kependudukan Lembaga Ilmu ccademia/pdf/es41/es41- Pengetahuan Indonesia. vonbraun.pdf Maxwell, S., and Frankenberger, T. R. World Bank. (1999). Annual Report on (1992). Household food security: Indonesian Transmigration. Concepts, Indicators, Measurements: A World Food Program. (2009). technical review. Rome: International Comprehensive Food Security and Fund for Agricultural Vulnerability Analysis. January 2009. Development/United Nations First Edition. Citigroup Foundation. Children's Fund. Nordholt H. S., Klinken G. V. (2007). ______Renegotiating Boundaries. indigenous Politics in Post-Suharto Indonesia. About The Author Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press. Lengga Pradipta is a junior researcher at the OECD, O. (2015). Agricultural Policy Division of Human Ecology, Research Monitoring and Evaluation. Retrieved Center for Population, Indonesian Institute from of Sciences (LIPI). Joined since February https://www.oecd.org/agriculture/t 2015, Lengga has a focus on studies in the opics/agricultural-policy- fields of Environmental Law and Natural monitoring-and-evaluation/ Resources, as well as Gender and Disaster Persoon, G. A. (2002). Defining wildness studies. She obtained her Master degree in and wilderness: Minangkabau integrated Natural Resources Management images and actions on Siberut (West at Andalas University and Asian Institute of Sumatra). Tribal Communities in the Technology Thailand (2007-2010). Malay World: Historical, Cultural, and Social Perspectives. Singapore: ISEAS [Institute of South East Asian Studies], 439-436.

Society, 7 (1), 48-58, 2019 P-ISSN: 2338-6932 | E-ISSN: 2597-4874 https://society.fisip.ubb.ac.id

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existences, Forms, and Developments

Deska Fitriyani 1*, Yoyok Hendarso 2, Yunindyawati 3 1,2,3 Sriwijaya University Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Publication Info: Adaptation of migrating Betawi people as the ethnic migrant in Research Article urban areas is an interesting social phenomena related to urbanism. This study aims to analyze the urbanism or the way How to cite: of life of the Betawi people in Palembang city. This study used Fitriyani, D., Hendarso, Y., & the social definition paradigm, an ethnography research Yunindyawati, Y. (2019). method. The data were the Ethnic Betawi group in the Kebon Adaptation of Migrating Betawi Sirih and the Lorong Jambu areas.The data were obtained from People: Existences, Forms, and the primary data and the secondary data. The primary data was Developments. Society, 7(1), 48- obtained through participatory field observations, and in-depth 58. interviews, meanwhile the secondary data was obtained from articles or journals. In analyzing the data, codes system and coding were used. Field observations were carried out in DOI : 10.33019/society.v7i1.71 Kampung Betawi, Kebon Sirih and Talang Betawi Villages, Lorong Jambu. Interviews were conducted to participants, the Copyright © 2019. Owned by Betawi people, used purposive sampling or based on certain Author(s), published by Society characteristics. The results of the study indicated that the urbanism or a way of life of the people in Palembang was to adjust to the environment in terms of work to meet their daily needs. In addition, it adopted the Palembang wedding tradition when the Betawi people are married. The results showed that the people acculturate with the Palembang culture, specifically This is an open access article. in wedding tradition.

License: Attribution- Keywords: Acculturation; Betawi; Ethnography; NonCommercial-ShareAlike Palembang; Urbanism (CC BY-NC-SA)

Introduction intangible characteristic. The tangible The city presents different situations characteristic appears from and conditions in the village, referring to the functions such as political functions tangible characteristic that can be seen from characterized by the central office of the the appearance and the function and government. Meanwhile, the intangible Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments characteristic is defined as the way of life only limited by the place where he was with the peculiarities of each raised and born but also in other places and region. Borrowing the term from Bardo (in times where by means of him all needs can Kartono, 2010), it is referred to as a feature be fulfilled (Jelamu, 2006). It is as the Betawi of social organization. It is related to how to people do which not limited by space and manage the place of residence, how to time to fulfill their needs. Their presence in manage the social interactions, and how to Palembang city forced them to adjust to the regulate the lifestyle. In the view of surrounding environment. Ethnic Betawi is sociologist, L. Wirth (in Kartono, 2010) the closely related as carpenters. At first they city is seen as a way of life (Urban as Way of worked as carpenters but over time the Life). adjustments were made. Along with the It is widely known that there are two progress of the industry that was built in indigenous ethnicities who inhabit urban areas, most of Betawi people Palembang city, they are Wong Jero and switched their work as sellers, such as local Wong Jabo. Wong Jero is nobel descent or food sellers (tekwan, pempek, bakso), highborn, while Wong Jabo is common greengrocers, livestock sellers (cattle and people. However, the ethnic communities goats), stall business men, and rattan around Palembang are various such as handicraft businesses men. It is interested to Malay, Komering, Pasemah, Gumai, study the Betawi people in Palembang on Semendo, Lematang, and Ogan. There are account of their existence, form, and also some immigrant ethnic groups namely development in Palembang city as well as Arabs, Chinese, and others from Europe. their cultural adaptation to local culture. Palembang city also has one of Indonesia ethnic communities, the Betawi Ethnic which is originating from Jakarta and its Theoretical Basis surrounding areas. The uneven composition This study referred to the theory of of the population and unequal development Louis Wirth “how to live in the city (Urban outcomes became one of the main causes for Way of Life)”. Wirth defines the city as the people making dislocation. Then, it "Relative Large, Dense, and Permanent causes the targeted city having the further Settlement of Socially Heterogeneous development that makes the appearance of Individuals", which is a relatively large, new social level, the changes in attitudes dense, and permanent settlement with a and lifestyle, and the changes in livelihoods. population of heterogeneous social position. The urbanism carried out by the Betawi According to Wirth (in Kartono, 2010) the ethnic group encouraged them to adjust to typical lifestyle of city is called urbanism, the new environment, especially the and this is determined by spatial environment of Palembang city. In different characteristics, secularization, voluntary circumstances, the other ethnics have come associations, integral social roles, and vague to Jakarta causing that the Betawi Ethnic is norms. To see how the process of urbanism no longer dominating Jakarta. takes place, how the local people live in that One technique that has been used as a city must be seen. Furthermore, how to live tool for urban development in recent years in urban areas can be seen from the way is cultural regeneration. This is seen as a people use facilities in the city. means to restore and improve the quality of urban life through increasing and developing unique characteristics of a place and its people. Human living space is not

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

Research Method letters, photographs, videos and assorted This study was about the Betawi people artefacts. urbanism in Palembang city. It aimed to analyze and explain the history of their existence in Palembang city, the form of Research Results and Discussion urbanism, the development of Betawi A. The History of the Existence of the culture, and the defense strategy to live in Ethnic Betawi Palembang city. Therefore, the research An Australian historian, Lance method used was ethnographic research Casle, in Erwanto (2014) describes that method with the social definition paradigm. Betawi is as a newly born ethnicity. This The Ethnograpic reseach method is a statement is based on demographic description and interpretation of a cultural studies of the residents of Batavia. The or social group or system (Cresswell, 1998). census of 1815-1853 showed that Ethnic This research was to figure out the Betawi Betawi had not been recorded. Betawi people history, form, and development and was categorized as ethnic in 1930. understand the real meaning of life Lance concluded that the Betawi Ethnic experience to those under study from group was an assortment of Sundanese, participants’ perspectives. As Ethnographic Javanese, Arabic, Bali, Sumbawa, research method, data were collected in Ambon, and Malay. The source of the great quantities of material to describe what website of the local government, people believe and how they behave in https://bappeda.jakarta.go.id provides everyday situations; therefore, data analysis the information that records the ethnic and interpretation can be challenging formation of those who were used as (Roper & Shapira, 2000). The data were slaves, where in the 18th century a obtained from the Betawi people live in majority (49 percent) of the population Kampung Betawi, Kebon Sirih and Talang of Batavia. The same thing was stated Betawi Villages, Lorong Jambu. Thus, this by Erwantoro (2014) Ethnic Betawi research was intended to understand social emerged as a new category in the situations in depth based on reality or population census data in 1930. In the phenomena nearby. To generate the 1930 census, there were 778,953 Ethnic answers, the research steps are needed such Betawi people and became the majority as formulating research questions such as of Batavia at that time. history of the Betawi people existence, the Based on the results of observations form of urbanism, and their development in and interviews, the Betawi people in Palembang city. To have research objectives, Kebon Sirih and Lorong Jambu, the first determining the benefits of the research, generation moved to Palembang city making a framework of thinking, and due to economic factors. Instead of just determining the technical analysis of the escaping from colonialism, the Ethnic data and the validity of the data. The data Betawi nomads thought that Palembang collection method used in this study was the city had a better chance of living with combination of library research, field the availability of jobs, the extent of observations, and in-depth interviews with vacant land, and the small number of the people using notes, logs, and diaries. people in Palembang. But in reality, the Additional data may also be found in items funds and the skills are the main such as published and unpublished requirements because at that time the documents, papers, books, public records, Betawi people migrants had low education so they had to work as

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

entrepreneurship like running their own their chance since they had low business. The Betawi people were education. Whereas, the construction of known as "clever wood" in the first the structure and infrastructure of generation, many of them undertook Jakarta forced them to sell their land this business to make a living in a and house causing them being foreign land. A participant explained displaced. This condition forced them to that their ancestors were carpenters (UP, migrate to other place. Since the Betawi 52 years old): people believe that their ancestors are "... Who doesn't know the Betawi people, from Palembang, this city had been their from the time of the ancestors, the Betawi destination to start a new living. A people have been good at timber business, participant (YA, 60 years old) described: timber trade, and making furniture from "... Our oral story always talk about lumber. That is why many have the Palembang as our great grandfathers, our expertise to be carpenters nowadays. But ancestor. This story has been time to time only a few who can be business holder while telling to their posterity. This oral story has the rests are collies. The Betawi people had a built emotional connection between this city lot of land there, but they sold it all because and us. It is the main reason why we choose they didn't know whether they were Palembang as our destination to displaced causing them being destitute immigrate.” people now." Factors of migrated destination is The arrival of the Betawi people in not only caused by the situation but also Palembang city from the beginning had oral story, Palembang city has been their been involved in the timber business, destination seems as “reunion” for the the location was in the regions 10.13 and people. 14 ilir (SA, an participant, 72 years). After trying to work as a carpenter, the Ethnic Betawi migrants spread out to B. The Form of Urbanism other areas in Palembang city, such as According to Wirth (in Kartono, Kebon Sirih and Lorong Jambu. At that 2010) the typical lifestyle of city is called time, Kebon Sirih and Lorong Jambu urbanism, and this is determined by were shrubs, the areas then were built spatial characteristics, secularization, by the Betawi migrants. Over time, the voluntary associations, integral social place has become the largest Betawi roles, and vague norms. To see how the settlement in Palembang city. According process of urbanism takes place, how to the head of the local RT, the Betawi the local people live in that city must be people are still widespread in various seen. Furthermore, how to live in urban places such as Boom Baru, Kuto Market, areas can be seen from the way people Tegal Binangun, Plaju, 22 ilir, Talang use facilities in the city. Kerikil, Lebung Gajah and so on. But their spreading is not a lot and forms a 1. Job Preferences, such as: settlement, if people want to know their a) The Wood Processing of existence through personal means. Their Household Furniture migration to Palembang city was The Betawi people are known for intended to improve the economic their expertise in the field of wood condition. During Jakarta was filled by processing, ranging from merely various people from all over regions to refining wood, making household work and live. The Betawi people lost appliances from wood, and making

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

wood carvings. In other words, c) The Flowers and Ornamental Betawi people are able and willing Plants Selling Business to process wood into finished goods Since a migration to Palembang or semi-finished goods. At first, city, the first and second generations many Ethnic Betawi people worked have not had a permanent job. All in the timber business when they was based on expertise and works were migrating to Palembang as a laborer, at that time the city. The 13 ilir area was the center economy was classified as middle to of the first settlement of ethnic lower level. Not a few of the Betawi Betawi. There, the timber business people tried other jobs to fulfill their was also firstly started by Ethnic daily needs, such as being a flower Betawi. IL, an participant (45 seller. It is another alternative job years) said that many relatives did realizing that it did not require large not have permanent jobs so he hired funds. Even though it required them. more patience and thoroughness, "...The timber business is developing but for the Betawi people, any quite well, right! It is because the business could be done as long as employees are still a few so the relatives the funds used was not too are involved. Moreover, many of them large. Considering the driving factor who come here as migrants having no for migration is to help the family job, so I do a favor for them." economy by finding sources of sustenance elsewhere. One of the b) The Daily Work participants, AT (51 years) revealed: The other work done is a day "...Because I am working under people’s laborer, a conventional motorcycle business, there is a feeling of wanting to driver, and a household have an own business. In that era, there assistant. These works are carried were still a few people who sold the out based on their last educational flowers but I saw that the development average levels: elementary, middle had been started, so I thought the flower and high school graduates. Women selling business was just a trial and who are as household assistants error which did not need lots of work in other environments, such as funds. Open the business at the front, Ibu Sumiyah (50 years old). She just need to walk then arrive! It is works for a Javanese ethnic family economical. That is why I am still whose house is across an alley. The selling flowers until now. The head of the local RT stated: important thing is that family’s need is "...The Betawi people had a lot of land fulfilled." there, but they sold it all because they didn't know whether they were d) The Food Seller displaced causing them being destitute Sellingfood is another alternative people now. There are various jobs of for getting the money. This work is the people here such as a civil servant, done by women as a job in an entrepreneur, a laborer, and even a public scope. Some of them sell household assistant who is cleaning the Palembang traditional food like house, or only washing and ironing." tekwan and pempek, while others sell vegetables, soto betawi, and their own Betawi foods, namely roti buaya

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

and uli tape. For Betawi people, this surroundings and expertise as well work can add to daily spending, as various activities carried out to give pocket money to children, and cultivate the kinship. One of Louis help in paying electricity bills. This Wirth's researches on urbanism is job is enough to help the women, job preference; these jobs depict that because they sell in front of the the Betawi people labors based on house, this is to minimize the cost of their expertise such as carpenters funds that must be spent if they rent and traders. a place or shop. AI, an participant, (46 years) whose wife 2. Betawi People Activities opened a business selling food Recitation, Social Gathering and stated: Aerobics. “...Looking for money is difficult, The points discussed by Louis frankly I didn't have much money for Wirth (in Kartono, 2010) regarding the funds at that time, so I sold ice first urbanism include: (1) the lack of then my wife helped me to sell the individual interaction, and (2) model, and thank God it becomes a anomie or not knowing the norm. In pempek shop now". this study, the Betawi people did not show a lack of individual interaction. e) The Cattle Raising The actual interactions are even high One other finding is cattle and active. Recitation, social raising, this is the only ones left. But gathering, and aerobics are carried it provides many benefits, because it out solely to cultivate kinship among can employ other Betawi fellows of Betawi ethnic groups people. Besides that, it is developed while at the same time showing their into meatballs selling business. Then existence as Betawi ethnic. In more and more, Betawi people are contrast, it encourages mothers and employed. IL, an participant (45 teenage girls to actively play a role in years) revealed that Bang Ilham the neighborhood. The values of explained that currently it is traditional Betawi traditions and difficult to find grass for his norms are also still represented in livestock: everyday life such as Lek-lekan or "...My cows fed their own selves freely, gatherings which teach us to have a but it’s no longer. There is barely grass, harmonious neighboring and to help so running the cattle raising becomes each other. Other values and norms my business here.” are not allowed to sit or stand by the Individually, the economic door since it can block out people conditions of the Betawi people are who want to pass and can hurt middle to lower. Considering the themselves. Next is that when we first and second generation as they work on something, we have to migrated to Palembang city, they surely finish it as it teaches a sense of did not have enough funds for there responsibility for the work. is uncertain income and the highest education mostly completed is high 3. Spatial Space school. The Betawi people, socially, According to Pranawita (2015) in a can adapt well. It is proven through settlement, natives will create their own the works adjusted to the settlements with certain characteristics.

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

Pranawita further explained that, as in perspective of social sciences, is a the coastal areas, the natives’ system that does a number of settlements are for fisherman. The conceptions regarding the construction coastal area is inhabited by Javanese, of reality, which play a major role in Chinese and other migrants. Then the explaining the structure of normative next area, hinterland (inside), is a and social order and understanding and settlement characterized by agriculture interpreting the world. Meanwhile, art or plantations. This area is inhabited by and tradition are expressions of Sundanese, Javanese, and Betawi ethnic creativity, work, and human intention groups. The Betawi town in Palembang containing religious values and is a manifestation of a settlement with a messages, philosophical insight and Betawi characteristic. Similar to Melayu local wisdom. Whereas according to tow and Betawi town, they mark their Azra (2011), religion and culture are two respective ethnic backgrounds. The things that are equally beneficial. Betawi town in Palembang city is not Religion will give spirit to culture, while characterized by agriculture and culture provides wealth to religion. plantations, but demonstrates the The results of observations and process of shaping the Betawi group. interviews showed that the religion This study shows that Betawi ethnic believed by the Betawi people in Kebon settlements do not have obstacles in Sirih and in Lorong Jambu is social relations in settlements. The predominantly Islam. The beliefs other naming of "Kampung Betawi" and than Islam such as rituals or traditional "Kampung Talang Betawi" does not ceremonies that cannot be accepted by necessarily restrict their movement to human rationality have long been interact. the Betawi people can interact abandoned by them since the first directly with others freely by generation came to Palembang city; they considering that they do trading, no longer believed in the supernatural processing wood, selling food and things. the Betawi people does not running grocery stalls. Often stalls, associate Islam with the myths or places of sale, and wooden depots are superstitions of ancestral heritage. In the merged with their homes. MM current millennium, the Kebon Sirih and participant (66 years) stated: Lorong Jambu Betawi ethnic "...Here, in Kebon Sirih. My neighbor’s communities are aware of the world sibling said it is better to settle in Kebon beyond the five human senses but not Sirih as there were many Betawis, so it associating them with everyday life. would be good. When I arrived in They believe in one belief and the one Palembang, I immediately settled in Kebon Allah SWT. Currently, the religious Sirih, the children were born in a midwife activities carried out are routine clinic near here." recitation, as taught, so that they always beg and pray only to Allah SWT. 4. Secularization The majority of the Betawi people is 5. Voluntary Association Muslim. For them, religion and culture The voluntary association of the has an equally significant portion. Betawi people is the Association of Harmonization of both lies in the Silaturaahim Betawi South Sumatera function of each. Kuntowijoyo (in Edi, (FORWABES) and the Betawi Sriwijaya 2011) states that religion, in the community (KOMBETS). Both are

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

formed in order to accomodate Betawi deal with memorials such as the 17th of ethnic people in South Sumatra. The August state red-letter day, the establishment of FORWABES was commemoration of the Hijri New Year, started by Betawi ethnic people who and become the committee of qurban in met in Palembang city and then got to Eid al-Adha. Betawi youth was know each other and some were deliberately involved in various siblings. As the time flies, FORWABES activities so that they had activities was established in 2015. Other which channel their thoughts and voluntary associations are KOMBETS energy in a positive way and in and Kampung Betawi Youth. KOMBETS addition, they also take a contribution to is only addressed to Betawi residents in introduce the Betawi ethnic culture in Kebon Sirih which does not have a Palembang city. management structure and is not legal according to law. However, they call 6. Utilization of City Facilities themselves KOMBETS; a naming of The city facilities around Kebon Sirih identity to introduce to the public. are Bukit Sangkal Health Center, Bukit Giddens said that identity is very Sangkal Village Office, Dapur Mutiara important for an ethnic group, "It can Shopping Center, JM Shopping Center, provide important threads of PTC Shopping Center, Giant Shopping continuous with past and is optically Center, and Transmusi Bus Stop. The kept alive through the practice of city center of Palembang has grown into cultural traditions" (Giddens, 1991). a commercial city, so it's no wonder that Thus, almost all cultural identities have there are many malls in which are an opinion of whether an individual is located there. The Betawi ethnic of understood in relation to the identity of Kebon Sirih are not really fond of kinship, race, and ethnicity. KOMBETS shopping centers, they choose to shop identifies themselves as "native" Betawi for the food needs in Megaria or Pasar descendants. 16. Cheap and negotiable prices are the The other voluntary association, main reason. The quality of goods in the Pemuda Kampung Betawi, is chaired by market and in mall is almost equal. Anton. This association accommodates Public transportation access to get to Betawi youth into a place. It was started Megaria market and Pasar 16 is quite from the concerns of Anton, Untung, difficult. If you have a private vehicle, it Muklis, Toni and Kusdi (in 2018) who will be easy to reach, yet the observation saw the children of Betawi town shows that very few of Betawi ethnic dropping out of school, just sitting people have four-wheeled vehicles or around wasting time. By these five cars, most of whom have two-wheeled Betawi people, they formed a voluntary vehicles or motorbikes, instead. This can association consisting of youth of be seen from the houses that hardly Betawi town. Their backgrounds range have yard. Hence, they used to choose from junior high school graduates, high angkot as transportation. school graduates, to students, and The facilities around Talang Betawi university students. Pemuda Kampung Lorong Jambu are Kemuning police Betawi was established before August station, Transmusi bus stop, Sekip 2018. Since it was just currently formed, traditional market and PTC shopping there is no vision and mission for this center. The location of Talang Betawi association, yet. The activities of it only Lorong Jambu is in distance with the

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

main road, there are no groceries sellers character or ethos often appears in the in the area, the Sekip traditional market style of behavior of its citizens, their is the main choice for the Talang Betawi interests, and various cultural objects of group of Lorong Jambu to shop for their work. Based on these thoughts, the groceries. As in Kebon Sirih, the Talang typical character of Betawi is “Lo-lo, Betawi group is less interested in Gue-gue” means that the Betawi people shopping for food needs at the mall, have a character that they do not though PTC shopping centers are not so interest in other people problems for no far from Lorong Jambu. apparent reason, ignorant. The Betawi Public transportations used are people hold the principle that “if I am angkot, transmusi, conventional ojek and not touched, so I will not touch you back”. online ojek, both motorbikes and cars. If This character still exists in the Betawi you want to ride an angkot or transmusi, people of Kebon Sirih and Lorong usually, you should be dropped off first Jambu. According to some participants, by relatives using a motorbike to the that distinctive character can avoid highway. Then, you can use angkot or conflicts both with Betawi fellows transmusi. Online ojek also becomes (internal) and with other ethnic groups another alternative transportation, both (external). motorbikes and cars. Often and most of the Betawi ethnic people who use public D. The Defense Strategy transportations are women, they In the defense strategy in urban generally use conventional ojek and areas, some Betawi ethnic groups sell angkot to travel. Both transportations are groceries in their homes. Therefore, the the main choice because they are quite neighbors do not have to go all the way convenient to find around the residence. to the market and use public transportation. There are also some who C. Development of Betawi Ethnic Culture open a small shop that sells daily This research concerns on the necessities. Trading is the right choice of development of Betawi ethnic culture low economic conditions so you don't through cultural adaptation that views need lot of fund to run a business. the way individuals or groups adjust to Additionally, there are also food, such changes in the socio-cultural order. In as soto, pempek, bakso and ketoprak. this research, the Betawi ethnic and local Betawi people admits that they find no and other social and cultural settings are obstacle in interacting with the different. While the people living surrounding area. The dominant together on RT 03 and RT 11 were number of Betawi people in KebonSirih Betawi ethnic, Palembang ethnic, and and Lorong Jambu makes them easy to mixed ethnic groups. Changes in social interact with each other. Although in its order occured in Betawi Ethnic group development there were residents who are in terms of language and livelihood. moved and came with different While changes in the cultural order of ethnicities, they did not cause problems the Betawi people resulted in a balance in interaction. of Betawi culture and Palembang The next strategy is from the culture. cultural side. There is no new culture, Koentjaraningrat (1990) explains no mixed culture, and no discarded that a culture often emits a particular culture. Betawi culture acculturates with characteristic seen by strangers, the Palembang Culture, where Betawi

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

Culture is still used in certain events the dominant non-Betawi cultural city only, but the Betawi people still space. maintains it. While the Palembang 4. The defense strategy carried out by the culture continues to be used as a form of Betawi people was to work in respect. For example, the culture of accordance with the new environment. marriage. When an Ethnic Betawi This was done due to the lack of funds married to another ethnic such as the and limited skills. In addition, Palembang ethnic, both families hold FORWABES participated in the Betawi the events based on the ethnics in their cultural arts performance as an effort to home. The facts show that there is introduce and maintain Betawi culture. enthuasiasism of Palembang people to see Betawi culture at the wedding. From the research done on the urbanism of the Betawi people in Palembang city, it can be suggested to Conclusion several parties that: Based on the analysis of the research of 1. This research is expected as an input the Betawi people in Palembang city, the and contribution to the development of conclusions are as follows: sociology as well as a reference for 1. The migration carried out by the Betawi subsequent research specifically people to Palembang was not only regarding to environmental sociology. intended to improve the economic This is because many similar studies are condition of the family which at that carried out by other disciplines such as time, Jakarta was filled with people architecture, geography, and from various regions to work, but also psychology. As already explained that emotional connection. Moreover, the research on ethnicity in a culture must construction of the structure and continue to be carried out. infrastructure of Jakarta forced them to 2. The acculturation that occurs in the sell their land and house causing them Betawi people must be maintained, this being displaced. The lack of the funds is related to preserving the Betawi and the skills made the Betawi people cultural tradition. Besides that, it can worked as a carpenter. uphold tolerance and create a 2. There is no superficiality of individual harmonious life between Ethnic Betawi interactions and anomies. Spatially, and Ethnic Palembang. The young Betawi settlements are formed due to generation of Betawi Ethnic group ethnic cultural similarities, and needs to increase their care for the secularization does not occur. Betawi culture. The various efforts that 3. The Betawi people acculturates the have been made by FORWABES should tradition of marriage. As migrants, be continued and improved. Betawi people use the Palembang 3. This research can beinput for the wedding tradition, but they also government, especially the Palembang maintain their own cultures such as Tourism and Culture Officein taking enlivening the event with firecrackers, over a policy, as well as help tanjidor, and doorstop. As a minority, FORWABES in completing the these maintenance efforts can be requirements as a group organization in interpreted as a symbolic form of South Sumatra Province. If FORWABES strengthening Betawi ethnic identity in is officially registered by the government and legally recognized by

Adaptation of Migrating Betawi People: Existence, Forms, and Developments

the law, the Ethnic Betawi will be easy ______to be introduced to Palembang people. Betawi settlement can be developed into About The Authors a cultural tourism village such as Arab Village in Plaju. So that it can enrich the 1. Deska Fitriyani. A Master Degree culture in Palembang city. student in Sociology at Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Sriwijaya University, Indonesia. She obtained her References Bachelor Degree in Sociology from Azra, A. (1999). Konteks Berteologi di Padjadjaran University in 2016. Indonesia: Pengalaman Islam. Jakarta: 2. Yoyok Hendarso obtained his Doctoral Paramadina. Degree in Sociology at Gadjah Mada Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. He is Research Design: Choosing. Among Five a lecturer at Department of Sociology, Traditions. London: Sage Publications. Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Erwantoro, H. (2014). Etnis Betawi: Kajian Sriwijaya University, Indonesia. Historis. Patanjala: Jurnal Penelitian 3. Yunindyawati obtained her Doctoral Sejarah dan Budaya, 6(2), 179-192. Degree in Rural Sociology at IPB Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self- University, Bogor, Indonesia. She is a Identity: Self and Society In the Late lecturer at Department of Sociology, Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press. Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Kartono, K. (2010). Pemimpin dan Sriwijaya University, Indonesia. Kepemimpinan. Jakarta : Rajawali Press. Koentjaraningrat. (1990). Manusia dan Kebudayaan di Indonesia. Jakarta: Djambatan. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Marius, J. A. (2006). Perubahan Sosial. Jurnal Penyuluhan, 2(2). Pranawita, Karina N. (2015). Kajian Kearifan Lokal Pada Pekarangan Masyarakat Betawi Sebagai Basis Pengelolaan Lanskap Perkampungan Budaya Betawi Setu Babakan, DKI Jakarta. Penerbit: Sekolah Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor. Roper, J. M., & Shapira, J. (2000). Ethnography in nursing research. Thousand Oaks: Sage publication.