CEU eTD Collection Nationalism Studies Program Central European University Submitted to UNITED STATES ANDITSIN IMAGE THECONTEXT OF Ilya A. Yablokov By THE DEBATES ABOUTTHE ISRAEL LOBBY IN THE AMERICAN CONSPIRACY NARRATIVE AMERICAN CONSPIRACY In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BETWEEN REALITY AND MYTH: Advisor: Professor Michael L. Miller Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts 2009 CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY CONCLUSION Chapter 3. Case Study: The Mearsheimer-Walt Controversy Antisemitism Chapter 2. Anti-Jewish Conspiracy Theories in the Context of the history of American Chapter 1. The Tradition of Conspiracy Myth Creation in the United States INTRODUCTION CONTENTS 2 90 86 63 35 11 3 CEU eTD Collection Yale University Press, 2002), 2. community, that had long been the object of suspicion in the European tradition. Being one Being intradition. of European the hadbeen object suspicion long community,the that of Jewish progress the successful for circumstances specific mentality, created conspirological enemies. of immigrants only strengthened this tradition, gradually contributing national tothe repertoire plots.” dangerous and alliances secret of andstrangers neighbors “both suspecting of tradition a whole creating thus, NewWorld, the to beliefs fears and traditional itself. United immigrants from States European Old World, primarily brought theirPuritans, the than older is even America in mentality conspirological the that conclusion the draw to scholars allowed haveThese intense explorations nation beenissued. onAmerican influence mentality” andits “paranoid Since describing timeof alot that publications United States. the of history thepolitical through mentality aconspirological to trace attempt first was the essay His history. inAmerican theories conspiracy mentality. conspirological of view of point the cohesion.increase of group history national Eventhe certain of countries was examined from nationalistic feelings of and the in growth be elements onecrucial of the appeared to the 2 diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,2001), 1-2. 1 cohesion self-awareness. andnational shaping group in thecrucial influence of contemporary attitudes societies have subconscious demonstrated researchingthe political of culture Newapproachesto American, scholarship. and especially JackZeljko Bratich, “Grassy-Knoll Edges: Conspiracy theories and political rationality in the1990-s” (PhD Robert A.Goldberg, At the same time, the unique cultural diversity, though it predated creation the itof predated though diversity, cultural unique the sametime, the At Richard Hofstadter is one of the first scholars, who became interested in the role of Recently, the subject of conspiracy theories gained significant prominence inWestern, prominence significant gained theories conspiracy of subject the Recently, Enemies within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America INTRODUCTION 3 The ParanoidStyleinAmerican Politics 1 Thus, conspirological discourse (New Haven, London: 2 Further groups of Further groups CEU eTD Collection conspiracy-theories-culture-wars-moral-equivalence-and-suicidal-paradigms.html (accessed 2009). May 11, University,Jerusalem, Israel, June 16,2006), http://www.theaugeanstables.com/2006/06/18/mainstreaming- on conference the at presented (Paper Paradigms” 3 traditional traditional ideas of “Worldthe Jewish in that conspiracy” new different circumstances took became “aactually conspiracies.” Petriedishfor Internet the years 20 last in the and exponentially, theories conspiracy various of circulation the increased facilities modern communication sametime, Atthe country. of the literature and media, culture popular inthe andhasbeen popularized fashionable trend, became a relatively discourse conspirological federal in government, the politics of the general disappointment and publicintothe suspicion the Basedon conspiracyintroduction discourse. of theories of values contributed strongto the of publicsupport Americans. amongstIsrael in conditioned andthe samesystem geopolitically alliance 1948,was Israel, established with the Moreover, civilization. for entirestate the Jewish animportant States made theUnited has attitudes anti-Jewish of andthegradual decline barriers socioeconomic kindartificial of the post-World War II period is commonly referred community, to Jewish as a American “Golden the of history Era”. the In life. The human absence of value the of of any reconsideration caused a in Europe Nazi of regime ferociousness War, the beginningCold of whereas Western civilization. reversal of international The of framework the the designated relations aswell. “Jewish of notion conspiracy” defend had basedAmerican the themselveson enough Jews from capacity to allegations, life, in public a dominant became theories conspiracy antisemitic and sentiments Jewish until the end of the nineteenth “other” among many,the American Jewish communitycentury. andenjoyed a prosperous tranquil life However, even at the turn of the century when anti- Richard Landes, “Mainstreaming Conspiracy Theories I: Culture Wars, Moral Equivalence and Suicidal and Equivalence Moral Wars, Culture I: Theories Conspiracy “Mainstreaming Landes, Richard The actual widespread occurrence of conspiracy theories apparently included apparently theories conspiracy of occurrence widespread The actual notableitsisWar history for inAmerican post-WorldHowever, the IIperiod gradual The Second World War is fairly considered as a determinantal event in the history of Antisemitism, Multi-culturalism and Ethnic Identity 4 3 at Hebrew at CEU eTD Collection 2009). Windows MediaPlayer video file, 1:42, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVQrpi01QBg (accessed May 11, Site, Web Youtube USGovernment”, Subverts “Israel Freeman: Now! Democracy 2009); May 11, (accessed Times York amongst Americans, and antisemitic conspiracy theories in particular. between popular conspiracylook tothe theories correlation general myth andthen creation conspirological “tradition” of the possible discoverand evaluate to inorder history American explore. to interestingobject seems an of suchcontroversies probablefind causes thisand discover question attempt ananswerto to 4 policy-making. creation Israel toward the when discussion drifts the itslobby American influence and on myth conspiracy slide into to isready opinion public American what extent to demonstrated Charles Freeman for the new chairman of the National Intelligence Council once again of withdrawal recent the Thus, theories. conspiracy innumerable nourish and spotlight the in IsraelLobby again andMoreover, Unitedputthe in recentpolitical States again events the be antisemitic. to appear politics Israeli of critiques these what extent thequestion to poses Mearsheimer and Steven Walt and Steven Mearsheimer to be found in the center of controversy (such as in “international problem”. the antisemitism the case of the working background of beinthe paperto a certain extent to appears antisemitism American communities), by John basicallypreserved in of specific society groups supremacists(such aswhite orBlack being completely, in States United the disappear didnot attitudes Though forms. antisemitic Mark Mazzetti and Helene Cooper, “Israel Stance Was Undoing of Nominee for Intelligence Post,” Intelligence for of Nominee Undoing Was Stance “Israel Cooper, Helene and Mazzetti Mark One of the aims of the given work is to trace the roots of conspiracy theories in In that sense, the single cases when Israel or the American Jewish community happens , March 11,2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/12/washington/12lobby.html?_r=3&partner=rss 4 Taking into consideration the whole tradition of American antisemitism, the antisemitism, American of tradition whole the consideration into Taking The Israel LobbyandtheU.S.ForeignPolicy The Israel 5 ), it inevitably The New CEU eTD Collection researches on the lobbyism in the U.S. and ethnic interest groups in lobbyism andethnic onthe in particular. U.S. interest the researches and antisemitism; on works theories; conspiracy of phenomenon the of nature the on works actual the national interest. determine to crisis of a certain be result the to appears and policy American foreign current tothe related debates these extent what to demonstrate to aims chapter this Moreover, discussion. the in andstereotypes claims role of the antisemitic Walt exploring and Steven and Mearsheimer surrounding working the paper at looking by is debates to the The third devoted milieu. American in chapter of Jews the specificstatus the antisemitism European from distinction and features specific its antisemitism, American focusesof history the on chapter second The in public discourse. the theories American conspirological myth creation and thus discovers the roots and usage of conspiracy antisemitism. American of framework whole the of context in the debates the analyze to interesting be would it antisemitism”, “new of so-called the asapart presented andusually discourse scientific contemporary of event noticeable arethe debates these Since of debates. these nature the and claims Israel LobbyandtheU.S.ForeignPolicy whole history. the American throughout been has Gentiles with relations in the attitudes anti-Jewish of role the what and has developed, look Jewishcommunity the how necessary seemsto It tradition. antisemitic andits thatdistinguishdiscoveringfrom specific features it thequalities European the The corpora of sources on which the certain research is based divides in three parts: inthree divides based is research certain the which on ofsources The corpora tradition isof to the firstchapter devoted the goals, desired the Thus, according to The analysis around publication the of of debates workingthe about paper Another aim of the work is to look at the tradition of American antisemitism, The Israel Lobby andtheU.S.ForeignThe Israel Policy Lobby allows us to probe into the usage of antisemitic 6 by John J. byJohn The CEU eTD Collection of Minnesota Press, 1999). 7 SchusterAdult Publishing Group, 1999). 6 Press, 1996). 5 the concept of Hofstadter. of Richard concept the ideology. left-wing and right-wing the both in typical are theories conspiracy in the contemporary androle its development conspiracy theory, world.of phenomenon inherent to the features of certain One of the most analysis making an mentality, conspirological the into interestingresearch made fundamental author the conclusionsFlourishes andWhere It ComesFrom from this work is book publishedon conspiracy in theories that “ 1997, entitled East, Middle the of history contemporary the deals with who scholar well-known Pipes, a instance, differing butin American the main the of focus Daniel context research.For the in theory conspiracy the of phenomenon the of analysis detailed a giving history, American studiesnumerous in All field.that deal these works with so-calledthe “paranoid in tradition” public politics. Essays” Other Politics:And when publishedRichard Hofstadter his book “ well-known phenomenon by choosing various popular conspiracy theories Assassination,(Rosewell, JFK role important in play system. theories an American the political conspiracy that concluding United States contemporary inthe discourse conspirological of the authoranalyzedthenature culture), democratic expression of an populist entertaining, conspiracy theories (on the one hand, as a threat to political order, and on the other hand, as Mark Fenster, Mark Daniel Pipes, Daniel Richard Hofstadter, Mark Fenster makes a profound analysis of the so-called “paranoid style” in of “paranoid style” terms so-called makesthe aprofoundof analysis Mark Fenster from only1960s of the scholarship becameapart theories of The topic conspiracy Robert A. Goldberg presented a more historical perspectivein is approach to the given Conspiracy: How Paranoidthe Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (n/a: Conspiracy theories: Secrecy and Power inAmericanCulture 5 Thus, Hofstadter established the basis for future established to research rise Thus,for thebasis and gave Hofstadter The Paranoid Style in American Politics: And Other Essays describing the important place of conspiracy theories inAmerican place of theories important conspiracy the describing 7 Combining a dual perception of the phenomenon of . ” 6 In spite of journalisticthe genreof giventhe work, 7 Conspiracy: How Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style The Paranoid StyleinAmerican (Minneapolis, London: University (Harvard: Harvard University Simon & CEU eTD Collection 11 ( 10 world order 9 Yale University Press, 2002). 8 improved equal the representation monitoringor flow of politicians. cash the to concludedauthors thatdespite ostensiblethe openness of lobbyingthe system ithad not politics. U.S. Politics,” Nigeria and invarious (from cultures national power ofthinking about representations conspiratorial Russia to South research the of in of topic the ethnography varioussuspicion of the and discovering Korea and United StatesAmerica. of America). contemporary of trend cultural mainstream the to extended later was which settlers, first theories. conspiracy American differenthow groups andpromote society perceive of etc.) to demonstrate foreign policy. in U.S. interests group minority of ethnic representation on influence its’ and multiculturalism published in 2000covers theissues of ethnic involvementin groups foreign affairs, role the of Smith of Tony The work vast. is rather activities groups’ interest ethnic with correlation one of issues, crucial the and thus scholarshipthe concerning American foreign policy and its perception by prismthe through people forces ofhidden behind facade the of transparency. their and society contemporary in institutions public of transparency the between correlation Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000 Harry G. West and Todd Sanders, eds. Robert Alan Goldberg, Alan Robert Cigler, Allan J. and Burdett A. Loomis, eds. Tony Smith, The collection of essays edited by Harry G. West and Todd Sanders also contributes to In frameworkthe of lobbyism in the U.S., conceptthe of ethnicthe is interest groups (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003). covers Foreign attachments: the powerethnic of groups inthe making of American foreign policy 11 10 Noting certain peculiarities in the development of group interest politics, the The latest research of Allan Cigler and Burdett A. “ Loomis, and Burdett Allan research Cigler of Thelatest numerous issuesnumerous in topic onthe oflobbyist groups domestic foreign and 8 Enemies within:The Culture ofConspiracy inModern America Goldberg traces the roots of “paranoid mentality” in communities of of of“paranoidmentality”the incommunities theroots traces Goldberg Transparencyand conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new Interest group politics, ). 8 7 th ed. (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2007). 9 It demonstrates the (New Haven, London: Interest GroupInterest CEU eTD Collection of theelders of Zion 13 Bargain: Strategy and Politics in U.S. Assistance to Israel Israel left- and accusations between anti-Israel basically focusing correlation on the antisemitism” ofAlan Dershowitz’s course Harrison, Erickson Professorof Emeritus E. University in atthe of Philosophy the Utah, Jews attitudes towards and whatdestructiveit consequences had. eventually Bernard presenting Fifth but a column inevery shows also howcountry, thismyth shapednegative and governments media, the controlling Jews all-powerful the of myth anti-Jewish the of component each of only not explores intently author the Zion”, of elders the of Protocols theories. conspiracy antisemitic 12 theories. conspiracy antisemitic andparticularly stereotypes of antisemitic exploration deal with which researches on based numberin will be thisHowever, to areestimated work antisemitism” hundreds. the primarily region.in East Middle the countries with toIsrael other programs and assistance deconstruction myththe of of powerfulthe lobby Israel/Jewish in the U.S.by comparing aid make groups to lobbyistAbramo acomparisontheir Organsky of efficiency, atthe aimed Israeli and U.S. Canadian of analyses comparative and on history the had concentrated Israel, AWACS sale etc.). sale AWACS Israel, similar (Yom precedents Kippurfollowed warand support U.S. to Israel, financial U.S. aid to on focusing primarily year, same in the published were and line in that first were Organsky for at least the last twenty years. Thus, works of David H. Goldberg and Abramo F.K. Norman Rufus Colin Kohn, David Howard Goldberg, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood 1990); press, Thus, Norman Cohn’s Norman Thus, “new the of phenomenon the on works and antisemitism of historiography The The issue of Israel lobby groups has been a matter o interest among political scientists ( London: Serif, 1996 Foreign Policy and Ethnic Interest Groups: American and Canadian Jews Lobbyfor Warrant for genocide: the myth of the Jewishworld-conspiracy and the Protocols 12 However, while David However,aside whileH. Goldberg,from David given the cases, A Case For Israel For Case A 13 Warrant forGenocide Investigating thehistory of notoriousthe forgery,in “The ). 9 Abramo Fimo Kenneth Organsky, , made another research on the topic of “new onthetopic of research made another , (New York: Columbia University Press,1990). is essential in the framework of framework the in is essential The 36 Billion Dollar CEU eTD Collection Littlefield, 2006). 14 controversy its’ influence andplaceinAmerican discourse. antisemitic evaluates and controversy that of reasons possible the analyzes that published study nobeen has there however, publications, for a numerous becamecause a Waltand Steven Mearsheimer John paper of working example, aroundexplore. the which For debates intends to the blind-spots paper this working paper. Mearsheimer-Walt’s the around debates the understanding for crucial is which ideology wing Bernard Harrison, Although each of the mentioned topics has enough coverage, some issues still have still issues some coverage, enough has topics mentioned the of each Although 14 The Resurgence of Anti-Semitism: Jews, Israel,and Liberal Opinion. 10 (Lanham: Rowman & Rowman (Lanham: CEU eTD Collection Signal, 1999), 31. 16 15 public narrative. ina openly theories conspiracy of for circulating apossibility opened sametime, the and, at state the of development economical and social in the dynamic national the to contributed freedoms set of a certain and of society character a multicultural that in asense interesting played an important role in the national public discourse. theories isa unique whereconspiracy example not United States the however, tradition; injection. anecessary cultural actually giving mentality culture became just one of numerous dominants, though a powerful one, of American national develop atolerance, need to Puritan the deprived wilderness of NewEngland colonies” of Danielcultural “thepatterns. Boorstin that wrote boundless space,physical surrounding the diversity ofbeliefs, thus, creating aunique and sharedsets introduce various develop cultures phenomenon developedintroduced, were and its’ found in place national the culture. placein thenational culture. Thus, itcould be seen how certain roots of the conspiracy theory of studying how the patterns of from inherited consciousness, an foundabandoned culture,its being formed example byimmigrants,couldAmerica, anation completely almost bea good of United States the First, perspectives. interesting several with ascholar could provide Vardan Bagdasaryan, Daniel J. Boorstin, The Tradition of Conspiracy Myth Creation in the United States The specific concatenation of circumstances determined the emergence of this of emergence the determined circumstances of concatenation The specific Second, acertain political had cultural ofAmerican and openness society helped Studying the phenomenon of conspiracy theory in the context of American history American of context inthe theory conspiracy of phenomenon the Studying The Americans: The Colonial Experience Teoriia Zagovora v otechestvennoii istoriografii vtoroi polovini 19-20 vv . Chapter 1. 11 (New York: Random House, 1958), 8. 15 16 The case of the United States is States United of the Thecase (Moscow: CEU eTD Collection 18 May 11, 2009). 17 eyes of all people are upon us.” make us a praise and glory… for wee must Consider that we shall be as a City upon a Hill, the among us, when ten of us shall be able to resist a thousand of our enemies, when he shall numerous vexations to build the “City upon a Hill”: “We shall find that the God of Israel is first settlers under guidance the John Winthrop of from departed where Europe they suffered communities settled on the shores of American continent back to the seventeenth century. The aggression on specific group of onspecificpeople.aggression group consciousness, rejecting any rational arguments, helped a society to focus its fears and narrative and tool important of social category, That indicativeconsolidation. mythological to conspirological of features main ofthe one be the to appears setting mythological that of friend-or-foe.into Usage was groups: eschatological worldview two where everything divided England and Europe.” in yetaccomplished was which not reformation out in complete towork that order went flank attack on the corruption of Christendom. These Puritans did not flee to America; they immigrants looking for the asylum. “It was an organized task force of Christians, executing a just werenot settlers these that wrote Miller Perry historian American nation. American important for the spreading of suspicions. These two motives have made a big impact on the community of the settlers. On the other hand, it is the motive of confrontation that was through the whole American history. On the one hand, it is a certain exceptionalism of Perry Miller, JohnWinthrop, A Model of Christian Charity http://history.hanover.edu/texts/winthmod.html (accessedon Most of the scholars trace the roots of conspirological mentality in the Puritan One of the scholars argued that conspiracy theory in the United States The feeling of participation in the process marked by Providence shaped the couldbe noticed that mainmotives two the quotation demonstrates clearly The current Errand Into the Wilderness the Into Errand 18 17 (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1996), 11. 1996), Press, University Harvard (Harvard: 12 CEU eTD Collection Journal of American Culture 21 America 20 2009). http://conspiracy.pasleybrothers.com/CT_and_American_Exceptionalism_web_version.htm (accessed May Beyond11, ,Harvard University, and ofTeaching May Years Fifty 13, 2000)Bailyn's of Bernard Celebration in A Symposium Art": an “Sometimes at presented 19 paranoia. culture since the whole process of colonization of the continent was permeated by the spirit of of conspiracy American asa be crucial considered in should establishing Native Americans inhabitants.groups of Some scholars evenarguedthatbetween conflict the andEuropeans these justified towards strugglefor violence Indians.the God - Blacks and atrocities That or wilderness” as a permanent struggle with Evil that was often incarnated in the visible “others” of all men to be abhorred.” looke for mischief: if treason or poison bee of any force: know them all to be very Assasines, in Catholics described such amanner:“…if into your they once creeping come houses,then national and attimesareas of occupied menaces activated external certain consciousness. into images whole wereunited diversity colonies the Federation composed setof the of colony When main or “menace”. group certain andfor enemies were the they represented enemies whose actions could be perceived suspiciously. Catholics, The Spanish or the British Caroline M. Woidat, “The Truth Is on the Reservation: American Indians and Conspiracy Culture,” Conspiracy and Indians American Reservation: onthe Is Truth “The M. Woidat, Caroline Quoted in Avihu Zakai et al., (paper Roswell” to Revolution the from Exceptionalism American and Theory “Conspiracy Pasley, L. Jeffrey sociopolitical divisions. sociopolitical as inequality, scarcity, revolution, or, indeed, of any deep, inherent, or irreconcilable exempted by (or someProvidence otherforce) from such chronic OldWorld problems AmericaNorth hasbeen that widespread the conviction "American exceptionalism," ultimate and social harmony. consensus In particular,ideological it has basic often of protectedsense a what scholarspreserve to have termed functioned frequently has Interpreting the history in religious terms, the settlers perceived their being “in the For instance, reverend William Symonds, one of the ideologists of Virginia colony, Fleeingfrom Europe to avoid settlers oppressions, inevitably inherited fears and (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2002), 109. 21 29, 4 no. (December2006): 457. Exile andKingdom: History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to 20 19 13 The CEU eTD Collection Press, 1990), 118. AmericanIndian,” 24 no. 2(April 1972): 206 25 23 ABC-Clio, 2003), s.v. “Indians, North American.” 22 instrument of foreign manipulation (French or Spanish,in particular). That fear was civilitie.” so peoplecorrupte created viceany for and beastliness, without mixture of and goodnesse images of “subhuman” opposed to aChristian emphasizeto its sinful “God nature: never itreally was,butas a skillfully planned wardriven “by military devilishly genius.” Rebellion” was notperceived by the British settlers as a series of odd raids of the Natives, as who was driven by hostile foreign countries or even by Satan himself. Thus, “Red King’s the mythology of a Great Chief – the personification of settlers’ fears before the war genius happen.” causeditone to of predicting the futureand preparingfor it and of justifying what would one do,even before Europeans thus far had rarely been pacific. To imagine the Indian as a savage beast was a way dangerous. “Regardless of the natural temperament of the New World man, his contact with and aggressive asnaturally wasperceived in of that actions spite Christian any peaceful imagination astable popularhadof the European asavagehostile pattern toward created hand, other the On them. with cooperated actively and trading of inasense in them interested Quoted in Alden T. Vaughan, “From White Man to Redskin: Changing Anglo-American Perceptions of the Russel Bourne, Gary B. Nash, “The Image of the Indian in the Southern Colonial Mind”, Peter Knight devils themselves. devils Indians weredevil worshippers out to do theirmaster’s bidding, not though actual people. Especially among New the England Puritans, it wascommonly believed that the cherished,a place wheremonsters and devilslived totestfaith the ofgood, civilized In traditional wilderness culture,Judaeo-Christian wasaplacebe tofearedrather than In some cases Indians were driven by Devil, but sometimes they were perceived as an One of the methods to demonize odd parts of resistant Natives was the formation of The relations with Native Americans were twofold: on the one hand, Europeans were 24 Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics inNew 1675-1678England, The American Historical Review 22 23 Thereby, lot of a sources from this period preserved demonized 87,no.4 (October1982): 927. 14 (Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Denver, Barbara, (Santa The William and Mary Quarterly (Oxford: Oxford University Oxford (Oxford: 25 29, CEU eTD Collection Press, 1998), 63. Schultz, ed., Schultz, 28 Ethnohistory 27 of Florida, 2005), 176. 26 and killed by the white New Englanders.” became‘Praying aliability Indians’ for abeleaguered people attacked whowere incarcerated, the relations with that group of the Native population was destroyed and the “very name of in peace fragile The with pagans. read Holy Indians andcollaborated who Bible treacherous Indians. The British, contrary to their preceding beliefs, very soon trusted rumors of collaborating with Indian rebels gave birth to the subconscious distrust to all the baptized way to create a “City upon the Hill”. However, the first rumors of “praying Indians” to Puritan religious philosophy, their baptism was one of the important achievements on the Indians” – the baptized Natives who spoke in English and wore European clothes. According corresponding world view. a manner todress. like ordinary civilians, traderscouldEuropean them detect by specific “French” behavior and looked they Although who sawFrenchofficers. that wrote traders British of the reports the behavior of the Chief Pontiac who called his victories the “return of Father”, i.e. France; from in the everywhere: found be could hand” “hidden French The war. years in Seven loss their for arevenge French of perceived as the “The was later PontiacConspiracy”, called rebellion, Indian A recurrent character. underlinetheirconspiratorial to precisely “conspiracies” Georgia. “thethat French and Spaniardsdebauch aretrying to Indians” our destroy purposely to specifically active near the border line. Hereby, the Earl of Egmont, John Percival claimed Kristina Bross, “The Vilification of Praying Indians during the King Philip’s War” in Nancy Lusignan Gregory E. Dowd, “The French King Wakes up in Detroit: ‘Pontiac’s War’ in Rumor and History,” Shane A. Runyon, “Borders and Rumors: The Georgia Frontier in the Atlantic World” (PhD diss., University The most striking example of the enormous suspiciousness was the so called “Praying 26 Some of the Indian rebellions were called in American historiography 37, (Summerno. 3 1990): 261. Fear itself: enemies real andimagined inAmerican culture 27 Examining these sources, the settlers and authorities, thereafter, shaped a 28 15 (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Purdue IN: Lafayette, (West CEU eTD Collection 1914), http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/BurNarr.html (accessed onMay 11, 2009). 31 http://www.pasleybrothers.com/conspiracy/ (accessed onMay 11, 2009). 30 Christian religion, clearly drawing lines between friends and foes: “Here are but two parties in parties two but are “Here foes: and friends between lines drawing clearly religion, Christian Cherokee Frontier,” 29 discovered would probably Blow up,and pull all down Churchesinthe Country.”the Witchcraft, and a Foundation of Witchcraft then laid, which if it were not seasonably Matther, described that conspiracy as the “plot of the Devil…, against the Country by conspiracy” against Christianity in New England transparent. The priest from Boston, Cothon for further hysteria in Salem. Being a “visible other” again, her confession had made “Satanic knows each other, there is always afear of plotand conspiracy, provided by Satan. theory”, clearly defined that even in the closed space of a colonial city, where everyone conspiracy American first“thesomecalled even process, that scholars Salem witchcraft in colonies, the underliningthus, cultural mental and connection with history.European level of the settlers as well.Witchcraft processes, popular in the Middle Ages, also took place internal enemy, connected with Satan, in particular, existed permanently in the subconscious settlements, except for Praying Indians, who perfectly nourished fears of subversion, a fear of and imaginedfear them: create enemies settlers to of European inclination George Lincoln Burr, Theory” Conspiracy American First The “Witchcraft: Pasley, L. Geoffrey Quoted in Gregory E. Dowd, “The Panic of 1751: The Significance of Rumors on the South Carolina- Throats, andThroats, at times other theIndiansdestroy wereconfederating to us. to drive us into the Sea. Country, Sometimes in that the Negroeswere were ever than to Rise Men and more cut their with Masters Louisiana from land by marching were prepared Embarkation for [Invasion] at St. Augustine and Havana, or that the French had Spaniards madebelieve the that were Peace... [to] in even of profound time Once againthe society intowas divided groups:two plotters and defenders of the Tituba, a black woman that first confessed to sorcery, established a necessary ground If Indians were perceived as enemies who were plotting from the outside of aspecific havebeennoticed in century already Some eighteenth observers the The William and Mary Quarterly Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648-1706 53, no. 3, (July,1996): 541. 16 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 29 30 31 CEU eTD Collection 1863” (PhD diss.,University of California, Santa Cruz, 2002),3. 34 witchcraft and kindred subjects, volume Iand II 33 32 creating the groundfor suspiciousness andmyths of conspiracies of slaves. Usually, the made theirimage and dangerous suspicious. of Rumors uprisings has been circulating and barbarians and culturally undeveloped persons. On the other, various uprisings of slaves had notable. focus on the black slaves whose population in the end of the seventeenth century was already When settlers realized that Indians do not constitute real dangerfor theiridentity, they shifted with changing dangers for a community, a society changes the image of the main menace. perceive their social identity identity and reality. theirperceive social values and,in fearsparticular, misconceptions, and which help social constructandgroups to beliefs, popular of connection the represents that culture of dominants overpowering the role giving anexplanation social to and political vicissitudes. animportant played theories conspiracy already primitive timeat this the that demonstrates Nevertheless, the narrative of “devilish conspiracy” mentioned in numerous sources, clearly triggered anxiety and fears, whichis processes in towitchcraft characteristic general. the onesideis other.” or on Everyone neuters. the world: the Lamb and his followers, and the dragon and his followers… Here are no the questioningsthe were sayingthatthey saw Devil inembodied Indian. by King Philip’s war – Indian rebellion that took place at this time. Thus, some girls during scholars with Salem reason argued that by weretriggeredprocesses witch fears generated the Casey L. Kile, “’Shadows in the Forest’: Native Americans, Slaves and Conspiracy in U.S. Literature, 1675- Charles WentworthUpham, Quoted in Robert A.Goldberg, The perception of Blacks was dual as well: on one hand, they were considered as Scholars had noticed that the conspirological perception of the reality is usually of is one reality of the usually perception conspirological had the that noticed Scholars The main cause for Salem witchcrafts is still the subject of discussions; however, some however, of discussions; subject isthe still witchcrafts Salem for cause main The Salem witchcraft; with an account of Salem village,and a history of opinions on Enemies within 34 (Boston , 5. Therefore, it looks rather obviously that together 17 32 : Wiggin and Lunt, 1860) , 40-53. 33 Social problems Social CEU eTD Collection 36 University Press of 2003),Kansas, 132. 35 experience or elaborated already in American colonies, the conspirological discourse conspirological the colonies, already in American elaborated or experience with highly developed setof national werefears, partly that inherited from European Interacting hardships. political and social its explaining and society mobilizing both America people. and ordinary of authorities an Spanish called attention the Catholic priests whomasked theiridentity to undermine colonies fugitiveand slaves hired by anticipation of the Black revolt resulted in the New York hysteria of 1741. Rumors about the suspiciousness toSpain as Catholic country re-evoked old that Protestant fears andpermanent traditional together), American colonies pursued was war that firstthe (it colonies andYork was triggered by warwiththe inSpain 1740. forground suspicions. The most notable “conspiracy” of slaves appeared in 1741 in New firenear place of the in (like duringfiresand 1741, the in gave factual New York) the that saw mechanism: someone blacks hadthe similar theories” “conspiracy of colonial emergence colony. beneficiaries who had an experience and were able to manage the plot todestroy the whole andHereby, real government. embodied Catholics the acoup couldoverthrow organize slaves who were caught could notexplain the events. Americans never believed that slaves conditioned by reality since every ten years there was a big revolt of slaves. However, those were revolts of concerns the Certainly, conspiracy.” “Newof the framework York whole the suspicion Catholicstowards broughtby from Protestants preconditionedEurope their in place inherited an Thus, slaves. the than important more even maybe conspiracy, in this role Peter C. Hoffer, Peter C. Hoffer, Thus, the aspiration to strengthen American identity through the mobilization of mobilization the through identity American strengthen to aspiration the Thus, Basically, the conspiracy narrative played an important role in prerevolutionary role important an played narrative conspiracy the Basically, The investigation that took place after the fires showed that Catholics played a crucial 36 Eventually, twenty slaves were executed and their“white” accomplices as well. The Great New York Conspiracy of 1741 The Great New York Conspiracy of 1741: Slavery, Crime, andColonial Law 18 , 137. 35 (Lawrence: CEU eTD Collection Press, 1992), 56. 38 29, (1995):no.1 37-50. 37 plan, thus, the revolutionary were trying to exonerate themselves from exonerate themselves from responsibility.George therevolutionary plan, to were trying thus, conspiracy. Moreover, the possible rebellion against the Crown was presented as result of that a manner,economical will the was in independence and political packed to narrative of the Insuch plot. authoritarian of expectations with the ministers” andcorrelated of a “conspiracy colonies. from of American rob citizens the of rights to conspiracy authoritarian attaching to the whole body of the discussion a sense of desperate panic before a possible political power as a “human hand” or a hand of power that does not know any limit, thus, political accepted generally discourse. successfully mobilizing the population of American colonies. Moreover, it became a part of just helpedshapeWell-established tradition to theclearframework of it and utilize conspiracy nation. forming of narratives dominant the of one became already and ever than influence Whereas during the prerevolutionary the narrativeperiod of conspiracy had agreater understanding the reality or areflection to that reality of certain groups in certain regions. the society used conspirological explanations rather as a psychological supplement in impulse was colonies an American tostart Revolution. “enslave” American to British of “conspiracy” the the that argued even Some scholars as well. and history for the American crucial world fewevents a historical predetermined Quoted in Bernard Bailyn, Benjamin McArthur, “They’re out to Get Us”: Another Look at our Paranoid Tradition,” everywhere ineverywhere life, andpublic itis everywhere threatening, pushing andgrasping. motion, desire, and appetite all at once, being restless, aspiring and insatiable.’… It is is itit isSometimes Sometimes andit ‘likeaeats every faster hour.’ faster cancer, Sometimes power ‘is like an ocean, noteasily admitting limits to be fixed in it.’ it initsseizes‘what is nature; it and will ‘grasping’ Power ‘tenacious’ retain.’ EverythingBritish that governmenttried tointroduce in coloniesthe wasperceived as the age described from Prerevolutionary appeared the that of The theory politics Ideological Origins of American Revolution, 19 37 In previously mentioned precedents 25th ed. (Harvard: Harvard University The History Teacher 38 CEU eTD Collection 40 Press, 1971), 34. Conspiracy: Images ofun-American Subversion from the Revolution to the Present 39 England andher colonies.” while assiduously working to destroy the bonds of authority and force a rupture between at the head of this faction was “a secret, power hungry cabal that professed loyalty to England a “faction”hadlocal And concluded that hadorganized aconspiracy against administration. instabilities purposely seize into power colonies. Thus, Bernard governor of Massachusetts from the British Empire as a group of plotters who created disturbances and internal and firmness, can prevent it.” [colonies, I.Y.], and that nothing but unanimity in the colonies (a stroke they did not expect) them enforce formed to plan systematic hasbeenaregular, there existence, that own Washington wrote to Bryan Fairfax in 1774: “whilst Iam as fully convinced, as I am myof political political circumstances. and social on depending a dominant being times at society American of discourse public subversion as well. Thereby, these two groups of conspiracy fears were presented in the in fear of alien andhostility the expressed conflicts theinterethnic for fertile ground society based on the regular influx of immigrants from all over the world apparently created a American Moreover, theories. inconspiracy groups other aliensor towards suspiciousness for fears united communities openedawidetheexpression various perspective of and society as a conspiracy to gain an authoritarian power. On the other hand, the single state that hand, politics the ofAmerican governmentwere permanently by interpreted various groups of one the On level. next the to shifted mentality conspirological of development the that said be consolidated various communities and states in the one federation. From that moment it could Bernard Bailyn, Letter from George Washington to Bryan Fairfax, August 24, 1774 from David Brion Davis’, Brion David from 1774 24, August Fairfax, Bryan to Washington George from Letter At the same time the colonial authorities perceived the proponents of separation of the proponents the perceived authorities time colonial the At same the The victory in the war for independence and founding of the United States of America Ideological Origins of American Revolution, 40 39 20 151. (Ithaca: Cornell University The Fear of CEU eTD Collection ABC-Clio, 2003), s.v. “Alien and SeditionActs”. evident intention of aiding the tyrants of France in subverting thegovernment ofthe United 42 ve%22&chapter=93197&layout=html#a_2087090 (accessed onMay 11, 2009). http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php&title=1386&search=%22subversiHamilton, 41 published apamphlet, Republicans, “hordes of wild Irishmen” were of greatest danger. Thus, William Cobbett serious concerns of foreign intervention in domestic affairs. For certain group, primarily political changes, underwent which inEurope of turn nineteenththe century, experienced unbalanced political founded structure, notlong before French revolution and crucial other simple.” and plain it, against asconspirators save and to republic,opponents the their steps sometimes distasteful if necessary as taking saw themselves approve They practice. of the everlearningwithout to preserving the worst elements of the British political system and aspirations to despotism. country.” of the and happiness peace, judgment, subversive of principlesthe government of andgood dangerousto Union,the “a faction decidedly hostile to me and my administration; and actuated by views, in my affiliation with British Empire. Alexander Hamilton claimed that Jefferson and Madison are refusal to enter the war with Britain supporting France was a necessary evidence of his Washington George was quite often inportrayed political the as cartoons a king whereas his transferred tothesuspiciousness Americanthe towards andmajor government politicians. gradually were ministers British towards andsuspiciousness fears Prerevolutionary influence. hasits is still discourse aconspirological that clearly demonstrated state Peter Knight Letter toColonel Edward Carrington, May 26, 1792 Alexanderin Hamilton, At the same time, the United States being a young republic and being fragile with younga republic United a At States sametime, the the Jeffrey Pasley wrote that “American politicians of the 1790s engaged in party politics new of the structure about the antifederalists and federalists of the debates Thus, the vol.9 (Federal Edition), ed. Henry Cabot Lodge (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia 42 Detection of aconspiracy 41 In response, Thomas Jefferson accused Hamilton in Hamilton accused Jefferson Thomas response, In 21 , formed by the United Irishmen: with the (Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Denver, Barbara, (Santa The Works of Alexander CEU eTD Collection ion=div1 (accessedMay on 11, 2009). new2?id=JefVirg.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=8&divis The number of its inhabitants? 44 43 Theodore Remington argues, a“community-building rhetoric under conditions of duress, extent. Even so, creation and dispersion of conspirological narrative appears to be, as various groups of community the efficiency and influence of such narrative has a different a role of defensive mechanism from “outside attacks” on the community’s existence. In plays narrative conspirological particular communities, or societies, Insidethese under siege”. element appearedtobe laws an important of society aphenomenon suffering “community of And though virtually repressiveinstrumentsthese were never usedin factional struggle, these fear of government toauthoritarianism tending andmanipulated by bunchthe of conspirators. the settlers; second, of European groups in various menace embodied external fearthe the of first, theories: conspiracy for American typical main fears two lawsabsorbed These republic. immigrants, primarily Irish and British, since they were of great danger for the young Virginia could that be American is contrary to in especiallyvisible Jefferson’s Thomas French.” positions in government,the so that country the bemight simply handed overto invadingthe States “ Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Ibid. mass. spirit, warp and bias its direction, and render it aheterogeneous, incoherent, distracted their numbers, they will share with us the legislation. They will infuse into it their principles, with theirlanguage, they will transmit to their children. In proportion to principles of the governments they leave, imbibed in their early youth... These them with the bring They will numberemigrants. greatest of expect the we areto Alien and Sedition passedacts that in Congress in 1798were firstthe cry against An apprehension of possible dominance excessive ofimmigrants with inherited values accusing the group’sjust-organizing American of chapters planninggain to critical : 43 44 Notes on the State of Virginia ” http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer- (New York: n/a,1984), under 22 “ ‘Population’ Notes on CEU eTD Collection Anti-Mormon Literature”, 46 16-17. 45 consisted in their allegiance toautonomous center of power and strict hierarchy that kept in likegroups Freemasons, nativists, thus, showed advantage of American values andbeliefs. imagined or in immigrants embodied groups alien of “otherness” the Emphasizing vigilance. obligation to maintain obligation to harmonious relationships with those outside the community.” when the need to foster a sense of common identity within the community overrode any times with certain suspiciousness. certain with times of various political andgradual parties) of process cultural diversification was perceived at project of world’s destiny. However, the complication of political process (i.e. the emergence the realizes anddirection successfully chose aright nation the that confidence era gave certain ideology of ageof nativistduring the economic The Jacksonian economic progress prosperity. enemies. national political hadfoundmanyorder insupporters Unitedthe States thereby setenriching the of destroy a present to plotting societies fearssecret of European Moreover, values. nativist imagescorrelatedheritage well) contemporary frightening that with evoking a or Protestant perceived as conspirators for a long time in the nineteenth century (and even twentieth, as dangerfor the state. Thus, immigrants from Europe who professed Catholicism were David Brion Davis, “Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Theodore J. Remington, “Conspiracy Narratives asPolitical Rhetoric” (PhD diss., University of Iowa,2002), and shifting environment. they acquired a sense of self-identity and personal direction in an otherwise rootless faith, and to demonstrate their allegiance to certain ideals and institutions. By so doing Many feltAmericans a compelling need toarticulate loyalties,their toprove their The roots of American fears of Catholic, Mormon and Freemasons’ subversiveness And conspiracy theories were a good way wereagood And theories demonstrate loyalty one’s conspiracy increaseto and As David Brion Davis noted, a fear of conspiracies appeared to be a variation of the Differentperiods ofAmerican history had different actorswho represented the main The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 46 23 47, no.2 (September 47,no.2 1960): 209. 45 CEU eTD Collection the the 1850s”, 47 conspiracy to destroy their traditional lifestyle pattern. White Californians were afraid of in tofearsupporters or rebels their Black werepredisposed southerners abolitionist party suspected Catholics in in Northern the states plotting againstthecountry, while The Nothinggroups. Know fears different same the created amongst diversity widespread of theories. conspiracy of bunch whole the generating consequently, and, changes socioeconomic drastic of explanation key the menace” a manner, mass influxes of Jewish newcomers in from 1880s madeEastern Europe “Jewish community. in such In orfindinganother ascapegoat newcomers progressed of acculturation been activating and usually efficient during the short period of time fading sofar as an extentpreconditioned the phenomenal, short-lived, though Know success Nothingof party. middle of social nineteenth the prompted changesand tocertain economical century Jefferson’s apprehensions. For instance, the great influx of Catholics to Massachusetts in the in question a state’s stability and guarantees of American freedoms, thus, reflecting described as dirty, uncultured and disloyal thehoststate.to Their visible “otherness” hadput were immigrants these century: nineteenth inthe Hungary to immigration Jewish mass Italians to the United States was marked with almost the same attitude that had, for instance, mass of influx and Irish Thereby, the toAmerican. contradicted often that tradition national institutions focused primarily on theirand partial inherited acculturation with affiliation and nightmares. obviously represented internalthe to threat wholethe country invoking theworstnativistfears they challenged, was values and institutions American to loyalty their Since institutions. these Dale Baum, “Know-Nothingism and the Republican Majority Massachusetts:in The Political Realignment of However, the unique diversity of ethnic communities that arrived theUnited that communities States uniquediversity to the However, of ethnic Being the dominant attimes of trend attitudes anti-immigrantpublic have attitudes, The suspiciousness towards Catholics that applied both to immigrants and Catholic The Journal of American History 64, no.4 (March 1978): 960. 24 47 CEU eTD Collection Klux Klan provided simultaneously various anti-Catholics, anti-Communist and anti-Jewish States. support in 1920s the havingmillions 6 of andsupporters 48chapters all Unitedover the Sociological Forum 50 2001), 98. Hanging Together: Unity and Diversity in American Culture 49 2009) University of California Press, 1997), http://www.hereinstead.com/Crack-in-Context.htm (accessedMayon 11, 48 with the sinister influence of visible “others”: immigrants, Blacks, etc. and wholeness of life discovering the changes of the whole political and economic system for asimplicity asked this caseAmericans asawill In Providence. project” of “American the perceive impulse longto tothe anew American gave nation tradition of “purification” for the Correlating with the persistent fear of foreign menace to destroy the American order, the cry mainthe of United motto States. equally public agendathatwasperceived throughout nation of American the made a“purification” hadin of the emergedcentury turn twentieth the nativism new of wave the that life.Consequently, andpolitical socioeconomic hierarchy of national inasingle, them integrated and communities of aseparateness diminish to helped area. certain dependingthe on groups different the focused on slavery. 1870s against theChinese whosmoked opium drugged whiteand women into sexual in campaign impulse an active press immigrants that by posed Chinese threat economical Rory McVeigh, “PowerDevaluation, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Democratic National Convention of 1924,” John Higham, Integrating America: The Problem of Assimilation at the Turn of the Century inJohn Higham’s Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine, G. Harry and Reinarman Craig immorality; racially, through contamination of the very body of the nation. the of body very the of contamination through racially, immorality; politically, through the sale of votes; socially, through the spread of crime, disease, and identical towhat they discerned inimmigrants. The evil in both cases was pollution: essentially with blacks…was evil associated Americans native white The great that 50 The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, as a key phenomenon in that context, had visible However, the processes of industrialization and economic interdependence of of states interdependence economic and industrialization theprocesses of However, 48 Claiming the purity Americanof nation supportingand “100American”, Percent Ku Thus, the conspirological narrative was widespread in American in American but society, waswidespread narrative Thus, conspirological the 16, no.1 (2001): 2. Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice 25 (New Haven, London: Yale University Press, University Yale London: Haven, (New 49 (Berkeley: CEU eTD Collection William William and Mary Quarterly 51 in the mythological nature of that phenomenon. Myth in its nature not only explains reality, it an ordinary a scarceknowledgeobjectiveto person. reality open of conspirological myth appears to be a sort of psychological counterpart, which aims at adding appropriate manner, otherwise the information would be simply distorted. Very often the Conspiracy theory has in its structure a number of real facts but they are used in an fiction. in areality pictures it if even fact of basis the on relies myth every mythology, politics, and a perception of events in terms of conspiracy theory. From the point of view of vitality. Itis always hard to distinguish a real fact of conspiracy, which is an integral part of social reality." "an theory inrepresented Westernenlightened stage man'slong tocomprehend struggle his of human intentions and to maintain moral coherence in the affairs of men." Thus, conspiracyin terms phenomena human explain to attempt a rational "but Wood, S. Gordon wrote minds," integral part of political discourse. "The belief in plots was not a symptom of disturbed became an in theAmerica, allegations conspiracy in prerevolutionary century, eighteenth arguments (i.e. political views of opponents). Being a part of political debates already in the this tool couldbe equally of deprived racial andbasedallegations onthemore sophisticated consciousness, human’s of nature mythological in Originating theories. conspiracy American clearly charges. “plutocrats” employinginternational antisemitic and “money-changers” in Depression Great the during underwent States United the conspiracy theories. Henry Ford and later Charles Coughlin found the core of problems that Gordon S. Wood, “Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style: Causality and Deceit in the Eighteenth Century,” One of the possible explanations of popularity of conspiracy theories could be found One problem narrativedealing with is conspirological crucial for understanding its in few of trends the menace” wasone motive dominant the of “immigrant However, 51 39, no. 3(July 411,1982): 429. 26 The CEU eTD Collection 54 Century Studies 53 Hosking eds. 52 plot could be explained in a necessity to articulate loyalties and strengthen in belief into in its’ ability mobilizeto thecommunity: internal politics during the troubled times. The efficiency of allegation in conspiracy consisted for in events giveway and to adescription efficient wasthe easiest actions abolitionists’ plotted with Freemasons dissolution of the monarchy and Catholic religion. Frenchthe Revolution was caused by Voltaire, Rousseau andthe otherphilosophers who that Barruell de Ogusten of theory right-wing the was events political explained that theory whole conspiracy first the Thus, systems. andsocial states of collapse disasters, reforms, changing reality.Apparently, conspirological discourse gains popularity in the time of common Schöpflinworldview. George wrote: distinguishes reality between “us” and “them”, designating group borders and creating a David Brion Davis, “Some Themes of Counter-Subversion”, 210. of Counter-Subversion”, Themes “Some Davis, Brion David Amos Hofman,“Opinion, Illusion, and the Illusion of Opinion:Barruel's Theory of Conspiracy,” George Schöpflin, “The Functions of Myth and a Taxonomy of Myths” in George Schöpflin and Geoffrey and Schöpflin George in ofMyths” aTaxonomy and of Myth Functions “The Schöpflin, George diversity. first it was necessary discoverto an enemy by distinguishing subversion from simple traditions of Founders,the and help to insure continued expansion and prosperity, but preservedesire protectOnemight thegloriousher enemies, Republic to the against to much samethe thought-world. members of a community to recognize that, broadly, they share a mindset, they are in as normal and natural and others as perverse and alien… It provides the means for the far so (in as these truths exist at all),validated about the ways in historically which than communities regard rather certain propositionsperceptions is about myth Centrally, Myth is a set of beliefs, usually put forth as a narrative, held by a community itself. If during a rather calm period of 1820s the yearning to find a Catholic orFreemasons’ Discovering the conspiracy in Freemasons’ subversion, corrupt politicians or Conspiracy theories are the most comfortable answers to the question being raised by beingraised question tothe comfortablemost answers arethe Conspiracy theories Myths and Nationhood, 54 27, no. 1. (Autumn, 1993): 28. (London: C.Hurst, 1997), 19-20. 52 27 53 Eighteenth- CEU eTD Collection 02.html (accessed May 11, 2009). 57 56 Review 55 American exceptionalism. Basically, during the Progressive age both, the idea of corrupted the United States is a first victim of international conspirators, thus, emphasizing again in that weregiven ideas context the these Moreover, economics. American to destroy standard nativistreflected mentality, ideas promoted politicians of corrupted whointroduced gold mass influx of immigrants gave that interpretation the new meaning. new the interpretation that gave immigrants of influx mass anewfor therewith, people conspiratorial opened unemployed, interpretation; perspective domination.” few wicked men who, for base & selfish purposes, wish to subject ourCountry to foreign WashingtonGeorge in press the that one of hisperceived supporters as a campaign “theof defensive from “outside mechanism community’son the attacks” existence. republican values, so during the age of serious changes the conspiracy theories functioned as a conspiracy of South against North. conspiracy.At the same time, abolitionists of 1850s perceived an existence of slavery as a Uncle Tom’sCabin the conspiracy of northerners against slavery. A secret underground railroad, promotion of Chip Berlet, Chip Robert A.Goldberg, Quoted in Marshall Smelser, “George Washington and the Alien and Sedition Acts”, Sedition and Alien the and Washington “George Smelser, Marshall in Quoted illuminating, and solidifying, thegood sanctifying ‘us’. serves a by dual purpose both representing the evil‘them’ and simultaneously ‘we’ whoout demandfor is enemy scapegoatthus The are-the increased. scapegoats In times when the core identity of a society is imperiled-when we have trouble figuring 59, no.2 (January 59, 1954): 330. The Populist Party’s political agenda together with an uncovered antisemitism, that Structural changes of economical and political system after Civil war, that leftlots of attack started political opponents of Independence after Declaration the Thus, right During the antebellum period southern newspapers were full of the articles crying of Dynamics of Bigotry 55 Enemies within, , support of the slaves’ disobedience were perceived as a clear sign of , under “The Scapegoat,” http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/scapegoating- 10-12. 56 28 57 The American Historical CEU eTD Collection Publishers, 1997), 46-52. 60 Henry Holt, 1958), 191. 59 1968): 68. 58 desperate fears of the Communists “infiltrating” the country. the “infiltrating” fearsCommunists the of desperate with “atomic project” together with a series of sensational spy scandals gave a basis for used in the electoral campaigns. The “loss” of China, the war in Korea and Soviet success Party actively menaceRepublican that fear marked bythegrowing War of Communist was “witch hunt” became an important milestone and a first sign of the age when the fear of He is tryinginfluence to and yourcontrol thoughts.” is in the market places of America: in organizations, on street corners, even at your front door. communist “The sense: conspirological clearly ina given sometimes was States United in the andban leftist organizations in 1930s.the However, the description of Communists presence individualism) while the governmentused a Communist menace as instrumentan tosuppress could treat communist menace both in a racial and cultural way (as atheists and enemies of nationalnumerous values being auseful for differenttool groups as well. Thus, nativists rights. subversive attachingorganizations, thus, anativist totheordinary sense for the struggle and unpatriotic asdisloyal, perceived wereautomatically in States revolution United the Communistin government SovietRussia in with1917 orprotested mottos of Socialist as fifth column and attract public suspiciousness. Workers who openly welcomed the century. was madein description twentieth the probably,it wasmade under the influence of mass immigrantinfluxes, but its more explicit authorities and immigrant menace, were united into all-inclusive conspiracy theory. Most Gary A. Donaldson, John Edgar Hoover, Patrick Renshaw, “IWW and the Red Scare 1917-1924,” 58 Bolshevik in revolution Russia createdpotentially new whocould group be considered Actually, anti-communism was convenient and that new menace responded to responded menace new that and convenient was anti-communism Actually, Masters of deceit: the story of communism in America and how to fight it Abundance and Anxiety: America, 1945-1960 29 Journal of Contemporary History 59 The first decade after Second World Second decade after Thefirst (Westport, Connecticut, London: Praeger 60 Thus, Senator McCarthy’s Thus,Senator 3, no.4 (October no.4 3, (New York: CEU eTD Collection 62 Cornell University Press, 2000), 12. 61 agents.” are being controlled by someone else, that one has been ‘constructed’ by powerful external anxiety about an apparent loss of autonomy or self-control – the conviction that one’s actions narrativesin Americaconspirological as postwar “agency describingitas “intensepanic” Timothy these called Melley discourse. in public the of theories conspiracy dispersion industrial post-industrialand, later, society as well as cultural changes awidepredetermined conspiracy mentality in the United States. Social and economical changes, introduction of fears andhysteria. society conspiracy bewould actively in used public permanently politics in raising certain groups of brainwashed people andshadowed for citizens theof United States. some to that,according theories, corporations and transnational federal the government Black communities and right-wing activistsmovement) (militia to suspiciousnessthe towards conspiracies: from old-fashioned international Jewish conspiracy accepted by members of of various more became aboundingnarrative a partof against United States the plots Christians Constitutionalists who expanded the circle of conspirators from Jews to most radical part of right-wing movement who hold Jews for all American problems, these groups that basically trace their roots in the nativistmovement: Identity Christians the made Sociologists atypology that apparentlyof involves sentiments. antisemitic government) international organizations (UN, for instance) and often called ZOG (Zionist occupational members of the militia movement argued that federal government is fully under the control of numerous both right-wing and left-wing conspiracy theories. Thus, right wing activists and Gary Allen, Gary Timothy Melley, In general, Second World War became the frontier for further development of The long tradition of suspiciousness towards governmentthe found its’ inexpression 61 Previous conspiracy theories that gave an account of religious or ethnically based None Dare Call It Conspiracy Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America (Seal Beach, California: Concord Press, 1972). 30 62 (Ithaca, London: CEU eTD Collection 67 science quarterly Masses,” and of Elites Acomparison Americans: African among theories Conspiracy in “Beliefs Parsons, Political Culture,” 66 http://www.danielpipes.org/books/conspiracychap.php (accessedMay on 11, 2009) 65 Books, 1979). 64 Press, 1990), 12-20. 63 conspiracy theories, regardless of social and economical status ofrespondents. status andeconomical social of regardless theories, conspiracy “community siege”,Blacks under supportthe consistently demonstrate of anti-government agenda. national topics of certain on concerns who hold specific Patriots andIssue-Oriented and Bildelbergers) (asTrilateralists organizations international conducted inconducted Unitedthe from States 1960sclearlythe declining demonstrated supportof trust fact its popularity real address to structural inequities of society. Sociological surveys matter of asa thatindeed exists, order, andeconomic political in contemporary the treachery partially predetermined by itself.reality community.” nationalism, consistent with American traditions, that made belief the criterion of anew for “thebecoming watchword actions of powers, evaluate and politics contemporary Black communities and nowadays its became “lifeblood”. of role important national in self-awareness plays an creating narrative conspirological the government). American controls lobby of Israel that under control of huge corporations, CIA or foreign governments, as well (forinstance, in case conspiracy theories lay stress on the violation of civil rights and critics of government that is Robert A.Goldberg, Anita M. Waters, “Conspiracy Theories as Ethnosociologies: Explanation and Intention in African American African in Intention and Explanation asEthnosociologies: Theories “Conspiracy Waters, M. Anita Daniel Pipes, Conspiracy: John Marks, John James A. Aho, Since conspirological myth creation draws upon the certain elements of of secret elements upon certain the draws myth creation Since conspirological Conspiracy theory andConspiracy became called animportant discourse widespread describetheory to example, For notions. conspirological sharespecific certain communities Moreover, TheSearch for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control 67 86, no. 3(2005): 596. The Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian Patriots The popularity of conspiracy discourse in the contemporary United States was Journal of Black Studies Enemies within, How Paranoidthe Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From 232. 28, no. 1 (September1997): 121; Paul W. Simmons and Simon 31 64 65 Sharing the ideology of (Seattle: University of Washington 63 At the same time, left-wing time, same the At (New York: Times York: (New 66 Social CEU eTD Collection Graumann and Serge Moscovici (New York: Springer, 1987), 1. I: Preliminary Draft of a Theory of Conspiracy Theories” in 70 MinnesotaPress, 2000), 71. 69 the Public Mind 68 psychological explanation to the social alienation of people who believe in conspiracy and paranoid a person the against implicatesgives fearthat areplotting the others context, to federal government that creates discontent in pursuing politics. place behind reality.” time theevil has oris occurred, morethat is occurringmore and and becoming essential, takes longer as it should be. It becomes more and more an illusion, a semblance, while at the same forces thatthey cannot control donotunderstand.or So, worldthe these around people“is no whereas, for certain group of people conspiracy theory appears to be a response to impersonal in itscience, search some in religion, answers the search some people However, politics. mass shapes his own world view perceiving occurring events through prismthe mass of culture and with scandal from discoursepopular alsoimpoverished political life: theories affiliated with government. into public political shattered trust anecessary conspiracy system and gave to confirmation Watergate scandal, Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, COINTELPRO, etc.) have seriously andevents ofmodern became American history developments that (such public knowledge as Dieter Groh, “The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory; or,Why Do Bad Things Happen To Good People? Part Fenster, Mark SeymourMartin Lipset and William Schneider, political political choice. guarantor …serves as of ultimate the of candidates perceivedthe trustworthiness as politics, of contemporary are amongcrucial most practices of trust the manipulation affectivebetween the publicandthepolitical.the connection production The and removal of one politician of party for another, the politics of trust and certainty shape In the ‘mood politics’ of scandal,in which ‘change’ can only be imagined as the In a presentworld dominated by individualism, culturethe of an ordinary person debates so-calledwhich replaced politics” the “mood that Some argued researchers (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 15. Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power inAmerican Culture 69 70 Paranoia, psychological the usually disturbance, mentioned in this The Confidence Gap: Business,Labor, and the Government in 32 Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy 68 (Minneapolis: University of Moreover, some political , ed. Carl F. CEU eTD Collection 2002). 74 University Press, 2003), 227. eds. Sanders, 73 University of CaliforniaPress, 2003), 26-28. 72 Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 39-40. 71 of history. whole American “conspiracy nation”, thus, emphasizing the role of suspiciousness and fear of plot throughout throughout American history does not mean that the United States could be singled out as a discourse national in theories conspiracy of existence the that noted be also should it history, transparentdaylight, in the opaque twilight of deep politics.” prefer action conferby elitesglare of out the political whoandoperate subjective to of conspiracy would fatally follow it. “Conspiracy linktheories structural and historical forces to inherently politicalsurrounds beingand economic activities, apartit,of the notions of government notions.suspiciousness expressedin Andtoward if conspirological secrecy in whilelegitimized could lenddiscourse public conspiracies credence to certain operational be havefewerchancesto is from “World conspiracies” andfarvariations paranoid reality. everyday operations of institutions,government and“world conspiracies” inmanythat of part the are which conspiracies, operational types: two into conspiracies divides scientists that discourse not infrequently transfer from the margins of society to its center. of elements some bea“stigmatized knowledge”, to Michael appears Barkun to and according attimes. notions shares conspirological people who focusing primarily on personalities with chronicle diseases andleaving aside largegroup of theories. Peter Knight, Todd West and G. Harry in Politics” American in Hegemony and Conspiracy, “Paranoia, Hellinger, Daniel Michael Barkun, Robert S. Robins and Jerold M.Post, Jerold and S. Robins Robert In case of conspirological “mentality” as a special way of thinking in American Though, usually the libel of “conspiracy theory” perceived in debates as a pejorative 71 However, the psychological dimension does not give the whole picture of problem Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in thenew world order Conspiracy Nation: The Politics of Paranoia in Postwar America A Culture ofConspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America 74 Certainly, there was a set of beliefs inherited with Puritan Political Paranoia: The Psychopolitics of Hatred 33 73 (New York: NYU Press, (New Haven, (New (Berkeley: (Durham: Duke 72 Number of CEU eTD Collection threats andthreats was popular only the relativelyduring short period of time. by was overshadowed in different context American Jewish conspiracy”, “international traditional “otherness” of Jewsin the inEurope that course of timeinto wasdeveloped the example “other” of giving suspicions wayto theCatholic towards immigrants. groups of The the United States had different status and, contrary to European tradition, was not the classic another important role in the history of interethnic relations. Thus, the Jewish community of inimitable had the indiversity specifically played ethnic expressed ideas, theories, conspiracy attention. one’s attracting narrative national existin to narrative common per seallowed conspirological by government suppressed the political campaigns. Such diversity of opinions and points of view that could not be views could organize in providegroups to andpromote andtheir even outlook inuse it give to person and allowhim expressto his views. Certain groups of people with certain “American case” consists of opportunities that ethnic diversity and political pluralism could of ethnicuniquecharacter the interrelations. However, to distinctive suspiciousness mental whereasoutlook further groups immigrantsjustof nourished a common Moreover, though certain openness of debates conceded the propagation of certainof propagation concededthe radical of though debates Moreover, openness 34 CEU eTD Collection Oxford University Press, 1995), 495. The Modern World: A Documentary History 75 population when compared to other European states states time. of that otherEuropean to whencompared population status of the Jews unique relatively the accentuating thus, inand 1790, Newport of Congregation Hebrew to the the attitudes of own vine and fig-tree, and there shallbemake noneto him George Washington wrote afraid,” authorities of theand enjoy will good the inhabitants,of otherthe while every one shall in sit safety under his United States towards the Jewish 1920s and later, after Second World War, became an integral part of War, becameafter World communal Second part of the 1920s andlater, anintegral conspirological tradition of the United States. It reached its peak in the interwar period of Antisemitic conspirologicalthe abounding grewuponthe nature. publicdiscourse of an premises a of especially speculations, anti-Jewish andintroduced tradition antisemitic shaped thelocal a result, and,as society American bypass the not did phenomena these of The consequences global as financial onthe stressed well as troubles United States, country.placed every other modernizationin prejudices. andchanges turbulent social structure, and economic However, Christian traditional to subject still was it although well-being, certain in a existed community Jewish the century nineteenth of half until the second can the be that argued It century. calling it, and not without reason, an ‘exception’ in the history of antisemitism. scholars dealing with the history of antisemitism pay special attention to the ‘American case’, George Washington, “A Reply to the Hebrew Congregation of Newport (c. August 17, 1790),” in Anti-Jewish Conspiracy Theories inthe Context of the history of “May the children of “May of children the meritdwell in stock the Abrahamof who this landcontinue to The first Jewish settlers appeared in the colonies in the middle of in seventeenth in the middleof the colonies appeared the settlers The firstJewish American Antisemitism , 2nd ed., eds. Paul R. Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, (Oxford: Chapter 2. 35 75 Indeed, the majority of majority the Indeed, The Jew in CEU eTD Collection “blood libel” accusations, widespread negative stereotypes and deprivation of certain certain rights, of anddeprivation stereotypes negative widespread libel” “blood accusations, the tradition: asitin had European features had same the relations Jewish-Gentile American intellectual among this of view,According both marginal of elite and pointgroups public. to American history the positions amongst the Americanfirstgroup arguedthat The scholars. whole over the of period Jews were perceivedmain were two there Basically, reasons. for numerous reevaluation, critical underwent in the negative light Startingfrom literature. end the in of relations States United 1960s, Jewish-Gentile the and that notion wasscholarly in the heated discussion of thesubject remain still sharedtradition antisemitic European the American history. antisemitism was anotable and rather influential phenomena of social life, for the first time in ideological so-called the when antisemitism, spreading wide a of existence the accepting history period of (1860s-1940s) American hasmade the concerning antisemitism aconsensus of history the on scholars Leading history. American of periods certain in emergence their influencing factors economic and political, social, the of comprehension detailed and the role of antisemitic conspiracy theories in the publicnarrative in order to create amore influenced public perception of the Jews in the United States and attempts to explore the place theories. Itaims giveto a description of the specific features of American antisemitism,how it conspiracy anti-Jewish of place the analyzing primarily century, twentieth the of beginning unlikebrethrens. antisemitic their attacks European safefrom and feltrelatively prosperity system, enjoyed of political features and specific itcan society, be American arguedthat Jewry of in consequence uniquethe cultural diversity American of in groups certain these discourse of antisemitic the specific rootedness the of In spite etc. black communities, Klux Klan, Ku suchasthe groups, of certain mythology The debates on antisemitism in the United States, its occurrence and similarity to andsimilarity its occurrence in States, United on antisemitism the The debates the and nineteenth the of antisemitism American the on primarily focuses chapter This 36 CEU eTD Collection American History, 77 Illinois Press, 1986), 11. American Past” in David A. Gerber’s, ed., 76 Diaspora is nightmare Diaspora perceived as“a …of trialprotracted and suffering”. continuation of Salo W. Baron’s “lachrymose conception” when the history of Jewish be “Americanized” the appears to occurred, infact which relations, American-Jewish countries. European Jewsas the against hospitable toward as amost nation of American scholars thestatus challenged outbursts, ofanti-Jewish Thus,episodes comparingcertain etc. seventeenth century and had to confront two different approaches in their perception by the by perception their in approaches different two confront to had and century seventeenth periodization. with that agree scholars contemporary majority of a DavidBerger), of (in terms antisemitism “extra-ordinary” and “ordinary” Althoughline between drawaclearhard of itis antisemitism of to period the 1890s. abilities Jewish of businessmen and massimmigration causing, eventually,ideological century Worlduntil War IIis benchmarked bythegrowingfinancialagainst resentment whom Americanordinary was acquainted. more as an imaginedThe Jew appeared havenot support. public a stable did levels,butvarious social surfaced at category and press in the ofemerged sometimes social antisemitism American Christianity, of misconceptions reality, a “Mythicalantisemitism Jew”, than a realThe first époque starts with the arrival of first settlersperson and ends in the 1860s – the period when existed with in typicalantisemitism. forms of of American nature specific the discover to toiling are scholars and on are still going Christian prejudices, abuses, etc. Based on the Jonathan D. Sarna, The “Mythical Jew” and the “Jew Next Door,” in David A. Gerber’s, ed., Quoted in David A. Gerber, “Anti-Semitism and Jewish-Gentile Relations in American Historiography and the The second group, in contrast, responded that such exaggeration of singular facts in facts singular exaggeration of responded in such that contrast, The secondgroup, The first Jewish settlers arrived in the American colonies in the middle of the of middle in the colonies American in the arrived settlers Jewish first The periods. main two into divided be can antisemitism American of history the Basically, 59. Anti-Semitism in American History 77 The second period: from The from second period: mid-nineteenth the 37 (Urbana, Chicago: University of 76 Thesedebates Anti-Semitism in CEU eTD Collection Immigrants inUrban America 80 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 93. 79 GreenwoodPress, 1979), 10. Dobkowsky’s, 78 overshadowed permanently context) in European apparently (as they were group mostvisible were notthe by moreunderstanding. suspicious mutual intergroup Ages” acertain potentially Inquisition,the gave aswell that Middle the thePope, images of “similar Protestants American with Jewsshared The threat. fear of and groupscaused additional that authoritarian had suspicion andMormonism, astrong which structure Catholicism than Roman bemore acceptable to chance the andJudaism gave Jews life. of It as Catholics,way Protestant with pluralist the correlated positively lifewhich decentralized congregational hadMoreover,benefited Jews asJohnHigham specific argued,the from also the Blacksoften perceived history, in modern American – “threat” a determinant threat by Catholic the overshadowed or Indians,as an especially settlers, American other amongst minority hated agentless werea Jews of End Days, the of Satan,basically notion on the of Jewish Christianity accept stubbornness to approach and, thus, to was “the Harlotmillennium”. of the of beginning the of Rome”,of the Christian prophecy and a constant reminder that the conversion of the Jews “awould mark mirror “a bastard was presence Jewish disposal, divine the of fulfillment a as ‘wilderness’ American Christianity.” the into perceived Puritans their own wandering sustained Since preserved. miraculously and People, Chosen JewswereGod’s the notion that the basedon philosemitism shared aspecific colonies Puritan the of founders the hand, other the On prejudices. medieval Christian the on based suspicion a certain encountered they Amsterdam, New at hand, one the On neighbors. John Higham, John Anti-Semitism and American Culture in John Higham’s Frederic Cople Jaher, Cople Frederic Michael N. Dobkowsky, “Origins of American Anti-Semitism: The Religion Factor” inMichael N. Most probably, the fact that the Jews during the whole period of American history of Jewsduring period whole probably, the the that fact Most the The Tarnished Dream: The Basis of American Anti-Semitism 80 A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness: The Origins and Rise of Anti-Semitism in America (New York: Atheneum, 1979), 179. 78 In spite of the recurrent anti-Jewish manifestations based manifestations anti-Jewish In of recurrent spite the 38 Send These to Me: Jews andOther (Westport, Connecticut, London: 79 CEU eTD Collection of America 84 of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 220. 85 Harvard University Press, 2005), 20-21. 83 ( 82 Sociological Theory 81 enemy attempting to undermine American institutions and patterns institutionslife. undermineof and American patterns enemy to attempting Illuminati.At different times, these groups represented a “socially constructed identity” of the Indians, Blacks, Irish, Catholics, imaginary andFrench such or groups as Freemasons and in milieuwas by social American other culture, Jews inherenttoEuropean replaced groups: consequence to the specificity of American antisemitism. The traditional ‘otherness’ of the of extremes in the Jewish-Gentile relations. in of Jewish-Gentile the extremes lack the emphasizing S. Lindemann, arguedAlbert inEurope” counterparts theirsense, than in in life,both andpositive negative American of played early alessvisible role the stages Jews’ and suffered primarily from racism, suspicion and primarily suspicion Jews’ andviolence. from racism, physical suffered longmulticultural insociety, for Blacksas‘America’s the wereperceived a general, period in this place took abuse and discrimination Jewish While “other”. visible more – the America Blacks in repugnancein strong wereshifted towards European the usually evoked context, towardsthe Jewswhich negative attitudes Frequently,antisemitismscholars arguethat of Pope. the of instigation atthe interest national the against moreover, plotting and, movement inmovement of channeledinhabitants.California aggression an Irish Jews. Anti-Chinese and The ignored republic American against “subversive actions” Catholic of trend recent the accentuating Catholics on concentrated 1850s the of movement Know-Nothing the British, primarily radicals, foreign on focused were laws XYZ called diversity of American culture and variety of ethnic conflicts until certain time was not able to not was time certain until conflicts variety ethnic of and culture American of diversity Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993), 201. Eric J.Sundquist, Eric John Higham, American Anti-Semitism Historically Reconsidered in Charles H. Stember’s Leon Poliakov, Leon Albert S.Lindemann, Albert David Norman Smith, “The Social Construction of Enemies: Jews and the Representation of Evil,” Irish, and later, Italians more often than Jews were accused of uncultured dirty, being of were accused Jews than more often Italians later, and Irish, (New York, London: Basic Books, Inc., 1966), 241. Suicidal Europe, 1870-1933 14, no. 3 (November1996): 205. Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust The Jew Accused: three anti-Semitic affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis,Frank), 1894-1915 , vol. 4 of , vol. 82 39 The History of Anti-Semitism (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Press Belknap Mass.: (Cambridge, 85 (Philadelphia: University Thereby,the unique 84 More to say, so- 81 Jewsthe in Mind “Jews simply “Jews 83 CEU eTD Collection Past, 14. Past, 89 88 Vol.1 (Philadelphia: JewishThe Publication Society of America, 1951): 26-33, 128. 87 86 activity. insufficient its or regions certain in community Jewish of absence the of consequence legalMoreover, limitation of political by rights, beginningnineteenth the a of the century was minorities whichdidnot professed Christianity professed or differenttypeChristianity. of religious other with adversities these shared they but officeholding, naturalization, settlement, for rights in their limitations as as well colonies, in some disabilities economic and political Indeed, Jewshadfrom schoolsinheriting foretc). Christians, children, property certain Anglo-Saxon havingcommunity the same an opportunities Americanas ordinary had (same the freedom practice their religion.” freedom to the of deprived freedom, or economic loss of suffer the made to or exile, into forced were Jews dishonored”. and for oppressed have inthis“asylum to asnational rights communities the same other segment (mostly of religious character) in the repertoire of national menaces. small only in “Jewish occupied society American conspiracy” and Jews the Enlightenment, languageintothe of the speculations anti-Jewish and transferring Jewish question countries. certain European to Jews similar against mentality antidemocratic and active aunitary create the Illuminati, and were directing its destructive actions against the United States. Such States. United the against actions its destructive directing were and Illuminati, the century alluded that the Jews were to be found at the core of subversive organizations, such as David A. Gerber, Anti-Semitism and Jewish-Gentile Relations in American Historiography and Ibid., Vol.the 2., 384-388.American Jacob Rader Marcus, Rader Jacob Frederic Cople Jaher, Cople Frederic The multiethnic character of American society gave the Jewish community chance the community theJewish gave society of American character The multiethnic the of new appreciation a giving were Voltaire, as intellectuals, such While European In fact, some authors of all-inclusive conspiracy theories at the turn of nineteenth of the turn the at theories conspiracy of all-inclusive some authors In fact, 88 David A. Gerber points to the interesting fact that “nowhere in “nowhere British colonies the fact that interesting tothe points DavidA.Gerber 86 Already in the eighteenth century, Jews were successfully assimilated into assimilated Jews weresuccessfully century, Already in theeighteenth Early American Jewry: TheJews New York, New England and Canada, 1649-1794. A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness, 89 40 126-127. 87 CEU eTD Collection American Jewish History American 92 91 2003), s.v. “Antisemitism.” Accusing Noah, Bennett used based Christian traditional completed AccusingBennett prejudices, arguments, on Noah, conspiracy Jews andinfidelsof whosegoal Christianity uproot was to in Unitedthe States.” displayed his Judaismand defended in“belonging Jews against various attacks, a secret to Mordecai Manual Noah, aprominentfigurein American establishmentwhopublicly of of inspector andNew York port the accused thejournalist newspaper, founder of the expression in the in expression the found asChrist-killers Jews of perception instance, the For America. century nineteenth main argument,giving ofindividual examples anti-Jewish tookplacethat outbursts in the his about debates acertain caused contemporary researches of some nineteenth century, in the Twentieth Century 90 its conspiratorial aspects as largely unconnected with Judaism or Jewishness.” or Judaism with aslargely unconnected aspects its conspiratorial regard to tended critics U.S. contemporary French Revolution’s time, the atthe and accepted Know-Nothing Party). asone However, author concluded,“such generally claims werenot Party, instance,Anti-Masonic (for agenda movements’ in political integrated ideas were in some inAmerican of appeared 1806andfirst later, these discourse public accusations, Americans accusations were predominantly background.Christian of As Michael noted,Dobkowsky Robert Rockaway and Arnon Gutfeld, “Demonic Images of the Jew in the Nineteenth Michael CenturyN. Dobkowsky, United States,” Origins of American Anti-Semitism: The Religion Factor, 11. Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia built of many nations did not rid itself so easily of the intolerance and suspicion that legacieswere the of Europe. suspicion and intolerance the of easily so itself rid not did nations many of built A nation own. their andin added afewof Europe prevalent thatwere misconceptions with baggagebrought many emotional prejudicescultural the andthem of as and Though Oscar Handlin in an essay inan OscarHandlin Though In Colonial the century, anduntil period mid-nineteenth the prejudices anti-Jewish and New York New argued about relatively tolerant attitudes towards Jews in American society 89, no. 4(December2001): 363. Herald 91 editorial published in 1837. James Gordon in the Bennett, 1837.James Gordon published editorial American Views of the Jew American Views of at theOpening ofthe 41 (Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: ABC-Clio, 90 92 CEU eTD Collection Jewish Historical Society 95 Publishers, Inc., 1981), 119-121. 94 trade. In this sense, his economic energy seemed very American. In another mood, however, mood, In another very American. seemed energy In his economic sense, trade. this in admirable keenness and resourcefulness an symbolized Jew side,the favorable commonly Jewishshared mixed towards feelings both population: positive andnegative. “Onthe wide without publicproper support social and economic conditions. Besides, Americans still 93 nineteenth century. of the tradition antisemitic “American from European exception” singles out clearly its factalways response,forms not of promotion,and organized though public wide efficient, the in from wereinefficient, Bennett attacks long-run the perspective struggle with groundless of Heraldthe (1837and 1840). for“moral caseof one boycotts” Noah debt. triedalso sued him two toorganize nonpayment in libel on charges of court and twice, himinto lifefamily, hauled about of Bennet’s satires Jews.” the of name and people the subverted which revelation… of system great that on disguise country – without a home – without a nation, this singular people still continue to make warin “a him’”,without ‘Crucify out cried inJerusalem, who, samepeople by the was “stimulated with popular accusations of the period of emancipation. AccordingBennett, to that conspiracy JohnHigham, “Social Discrimination Against Jews inAmerica, 1830-1930,” Jonathan D. Sarna, D. Jonathan Quoted in Frederic Cople Jaher, Jews.” with live real of personal contacts multiplication the of and society secularization with background the increasing into the stereotypes “faded However, Christian rhetoric. anti-Jewish of trends European modern bore and influence Christian explicit had century nineteenth the of half first in the narrative conspirological antisemitic that demonstrate Noah of accusations Mordecai James Bernett’s 93 In the first half of the nineteenth century antisemitic speculations could not obtain not could speculations antisemitic century nineteenth the of half first the In However, Noah almost immediately responded these accusations, printing a series of series a printing accusations, these responded immediately almost Noah However, 95 Jacsonian Jew:Two The Worlds ofMordecai Noah 47, 1 (Septemberno. 1957):4. A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness, 94 Although Jonathan D. Sarna noted that these attempts to attempts these that noted Sarna D. Jonathan Although 42 154 (New York, London: Holmes&Meier London: York, (New . Publications of the American CEU eTD Collection Past, 19 Past, 100 99 University Press, 1955), 27. 98 University Press, 1997), 254. 97 96 temper.” asa anti-democratic be of manifestation understood a generally wasto such asanti-Semitism, was multiethnic republic,“any States of democratic expression hostility, ethnic a specific United Since the consequence. itsand visibility of inthedetection consists aspect aswell, in nineteenth century Unitedthe States. duringwere basically the of process until Jewishthe of emancipation,the end the absent society. American of character multiethnic Higham emphasizing arguesJohn menace,” national distinctively all people. to pluralistic and open as identity American shaped consequently American be an to means it what redefining of process the Moreover, of assimilation. their instruments developed and value their economic channelling magazines, through newspapers andnovels gaining wider support. narrative started anti-Jewish popular politics mass of extension the with 1860s) together the liberal liberal consensus.” the withmost and associated speakdemagogues willingfringe elements out publicly to against lack American “tended aconfidentvoice to andantisemitism European counterpart, has been and wide were support with taken seriously Ascompared ideas without public rarely. into avarice.” mean mightshade cunning; enterprise might keenness John Higham, “AmericanAnti-Semitism Historically Reconsidered”, 239. JohnHigham, Albert S.Lindemann, Albert Ibid., 5. David A. Berger, Anti-Semitism and Jewish-Gentile Relations in American Historiography and the American The complication in understanding of American antisemitism and its conspirological In American basedinflux general,society on immigrants, recognized of permanent 99 Thus, lacking constitutional or governmental sanction, its partisans expressed their expressed partisans its sanction, governmental or constitutional lacking Thus, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925. 98 Fears of Fears of in ‘Judaization’, a sense waspopularthat in countries European Esau's Tears: Modern Anti-semitism and The Rise of The Jews 100 Certainly, antisemitic attitudes kept persistently variouson of levels 97 “There was no pressing sense of the foreigner as a 43 96 (New Brunswick: Rutgers Later on (starting from , ( Cambridge: Cambridge CEU eTD Collection 103 102 101 “as economic parasite and predator…, heartless, greedy, a cynical materialist, ever calculating image of an Shylock, inshaping consciousness” andimage American European rooted deeply historical “a specific becauseof difference particular of were stereotypes Jewish However, incentury. half States first the twentieth of in presented United all the groups ethnic towards misconceptions same the had nativists American Certainly, misconceptions. its and nativism of influence the wereperceivedfinancial through operations andbusiness, petty trading and achievingindustrial efficiency.” productivity: on handthe andthemachine in mastering the wilderness, creating abundance ethic’. so-calledcontradicted the work ‘American immorality that by greedy andlaterinstinct, and treacherous was amplified by of populist rhetoric Jewish Jewish population in was byinvokingreflected popular imagination imagesof Shylock, numbered15, in 1880. reach 300,000 grewenormously to but000 of public discourse. from element becoming anoticeable War, Worldtime to Second time duringthe War,itCivil develop will andmark afew periods history of American until and profiteer.” the speculator at the sharpened resentment depression massin “happened immigration responseto onlyinmoments waror of crisis, when mostly antisemitism in ideological expressed call An alarmist States. United in the sentiments shape or to receive wideplatform. political support American society butthey had minor effectpublic on perception of Jewsandthe wereunable John Higham, American Anti-Semitism Historically Reconsidered, 247. Leon Poliakov, Leon JohnHigham, Anti-Semitism and American Culture, 182. Scholars noticed that Americans “have always put an exceptionally high premium on high an premium exceptionally “haveput always Americans noticed that Scholars According to Leon Poliakov, the Jewish community in the United States in the 1840 inthe States United in the community Jewish the Poliakov, Leon to According John Higham very clearly defined conditions for the activation of anti-Jewish Suicidal Europe, 1870-1933 103 In that sense, Jewish visible presence and activities in activities and presence visible Jewish sense, that In , 223. 44 101 102 Emerging for the first The growth of the of growth The CEU eTD Collection Sarna (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986), 64. 107 (Summer 1977): 171-172. 106 105 Nineteenth-Century American Market Place.” Market American Nineteenth-Century 104 and from the specimens I have here, the race has not improved.” wish youunderstand to that these people are the descendants of those who crucified the savior is of particular interest: “Mr. President, asyou have directed me, I will rescind the order; but I Lincolnhis effect and responseAbrahamrescinded theorder, Grant to Lincolntook letters to the by community Jewish the of reaction immediate the And though hours. twenty-four within declared the expulsion 11 Grant of no. Ulysses S. General Order notorious war Civil when the appeared during of the Jews who violated any regulationtimes raised imagethis in public consciousness. of trade from elites inherited American European at experience, from system customary stereotypes, of the warzone ground. American the on present” the to times medieval from Semitism in anti- theme persistent most “the for framework a shaping as well, important was level ‘good’ and ‘bad’ business.” anddid indeed constitute” giving“an reinforcing standardfor to additional redefine efforts solve thathelpingJewish enterprises individualcultural the puzzle businesses to Jews,thus of The group. “mental of “Jewishconstruct” business… abaselinejudging forprovided the constantly developing towardsacertain multicultural diversity and ethnic specific attitude mainthe chance.” Quoted in Joakim Isaacs, “Ulysses S. Grant and the Jews,” in Michael N. Dobkowsky, “AmericanAnti-Semitism: A Reinterpretation,” Ibid., 631. David A. Gerber, “Cutting Out Shylock: Elite Anti-Semitism and the Quest forMoral Order in the Mid- The first appreciable manifestations on the state level image of of state onthe Shylock the manifestations appreciable The first psychological the on existed that sentiments anti-Jewish Christian of injection The 104 This image wasimportantit since significance helpedof determine to 105 Journal of American History 45 The American Jewish Experience, 69, no. 3 (December1982): 629. American Quarterly 107 106 , 29, no.2 Fitting in Fitting ed. Jonathan CEU eTD Collection 109 A Documentary History The Jew in The Modern World: A Documentary History 108 spite of some negative attitudes, the general perception of the Jew was still ambiguous:in Nevertheless, assimilation. and acculturation in easier immigrants Jewish of assimilation and easieracculturation creating by of weredriven objective the urban other professions sphere of ethnic prejudices. into the competition intensified economical asamenaceand projected of Jews influence economic and social growing perceived establishment American old of members some whole social, industrial, financial, and political system.” political and financial, industrial, social, whole claimed Adams Henry blaming theJewsin “the total,irremediable, radical rottenness of our hostilities. certain to birth gave development financialimmigrants andtheirabruptHowever, Jewish a remarkable proportion of antisemitism. noproblem there waspractically advancement, with group of perspective rapid in group,andhighly occupiedrelatively status comfortable assimilated society nowith or nationality.” sect “as a possessed Jews of “offensiveness” of extreme the speculations fellthe backto and consequently preservestatus own to Jew was kept in the subconscious level of American establishment by this time. Jewish community, the controversy demonstrates that the stereotype of the greedy treacherous Henry Adams, Henry TheManhattan BeachAffair Paul in R. Mendes-Flohr andJehuda Reinharz, “finer virtues” of polite society. In many respects, the racial discourse about the Jew,the about racial discourse the many respects, In society. ofpolite virtues” “finer physical weakening, a carrier of disease, the On someoneethos. hand,other he was also seen asthe many representative of modernity’sof ills who –a capitalist placedindustrial personalnation’s the gainabout above good was the that all of exemplar an techniques, business progressive of embodiment as the cast he was Sometimes Indeed, the image of Jewish nouveau riche had a certain negative impact, but trade and buttrade impact, negative hadacertain riche nouveau image Jewish of Indeed, the “We are in the hands of the Jews. They can do what they please with our values,” Followed manifestations of social antisemitism presented attempts of older social elite theAmerican supported thatorderandGrant wasapologetic even about later Although The Jews MakeMe Creep (1896,1901, 1914) , 2 nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 466. 46 , 2nd ed. (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1995), 467. inPaul R. Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz, 109 This quotation clearly reveals that 108 While the Jews weresolid, While Jews the The Jew in The Modern World: CEU eTD Collection Publication Society of 1971),America, 283-284. 113 History 112 111 Jewish History American 110 affording an opportunity affording project an to hostility opportunity someand blameJewsinvicissitudes. To extent life of everyday visible actor community a made thewhole Jewish in Jews embodied Eastern pattern. Northern European Protestant, conservative, of the 113 Jews hostility was the various ethnic with combined similar hostility toward groups. towards nevertheless, antisemitism, racial to birth gave and nativism, American on impact profound made a population of Ghettoes” Polish the of submerged wretched the the“hordes Although, population. Protestant and Anglo-Saxon of preservation of in purpose hostility widespread from to positive reversal attitudes the generally designating American antisemitism influence on American anti-Jewish discourse. anti-Jewish American on influence as an home” andhad a temporary seethestate will always “the Jews that David Michaelis possible.” You are here for a long time:solely “You have no native, no political,no religious sympathy with this country. to makementality and played acrucialrole in of rhetoric the nativists and supporters of Populist Party money, was lack the of and patriotism rootlessness community Jewish of correlatedthat with nativist and your only wish is to make money as fast as Salo W. Baron, Johann David Michaelis, “ Ibid. Discourse,” Racial American Progressive-era Jewin the Locating Other: Unstable “The L.Goldstein, Eric It was widespread and generally projected towards everyone who differed from from differed image the who towards everyone Itwaswidespread and generally projected about their changingworld. with its mix ofidentification and repulsion, reflectedAmericans’ own uncertainties , Paul, Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz,eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995), 43. Certainly, the Jewish appearance became more tangible and the evident “otherness” evident the and more tangible became appearance Jewish the Certainly, The new waveofimmigration from countries becameEuropean aturningfor point The most powerful and critical allegation reflected in numerous conspiracy theories conspiracy in numerous reflected allegation critical and powerful The most 111 The quoted fragment from a newspaper article resonate the allegation of the allegation Johann of from resonate fragmenta newspaperarticle The quoted Steeled by Adversity: Essays and Addresses on American Jewish Life 89, no.4 (December2001): 390. Arguments Against Dohm” 110 112 47 in The Jew in theModern World: DocumentaryA (Philadelphia: Jewish CEU eTD Collection 114 115 their troubles. The stake to antisemitism was not a majortheir not a Themotiveto antisemitism stake troubles. was of program political of of asasource Jews tothe agrarians hadledsome of for scapegoat search the Consequently, grasp.” to them… for difficult too far complexities of intermixture an involved market andand “theinterplay agrarians.Moreover, panicamong pricesproducts world on the of misunderstanding raising debt in them of majority left had prices transportation of increase onworld Drop and of markets positions appreciablybecameprices worse. produce theirof mainstream of trends public discourse. into claims transformedand 1893-1897 intellectual of depression general economic feelingsimmigrant theindustrial business failures, further whereas depression of 1883-1886 day.” the of issues central the with it connecting by way significant broadly a in assimilation of question the raised they But life… of way of American enemy the asaforeign newcomer the assaulton nativist characteristically the in indulge not might eighties the of critics social “The expansion. this for sources providing andimmigrants cities in “heart the expanding of problem” the located everywhere and idea of this sawthedownfall culture as ahomogeneous society American imagined who thinkers Conservative life. of way familiar destroying been had modernization fast and corporations cut wages andand agricultural areas sufferedfrom monopolies, declining farm andrisingprices debts; fired employees. On the other hand, the expansionquestion.” of the cities tosolve “Jewish inattempts results different countries predetermined inthose preconditions Empirethe Americanaroused case is similar strong to Hungarian whereanti-Jewish massive influxes of Jews from attitudes.Russian However, different social and political JohnHigham, Leonard Dinnerstein, Leonard The first group, often mentioned in this context, was agrarians whose economical whose agrarians was context, this in mentioned often group, first The The ofAmerican of tendencies all crisis affectedalmost society:groups rural 1880s Strangers in the Land, Antisemitism in America 39. (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1994), 49. 48 114 It gave intellectual basis for the anti- the for basis gave intellectual It 115 CEU eTD Collection University, 1976, 386. 117 (March 1957): 575. 116 stretch stretch theirhand, from equal with ease, Vienna, fromPetersburgh to Viennafrom toParis, governors of the family as Rothschild characterized newspapers of 1830s,one the the Already during whole Christian times. present even until Americans certain of fears nourished that family banking Rothschild world. “Not a cabinet moves without their advice. They influence of an Old World heritage gave much of this friction an anti-Semitic character.”the and hand, at close adversaries their found immigrants the status, and livelihood, space, living for competition in intimate another one against “Jostling Protestants. of antisemitism transplanted European antisemitismfrom ontheAmerican ground, apart existing Christian especially in GildedAge,the wasgiven by other immigrants from whobroughtEurope and regularly religious metaphors in emerged rhetoric. populist various and “Shylock” “Rothschild”,with However,allusions by introduced government. Populist Party,mostly arguing for silver of standardinstead gold that wasgradually United States. againstthe Jewishconspiracy international animage of created capital and consequently banking international on based influence economical enormous with disloyalty and assimilate Jewish immigrants fittedentirely all anddoctrines stereotypes associating incapability to Michael N. Dobkowski, “Ideological Anti-Semitism in America: 1877-1927,” PhD diss., New York John Higham, “Antisemitism in the Gilded Age: A Reinterpretation,” suspected by some of forworking destruction the of all social structures. societymanipulated by from Hofjuden behind Because the scenes. of theirfrom aloofness are whose strings marionettes into mere façade, or which into all governments degrades throne the behind force andsecret a everywhere; interests identical with clan concentration as inmanyThe in circles a world-wide family Jew was United States the represented upon the closed circle of the community, they were The most developed concept which embodied all conspirological suspicions was which all The mostembodied conspirological developed concept John Higham also had noticed that a big impulse to American anti-Semitism, Certain economical visibility of the Jews together with increased mass influx of influx mass increased with together Jews the of visibility economical Certain 49 Mississippi Valley Historical Review 117 116 43 CEU eTD Collection 120 119 118 ABC-Clio, 2003), s.v. “antisemitism.” 122 United States,” 121 Paris to London, from London to Washington…” London, from London to Paris to control.” bid forsuspicion supremacy was dawned thataJewish the havocAmericawreaking could not in atwork somehow government, seemedthe forces Since destructive greedy, strife… internal of touchstones major the of becoming one was which gold, Jewswith connected “Tradition middle classandfarmers issues became and of one in the the inelectoral 1890s.campaign difficulties.” insurmountable seemingly for madecontinuation and itforrelevant many were who hopelessly for an searching explanation its to but expression,contributed they ultimate its it did give they portrait…nor the create “didPopulists, more as hadapparently widerMichael Dobkowski gained not noted, support. of allegations sort that later on, however, of time, period in that werepopular notions such American economics consequently strengthened Populist’s fears, giving thus, important president’s purchase bargainCleveland to goldin support gold to Europe standardin activities.” financial reprehensible quest for worldand commercial domination and generally to some racial “claiming geneticallyJews a that drove acquired inherent, imperative toward politics,corrupted right-wing both andleft-wing intellectuals began develop racistarguments JohnHigham, Ibid., 395. Quoted in Michael N. Dobkowski, Peter Knight Quoted in Robert Rockaway and ArnonGutfeld, “Demonic Images of Jewthe in the Nineteenth Century stretching from his office to the ends of the earth’." and oratory.’journalism international of strings the holds ‘he table the above hand the In below. In other the table, the theis above hand One nations.’ hand the of table money the ‘at “sitting under the table ‘he holds the strings of diplomacy and politics The determination The determination of maintain federal the to wastackledgoldby government standard Arguing that Rothschild banking family and other Jewish bankersin act coalition with 120 122 Forinstance, historian John Ridpath Rothschildpictured in imagethe of Shylock, American Jewish History For instance, For information the about participation of Rothschild bankinghouse in Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia Strangers in the Land, Ideological Anti-Semitism in America: 1877-1927 93. 89, no.4 (December 2001): 371. 119 50 118 It is difficult to suggest to what extent 121 (Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford: Denver, Barbara, (Santa , 388. CEU eTD Collection 126 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5155 (accessed 2009). May 11, 125 124 123 president of the Brotherhood, but clearly showed “the face” of real menace for the nation: Atlantic: sides of onboth of the outbreak proletarians arrangeasimultaneous wanted conspirators plot, the to According world. whole seize the to planned had Devil) with theJew of representation medieval tothe referred apparently (which Demons with andcoupled proletarians whole world in1988 novel the mysteriousof controlling Jewish and United brotherhood States the conquer attempting to Shylock also, they associated him closely with John Bull.” English influencefarmore frequently influence;than Jewish and when they upon turned attacked The agrarians power. world of British agent afinancial …as picture the entered Jew “The influence. Jewish enormous imagined to them projecting and fears old up stirring image of emergedinEngland popular consciousness in connection with family,Rothschild basisallegations. factual forconspiratorial Ignatius L. Donnelly, Ignatius L. Donnelly, Ibid., 574. John Higham, “Antisemitism in the Gilded Age: A Reinterpretation,” 568. the spy had spoken--the nameless Russian Jew who was accounted ‘the brains of Brotherhood.’ the of brains ‘the accounted was who Jew Russian nameless spoken--the had spy the as a very able and avery dangerous man. He was evidently the vice-president of whom and the long finger-nails blackwere with Ishoulddirt. have him picked anywhere out above themwasgrandandnoble… however, Hispersonwasunclean, and the hands brow of expanse the but restless; and penetrating sharp, small, the eyes were hooked; The face was meanand fangssinister; two alone remained inhis hismouth; nose was own against the banker-government of against of their banker-government Europe. the own holding of chances the take and hour, same the at America over all the revolution precipitate would Brotherhood the and home, return to was he effected, be not So that one continent should not come to the help of the other. If, however, this could The author not The author fell backvice-only depicting antisemitic on classic the stereotypes, Ignatius Donnelly, U.S. congressman and writer, gave striking apocalyptic description apocalyptic gavestriking writer, congressman and Ignatius U.S. Donnelly, 126 Caesar’s Column Caesar’s Column: A Story of the Twentieth Century . Caesar’s column 123 Again, like ahundredyears ago,the demonic 51 125 . Mysterious “brotherhood” consisted of 124 (Chicago: F.J. Shulte & Co., 1890), CEU eTD Collection 130 129 11, 2008). SchusterAdult Publishing Group, 1999), http://www.danielpipes.org/books/conspiracychap.php (accessed May 128 127 globe.” the United Moreover, States Rothe. Baron the British of hands in is Harvey, to isaccording economy, justAmerican a part global plan, “a financial movement that was to encircle the in the one line with put the be which could easily in America for his own profit and for the destruction of the United States as well. account of financial the conspiracy providedby Jew,British demonetize Baron Rothe to silver of features conspiracy theory. distinctive the oneof Thus, clearly financiallycapitalists demonstrated United States. theauthor controlling – other the andon are proletarians they hand, one the on images: completely contrary two Ford’s Ibid. Quoted in Michael N. Dobkowski, Daniel Pipes, Daniel Ibid. am in command of the greatest campaign the world has world the campaign ever experienced. in am greatest of the command look loss. I without on I while each homes, other’s into anddevastation carry throats, them… setthem fighting Iwill among eachother,andsee cuteachother’s them Iwill nationalvestige I will manhood. of last the crush theirprosperity amongdestroy vice and in its place. despair ignorance, cruelty, installed and land the from justice drove they jest; a its traditions and a mockery, liberty made they effectoppression; to government free those who had from take makemoremiserable;plunder to miserable the combinations poor; the to least and givethe ballot-boxes it and the heartsto and soulsthose congresses, of the the legislatures, people. the newspapers, the juries, the They courts, the corrupted formedThey giganticwho had most. They used the machinery of The 130 Eventually, through support of corrupted politicians Eventually, supportofcorrupted years of afterten activities, and through One of the last episodes of the novel contains the monologue of the main character It should be noted as well that “Jewish conspirators” in Donnelly’s novel embodied in embodied novel in Donnelly’s conspirators” “Jewish that well as noted be should It Another novel, Another Thus, author shares not only nativist fears of joint British-Jewish financial invasion financial British-Jewish joint of fears nativist only not shares author Thus, International Jew Conspiracy: How Paranoidthe Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (n/a: 127 A Tale ofTwo A Nations : Ideological Anti-Semitism in America: 1877-1927 128 52 by William Hope Harvey, gives Harvey,a similar Hope gives byWilliam Protocols of Elders of Zion Protocolsof ofElders , 405. 129 Simon & and Henry and CEU eTD Collection 132 Social Studies 131 Communists both in Russia and the United States; therefore, suspicions claimed that the that claimed suspicions therefore, States; United the and inRussia both Communists loyalty of“Redin Poland challenged Scare”whichagain revolution Russiatriggered andBolshevik Jews as from immigrants fast of growth new of outcomes war, legislation, economic immigrant citizens influenced anti- the outcry increased The combination which anti-foreign plotters. of of the United hyphenated Americans all as subversion almost of andcategories potential considered States. attitudinal character of antisemitism. of American character attitudinal War reflecting,and World Iperiod the certain topical inthepost extent, again became to confidence, relative ageof the during century, decade of twentieth inthefirst its energy of entity. nativist its reflecting Masonry) British, French, (Catholics, images various in embodied totime from andtime tradition conspirological forAmerican thewhole peculiar was of This threat external motive precise immigrants. masses of Jewish inassimilable country the inpersonified Jews alreadyassimilated by but nature disloyal or their wasthe fearofexternal to menace Thesecond main ideological image usedby antisemites. it became century nineteenth bytheendof the relations, casesof Jewish-Gentile particular usethe financial Appeared of image in as amarginal resources. usedattimes in 1820s the banker (embodied in “Shylock”), who can control economy or even destroy the Republic by first, the animage mentioned features: anti-Jewish financier Jewimbibed two and of the asa in world. the United States the and of role place aparticular emphasizing attacks conspiratorial asavanguard of States United places but Arthur Hertzberg, Henry L.Feingold, “Finding a Conceptual Framework forthe Study of American Antisemitism,” The entry of the United States intoWorld War fears of and IdoubledThe entry States United conspiracy the of Thus, powerful in the crisis of 1880-1890s, period American antisemitism hadlost part organizations antisemitic ideological of theories conspiracy antisemitic Basically, 47, no. 3/4 (Summer -Autumn, 1985): 320. The Jews in America, 227-228 . 53 131 132 The Jews were prominent among Jewish CEU eTD Collection pattern. Even the Ku Klux Klan, instead of concentrating on a single minority, “proposed to “proposed minority, ofconcentratinginstead Evena single on Klan, theKupattern. Klux European andNorthern mentionedProtestant the from cultural difference or of ground ethnic the on emerged feelings, anti-Japanese or anti-Negro as anti-Catholicism, such tendencies, movement with racist element. Still, anti-Jewish hostility again was one of numerous 133 135 134 no. 1(March, 1964): 53. scapegoats, heargued: scapegoats, established contemporary fears with inoldProtestant the 1920.Mixing of JayChapman John decades. conspiracy embodied in Judeo-Communist bondbecamein determinant nextfewthe were “under spell criminal the onWorld speculations and Lenin”. Further Trotzky of Jewish nucleus of the conspiracy in a “small clique of outcasts from the East Side of New York” who with associated prejudice. factor important most the is patriotism psychology, social from researchers some to according that notice to interesting is it However, patriotism. of wave a strong provoked revolution, revolution andintensifiedof industrial riots in inspiredworkers Unitedthe by States, Russian Bolshevikby Jews sympathy. metinternational for revolution with Bolshevik was calls Stanley “ACoben, Study Nativism:in The American Red of Scare 1919-20,” Quoted in Michael N. Dobkowsky, Quoted in Robert A.Goldberg, Roman Church and Jewish the Sanhedrin – areworking together. the forces – international great two when particularly… and nature… international but, as an American, I am as Jews; Jews peculiarlythe the against whatever anything Ihave Nor whatever… Church catholic against nothing have … I sensitive politics and plans their in and international watchful… and national anti- both are of They … allhand in movementshand working are Jews the and of Church an Catholic The Antisemitism in for 1920s particularthe groups of American society became broader Even more noticeable example forces ofexternal of tie demonical appearedinwords 134 133 Enemies within Attorney A.MitchellGeneral declaredhePalmer found a The Tarnished Dream: the basis of American anti-Semitism , 14. 54 Political Science Quarterly 135 , 197. 79, CEU eTD Collection Co.,2003), 26. 137 136 pollution” without aparticularfocusing without pollution” on Jews. moral purifyAmerica thus, of supremacy and,the ‘restore’ of and racial stock’ ‘old the could give an answer to occurred changes. First, the title the changes. First, occurred answerto could an give it inasensethat events current to closer make the publication hadtried Ford to 1919, Henry experience. American gathered of implementation and beaculmination to itappeared Moreover, Jewish conspiracy.” “international of Nazi’s a largethe inspiredthe concept and, to extent, anticipated publication supplies—wherever the life of the people could be speculated in thatwere Articles taxed. be speculated or ofthe peoplecould life the supplies—wherever of ministries the and societies, distribution companies, in banks,war appeared “Jews money: machination. According to Ford, speculations during the war allowed Jews to make good as aJewish War I World the explains also but column, afifth Jewsas presenting state, particular, gains. For these purposes Ford gave an example of German Jewry: manipulative, the ones who tend to use their Wanderers world, the around Jews, portrayed threat. external the bynature are asrootless and host country only for personal, andemphasizes financial in a cosmopolitan and therefore unpatriotic nature of the Jews, referring to posed influence of Independent Henry Ford, John Higham, “AmericanAnti-Semitism Historically Reconsidered”, 240. accomplishing the collapse of collapseGermany. of the accomplishing loyaltyforgot the country to in whichhelived andjoined theoutside Jewsin Jew German so-called Jews…the warwere of the winners The sole war… regrettable recent during the hatredGermany of greatest showedthe bytheJews dominated most were which world of the countries the therefore, people; German the hated The Jew Basically,making published aparaphrase Protocols,of the first in thein United States One of the most prominent examples was a series of publications in the Thus, the author not only stresses the potential Jewish disloyalty and danger for the for danger and disloyalty Jewish potential the stresses only not author the Thus, and later on collected in collected andlater on The The International Jew International Jew : The World’s Foremost Problem, cannot be overlooked: cannot itsuffices tosay HenryFord’sthat The 137 International Jew 55 136 (Whitefish, MT: KessingerPublishing The International Jew The International written by Henry Ford. The Ford. Henry by written Dearborn by itself CEU eTD Collection 141 140 139 138 Jews comes and ordinary “conspirators” distinguishto real however,attempt every religious, amongst the Jews in the United States, opposing rich and assimilated to poor and very label could harm the reputation of the claimer as contrasted with European experience: such milieu inthe befeature States American United becauseonly of appears to apeculiar activitieslabeling in every an“antisemite” accuser and suppress press accusation, which desired, but he doesn’t” because of his “aloofness.” ifhe America of people mergewith the TheJewcould assimilate… not Jewdoes American nation American from andhis inability assimilate results to values: “The accept American citizens are unconditionally loyal wherever they may be and whether rich or poor.” or rich whether beand may they wherever loyal unconditionally are citizens whose forms aState It Empire. British the more than even earth, on power organized closely most the is “Judaism as well: concept Ford’s in present is which position state” a within image refers tothe for thefirstbusinessman emerged timegreedy Civil of during the War. high again at prices.” only reappear to disappeared, plentiful Henry Ford, Ibid., 35. Ibid., 30. Henry Ford, mildest discussion of the Jewish Question. in againsteventhe has sealedupthecolumns practically of America publication every which athreat boycott, of threat the is there in thebackground always And retraction. of membership whose responsibleheadshysterically demand organizations the the andat protest, who those of ratings financial the at and write, who magnates the of letterheads the at looks one until a Jew-baiter… language, in low-brow or language,beinfully mustelse regardedasanAnti-Semite,high-brow to be prepared anywhere or States United in the Question Jewish discuss the essays to who Anyone For these purposes Henry Ford tried not to generalize saying about differences generalize saying about to triednot Ford For these purposes Henry An important point of is An importantof work pointFord’s anallegation Jewshushupabout their truth that Ford maintains that one of the reasons to perceive the Jew as an alien element for An integral part of every Jewish conspiracy theory is a stereotype of “state Jewish of is astereotype Jewishof conspiracy theory part every An integral The International Jew, The International Jew, 27, 55. 27. 141 56 140 138 That quotation distinctively quotation That 139 CEU eTD Collection 143 142 Coast East far-off, in president ado-nothing mention to not countries, alien in kings far-off stand forces. Trying asidehe to from hispolitics, realized that plans“challenged bybellicose, discovered thathis business isvery vulnerable andhighly depends of untrustworthy political issue. thefirstbenewspaper couldbeing Also,Ford closed after adomineering car-maker, haddistribution made all itavailable throughout similar whereasany country, other views expressedin his Therefore, public. American wideof attention attracted that businessman outstanding time. conspiracy” behindWorld WarIwas popular amongstrather American business elites of that Jewish “international of discovering the Therewith, business. his threatened apparently crisis which Henry hadFord in 1915-1920 sincehe had a lot of debts andWorldWar I America” because the capital of this “state of All-Judaan” was transferred to New York. to wastransferred of “state All-Judaan” capital of this becausethe America” Ford, “theis but,accordingand drift to human rest of endangered toward the civilization concept. his for historical dimension creating thehuge thus, Jewish inheritance”, “ancienta partof be and appears to true describedplan which conspiracy Jewish ancientcomes as an gradually society. American of institutions the to in general, race, as loyalty, Jewish of discussion the to eventually Ibid., 30. Ibid., 102. The case of Henry Ford stands out of any other cases by few reasons. First, he was Scholars perceived Ford introduced himself as a prophet “who can read the signs of the times” and 142 The Bolshevik revolution had demonstrated the real power of of Jewish organization power real had the demonstrated revolution TheBolshevik Dearborn Independent The InternationalJew publications and excessiveinvestments toits 57 partly as a result of andpersonal business 143 CEU eTD Collection The CondonThe Printing Co., 1939), 36, 79 147 England, 1987),314-332. Antisemitism: Modern Jewish Responses, 146 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986), 176. Antisemitism, 1920-1929,” 145 327. 144 Ribuffo, “Henry Ford and for a listener. So, in the passage where British premier minister Benjamin Disraeli at a family a at Disraeli Benjamin minister premier British where passage in the So, listener. a for personify immutable personify powers.” of consolidation the unreachable, theblame and take Oriental peoples- hadto raceof devious SomeoneWashington. –the changes of changes of 1887 book rational explanation of Nazi repressions towards Jews. the find to trying and slavery” fettered of religion -the religion istheir Internationalism “Jewish “Mammon question” onthe is agendaclaiming –the godof theirgod greedy gold. Ford the United States so in the whole world that Jews have total control of the United States. asin speculations conspirological be for numerous abasis appearedto publicdiscourse enter against antisemitismits’ and time give when each allegationsresponse antisemitic tried to stand to Jewishcommunity American of ability the in 1920s.Perhaps, adopted legislation anti-immigrant the of in spite country, the of life economical or political from excluded never idea Jewish community alsothe was that It in interwar supports period. Jewish attitudes the demonstrates whole in exceptionalism alinecountries underwentawaveof that of anti- wide peak its on was antisemitism when time in the resistance the show and way orderly an in of Chas. E. Coughlin, Naomi W. Cohen, “ Victoria Saker Woeste, “Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Problem the and Ford, Henry Marshall, Louis Equality: “Insecure Woeste, Saker Victoria Neil Baldwin, Dearborn Independent Dearborn , based on individuallabelthe For example,For Charles Coughlin in 1920 in newspaperhis Nevertheless,interwar period gave anumber of figurespublic whoactively toput tried his wasfinishedEventually, crusade againstby “Jewish power” lawsuitthe Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate Am I An Anti-Semite: 9 Addresses on Various “ISMS” Answering Question the Friends inCourt: AnAmerican-Jewish Response toAntisemitism,” The International Jew,” The Journal of American History The Rothschilds series. 145 ed. Jehuda Reinharz (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New , The fact that American Jewish community was able actto which forced Ford to apologize forcedFord which to andcease the publication by John hadReeves, madeitmore frightening sound in The American Jewish Experience, 58 91, no. 3 (December2004): 878-879; Leo P. 147 (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 144 Social Justice ed. in JonathanSarna Living with after original (Detroit: Sapiro v. 146 CEU eTD Collection 149 Press, 1979), 60. 148 150 Challenge: Conversations Confronting theTwenty-FirstCentury percent andpercent stuck togetherfrom toomuch 56 dropped to 40percentas well. 22 percent. Those whobelievedJews cared that Jews only dropped from about 50 to17 whopercentof those that thought international banking Jewsthe droppedto controlled system 28 percent. Thefrom 53 Israel the Unitedloyal dropped 70 to to were more States to than belief that Jews used shady business practices dropped from 46 22 to percent. Belief that Jews The States. in of United Jewish the community declinesome negativeperceptions strong of Americans. in Thus, national studies on antisemitism 1964and the had1981 demonstrated the among of Israel State the and theJews of perception positive and general United States States into two parts, one foryou, James, and one foryou, Lionel.” every capital of Europe and every division of the globe. If youlike, we shall divide the United “Undergatheringheadsfamily in famous says: are the this of aname roof Rothschild the – of nation tried to analyze the experience of the age of McCarthyism. of ageof the experience analyze the to tried nation the well as as etc. businesses, banks, in universities, eased were restrictions social when the historiansVarious from called theperiod even “The until 1950s Era”, Jews’Golden today it was the beginning of the new era in that argue in scholars general theof 1940s-50s, RedScare the appearedduring nature antisemitic history of Jewish community in the United development Though ideological of antisemitism accusations Unitedthe in States. of the States. invasion. fearof external the theories: conspiracy American mainantisemitic motive of repeated Daniel Pipes, “The End of American Jewry’s Golden Era” in Manfred Gerstenfeld’s Manfred in Era” Golden Jewry’s ofAmerican End “The Pipes, Daniel Quoted in Donald Stuart Strong, Robert Michael, Robert Post-World War II period was also marked with the decline of antisemitism in the Second World War and the legacy of Second World inappeared tobe the Warand legacy Holocaust of the point turning the A Concise History of American Antisemitism Organized Anti-Semitism in America 59 (Lanham: Rowman& Littlefield, 2005), 209. (Lanham: Rowman& Littlefield, 2004), 191. (Westport Conn.: Greenwood 149 148 Hereby, again Coughlin American Jewry’s 150 CEU eTD Collection 443. 152 151 certain groups of American society that shared the same firm set of beliefs. On one hand, far- hand, one On beliefs. firm set of same shared the that society American of certain groups in wouldparticular, United States the bekeptontheindividual, by local levelandpromoted in theories, conspiracy andantisemitic likely, antisemitism More countries. European taken as ofAmerican lifea mainstream discourse political asithad happened in various became an important part of speeches of Malcolm X and Louis Farrakhan. fordevils” problems of their community. “white blaming rhetoric right radical and anti-white than more much government American black forscared an this.active nomade of Left efforts Thealternative competent exceeding growing chauvinism and anti-Semitism in the Black community.Furthermore, politicians preventable to was not government American enemy. acommon Historically, against mobilization sense of the invoke to theories conspiracy used antisemitic consciousness, inandexpansionist “imperialist aggressiveState” war.” Zionist racist, “a of theocratic, allegations ofviewto points moderate with starting reactions: War various critical Six Finally, triggered of Day framework these ideological organizations. influence toonthe weakened their ofLeftist andconsequently abilities organizations support introduction anti-Israel of Jewishnumerous rhetoric forced supporters toreconsider their blacks aconsistent and of Theradicalization white-skinned “system” the bourgeoisie. to alienated a lot of Jews from its core. Moreover, the focus of leftists’ critics was removed from niche for its development. The Marxist shift in the development of the Left movement movement made antisemitism a useful tool of Far Left rhetoric, thus, opening the whole new Gerald Horne, “Myth” and the making of “Malcolm X,” of“Malcolm making the and “Myth” Horne, Gerald Herbert Aptheker, “Antisemitism and Racism,” However, the speculations of far-right activists or Black nationalists could not be not could Black nationalists or activists far-right of speculations the However, black self- of creation the pursuing nationalists, black samethe At the time, rights civil and War Day Six movement, Left American of crisis the However, 152 Political Affairs As a result, anti-white and antisemitic narratives and anti-white antisemitic As aresult, 60 The American historical review 48(April 1969): 37 151 98, no. 2(1993):98, no. CEU eTD Collection 155 supremacy York: Morrow, 1985);Stephanie Gutmann, 154 Littlefield, 2006), 21. 153 ideashared the of “Jewish conspiracy”inspite of attempts devaluatenumerous and to problem.” “disappearing becomenot a certainly did contemporary issues. political media of East Middle coverage contemporary of nature biased a anti-Israel certain demonstrated had clearly publications numberof the Israel’s heavy media on pressure and politiciansaffiliated through persons and institutions, the new version of political anti-Semitism in which Middle East conflict and policies of the State of Israel in the region. concerning discourse of public trend mainstream it a became extent some of To Israel. State criticsthe of to the basically referred that critics type of Left with thespecific was augmented public opinion. ofAmerican margin parts inthe exists still and adeterminant became theories, conspiracy embodied invarious images. This havingimpact trend, abiggest American on antisemitic foreigners of invasion external of fear the nativism, the on based tradition: conspirological American whole for the typical main motive the fears reproduced activists’ right Quoted in Henry L. Feingold, Zeev Chafets, Zeev Bernard Harrison, perhaps even…the main world to obstacle, peace. and in generalrange of political todevelopments obnoxiousconstitute, a wideto range of people on the liberal left, a promote to conspiracy –areseenas reactionary viewedconstituting collectively through individuals,“the Jews” – notby who taken be one,Jews…but one happen to Jews the existence of the State of Israel, an obstacle, American antisemitism, even with the tendency to decline after Second World War, And mentioned though the argument often used in publicthe debatesas a proof of As contemporary English philosopher Bernard Harrison put it, we have to deal with On the other hand, antisemitic discourse of the second half of the twentieth century (SanFrancisco, Calif.: EncounterBooks, 2005). Double Vision: How the Press Distorts America’s View of the Middle East The Resurgence of Anti-Semitism: Jews, Israel,and Liberal Opinion. Finding a Conceptual Framework for the Study of American Antisemitism TheOther War: Israelis,Palestinians, and theStruggle For Media 61 153 155 Certain groups of society have Certain of still society groups 154 (Lanham: Rowman & Rowman (Lanham: (New , 319. CEU eTD Collection People Press. & the http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/281.pdf (accessed May 11, 2009). Unchanged by Recent Hostilities. Domestic Political Distemper Continues. 156 and Israel in contemporary United States is aswell. impressive States United in contemporary and Israel its expressionavoid to tried always views, inantisemitic sharing campaignsthough politicians, radical most the even that of public opinions. demonstrates itclearly level However, of society. personal the to disaffection Thetime, channeled general positive perceptionpolitically of the Jewscorrect modified thatmyth. into towardsJews and deconstruct Traditional prejudice persisted critics of Zionism or Israel politics in the Middle East and, from time to out a hope of further successful defense to antisemitic manifestations. antisemitic to defense successful offurther ahope out holds American antisemitism, of features specific conditioned historically consideration into The Pew Research Center For The People & the Press, &the People The For Center PewResearch The Thereby, the American political tradition and multicultural character of taking society, character multicultural and tradition political American Thereby, the 62 July 2006 Report: Americans’ Support For Israel The Pew Research Center ForThe Center Research Pew The 156 CEU eTD Collection Web-site of John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Working Paper Faculty Research John Mearsheimer and Steven Waltcalled Steven and Mearsheimer John the Mearsheimer-Walt controversy will be analyzed in the second part as well. of causes possible The of political theory. positions the from be debateswill the analyzed part, manifestations. antisemitic to standoff of creation successful inasenseof from countries European Jewry differ American of positions contemporary what extent the to could demonstrate debates these Moreover, world. contemporary inthe theories conspiracy of features specific the understand to debates certain of covering without be complete would theories conspiracy anti-Jewish contemporary on discussion No in introduced society and American discourse. public in contemporary manifested is how antisemitism evidence of important uswith provide casewill This particular example the case of the debates around the publication the around of example debates case the the as an is totake it important itsdevelopment of trends recent the consideration intoand taking Some of the main points that the authors made in the essay were: On March 23,2006, second in the then, and publication the around debates the cover first will chapter This Looking at the history of American antisemitism of the last hundred and fifty years Case Study: The Mearsheimer-Walt Controversy Mearsheimer-Walt Study: The Case London Review London Review Books of The Israel Lobby andtheU.S.Foreign PolicyThe Israel Lobby Chapter 3. The Israel lobby The 63 published professors the essay two of Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy Israel LobbyandU.S. , the , concise version concise placed on the on placed of their of . CEU eTD Collection 4. 1. 3. 2. 5. 162 161 160 159 158 011/$File/rwp_06_011_walt.pdf (accessed May 11, 2009). Kennedy School ofGovernment, 2006), 1, http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/Research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP06- 157 Campus Watch) monitor what scholars write about American-Israel relations. American-Israel about whatscholarsmonitor write Watch) Campus “The instance, andactual debates (for otherorganizations Lobby”; to appropriate policy policyEast Americanand of support Israel. In addition, various think tanks shape public The Israel Lobby suppressesall open debates about questions concerning American Middle activity. balanced the its’ threatens foreignbutsecurity blockades American policy in MiddleEastregionfrom the Public Actions Committee) and Pro-Israel other institutions, United the not States only inopinion theUnitedgeneral weakeningits security.thus against States, of The support military Israel financial(including andand aid) hadturnedArab Islamic states “stands a good chance of getting labeled an anti-Semite.” policies influence American power of anenormous to AIPAC or actions Israeli criticizes conflicts. unnecessary the into States United the involves and policy foreign American distorts organizations who actively work to shape U.S. foreign policy in a pro The Israellobby in described United as States, the coalition“the loose individualsof and Israel, not the other way around.” hasThe United a States “in partbecauseisitterrorism problem good closely so with allied United States.” a tothe wasnot threat from Iraq “’real threat’ more becausethe secure” make Israel desire to though many Americans believe that it was oil. “The war was motivated in good part by a The pressure of the Israel lobby was critical to make a decision to attack Iraq in March 2003, Ibid., 30. Ibid., 24. Ibid., 18, 22. Walt, M. Stephen and Mearsheimer J. John Ibid., 5 John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, M. Stephen and Mearsheimer J. John 159 Thus, acting in favor of Israel and under constraint of AIPAC (American Israel 162 158 The Israel Lobby andU.S. Foreign Policy The Israel Lobby andU.S. Foreign Policy, 64 161 - Israel direction” Israel 157 , 14. (Harvard: John F. 160 Anyone who Anyone CEU eTD Collection 163 try to evaluate during the discussion to what extent the Israel lobby really shapes American two prominentscholars could becalled antisemitic bynature; and thesecond problem was to concept. Mearsheimer-Walt giving an important evaluation questionsto of political reality prismthe through of the phenomenon important an describe to value scientific its and analysis political of positions the Elders of Zion to and becompared could works antisemitic classic of bears stereotypes the perceivedandfigures whoarguing style papervery the public the that of critically paper the notions (as,for example, George Soros). The second is a large group of scholars, politicians theories’ whoshare persons or conspiracy hardly be anti-Semites of could called view but Moreover, there was a subgroup of critics who were permitted to express their critical points working paperbecamefurther anacademicbasisfor development of notions. anti-Jewish those who supported Mearsheimer and Walt arguments, like David Duke, for whom the relations. with U.S.-Israel issues orless more on various connected make comments often and attention The discussion continues until today sporadically escalating, while the authors attracted great appeared on web the praising franknesssite both authors’ andlabeling anti-Semites. them as political and security interests. andsecurity political image, in its moral andinternational arena United exposes tothe States the causes troubles Christian Zionists havingnoserious opponents or silencing and them with boycotts blacklists, Ibid., 41-42. Basically, the debates were focused on two main problems: towhat extent the essay of Basically, opinions the in discussion the couldbe divided into three groups: first,the The working papertriggered animpressive wave of immediatelypublication it after In general, they concluded that the Israel Lobby in alliance with neoconservatives and neoconservatives with alliance in Lobby Israel the that concluded they general, In . The third wasthe group whoof examinedobservers working the from paper 163 65 Protocols ofthe CEU eTD Collection 11, 2009). USA What to Do About It 165 (accessed May 11, 2009). Web Site, Windows Media Playervideo file, 7:00, http://www.scribemedia.org/2006/10/11/israel-lobby/ 164 166 2009). http://www.nysun.com/national/david-duke-claims-to-be-vindicated-by-a-harvard/29380/ (accessed May 11, and validate every major point I have been making since even before the war even started.” out come see abodyessentially in University American is satisfying to premier the “Itquite York Sun notions. Itis noteworthy, that David Duke almost immediately made a comment to the wide coalition of likepersons, DavidDuke and others whoshare variousconspirological praised scholars’ courage to expose so called “Jewish conspiracy” in the United States was a slight dissatisfaction of Professors’ Walt refusal to learn Yiddish for better, “non- on influence“Judonia”,the heexpressed efforttoopendebates of welcomed professors’ policy butobviouslyrealists” juggling with theirmain arguments. professors for “a service for American public discussion by arguing their opinion as foreign Joachim Martillopublished online his own research on Israel the lobby and praised the constructions or scientific references to the authors of antisemitic conspiracy theories. Thus, with questionthe John to Mearsheimer:you “Do yourthink article wasantisemitic?” of organized bythe a discussion moderator the ofmentionedThus, Anne-Marie Slaughter, character essay. antisemitic possible perceiving the working paper, and the whole discussion to some extent was built around the in line afine was conspiracy” “Jewish and of antisemitism notion the though issues these foreign policy agenda in the Middle East. Different groups concentrated their criticisms on Eli Lake, “David Duke Claims to Be Vindicated By a Harvard Dean,” Michael Cervieri, “The Israel Lobby: Does it Have Too Much Influence on US Foreign Policy?” Scribemedia Joachim Martillo, Apparently, the group that really appreciated the appearance of publication thatreallyand appearanceof appreciated the that Apparently, group the To some extent, the Mearsheimer-Walt paper indeed gave a basis for theoretical indeed gaveabasis paper Mearsheimer-Walt the some extent, To about that essay stressing its excellence while most of scholars argued the contrary. the argued scholars of most while excellence its stressing essay that about The Israel Lobby and American Society.What the Israel Lobby Really Is: How It Hurts the (A Working Paper), http://www.eaazi.org/ThorsProvoni/Judonia1.htm (accessed May London Review Review London of Books 66 New York Sun 166 Though, the author the Though, in 2006, started October , March 20, 2006, 164 New 165 CEU eTD Collection 169 http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/19/opinion/19judt.html?_r=1 (accessed May 11, 2009). 168 167 Walt case these allegations are obvious because they could notbe ignored by reason of allegation is the way to protect the self-image of accusers and in case of the Mearsheimer – stand” of authors, saying that it is not really unusual to see that level of criticism.Antisemitic whoseviews person, courageous mentality,“the are often toconspirological close recognized extremes. political Jewishdisproportionate publicinfluence in Unitedthe States inevitably interest fromattracts the ordinary reader, to interest little are of paper of the contents obscure relatively influence of an antisemitic label hanged up on professors. According toJudt, though the lobby,had tried to give a balanced evaluation of the Mearsheimer-Walt concept and the Israel about book in the chapter whole the devoted Foxman J. Abraham whom historian, “new antisemitism” (Tony Judt, Noam Chomsky,George Soros). Thus, Judt, a prominent progressive academics whose critique of Israel policies is often prone to the framework of public figures thathave astatus and general mentionedrecognition butoften in contextof the American participation in “a fast-moving international inconversation.” international “a American participation fast-moving should not be mixed with political critique of Israel; itis bad for Israel and threatens threefold: itis bad for Jews since the menace of antisemitism is always challenging and aswell.Kingdom and whole Europe influence in that, precise concept of the Jewish conspiracy against the United States, United European has thecrucial Eastern that Jewish history” understandingexceptionalist of Ibid. Tony Judt, “A Lobby, Not a Conspiracy,” Ibid. Chomsky,is usually who perceived asan of author specific antisemitic views a and Apart from the clearly antisemitic camp, there were a number of publications from 168 Moreover, the basic damage of American’s fear of antisemitism is 167 New Times, New York 67 April 19,2006, 169 CEU eTD Collection 172 11, 2009). Weiss, “AIPAC Alternative?” “AIPAC Weiss, http://www.salon.com/opinion/feature/2006/12/19/israellobby/index1.html (accessed May 11, 2009); Philip 171 May, 2009). May, 2009);Noam Chomsky, Israel “The Lobby,”http://www.chomsky.info/articles/20060328.htm (accessed 11 Comes from,’ and his life”, Interview by Brian Lamb, http://www.skeptictank.org/hs/conspir.htm (accessed 11 170 http://www.nybooks.com/articles/20030 (accessed 2009). May 11, academics’ public status and achievements. scientific publicstatus academics’ frequent, publishedfrequent, his opinion on U.S.-Israel relationsAIPAC’s and role. on his involvementin the creation of the new lobbyist group on behalf of Israel became more relations, Chomsky shifted the attention to structural inconsistencies of professors’ arguments. U.S.-Israel concerning in discourse accusations usual of the place antisemitic admitting forroom conspiracy haswhich nothing do to with influencethe of Israel lobby. Thus, framework of governmentdecision making isfarfrom beingit transparent, inevitably leaves thegeneral Since in oil lobby, lobbies,leaving rolethey asidethe of particular. are other AIPAC on mainly focusing because convincing is not academics of argument main the view, to Soros, initiativeformedto Soros, an group the it.” diminish help only would anti-Semitism, fomenting of instead community, silence that has protected AIPAC would help lay them to rest. A debate within the Jewish AIPAC’s successful suppression of criticism and concluded that “demolishing the wall of noticed Soros debates, that myth the of Jewish isall-powerful by conspiracy nourished beneficial to Israel and the United States. Both covering political and moral aspects of is and debates antisemitic open immediate accusations arguing that critiqueof Israel without AIPAC conducts its business. Moreover, he expressed the closed to Tony Judt point of view, successful suppressing of critique, Soros called to view close and criticize the ways how powerful influence of AIPAC in both Democratic and Republican parties, together with George Soros, “On Israel, America and AIPAC,” Gregory Levey Daniel Pipes, “Interview on his new book ‘Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Later on, George Soros, the well-known philanthropist and businessman, when reports when businessman, and philanthropist well-known the Soros, George on, Later , “ The otherThe Israel lobby,” The Nation, April 23, 2007, http://www.thenation.com/doc//weiss (accessed May Salon.com, December 19, 2006, 19, December Salon.com, Independent JewishIndependent Voices The New York Review of Books 68 170 However, according to his point of tovoice its support and 54, no.6 (April12, 2007), 171 Admitting the Admitting 172 In response In CEU eTD Collection perceived working the antisemitism.of paperasademonstration academic became that article the http://camera.org/index.asp?x_context=8&x_nameinnews=190&x_article=1099 (accessed May 11, 2009). Middle East Reporting in America Web-site. 174 (accessed May 11, 2009). Voices,” 173 Alan Dershowitz. mainintroduced points of scientific critiquelater that will be used byAbraham Foxman and “such shoddy, biased authordid work”, accused not authorsdirectly in antisemitism, though, dispute.’” subject. The bottom line: virtually every word and argument is, or ought to be, in ‘serious sources, and, contrary to basic scholarly standards,ignores previous serious work on the logicfact, citations, andomission, judgmentregarding hasinaccurate displays poor extremely article sharply criticizing authors. According toSafian, the work “is riddled with errors of an from EastReporting Accuracy for inAmerica in Safian wrote Committee Middle the works in which arguments were put in the wide context of contemporary antisemitism. in numerous letters to editorial board of of board letters to editorial the in numerous remarkable inItdiffered place debates. from the emotionallythe expressed comments dense antisemitic works (as the opinion that the essay of Mearsheimer –Walt appeared to be a continuation of classic state.’” Jewish of the existence often denounced as an expression of oranti-Semitism,‘self-hatred’ ‘endangering very the expand the space within the Jewish community, since the “criticism of the Israeli position is Alex Safian, “Study Decrying ‘Israel Lobby’ Marred by Numerous Errors,” The Committee for Accuracy in Accuracy for Committee The Errors,” by Numerous Marred Lobby’ ‘Israel Decrying “Study Safian, Alex Lisa Appignanesi, Geoffrey Bindman, EllenDahrendorf, Uri Fruchtmann et al., “Independent Jewish Simultaneously, Richard Baehr and Ed Lasky from Already after the posting on the web-site of Harvard School of Government, Alex Though the series of articles that argued to avoid an antisemitic labeling of the essay, The New York Review of Books 174 Recommending toHarvard University and ChicagoUniversity distance to from a Protocols a virtually first critique of the working paperfrom position the that 173 or Henry Ford’s 54, no. 8 (May 10, 2007), http://www.nybooks.com/articles/20182 London Review Review London of Books 69 International Jew The American Thinker The American ) took an important and to the detailed analytical Refusing any published CEU eTD Collection http://articles.latimes.com/2006/mar/29/opinion/oe-boot29 (accessed May 11, 2009). 177 176 http://www.americanthinker.com/2006/03/stephen_walts_war_with_israel.html (accessed May 11, 2009). 175 created the appearance of “the ‘pro-Israel’ American Jewish community American appearance as virtually the created Jewish community of “the ‘pro-Israel’ in waters.” these seem comfortable of the Israel - hating, Jew - hating conspiracy theorists. There is a good reason for this. They waters tonavigate the “Waltand havedecided view, Mearsheimer eventually: they conclude an essay at every turn. Covering certain parts of essay and presenting an opposite point of the only country in the region that allow tocriticize its’ policies, though, totally demonized in toavoidattempts Baehrapparently labeling, those negative andIsrael is Lasky maintain that with the Mearsheimer-Walt’s point that the Israel Lobby suppresses any criticism and their in essence no more than an angry polemic disguised as academic research.” is “it atrace thatthey without workingwrote valuethe academic awork of balance, paper, of who actively work to shape U.S. foreign policy in a pro individuals it as “the organizations loose and of coalition of essay.Describing by authors the Books footnotes, the Mearsheimer-Walt essay (part of which appeared in the consult‘The IsraelLobby andAmerican Foreign Policy’… With 83 pages of andtext 211 could modern-day a Hofstadter style, instance amore of paranoid recent the “For importance. paper with Welch and McCarthy, apparently reducing its’, even nominal, scientific Hofstadter of Richard title of the article (“Policy Analysis – Paranoid Style”) by itself refers to the well-known essay by in andlater fortified Max introduced Boot was conspiracy theories Max Boot, “Policy Analysis – Paranoid Style,” Ibid. Richard Baehr and Ed Lasky, “Stephen Walt's War with Israel,” ) is as scholarly as those of Welch and McCarthy—and just as nutty.” Basically, all works are focusing on the methodological problem that was committed Paranoid StyleinAmerican Politics. 176 In such a manner, the key in key the Insuch anti-Jewish accusation manner, a Los Angeles Times 70 - Israel direction”, authors, thus, authors, direction”, Israel The American Thinker , March 29,2006, Moreover, it brackets the working the brackets it Moreover, Los AngelesTimes London Review London Review of , March 20, 2006, 175 177 Polemicizing . The . CEU eTD Collection 2009). http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/04/AR2006040401282.html (accessed May 11, 181 http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/2891/ (accessed May 11, 2009). 179 http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060501/alterman (accessedMay 11, 2009). 180 http://articles.latimes.com/2006/mar/26/opinion/op-goldberg26?pg=2 (accessed 2009). May 11, Media,” Liberal The Complaint: “AIPAC’s 178 oldest son serves as an officer in the U.S. Army in Baghdad. scholarship”, he projected accusations of the possible disloyalty histo own family where the impressive, and more personal, reply to the essay. Calling it “a wretched piece of done in polite society -- even in situations in which there's some truth to it.” justnot It's idea broach in even isthat modern the unacceptable. to ‘Jewish lobby’ era, of the a in the Goldberg Nicholas working paper,tothenotorious stereotypes of nature, asdual antisemitic loyalty, etc. monolithic.” Israel: on American insociety general since itgives a powerful and graduallyincreasing support to possible disloyalty of American Jews to the United States and perceived the essay as an attack Eliot A. Cohen, “Yes, It's Anti-Semitic,” Lobby'?” `Israel ofthe afraid “Who's Goldberg, Nicholas Ruth R. Wisse, “What They Are Saying?” Are They “What R. Wisse, Ruth John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, M. Stephen and Mearsheimer J. John alliances rather than to the choices of a democratic electorate. of a democratic to choices the than rather alliances they function as classic conspiracy theorists who attribute decisions to nefarious imply bipartisan the that authors support of Israel in the Congress is When a resultof Jewish influence, before. ever than confidence of levels higher with Israel supports singles outfor condemnation. Its true targetis the American public, which now Israel alone, oron its Jewish defenders, or on the organizations andindividuals it on attack asan ‘Israel onthe Lobby’ article itmistakewould totreat this Yet bea EliotCohen, mentioned in an essay as a part of “the Lobby”, gave the more Unsurprisingly, that one of the remarkable comments were expressed in of context the wereexpressed comments remarkable of the one that Unsurprisingly, 178 Moreover, that assumption inevitably leads anyone who carefully reads the Los AngelesTimes The Nation The Washington Post The Jewish Exponent The Israel Lobby andU.S. Foreign Policy, fairly noticed onthis subject: “it's nosurprise , April 13, 2006, 71 Los Angeles Times , April 5, 2006, , April , March30, 2006, 181 “Other supposed members of 180 , March 26, 2006 5; Eric Alterman, 179 CEU eTD Collection http://www.pierretristam.com/Bobst/library/wf-144.htm (accessed May 11, 2009). 185 http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=5539456 (accessed 2009). May 11, 184 (accessed May 11, 2009). http://www.cfr.org/publication/10606/mighty_and_the_almighty_rush_transcript_federal_news_service_inc.html Relations, New York, May 1, 2006, 183 182 and Oldest–JewishReply tothe Conspiracy: A Mearsheimer-Walt “WorkingPaper” Mearsheimer-Waltessay. published Dershowitz his working paper the of publication the after year one Foxman H. Abraham by and April in already “leads to a cost for American foreign policy.” importantly more itand to American hascorrelation security adirect that disagreed Congress, a part of “the Lobby” as well, confirming the strong positions of the Israel lobby in the the of power lobby.exaggerates butIsrael inWashington, process of real political picture the only distorts essay not Mearsheimer-Walt scholarship or policy advocacy. Itis merely, and unforgivably, bigotry,”- concluded Cohen. ‘The Lobby’ alsohave children in military service. Impugning their patriotism ormine is not to either advance Israeli interests or the U.S.-Israel relationship.” U.S.-Israel the or interests advance Israeli to either smug. Avoidance of candid discussion might make good sense to the Lobby, butit is unlikely by Harvardstudy tothe of response shrill the has beencharacterized a combination and the lobbyIsrael in UnitedStates the to Israeli internal policy and security:“Sadly,if predictably, “jarring”. However, he pointed that itis a good reason to reevaluate an importance of the the importance of the status of the authors, he called the tone of the essay “harsh” and Admitting observer. Israeli of view of point the from debates the to contribution interesting Daniel Levy, “SoPro-Israel It Hurts,” National Public Radio, “Former Envoy: Israel Lobby Not All-Powerful,” Interview with Dennis Ross, Madeleine K. Albright, “The Mighty and the Almighty,” Interview by George E. Ibid.Rupp, Council on Foreign However, the most visible and formidable argument was given by Alan Dershowitz Alan by given was argument formidable and visible most the However, the that noted evenly process political in the involved were who those However, Daniel Levy, the former advisor in the Israeli Prime Minister’s Office, gave an Haaretz , March25, 2006, 183 Whereas Dennis Ross, mentioned in the essay as 184 72 185 Debunking theNewest – in 182 CEU eTD Collection 186 187 http://www.hks.harvard.edu/research/working_papers/dershowitzreply.pdf (accessed May 11, 2009). Walt“Working Paper” some of the formulations are close to notorious antisemitic ideas of Buchanan. ideasof Pat notorious antisemitic to areclose formulations of some the Israel lobby marked and though professors officially any denied antisemitic implications, Dershowitz, among other critique, focused on the nebulosity of academics’ description of todescribe“Themistake have did Lobby”, explanations not further any any significance. real irresponsible tosuggest that it is a cabal or aconspiracy.” never used the word 'cabal,'… It's notin our vocabulary.And I think it would be completely clear:make “We to they their and statement interviews tried panel innumerous talks often 98f&ex=1302494400&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss (accessed May 11, 2009). http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/education/12professors.html?pagewanted=2&ei=5090&en=e8cbef1b639b9 academia andacademia government. media, American mainstream influencing community Jewish American of argument Walt’s details. greater the arguments of professors’ together with other contemporary anti-Israeli sentiments in Deadliest Lies:TheIsrael Lobbyand the Myth of Jewish Control School of Government Web-site. However, Foxman published the whole book called April 2006 anditwas posted together with Mearsheimer-Waltessay on John the F. Kennedy Alan Dershowitz, Alan Finder, “Essay Stirs Debate About Influence of a Jewish Lobby,” government,’ of having a ‘stranglehold’ over American policy, and of ‘controlling the They identify American-Jewishan lobbying group as a ‘ Dershowitz was the first who introduced the term “cabal” describing Mearsheimer- describing the “cabal” term who introduced first wasthe Dershowitz Debunking the Newest– andOldest – Jewish Conspiracy: A Reply to the Mearsheimer- (Harvard: Harvard Law School, 2006), under “Introduction” under 2006), School, Law Harvard (Harvard: 186 That term was perceived as most painful by academics and 73 187 de facto However, in virtue of primordial New York Times in 2007 wherehe analyzed agent for a foreign , April 12,2006 The CEU eTD Collection 191 190 189 188 for classic anti-Semites.“By promoting these beliefs and giving them a veneer of academic historian Tony Judt). the wider context of controversies (giving examples of the former president Jim Carter and basically resumed the main points of Mearsheimer-Walt’s critics and simultaneously put it in sources. debates, implicitly to spectrum or suppresses any of broad the refers anti-Jewishcritique immemorial.” the ugly specter of “dual loyalty,” a canard that has haunted Diaspora Jews from time Walt’s paper, that American Jews put the interests of Israel before those of America, raises and Mearsheimer of implication “The concluded: author point, every almost challenging in Alan Dershowitz, Henry Ford, Ibid., 13. Alan Dershowitz, The Occupied Territory.’ Occupied as‘Israeli Congress to hisreference and corner’ ‘amen as Israel’s government U.S. debate.’ mildest discussion of the Jewish Question. has practically sealed up the columns of every publication in America against even the retraction. And always in the background there is the threat of boycott, a threat which membership of organizationsthe whose responsible hysterically heads demand and atthe whoprotest, of those and ratings financial atthe whowrite, magnates or in low-brow language, a Jew-baiter… until one looks at the letterheads of the mustelse befully preparedtobe regardedasan in language,Anti-Semite, high-brow Anyone who essays to discuss the Jewish Question in the United States or anywhere Independent Jew Foxman repeated one of the earlier arguments that academics’ work plays good work tothe academics’ that oneof earlierthe arguments Foxman repeated Foxman’s publishedbook, year one after discussion the had reachedits’ high-point, Moreover, Alan Dershowitz fairly noted that even an argument that Israel lobby Israel that argument an even that noted fairly Dershowitz Alan Moreover, Giving furtherGiving adetailed analysis of andactively essay, Mearsheimer-Walt’s 189 Indeed, the example of Henry Ford could be mentioned in that context, who wrote These charges are indistinguishable from from These chargesareindistinguishable Pat Buchanan’s invocation of the The International Jew, 191 Debunking the Newestand Oldest – – Jewish Conspiracy Debunking the Newestand Oldest – – Jewish Conspiracy : 188 27, 55. 190 74 , under “Conclusion”. , under “The Lobby”. CEU eTD Collection 192 “realists” focused precisely on onelobbyingthe organization,made and, thus, their positions academia. howexample antisemitism critique through the of of penetrates Israel gradually based on the notion that the essay is of antisemitic character and appears to be a disturbing from the point of view of political science. However, the main angle of treating the essay was essay the imbibedanalyzed opinionsand that numerous concept the of Mearsheimer-Walt explicitly disavowing them, kinds of stereotypes. In the same fashion, the scholars distancing from these notions and who Americandistorts foreign policy fitsperfectly toold antisemitic tradition andinvolves all Foxman in sense that argued the notion that of a smallminority (only 2 percent of population) “the oldraisesmysterious specterof cabals about narratives poisonous loyalties”.and dual 195 http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2006/04/18/lobby/index.html (accessed May 11, 2009). 194 193 Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 82. world.” respectability, MearsheimerandWaltare playing into handsthe of Davidthe Dukes of the people areseeking security the and simplicity scapegoating.”of enduring appeal anti-Semiticof stereotypes in andfalsehoods a troubled timewhen manytoo Abraham H. Foxman, Abraham H. Foxman, Michelle Goldberg, “Is the ‘Israel lobby’ distorting America's Mideast policies?” Salon.com, April 18, Ibid. 2006, consciously ornot. action,into whether is andleaps immediately reborn on conspiracy theories many for their own selfish purposes, and the long history of anti-Jewish slurs centering they need to do is suggest that the Israel Lobby is a case of the few manipulating the intentionally or not, activates that fantasy and draws upon the emotions it evokes. All Most observers expressed astonishment why scientists who called themselves called who why scientists astonishment expressed observers Most Basically, Abraham Foxman’s book incorporated both positions of strident critics of As many observers noted, unlike otherlobbies, discussions of AIPAC’s influence 192 For Foxman, some positive responses to their essay are a “testimony” to “the The Deadliest Lies: The Israel Lobby and the Myth of Jewish Control The Deadliest Lies, The Deadliest 195 109. 75 193 (New York: 194 CEU eTD Collection http://online.wsj.com/article/SB114325983069308278.html?mod=todays_us_opinion(accessed May 11, 2009). 198 2006), http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n09/letters.html#1 (accessedMay 11, 2009). 197 http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060501/alterman (accessedMay 11, 2009). 196 impression that he believes that “there is one correct and objective foreign policy that an criticism. to subjected was ally American main a as Israel of image the Though, influence. were“hi-jacked”ininterests byJewish Diaspora the andits’ States United enormous inAmerican national notion that consisted the by itself theory anti-Jewish conspiracy current Themain of state. American goal Jews are threatening that stereotype antisemitic notorious tothe appearanceof it contributed inevitably interests, national to American contrary is of Israel support current the that assurance main in essaywasthescholars’ of the the points attention to the sensitive subject of the debates and sharpened the clash of opinions. Since one national favored in antisemitism accusations while the of a catalystall became discussion controversy.triggered that involved Thedebates one theme important which most probably tried toclear their again. positions authors the later though theories, conspiracy anti-Jewish notorious with parallels evident into reaction.” read paperthe feel andunfairly singled out, inspires much emotionally mishigas driven in more vulnerable to the claims in antisemitism.“This has the effect of making the Jews who Bret Stephens, “The Israel Conspiracy,” John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, “The Israel Lobby,” Media,” Liberal The Complaint: “AIPAC’s Alterman, Eric ever alleged of ever of alleged Jewsthe made ishere Israel about the itsLobby cause.and political and cruelty upacts of covering peoplegratuitous an innocentagainst the -every canard of manipulation financial the duping media, the system, of manipulation disloyalty, loyalty, notDual does features? basic shareits that theory conspiracy been an anti-Semitic Jewish, and that not every American Jew is a part of it. Fair enough. But has there ever The are authors atpains tonote that Israel the Lobby is bynomeans exclusively Glenn Frankel from that possible atthe reasons wecanlook now debates, the Having summarized 196 Even the most rational and unemotional attempts to treat the essay inevitably ran goyim The Washington Post (gentiles) and getting them fightto their wars, sponsoring 197 The Wall Street Journal 76 wrote that Steven Walt’s position makes an The Nation The London Review Booksof , March 25, 2006, , April 13,2006, 28, no.9 (May 11, 198 CEU eTD Collection University of Chicago Press, 1998), 4. 201 200 dyn/content/article/2006/07/12/AR2006071201627_pf.html (accessed May 11, 2009). demands superpower sole of the thestatus it that was apparent etc.), neoconservative, (liberal, shape frameworkthe of foreign determinepolicy priorities.to Despite the various views unique “national interest”. definition of national interest is “a product of politics” and the United States does not have a noted, Trubowitz foreign very the policy defense should whose determine agenda. AsPeter Washington,” 199 concerns: short-term on depending differently, beinterpreted which could interest of national main categories the own foreign policy agenda according to its principles and priorities, though based on three founding of the Federation and to the present. Each presidential administration elaborated its onAmerican interest. national debates of broader arelatively noticeable, becamethough Walt apart, Steven essay Mearsheimerand the John of American scholarshipall throughout Coldpost War period. Whereas, the debates triggeredby general and its’ correlation with Israel,in particular, was one of the most insistent in playingnot outthere politics.” enlightened elite wouldbe abletoagree upon if groups grubby interestonly were ethnic those Peter Trubowitz, Interest,” National of the Idea “The Brands, W. Henry GlennFrankel, “A Beautiful Friendship: In Search of the Truth about Israel the lobby’s Influence on nearly swallowed every other consideration of interest. of national consideration every nearly other swallowed took up where originalthe issueexistential left off butexpanded after 1945until it that acatch-all andsecurity, national valuesandinstitutions… American associated foreign markets for trade and investment; the defense and promotion of democracy and the pursuit of prosperity,identified diplomatically with the acquisition and retention of Indeed, it is really hard to determine one persistent and concrete national interest andit concrete is determine persistent one Indeed, hard to really A complete change of geopolitical paradigm forced intellectual tosearchand elites intellectual forced paradigm changeof geopolitical A complete Actually, the search for the national interest has been constant starting from the from starting constant been has interest national the for search the Actually, The Washington Post Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy 201 , July , 16, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- 199 However, the question of American national interest in interest national American of question the However, 77 Diplomatic History 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999): 239-240. 200 (Chicago: CEU eTD Collection (2002): 234. 205 Relations, 1995), 20. 204 203 politics, 202 countries.” other that often alienates definition interest of USnational of the this is“anarrow affairs, the battlefields of foreign policy are left to those with special interests” and the result international about complacent and indifferent is public American the of majority the “when foreign andconcerns. overshadow policy to dominatesociety.constraints Domestic problems to andbudgettended presidential the agenda for acertain of American important part more become have politics of domestic questions interests.” all almost societal to of protection government– to pointthe government that itself,in one form another, providesor ameasure The assecond critique generally seesinterests insucceeding ofinfluencing goals their lesseffectively”. fewerassetsand that possess employ resultsthem than interests better obtain will resources more with interests usually and policies societal dominate to together “apoint arguesthat of small critiques these numberand ofinterests individuals conspire suspicion and critiques political towards and institutions interest groups, in One particular. differentinterest groups. question is important and towhatextentAmerican interests actions canbeby determined a more However, issues. these to involvement American of extent in the disappointment and debates generates consequently which issues global in different involvement active an Joseph S. Nye Jr., “The AmericanNational Interest and Global Public Goods,” John F. Riley, ed., Ibid. Burdett A. Loomis and Allan J. Cigler, “The Changing Nature of Interest Group Politics,” in 7 Since the main threat represented by the Communist ideology the ideology disappeared, represented by Communist mainthe threat Since the groups inThe increasedinterest influence of 20th late the century certain aroused th ed., Cigler, Allan J. and Burdett A. Loomis (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2007), 5. 205 American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy 204 203 78 Consequently, according toJoseph S. Nye, (Chicago: Council on Foreign International affairs Interest group 78, no. 2 202 CEU eTD Collection October1997): 42. 210 209 208 Abdul Aziz Said, ed., 207 (September-October2008): 40. 206 needed, to prevent new centers of power from challenging America.” from of challenging newpower prevent centers to needed, foreign policy. The first major group, neoconservatives, called “toact unilaterally, by force if American of perspectives determine the in to fundamental attempts becomethe trying to Middle East and Israel,in particular. Despite the general public orientation on domestic priorities interests: and national American to clear formulate attempts unsuccessful reflecting concerns, these very P.Huntington expressed Samuel andtension accurately apparently created uncertainty. wouldthere be noorder predictability or international inaffairs.” decisions to achieve usingAmerican groups power. advantageous auniquemaintain Huntington), obtained ability allowedto interest dominance certain that as a sole superpower in a uni-multipolar system of international affairs (in terms of Samuel P. groups tried fitinto to both of conceptual frameworks reach to their goals. TheUnited States, “tofocus on the benefits of international stability in the global system.” multinationalists, argued for the greater involvement of the U.S. in global affairs and called Samuel P. Huntington, “The Erosion of American National Interests,” Arthur M. Schlezinger, Jr., Superpower,” Lonely “The Huntington, P. Samuel Abdul Aziz Said, Robert Y. Shapiro and Yaeli Bloch-Elkon, “Foreign Policy, Meet the People,” disappearing. steadily but is slowly entities, collective similar to inrelation entity collective actions consciously designed to promote the interests of the United States as a latter has been superb predictor of foreign policy stands. Foreign policy,in the sense of economic and ethnic interests in American domestic politics. At least in recent, the interests of the American state in the world of competing states but rather the play of For an understanding of American foreign policy itis necessary studyto not the A number of concepts emerged almost simultaneously at the end of the Cold War, Still, one of the key issues for American society in the foreign policy agenda was the Still, as Arthur Schlezinger wrote, “without magnetic compass of national interest A Redifinition of National Interest, Ethnic Consciousness, and U.S. Foreign Policy 210 Ethnicity and U.S. Foreign Policy The Cycles of American History The ofAmerican Cycles Foreign Affairs 79 (New York: Praeger, 1981), 18. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 76. 78, 2 no. (March-April 1999): 36. Foreign Affairs 209 208 Such state of affairs The National Interest 206 207 The second group, As a result, interest 76, no. 5 (September- no. 76, , in CEU eTD Collection 213 contemporary world, 212 (September1998): 15. 211 conflicts (such as invasion to Iraq and tensions with Iran). The fail to determine what is Israel lobby is distorting U.S. foreign policy agenda and involves U.S. in unnecessary national American interests: with inconsistent is which policy foreign American on lobby Israel of impact acrucial was anti-Jewish and anti-Israel reactions. andanti-Israel anti-Jewish discussionsthe an about influenceenormous of Israel lobby graduallythat emerged slight problematic lightwithin the USdecision-making process” andit was mainly with connected on President.the Already in noted Avineri 1990, Shlomo Israel that began appear“in to a Israel lobby which, some according to scholars, had an influenceenormous onCongress and observers. Starting from the beginning of the 1990s, much attention was focused on so-called certain amongst issues Eastern in Middle involvement American of critics generating East. American “vital interest” with Israel and Israel still considered to be a key ally in the Middle problems, in surveys conducted 1990s,showedthe public the that large identify (64%) at John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt, M. Stephen and Mearsheimer J. John Shlomo Avineri, “Western Anti-Zionism: The Middle Ground” in Robert J. Lieber, “U.S.-Israel Relations Since 1948,” Israeli interests are essentially identical. areessentially interests Israeli would otherwise suggest, while simultaneously Americansconvincing thatU.S.and foreign divert U.S. farfrom Americanmanaged to policy interest national what the as politics, and especially to the activities of the “Israel Lobby.” … No lobby has overall thrust of U.S. policy in the region is due almost entirely to U.S. domestic the centerpiece of U.S. Middle East policy has been its relationship with Israel… the For the past several policy. decades, foreign however, American andof especially object since the primary Six be the Day War inshould 1967, interest national U.S. The 211 Thus, without any fully formed concept of national interests, scholars argued that the Basically, the essence of the John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt’s working paper However, an ambiguity in determining clear definitions of national interests have been ed. Robert S.Wistrich (New York: New York University Press, 1990), 175-176. 212 The Israel Lobby andU.S. Foreign Policy 213 80 Middle East Review Internationalof Affairs Anti-Zionism and antisemitism in the , 1. 2, no. 3 2,no. CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge, Mass.; London, England: Harvard University Press, 2000),110. 216 (accessed onMay 11, 2009). Interest 215 214 Uslaner: M. Eric notes As fairly rises. Americans amongst ofIsrael support asaggressors, seen criticism because of its politics,its support falls, when Palestinians and other Arab groups are the undergoes with American the public: when Israel strategicgovernment advantage of its enormous economic and political resources. AIPAC is successful rather because of its in the country. in the Retired Persons) andas the only foreign policy lobby in the toptwenty-five lobbying groups the second most powerful pressure group in Washington (after the American Association of andinaccusations inantisemitism publication of put the center debates.the the have raised inaccuracies methodological as as policy in direction” well other a pro-Israel loose coalition of individuals and organizations who actively work to shape U.S. foreign of “the instead is lobby” an of and “Israel what give interest explanation national American organizations in the United States. A in States. United the organizations Walt’s main in critics, of point fact appearstobe one of mostthe influential lobby agendas.” have constituencies“demands of back to world’s the ethnic leadingpower their special academicslegitimization offurther causedconcern of amongst “ethnic consciousness-raising” crisis in determining common purpose and, consequently,national interest together with Tony Smith, JamesSchlesinger,“Fragmentation and hubris: A Shaky forBasis American Leadership,” Ibid., 14. accurate to say that AIPAC is most successful when public attitudes toward Israel are toward successful AIPACattitudes is mostpublic when to say that accurate change the direction of policy against the tide of public opinion. It is likely more itcan is little that to believe reason butthere influence, considerable AIPAC…exerts 49 (Fall 1997): http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_n49/ai_20319593/?tag=content;col1 American Israeli Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), the object of Mearsheimer and 215 Foreign attachments: the powerethnic of groups inthe making of American foreign policy 216 Nevertheless, it would be naive to assume that AIPAC is successful because AIPAC issuccessful that it benaivetoassume would Nevertheless, Fortune report of reportof 1997, ranksDecember 8, AIPAC as 81 The National 214 A certain CEU eTD Collection unsuccessful (accessed May 11, 2009). Center For ThePeople &the Press. http://people-press.org/report/259/plurality-now-sees-bush-presidency-as- Presidency as Unsuccessful Discontent with Bush and State of The Nation Ever Higher. 1990 219 218 groupInterest politics, 217 dissatisfaction with the way things were going in the U.S. that happened for the first time in of favor seeing through. things to see the troops brought home as soon as possible in contrast to nearly two years of sentiment inwanted 2005, 48% October According toPewresearch origins andexplanations. conducted asearch hadof program crisis prompted in military nuclear Iran the with of the Iraq, operation instance,For eventsof 9/11 and the subsequentmilitary inoperation Afghanistan, the failures administration. presidential current the of activities in foreign disappointment public general inlobby” public U.S.havethe reflected interestinforeign andissues policy haddemonstrated very sensitive andurgentquestion national of Thedebates aboutagenda. power the “Israelof to delegitimize policies.” disliked both opponents of U.S. policy at home and abroad, the Jewish scapegoat is useful propaganda leadersmay find U.S.conduct easier to swallow if they can blame Jewishlobbying.And for find faith in an effective American Jewish lobby reassuring in a hostile region. And Arab raising the bogey of Jewish pressure and domestic politics. The Israeli elite, meanwhile, may deflect criticism of policies unpopular among some constituents or in the Arab world by that they have tremendous clout is a political resource. “Other U.S. political operatives can numerous illusions around it for international affairs. Thus, for pro-Israel lobbyists, the belief The Pew Research Center For The People & the Press, &the People The For Center PewResearch The Abramo F.K. Organsky, in Making?” Policy Foreign Dominate Groups DoEthnic Balance? in the Interest “American Uslaner, M. Eric when the public is more critical of when public ismore critical Israel. the of most favorable and thatpro-Israel lobby islikely most to face difficulties in its agenda ), 27-31. To sum workingup, the paper Abramo Organsky Abramo very Organsky of animportance carefully described lobbyIsrael and 310. The $36 Billion Dollar Bargain, ( 219 218 Moreover, as far back as July 2006, 65% expressed The Israel Lobbyand U.S.Foreign Policy 217 82 October 2005 Report: Plurality Now BushSees New York and Oxford: Columbia University Press, University Columbia Oxford: and York New The PewResearch The touched the touched CEU eTD Collection People Press. & the http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/281.pdf (accessed May 11, 2009). Unchanged by Recent Hostilities. Domestic Political Distemper Continues. 220 the history of American antisemitism. Taking into consideration a peculiarity of Jewish- periodfeaturethe of another important which discussion the isdemonstrated to characteristic inconspiracy community Jewish American during the time of crisis, the emergence of the theory that accuses a certain part of the of framework wholedebates. the specified basically that in antisemitism accusations raised inevitably policy foreign of failures acrucial of factor current as determination its’ lobby theIsrael focus and the on precisely In the context of certain crisis foreignof policy and lack of public consensus on this matter, dissatisfaction of society, but consequently caused a bitter dispute and polarization of opinion. general the reflecting from science, of view of of issuespointsome these the political crisis. of time in the active government foreign policy since one of the main qualities of conspiracy theories is being of general recent the suspicions and absorb reflect better could nature conspirological of explanations the circumstances Under these in Iraq. operation thecurrent than States diplomatic evenfor periodlosses andhuman obviously that theUnited greater threatened policy making. However, the forthcoming military operation in Iran that has been discussed in theories surrounding work of the “9/11the Commission” andquestionedits approachto protection of the Bush administration already triggered, for instance, the numerous conspiracy since George W. Bush was elected a President of the United States. The Pew Research Center For The People & the Press, &the People The For Center PewResearch The Furthermore, the accusations in antisemitism that obviously dominated during dominated over obviously Furthermore, accusationsthe in that antisemitism becomemore toactive of theories conspiracy specificin the attribute Taking regard The working paper of Mearsheimer-Waltwas supposed to give a sort of explanation to 83 July 2006 Report: Americans’ Support For Israel The Pew Research Center ForThe Center Research Pew The 220 Unusual information Unusual CEU eTD Collection Publishing, 1995), 136-137. America Today: Outspoken Experts Explode the Myths 222 221 their secured existence in States. United existence the their secured display of antisemitism” and fearing the emergence of new phenomenon that could destroy stable positions in society, perceived any critique of Israel or its policies as “the most virulent and Steven Walt. A certain part of American Jewish community, though having a relatively explaining role the of antisemitism in debates around the publicationthe of John Mearsheimer emotional overtone. out any claims for seriousness of the research and attached to the discussion unnecessary virtually cancelled and style” conspiracy manifestation theory of “paranoid the contemporary positions of the community.Whereas the conceptualization of the working paper as a toward workingthe paperof Mearsheimer-Walt usedwas asa defensive tool secure to Americans will of think us.” beingrich, too and toosmart, toopowerful.cautious leaders Out obsess whatabout the ‘real’ citizens –as inguests another people’s land… we worry chargesabout of dual loyalty, of expressed it: “Despite our apparent success, deep-down we see ourselves as second-class Jews in the United States, Diaspora Jews had faced the new problem.As Alan Dershowitz close Jewish community had enough resources and capacity to oppose Henry Ford and force him to the age when antisemitic conspiracy theories were on the high point, in the 1920s, American more opportunities to oppose any threat or attempt to reconsider their social positions. Even in with European regard moreto the had Jewishcommunity secureandlot The tradition. was a Gentile relations in the United States, the Jews had completely different status in the society Barry Rubin, “American Jews, Israel, and the Psychological Role of Antisemitism” in Antisemitism” of Role Psychological the and Israel, Jews, “American Rubin, Barry Alan Dershowitz, The DearbornIndependent However, after the foundation of the State of Israel and successful achievements of the Chutzpah (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991), 3. 221 Nevertheless, that point looks rather exaggerated, it allows and apologize. 222 , ed. Jerome A. Chanes (New York: Carol York: (New Chanes A. Jerome , ed. Thus, the usage of antisemitic accusations 84 Antisemitism in CEU eTD Collection Mearsheimer-Walt, controversy. Mearsheimer-Walt, interests of foreign policy, runs a risk toface another, perhaps, more serious than the case of and in formulatedpriorities of clearly absence Israel, the of perception positive general to various critique. However, American society, that has a stable support and increasing weremadethat byscholars whole definitively weakened the conceptandmade itvulnerable discussion initially andwas very methodological complicated sensitive, numerous mistakes and antisemitic conspiracy theories in contemporary politics. Though, the subject of Walt’s working paper as an illustration to the potential “all-powerfulof Jewish conspiracy.” for real anti-Semites to construct their conspiracy theories using the example of Mearsheimer- relatively overemphasized, threat. On the other hand, the storm of criticism gave certain basis capacity the influenceand ofAmerican defendJewish community itself to from any, even Nevertheless, the debates demonstrated a circumstantial role of antisemitic stereotypes role of antisemitic acircumstantial debatesdemonstrated the Nevertheless, demonstrated debates the hand one the on that is clear it analysis, above of light a In 85 CEU eTD Collection 1995), 128-156. Citizenship Persuasion? Reflections on the EmancipationEnglish the Jews of ofJews or Anglo-Jewry” “English in Alderman, Geoffrey see detail more For England. in emancipation 223 people’s efficiency than their ethnicity. because of relatively culturally thatjudgedsuccessfully principles the entrenched capitalist progressed in America, of particular) States United the and (England societies Anglo-Saxon in emancipation Jewish the Perhaps, values. of set basic American the into fit smoothly advantage than imperfection.an Jewish Thus, in activities and business entrepreneurship an wererather sometimes differently, and wereperceived Jewishlifein Europe the designated that preconceptions anti-Jewish traditional the UnitedStates, caseof the In the communities., to most European countries in terms of the status of Jewish population amongst otherMuslim world in the second half ethnicof the twentieth century. Cohn,for“a genocide” in warrant Nazi in the Germany wassuddenly and then revived first conspiracy theories in the history of Western civilization, the of one Being it became, conspiracy. in Jewish words of Normaninternational the of myth the – notions conspirological inprejudices and,already beginning of century nineteenth the the determined of one basicthe medievalsecular anti-Jewish into transformed prejudices harassments, and European attitudes forms while simultaneously preserving their destructive Starting nature. with religious years how various clearly have demonstrated anti-Jewish have stereotypes gradually changed Antisemitism: TheLongest Hatred For acomparison with the history of American Jewishcommunity, could be taken the history of the Jewish Nevertheless, the history of American antisemitism stands out sharply incomparison sharply out stands antisemitism American of history the Nevertheless, Professor Robert Wistrich called his book on the history of anti-Jewish attitudes , eds. by Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, and in many respects was right. More than two thousand two than More right. was respects many in and CONCLUSION 223 86 Paths of Emancipation: Jews, States and CEU eTD Collection http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2791 (accessed May 11, 2009). 224 political Thisadvantage of views. its American general the system predetermined political protects the rights and freedoms of every citizen without a distinction of race, gender or values of American state, while, on the other hand, the American political system by itself follow and to main readiness the structure communal well-organized is based on the capacity that hand, one On manifestations. antisemitic any against stand to capacity enough has States milieurelations in it American couldthe be Jewish the arguedthat community in United the draw afew conclusions. Taking into consideration the general history of Jewish–Gentile and connotations. stereotypes of antisemitic set whole of describingthe political crisisthat the inevitably nature provocative terms regenerated policies. In that context, the concept of Mearsheimer-Waltthat used ambiguous and appeared tobe thecomfortable explanation of ongoing failuresin internal and foreign during second the presidential term W.of George conspiracy Bush, numerous theories acutely came out that crisis moment political of certain the In myth creation. conspiracy dangerous for the American Jewish community and were a breeding ground for the tobe out turned elites, political American amongst appeared that ambiguity political certain discourse through the sphere of entertainment. These two tendencies, taken together with dissemination of conspiracy theories of all kinds and, moreover, its strengthening in public antiglobalism and colonialism. and antiglobalism of antisemitism focused primarily on Israel, introducing the left-wing rhetoric of of politics and international relations, and often pushing against amoral angle, the new type the ideology of anti-Zionism, amore sophisticated form of Jew-hatred. Penetrating the sphere preserved by certain groups of itsociety,again itsdemonstrated flexibility in elaboration of Mark Strauss, “Antiglobalism’s Jewish Problem,” The case allowed of meworking paperandfurther Mearsheimer-Walt debates the to In the post - Second World War period even though old-fashioned antisemitism was 224 It overlapped with another negative trend – an extraordinary an – trend negative another with overlapped It Foreign Policy 87 , November12, 2003, CEU eTD Collection more than ever needsa balanced approach and historical memory in interethnic dealingwith tensions. Therefore, living in the “age of conspiracism”, the contemporary Western society achievements of democratic society and perhaps the only way to avoid some interethnic of public institutions, though itis a Thule, is probably among the most important and transparency debates of openness these The relations. interethnic of ofthe history course the during elaborated stereotypes typical the on based in myths believe to nature in human is issues in politics. contemporary of framework allowing various a relevantdevelopment adiscussion actual of and debate task. That is why one of the main challenges for the scientific community should be the topiccomplicated and find to afine line balanced critique between andallegation is a difficult of antisemitic nature, and emotionally enriches every discussion. Certainly, itis a very accusations inevitably leaves fora room various, rathersophisticated conspirological concepts anti-Jewish and policies Israeli of critique the of differentiation and indefinition complexity conspiracy” that suppresses any debates concerning Israeli policies. Furthermore, the withJewish theidea “reactionary discourse of antisemitic the State fleshed out of Israel activists. right-wing American – thenightmare of Government Occupation Zionist or the conspiracy”, theories to claim that the United States and its policies are orchestrated by the “Jewish countries. Most probably, this feature gives a basis for the partisans of antisemitic conspiracy gained palpablesupport. This still the United fromdistinguishes States of lots European it before nature, antisemitic of particularly ideologies, any destructive and isolate radical world. However, in the case of the American Jewish community it also gave an opportunity to successful development and attractiveness for numerous talented people from all over the Indeed, there always will be people prone to believe in various conspiracy theories. It The emergence in the 1960-1970s of the new concepts based on the Left critics of the 88 CEU eTD Collection 225 http://www.newsweek.com/id/95563 (accessed May 11, 2009). predict in the context of village”. in of “global context predict the relations in an effort toevade future conflicts the results of which would be impossible to Jonathan Alter, “The Age of Conspiracism,” Age “The Alter, Jonathan Newsweek 225 89 , March, 24, 1997, CEU eTD Collection 1958. Boorstin, Daniel J. Neil. Baldwin, Berlet, Chip. Baum, Dale. “Know-Nothingism and the Republican Majority in Massachusetts: The Political Baron, Salo W. Barkun, Michael. Bailyn, Bernard. 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