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Routes Towards Low-Cost Renewable Hydrogen Production University of Dundee DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Routes towards low-cost renewable hydrogen production Dixon, Christopher Ross Award date: 2015 Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. 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Oct. 2021 Routes towards low-cost renewable hydrogen production Christopher Ross Dixon The thesis submitted to the Division of Physics, University of Dundee, in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) May 2015 i Contents List of Figures and Tables ................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... xi Signed Declaration .......................................................................................................... xii Nomenclature ................................................................................................................ xiii Summary .........................................................................................................................xix 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Renewable Hydrogen .............................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Climate Change ................................................................................................. 1 1.1.2 Future Carrier of Renewable Energy ................................................................ 2 1.1.3 Renewable Hydrogen Production ..................................................................... 3 1.2 The Present Hydrogen Economy ............................................................................. 5 1.2.1 Overview ........................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Hydrogen Production ........................................................................................ 6 1.2.4 Hydrogen Storage ............................................................................................. 8 1.2.4 Hydrogen Infrastructure and Decentralised Generation ............................... 11 1.2.5 Hydrogen Demand Markets ........................................................................... 13 2. Electrolyser/Fuel Cell Materials Processing ............................................................... 15 2.1.1 The Electrolyser/Fuel Cell Reaction ................................................................ 15 2.1.2 Electrolyser/Fuel Cell Reaction Electrochemistry ........................................... 16 2.1.3 Electrolyser/Fuel Cell Efficiency and Loss Mechanisms ................................. 20 2.2 Electrolyser/Fuel Cell Testing ................................................................................ 24 2.2.1 Cell Test Experimental Method ...................................................................... 24 2.2.2 Cell Test Results and Discussion ..................................................................... 26 2.3 Nanoscale Deposition and Laser Processed Catalyst/PEM Work ......................... 32 2.3.1 Overview of Nanoscale Deposition and Laser Processing of Ni/Nafion ......... 32 2.3.2 Cell Test Experimental Method ...................................................................... 35 2.3.3 Cell Test Experiment Results and Discussion .................................................. 38 2.3.4 Cell Test Experiment Summary ....................................................................... 43 2.4 Alkaline Electrolyser/Engine Experimental Work ................................................. 44 2.4.1 Effects of On-board H2 Production on ICE Efficiency...................................... 44 2.4.2 Electrolyser Stack Testing/Optimisation and ICE Experimental Methods ..... 45 ii 2.4.3 Electrolyser Optimisation Experiment Results and Discussion ...................... 49 2.4.3 Engine Test Experiment Results and Discussion............................................. 53 2.4.4 Alkaline Electrolyser/Engine Experiment Summary ....................................... 54 2.5 Summary................................................................................................................ 55 3. Renewable H2 from Wind and Solar Energy .............................................................. 56 3.1 Renewable Electrical Energy from Wind Turbines ................................................ 57 3.1.1 Micro Wind Turbine Test Experimental Method............................................ 57 3.1.2 Micro Wind Turbine Test Experiment Results and Discussion ....................... 59 3.2 Renewable Electrical Energy from Solar Photovoltaics ........................................ 65 3.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic Test Experimental Method ............................................... 65 3.2.2 Solar Photovoltaic Test Experiment Results and Discussion .......................... 65 3.3 Wind and Solar Energy Economics ........................................................................ 68 3.3.1 Review of Wind and Solar Energy Costs ......................................................... 68 3.3.2 Renewable Incentives and Microgeneration Certification Scheme ............... 69 3.4 Conventional Power Control and MPPT for Wind/Solar Electrolysis .................... 71 3.4.1 Overview of DC-DC Converters and Conventional Power Control ................. 71 3.4.2 Overview of MPPT Function ........................................................................... 73 3.4.3 DC-DC Power Converter Losses ...................................................................... 77 3.4.3 Conventional DC-DC Converter Test Experimental Method ............................ 80 3.4.4 Conventional DC-DC Converter Test Experiment Results and Discussion ..... 83 3.4.5 Conventional DC-DC Converter Experiment Summary .................................. 87 3.5 Solar-Powered Electrolysis using Direct Connection ............................................ 88 3.5.1 Overview of Solar Electrolysis using Direct Connection ................................. 88 3.5.2 Solar Electrolysis Direct Connection Experimental Method .......................... 89 3.5.3 Solar Electrolysis Direct Connection Experiment Results and Discussion ...... 89 3.5.4 Solar Electrolysis Direct Connection Experiment Summary ........................... 90 3.6 Wind-Powered Electrolysis using a Cell Selection Power Converter .................... 91 3.6.1 Overview of Cell Selection Power Converter ................................................. 91 3.6.2 Cell Selection Converter Experimental Method ............................................. 93 3.6.3 Cell Selection Converter Experiment Results and Discussion ........................ 97 3.6.4 Cell Selection Converter Experiment Summary ........................................... 101 3.7 Wind-Powered Electrolysis using a Hybrid DC-DC Converter ............................. 101 3.7.1 Overview of Hybrid DC-DC Power Converter ............................................... 101 iii 3.7.2 Hybrid DC-DC Converter Experimental Method ........................................... 103 3.7.3 Hybrid DC-DC Converter Experiment Results and Discussion ...................... 105 3.7.4 Hybrid DC-DC Converter Experiment Summary ........................................... 106 3.8 Summary .............................................................................................................. 107 4. Biological H2 Production via Mixed-Acid Fermentation ........................................... 108 4.1 Mixed-Acid Fermentation of Glucose by E. coli .................................................. 108 4.1.1 Overview of Mixed-Acid Fermentation ........................................................ 108 4.1.2 The Metabolic Processes and Pathways ....................................................... 111 4.1.3 Characteristics of Hydrogen Production from Mixed-Acid Fermentation ... 114 4.2 Experimental Mixed-Acid Fermentation ............................................................. 116 4.2.1 Preparation and Experimental Method ........................................................ 116 4.2.2 Fermentation Experiment Results and Discussion ....................................... 118 4.3 Physical and Practical Enhancement of Mixed-Acid Fermentation .................... 120 4.3.1 Energy Efficiency Analysis ............................................................................. 120 4.3.2 Cost Analysis ................................................................................................. 123 4.3.3 Combined or Sequential Two-Stage Fermentation ...................................... 124 4.3.4 Carbon Dioxide Removal
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