Science and Scientists

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ Бийский технологический институт (филиал) федерального государственного бюджетного образовательного учреждения высшего образования «Алтайский государственный технический университет им. И.И. Ползунова»

Е.С. Замашанская, Ю.В. Клюева, О.Г. Паршина

SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS

Допущено научно-методическим советом БТИ АлтГТУ для внутреннего использования в качестве учебно-методического пособия по английскому языку для студентов очной формы обучения, обучающихся по всем направлениям подготовки бакалавриата и специальностям

Бийск Издательство Алтайского государственного технического университета им. И.И. Ползунова 2018 УДК 811.111(076) ББК 81.2 Англ З26

Рецензенты: О.М. Липустина, кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков ГОУ ВО АГГПУ им. В.М. Шукшина; И.А. Чернова, кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков ГОУ ВО АГГПУ им. В.М. Шукшина

Работа подготовлена на кафедре социально-гуманитарных дисциплин

Замашанская, Е.С. З26 Science and scientists: учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку для студентов очной формы обучения, обучающихся по всем направлениям подготовки бакалавриата и специальностям / Е.С. Замашанская, Ю.В. Клюева, О.Г. Паршина; Алт. гос. техн. ун-т, БТИ. – Бийск: Изд-во Алт. гос. техн. ун-та, 2018. – 83 с.

Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено студентам всех специ- альностей. В пособии рассматриваются разговорные темы, которые включены в экзамен по иностранному языку. Разговорные темы дополнены текстами о вели- ких ученых и изобретателях в разных областях науки, а также тексты по специ- альности для дополнительного чтения и обсуждения. Системы упражнений позво- ляют развивать как коммуникативные навыки, так и навыки письма, перевода на- учно-технической литературы, а также закреплять грамматические умения сту- дентов.

УДК 811.111(076) ББК 81.2 Англ

Учебно-методическое пособие издается в авторской редакции.

Рассмотрено и одобрено на заседании научно-методического совета Бийского технологического института Протокол № 4 от 23.11.2017 г.

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

INTRODUCTION ...... 4 UNIT 1 WHAT IS SCIENCE? ...... 5 UNIT 2 HISTORY OF SCIENCE ...... 19 UNIT 3 OUR INSTITUTE ...... 33 UNIT 4 MY SPECALITY AND PROFESSION ...... 44 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНОГО ЧТЕНИЯ ...... 56 FAMOUS SCIENTISTS IN ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING ...... 56 Alessandro Guiseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta ...... 56 André-Marie Ampére ...... 56 James Prescott Joule ...... 57 Georg Simon Ohm ...... 57 Michael Faraday ...... 58 Nicola Tesla ...... 58 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz ...... 59 FAMOUS SCIENTISTS CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ...... 60 Niels Bohr ...... 60 Robert Bunsen ...... 60 Alexander Fleming ...... 63 FAMOUS SCIENTISTS PHYSICS ...... 65 John Dalton ...... 65 Michael Faraday ...... 67 Dmitri Mendeleev ...... 69 Alfred Nobel ...... 71 Albert Einstein ...... 75 Isaac Newton ...... 78 Marie Curie ...... 81

3 INTRODUCTION

Данное учебное пособие предназначено студентам очной формы обучения, обучаю- щимся по всем направлениям. Целью пособия является формирование коммуникативных навыков в рамках разговорных тем «Что такое наука?», «История науки», «Наш институт» и «Моя специальность». Последние две темы входят в перечень заданий экзамена по ино- странному языку. Поскольку коммуникативный компонент государственного экзамена по иностран- ному языку требует умения ориентироваться в проблемах своей специальности, выражать суждения, касающиеся теоретических и практических вопросов, то в данное пособие включены разнообразные задания, позволяющие закрепить грамматические навыки, по- полнить лексический запас специальной лексикой, научной терминологией, сформировать навыки письменной речи, совершенствовать навыки публичного выступления и т.д. Кроме того, в пособие включены тексты по специальностям факультета для допол- нительного чтения, что позволяет развить навыки различных видов чтения (ознакоми- тельного, изучающего, поискового и просмотрового). Тексты могут быть использованы в качестве материала для индивидуальной работы (чтение, написание аннотаций, пересказ и т.д.), источников для написания докладов при подготовке к участию в научно- практической конференции студентов. В структуру данного учебного пособия входят четыре урока. Урок 1 – What is Sci- ence? включает различные тексты о науке, сфецифике научного исследования, а также тесты, на основании которых студенты могут оценить общие знания по физике, химии и другим дисциплинам, овладеть терминами, развить навыки говорения и т.д. В уроке 2 – History of Science представлены задания, направленные на развитие на- выков различных видов чтения, написания докладов и обсуждения информации в группах. Прилагаются также тесты на знание фактов из истории развития науки в России и зарубе- жом. Урок 3 – Our Institute знакомит студентов с Бийским технологическим институтом, система заданий направлена на пополнение словарного запаса по теме, а также на разви- тие навыков диалогической речи, построения монологического высказывания. В уроке 4 – My Speciality and Profession студенты знакомятся со специальностями института, обсуждают актуальность и преимущество их професиии, знакомятся с разли- чиями в профессиональной сфере в других странах, обсуждают спорные вопросы и строят монологические высказывания о своей професиии. В структуре учебного пособия также представлены дополнительные тексты для чтения. Основная тематика текстов – это величайшие ученые и их достижения.

4 UNIT 1 WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Задание 1. Используя информацию, дайте определение слова «наука».

Many of us do not know the definition of science. Before reading about it let’s try to define this term. The word “science” comes from Latin word “scientia“, which means “knowledge“. Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. The term science implies organized knowledge obtained from the observation of the animals and materials around us. This specialized information has been enriching human knowledge. In fact, knowledge of the unknown universe is science. So this system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. In a word we can say that science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. At present, “science” most often refers to a way of pursuing scientific knowledge, not only the knowledge but also often restricted to those branches of study that seek to explain the phenomena of the material universe. by Mohi Uddin

Задание 2. Вставьте пропущенные слова по смыслу и объясните, кто такой ученый.

scientists method expert contribution characteristics observe experiments mystery

We all _____ the diversity of events which occur around and in our environment. But there are some people who do not give up their in- quiry after observing it, but seek to find out an answer why and how the events occur or try to reveal the _____ of the universe through regular _____. Dedicated, inquisitive and creative men who always work for the welfare of mankind are called _____. Generosity, modesty, firmness in the search for truth, creativity, tolerance and above all philanthropy are the _____ of a scientist. Their _____ to the service of mankind cannot be denied. Innumerable people of the world are indebted to the scientists. So, we can say that Scientist is that person who does not give up the en- quiry after observing the events which occur around in the environment. Every scientist follows scientific _____ to take decision. Scientist is a person who is an _____ in science, especially one of the physical or natural sciences.

Задание 4. Опираясь на информацию, сформулируйте задачи науки. Приведи- те примеры того, как наука способствует улучшению жизни человека.

to develop the lifestyle to produce useful models of reality to develope and use some scientific methods Purpose of science to explain and understand Science as a collective institution aims to produce more and more accurate natural explanations of how the natural world works to solve a problem of developing a technology to formulate theories that successfully predict various phenomena

5 Задание 5. Изучите схему, отражающую этапы научного исследования. Опи- шите этапы, указывая их очередность, например: Firstly a scientist should ask a question. Почему ученому необходимо соблюдать такую строгую очередность этапов на- учной работы?

Задание 6. Соотнесите науки и то, чем они занимаются.

1 Biology a) is the study of planet Earth, including meteorology (the study of the atmosphere), and geology (the study of the Earth, including rocks, soil, and rivers). 2 Zoology b) is the study of energy in all of its forms, including heat, electricity and magnetism. 3 Botany c) is the study non-living things. 4 Paleontology d) is the study of living things. 5 Physical science e) is the study of celestial objects, including the planets, the moon, galaxies, black holes and comets. 6 Chemistry f) is the study of plants. 7 Physics g) is the study of people and social groups. 8 Astronomy h) is the study of animals. 9 Earth Science i) is the study of fossils. 10 Social science l) is the study of substances and materials and how they are form and interact.

Задание 7. Прочитайте текст и озаглавьте его. Соотнесите абзацы с заголов- ками:

a) The first step of scientific research b) Variety of science c) Applied and empirical sciences d) What is science?

6 e) Sciense and business f) Real results of real science 1. Science is a type of knowledge-gathering and interpersonal collaboration based on a standard called the scientific method. The goal is to formulate theories that successfully predict various phenomena. 2. The scientific method is a basic cycle of hypothesis formation and testing. First, the scientist forms a hypothesis about the way something works. For instance, that all objects fall the same speed on Earth in a vacuum. The hypothesis is followed by testing. The scientist must use a vacuum chamber as an experimental apparatus, drop various objects within the chamber, and measure their duration of fall as accurately as possible. Then the scientist compares the results with the original hypothesis, seeing whether they support or contradict it. But that’s not all – the scientist must publish his or her results, so that other scientists can try the same experiments and make sure that the results are reproducible. 3. Reproducibility is a major factor of good science, because sometimes people will design experiments in ways that artificially inflate the probability that their hypothesis will be confirmed, or even fabricate data. Another desirable quality of a scientific hypothesis is falsifiability. If a hypothesis cannot be proven false, it is not scientific. 4. Science is divided into three major categories: natural science, which studies natural phenomena such biology, physics, chemistry, geology, etc.; social sciences, which study humans and our societies such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.; and formal science, which includes mathematics, statistics, and logic — and there is some controversy as to whether formal science should be considered science at all. All three divisions are extremely important and have contributed immeasurably to humanity’s knowledge and well-being over the last few centuries. 5. When science is used to solve specific tasks or challenges, for instance using scientific knowledge about electric fields to design a circuit, it is called applied science. Natural and social sciences are called empirical sciences because they are based on experimentation, while formal sciences such as mathematics are non-empirical. Although some philosophers of science consider theorem-proving to constitute an experiment, most consider mathematics non-empirical because it does not involve any real-world testing. 6. Important in science is the elimination of bias. Bias is introduced when a theorist would prefer a certain experimental outcome and consciously or subconsciously alters the experiment to ensure it, or when emotional reasoning takes precedence over logical reasoning. Science contains many safeguards in an effort to fight against bias, such as reproducibility and standardization. But bias is still rife in science: major corporations give billions of dollars each year to scientists and expect them to produce findings that reflect positively on business or industry. Some politicians would prefer to ignore scientific findings if they are inconvenient to their pre- established plans. None of this means that science is less useful than guessing, superstition, or faith: just that there are better and worse standards for science and that it takes effort to conduct good science.

Задание 8. Прочитайте текст и ответьте на вопросы:

1 Why can science be dangerous for society? 2 What is the role of computers in science and progress? 3 What can happen if science stops developing?

Science is a source of progress. It develops the world we live in. Our century is an epoch of great discoveries in science and engineering. It is epoch of scientific and technological revolution, when new ideas are being born and new discoveries, inventions are being made at an ever increasing rate.

7 Today science has become the most important factor in the development of national economy in the whole world. Scientific progress serves the interests of society, helps to increase the well - being of people and develops public education. Computer technology plays the most important role in the progress of science. The ability of computers to solve many mathematical problems more effective than man does, has given rise to new trends in mathematics. Computer science is a new field of study and research. In recent years scientists of the world have achieved great success in the development of physics, chemistry, biology, and such astonishing, interesting science as psychology. But science may be turned both for peace and military purpose. It can take good forms and evil forms. With the help of scientific inventions politicians make weapons of mass destruction. But on the other hand researches help us in our life: at home, at work, at school and make the level of the country development higher. by Dr. Bruce Railsback

Задание 9. Прочитайте текст и составьте письменно аннотацию на английском языке. Обсудите информацию в группе и подготовьте небольшое сообщение о значе- нии науки в современном обществе.

Importance of Science for the Development of Civilization

Development and progress of science are indispensable for mankind. Food, clothing, housing, medicine, education, agriculture, industry, transportation, communication, exchange of information, management of information, procurement of natural resources and their preserva- tion, space-research etc.-in all these areas, culture of science is essential. Nature has come under human control as a result of continuous success of science in all these fields. New success of science has to be brought about in order to protect the huge population and to face the unknown future. Some examples of scientific success of the last few centuries are presented below. During the middle of the 18th century in England new mills and factories were established with the help of steam engine and various kinds of machine. This era is called the age of industrial revolution. With advanced transport system goods can be distributed easily. As a result, demand for the goods and their sale increased. Scientific inventions were accelerated. Thus, in physics atomic theory, quantum theory and theory of relativity emerged. Immense advancement in air travel, space travel, atomic energy, electronics has opened a new horizon for human civilization. Man has set up artificial satellites in the space in order to acquire knowledge about space. As a result man has set foot on the moon’s surface and rockets move from the planet to planet. Again artificial satellites have made remarkable contribution to weather forecasting and easy communication. Use of electronic equipments and computers has made human life easy, beautiful and enjoyable. Advancement of medical science in the treatment of patients, invention of penicillin, improvement of current medicine to destroy insects, fungus, production of medicines for procrea- tion of plants and animals, use of microbes for preparing preventive medicine, application of new technique in food-processing are all gifts of science. With the help of science mechanical plough or tractor, pump for irrigation, spraymachine for spraying medicine to kill harmful insects, in- secticides have been invented. Biochemistry and cell theory have been making efforts to overcome

8 and cure cancer on the basis of knowledge of the chemical action and structure of a cell. Gene theory related to generation of species has been developed. It is now possible to produce high quality and quantity of jute and paddy. Improvement of crop and livestock depends on initial se- lection of crops and animals of advanced variety and bringing about generation expansion. As a result knowledge of good food and maintenance of health have improved and life expectancy has increased. Livestock has improved through cross-breeding of local and non-local cows which can adjust under unfavorable circumstances. In order to improve science, to maintain balance of nature, to grow more crops, to maintain a long healthy life, to make human life happier, the young generation should devote more and more to the culture of science.

Задание 10. Прочитайте цитаты. Какие черты, присущие науки, можно выде- лить, опираясь на высказывания?

Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and amongst the various facts. Dr. Sheldon Gottlieb

Science consists simply of the formulation and testing of hypotheses based on observa- tional evidence; experiments are important where applicable, but their function is merely to sim- plify observation by imposing controlled conditions. Robert H. Dott, Jr., and Henry L. Batten

Science alone of all the subjects contains within itself the lesson of the danger of belief in the infallibility of the greatest teachers in the preceeding generation. As a matter of fact, I can also define science another way: Science is the belief in the ignorance of experts. Richard Feynman

To do science is to search for repeated patterns, not simply to accumulate facts. Robert H. MacArthur

A modern poet has characterized the personality of art and the impersonality of science as follows: Art is I; Science is We. Claude Bernard

Religion is a culture of faith; science is a culture of doubt. Richard Feynman

As a practicing scientist, I share the credo of my colleagues: I believe that a factual reality exists and that science, though often in an obtuse and erratic manner, can learn about it. Galileo was not shown the instruments of torture in an abstract debate about lunar motion. He had threatened the Church's conventional argument for social and doctrinal stability: the static world order with planets circling about a central earth, priests subordinate to the Pope and serfs to their lord. But the Church soon made its peace with Galileo's cosmology. They had no choice; the earth really does revolve around the sun. Stephen J. Gould

The fuel on which science runs is ignorance. Science is like a hungry furnace that must be fed logs from the forests of ignorance that surround us. In the process, the clearing that we call knowledge expands, but the more it expands, the longer its perimeter and the more ignorance

9 comes into view. A true scientist is bored by knowledge; it is the assault on ignorance that moti- vates him - the mysteries that previous discoveries have revealed. The forest is more interesting than the clearing. Matt Ridley

There is no philosophical high-road in science, with epistemological signposts. No, we are in a jungle and find our way by trial and error, building our roads behind us as we proceed. We do not find sign-posts at cross-roads, but our own scouts erect them, to help the rest. Max Born

The stumbling way in which even the ablest of the scientists in every generation have had to fight throught thickets of erroneous observations, misleading generalizations, inadequate for- mulations, and unconscious prejudice is rarely appreciated by those who obtain their scientific knowledge from textbooks James Bryant Conant

I think that we shall have to get accustomed to the idea that we must not look upon science as a "body of knowledge", but rather as a system of hypotheses, or as a system of guesses or anticiptations that in principle cannot be justified, but with which we work as long as they stand up to tests, and of which we are never justified in saying that we know they are "true". Karl R. Popper

The real purpose of the scientific method is to make sure Nature hasn't misled you into thinking you know something you don't actually know. Robert M. Pirsig

TEST YOURSELF!

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is science? 2. Why do people need science? 3. Who is a scientist? 4. Can everyone become a scientist? 5. What kind of person should a real scientist be? 6. What are the main steps of scientific research? 7. Can we trust all the results obtained by scientists? 8. What should a scientist do to prove his theory? 9. How does science influence our civilization? 10. Do technologies always improve our life? Why?

Final Tests

Test 1 Common Facts

1 Who discovered the law of gravity when an apple fell on his head? a) Isaac Newton b) Michael Faraday c) Archimedes

2 What is Alfred Nobel`s famous invention? a) steam engine b) telegraph c) dynomite

3 Who discovered radium and later died from the effects of experiments with X-rays? a) Mary Curie b) Albert Einstein c) James Maxwell

4 What travels at 2,997,924,580 meters per second? a) sound b) light c) Mig-35

5 The name of the first cloned sheep was a) Molly b) Dolly c) Billy

6 Who reated the periodic table of the elements? a) Michael Lomonosov b) Dmitri Mendeleyev c) Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

7 Who made a great discovery while having a bath? a) Archimedes b) Hippocrates c) Democritus

8 Where was the first nuclear-powered icebreaker built? a) in Germany b) in the USA c) in Russia

9 Who discovered penicillin? a) Alexander Fleming b) Louis Pasteur c) Dmitri Mendeleyev

10 What sudstance has the chemical formula H2O? a) oxygen b) helium c) water

Test 2 States of Matter

1 Which one of the following is a state of matter? a) liquid b) particle c) atom d) air

2 Boiling is the change in state of a a) solid to a gas. b) solid to a liquid. c) gas to a liquid. d) liquid to a gas.

3 There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Select one property that liquids and gases have in common. a) They can flow. b) They have a definite shape. c) They have a definite volume. d) They cannot be compressed.

4 When the temperature of a liquid is increased a little, what happens to its particles? a) They stop vibrating. b) They start vibrating more. c) They come closer together. d) They move so far apart that the liquid becomes a gas.

5 The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from a) a solid to a liquid. b) a solid to a gas c) a liquid to a solid. d) a gas to a solid.

6 Which one of the following is not a property of liquids? a) They have no definite volume. b) They can flow. c) They have no definite shape. d) They are incompressible.

7 Which one of the following statements is correct? a) Gases are easier to compress than solids. b) Gases cannot be compressed.

11 c) Liquids cannot be compressed or expanded. d) Solids are easily compressed. 8 Melting is the change in state of a a) liquid to a solid. b) solid to a liquid. c) solid to a gas. d) liquid to a gas.

9 Which one of the following is not a property of gases? a) They have a definite mass. b) They can diffuse. c) They have a definite volume. d) They have no definite shape.

10 Which one of the following is not a property of a solid? a) definite colour b) definite volume c) definite mass d) definite shape

11 Which state(s) of matter takes the shape of the container they are placed in? a) gas only b) liquid only c) liquid and gas d) liquid and solid

12 Which one of the following substances is able to sublime? a) sodium chloride b) water c) carbon dioxide d) air

13 Liquids have the ability to flow because a) their particles can slide over each other. b) their particles are arranged in a regular pattern. c) there are strong forces of attraction between the particles. d) their particles are very far apart.

14 Which state of matter has no definite shape and no definite volume? a) liquid or gas b) liquid c) gas d) solid

15 Which three of the following statements explains why solid particles have a definite shape? a) They can be compressed. b) There is a strong force of attraction between the particles. c) They are packed together very tightly. d) They are arranged in a regular way.

Test 3 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

1 The smallest part of a compound which still has the properties of that compound is called a) an atom b) a solid c) a mixture d) a molecule

2 Which one of the following substances is a compound? a) iron b) sodium fluoride c) oxygen d) hydrogen

3 Natural gas is mainly methane (CH4). What two elements are found in methane? a) magnesium and oxygen b) carbon and hydrogen c) carbon and oxygen d) magnesium and hydrogen

4 What two elements make up common table salt? a) chlorine and hydrogen b) sodium and oxygen c) sodium and hydrogen d) chlorine and sodium

5 Which one of the following elements is a non-metal? a) carbon b) zinc c) gold d) iron

6 Which one of the following may be classified as a compound and as a molecule? a) crude oil b) oxygen c) sodium d) water

7 Which of the following statements is correct?

12 a) Table salt is a mixture and carbon is a compound. b) Air is a mixture and table salt is a compound. c) Carbon is a mixture and air is a compound. d) Air is a mixture and carbon is a compound.

8 What is the chemical symbol of the element phosphorus? a) F b) Fe c) P d) Ph

9 Matter is the ‘stuff’ that all things are made of, including us. The diagram shows how some types of matter are classified. The diagram is not complete. Elements are often divided into two sub- groups. What are these two sub-groups A and B? a) liquids and gases b) metals and liquids c) metals and non- metals d) non-metals and gases

10 The photograph is of Marie Curie (1867-1934). She showed the existence of the element radium and she produced 0.1 g of the compound radium chloride in 1902 by processing tons of pitchblende ore obtained from mines in Bohemia. What is meant by the term compound? a) A substance that cannot be split up into simpler substances by chemical means. b) A substance made up of two or more different types of atom chemically combined. c) A substance made up of only one type of atom. d) A substance made up of two or more different types of atom mixed together but not chemically combined.

Test 4 Acids and Bases

1 A bottle of hydrochloric acid contains the hazard symbol shown. What does this symbol mean? a) irritant b) explosive c) corrosive d) flammable

2 Which ONE of the following is NOT a property of an acid? a) Its pH is greater than 7. b) It has a sour taste. c) It reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas. d) It turns litmus red.

3 Acid waste from a factory is found to be killing fish in a nearby river. Which one of the following if added to the water would help prevent the fish kill? a) salt b) sand c) lime d) chlorine

4 Of the following substances, which is the strongest acid? a) vinegar b) stomach acid (HCl) c) lemon d) rain water

5 The acid responsible for putting the fizz in fizzy drinks is a) citric acid b) carbonic acid c) sulfuric acid d) hydrochloric acid

6 Which of the following is a physical property of an acid? a) corrosive b) has a sharp smell and a sour taste c) has a bitter taste and is slippery d) cold to the touch

13 7 If air is bubbled slowly through water, the pH of the water changes from 7 to 5.7. What gas in the air is responsible for this? a) hydrogen (H₂) b) nitrogen (N₂) c) oxygen (O₂) d) carbon dioxide (CO₂)

8 A soil sample is tested for its pH, and is found to have a value of 5.5. Which of the following substances is best added to the soil in order to neutralise it? a) water b) lime c) diluted vinegar d) citric acid

9 A base that is soluble in water is known as a) neutral b) an alkali c) basic d) acidic

10 Which one of the following solutions will turn red litmus blue? a) NaOH b) NaCl c) HCl d) H₂SO₄

Test 5 The Atmosphere

1 Nitrogen gas changes into a liquid at a temperature of a) 100 ºCelsius b) -196 ºCelsius c) 0 ºCelsius d) 15 ºCelsius

2 Which one of the following gases is the LEAST abundant in our atmosphere? a) nitrogen gas b) oxygen gas c) carbon dioxide d) natural gas

3 Which one of the following is NOT a physical property of carbon dioxide gas? a) odourless b) heavier than air c) turns limewater milky white d) colourless

4 Which one of the following is NOT a property of oxygen? a) poisonous gas b) slightly soluble in water c) supports combustion d) colourless gas

5 Which of the following pairs of scientists are credited with the discovery of oxygen in the 1700s? a) Watson & Crick b) Lavoisier & Priestley c) Pierre & Marie Curie d) Batman & Robin

6 Which noble gas is present in light bulbs so as to prevent the filament from burning and melting? a) nitrogen b) argon c) krypton d) helium

7 Which of the following combinations best describes the percentage composition of the main gases in our atmosphere? a) 78% oxygen, 21% carbon dioxide and 1% the remainder nitrogen. b) 78% oxygen, 21% nitrogen and 1% the remainder of gases. c) 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% the remainder of gases. d) 78% nitrogen, 15% oxygen and 6% carbon dioxide.

8 Which one of the following gases is used up when magnesium burns in air? a) oxygen b) water vapour c) nitrogen d) carbon dioxide

9 Which one of the following gases is present in our atmosphere as a major pollutant? a) hydrogen b) sulfur dioxide c) nitrogen d) oxygen

10 What is observed when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate? a) The mixture turns black.

14 b) The mixture fizzes. c) Nothing happens. d) The mixture reacts explosively with a burning flame.

Test 6 Water and Solutions

1 A liquid in which another substance dissolves is called a) a solution b) a solvent c) a solute d) a saturated solution

2 The graph shows the solubility curve for sodium carbonate. What is the solubility of sodium carbonate at 30ºC? a) 15 grams of sodium carbonate per 100 grams of water. b) 46 grams of sodium carbonate per 100 grams of water. c) 25 grams of sodium carbonate per 100 grams of water. d) 40 grams of sodium carbonate per 100 grams of water.

3 The graph shows the solubility curve for sodium carbonate.At what temperature will the maximum amount of sodium carbonate dissolve? a) 40ºC b) 0ºC c) 90ºC d) 60ºC

4 When 30 grams of sodium carbonate is added to 100 grams of water at 40ºC, it is said to be a) unsaturated b) supersaturated c) saturated d) undiluted

5Which one of the following is NOT an example of a suspension? a) glass of milk b) milk of magnesia c) spoon of sugar dissolved in cup of coffee d) muddy water

6 Which one of the following substances is known as the universal solvent? a) water b) oil c) air d) methylated spirits

7 Which one of the following is NOT a solution? a) glass of milk b) cup of coffee c) seawater d) glass of apple juice

8 The substance that dissolves in a solvent is called a a) saturated solution b) crystal c) solution d) solute

9 Which one of the following is an example of a solution? a) vinegar b) orange squash c) paint d) sand particles in water

10 Which one of the following statements is true? a) A dilute solution has a small amount of solute dissolved in a large amount of solvent. b) A dilute solution has a small amount of solute dissolved in a small amount of solvent. c) A concentrated solution has a small amount of solute dissolved in a large amount of solvent. d) A concentrated solution has a large amount of solute dissolved in a large amount of solvent.

15 Test 7 Measurement

1 The amount of space taken up by an object is known as it's a) area b) length c) volume d) mass

2 Which of the following liquids is commonly used in laboratory thermome- ters? a) water b) alcohol c) jlive oil d) hydrochloric acid

3 Which one of the following instruments would you use to measure volume? a) metre-stick b) stop watch c) graduated cylinder d) balance 4 Which one of the following is NOT a metric unit? a) metre squared b) kilogram c) second d) acre

5 The standard unit of time is the a) millisecond b) minute c) year d) second

6 In an experiment to measure the volume of a small stone using a measuring cylinder, the following measurements were recorded by a group of students: Volume of water = 45 cm3 Vol of water + stone = 58 cm3 What is the volume of the stone? a) 5 cm3 b) 13 cm3 c) 108 cm3 d) 103 cm3

7 The straight line distance between two points is known as its a) volume b) length c) capacity d) area

8 What is the unit of length? a) kilogram b) meter c) litre meter squared

9 The amount of matter in a body is known as its a) weight b) mass c) temperature d) volume

10 What is the volume of a rectangular box whose length = 5 cm, width = 4 cm and height = 2 cm? a) 10 cm3 b) 11 cm3 c) 22 cm3 d) 40 cm3

Test 8 Work, Energy and Power

1 Anything that causes an object to accelerate is known as a a) force b) density c) speed d) mass

2 A body will have potential energy because of its a) position b) acceleration c) size d) speed

3 What type of energy does water in a flowing river have? a) magnetic b) potential c) kinetic d) electrical

4 The unit of energy is the

16 a) joule b) newton c) metre per second d) newton-metre

5 The equation for work done is written as a) Work = mass × acceleration b) Work = force × distance moved c) Work = force × acceleration d) Work = force ÷ acceleration 6 The unit of work is called after which one of the following scientists? a) Robert Hooke b) James Watt c) Isaac Newton d) James Joule

7 What one of the following is the correct unit of power? a) Newton-metres b) Watts c) Joules d) Newtons

8 A block of wood is resting on a table. For work to be done on the block a) the block must not move b) the block must move because of a force acting on it c) the block moves whether or not a force acts on it d) a force must act on the block

9 What is the work done when a force of 10 N moves a stone a distance of 5 metres? a) 5 joules b) 2 joules c) 50 joules d) 15 joules

10 What distance will an object be moved when 200J of work are done with a force of 10N? a) 20 metres b) 2000 metres c) 200 metres d) 210 metres

Test 9 Magnetism

1 Which one of the following statements about magnetic fields is true? a) Magnetic fields travel from east to west around the earth. b) Magnetic fields exert an attractive force on plastic materials. c) They carry electrons from one end of the magnet to the other. d) They travel from north to south.

2 Which one of the following devices contains a magnet? a) paper clip b) drinks can c) stapler d) fridge door

3 Which one of the following everyday devices contains a magnet? a) clinical thermometer b) CFL bulb c) TV remote control d) Mobile phone

4 What term do we use when two magnets are pushing each other apart? a) friction b) opposition c) attraction d) repulsion

5 Magnetism is a type of a) gas b) force c) element d) attraction

6 Like poles of a magnet ______each other, and unlike poles ______each other. Which of the following pairs of words correctly fit into this sentence? a) attract, attract b) attract, repel c) repel, attract d) repel, repel

7 The picture shows an experiment where nails are magnetised. Which one

17 of the following energy conversions is taking place here? a) Magnetic to electrical to potential. b) Kinetic to potential to magnetic. c) Chemical to electrical to magnetic. d) Electrical to chemical to magnetic. 8 The space around a magnet in which there is a magnetic effect is called a) lodestone b) a magnetic field c) an electromagnet d) a magnetic pole

9 In which one of the following devices will you NOT find a magnet? a) electric motor b) electric bell c) bicycle dynamo d) loudspeaker e) computer f) LED flashlight

10 What term do we use when two magnets are coming together? a) attraction b) repulsion c) friction d) opposition

Test 10 Science, Physics and Electricity

1 Which one of the following statements is CORRECT? a) Lightning rods are made of insulators. b) An insulator prevents charge from flowing. c) A conductor holds charge. d) The earth is an insulator.

2 The breaking down of a compound by passing electricity through it is known as a) electrolysis b) electronics c) ultrasound d) electromagnetism

3 What energy change takes place when a battery is connected to a light bulb? a) Heat → electrical → light b) Chemical → light → electrical c) Light → electrical → chemical d) Chemical → electrical → light

4 Which one of the following formulae describes the relationship between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) for a resistance (R) a) R = V÷I b) V = I÷R c) I = RV d) V = IR

5 What is the resistance of a piece of wire when the current flowing through it is 0.12 amps and the potential difference across is 12 volts? a) 12.12 ohms b) 1.44 ohms c) 100 ohms d) 0.01 ohms

6 The volt is the unit of a) resistance b) electric current c) temperature d) potential difference

7 Which is the correct symbol for potential difference? a) P b) V c) W d) A

8 Another name for the unit of electricity is the a) watt b) ampere c) joule d) kilowatt hour

9 Name the device shown in the picture a) switch board b) fuse c) circuit breaker d) dashboard

10 Which one of the following materials is the best insulator? a) copper b) iron c) rubber d) brass

You can find more tests and quizzes visiting ttp://www.sciencequiz.net

UNIT 2 HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Задание 1. Работа в группах: прочитайте текст и определите самые значимые этапы в развитии науки. Составьте схему, отражающую этапы, науки, которые раз- вивались в данный период, важные достижения / изобретения, перечислите ученых. Дополните извесной вам информацией и обсудите сообщение в группе.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENCE By Tim Lambert The Ancient Greece The Ancient Greeks were the first scientists. Greek philosophers tried to explain what the world is made of and how it works. Empedocles said that the world is made of four elements, earth, fire, water and air. Aristotle accepted the theory of the four elements. However he also believed that the Sun, Moon and planets are made of a fifth element and are unchanging. Aristotle also studied zoology and attempted to classify animals. Aristotle also believed the body was made up of four humors or liquids (corresponding to the four elements). They were phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. If a person had too much of one humor they fell ill. Although some of their ideas were wrong the Greeks did make some scientific discoveries. A man named Aristarchros believed the Earth revolved around the Sun. Unfortunately his theory was not accepted. However Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth. The Scientific Revolution of the 16th Century and 17th Century In the 16th century Nicolaus Copernicus realized that the Earth and the other planets orbited the Sun. However his theory was not published until just before his death. Another great astronomer of the 16th century was Tycho Brahe. He made accurate observations of the positions of stars. However Brahe did not accept the Copernican theory. Instead he believed that the Sun revolved around the Earth and the other planets revolved around the Sun. Tycho Brahe was followed by Johannes Kepler. In the 16th century people believed that the planets move in circles. Kepler showed they orbit the Sun in ellipses and they move faster as they approach the Sun. Kepler published two laws of planetary motion in 1609. He published a third in 1619. Furthermore in 1604 Kepler published a book on Optics. One of the most famous early scientists was Galileo. In 1609 Galileo heard of a new invention from Holland. A man named Hans Lippershey had invented the telescope. Galileo made his own telescope and soon improved it. Using a telescope Galileo was able to see several things invisible to the naked eye. Firstly he could see many stars not visible without a telescope. Secondly the ancient Greeks believed that the Moon was smooth. Looking through a telescope Galileo could see the Moon's surface is actually rough, with mountains and craters. He also discovered 4 small 'moons' orbiting the planet Jupiter. At the time these were astonishing discoveries. Until then nobody knew that any of the other planets, apart from Earth, had 'moons'. In 1634 Galileo published a book about mechanics called Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences. Then in 1637 he noticed that the moon moves slightly from side to side. At this time doctors made great progress in understanding how the human body works. In 1628 William Harvey published his discovery of how blood circulates around the body. The Roman writer Galen said that blood passes from one side of the heart to the other through the

19 septum. However by 1555 the great surgeon Vesalius had reached the conclusion that no such holes exist and that blood cannot pass from one side of the heart to the other in that way. In 1559 Realdo Colombo demonstrated that blood actually travels from one side of the heart to the other through the lungs. Eventually William Harvey realized that the heart is a pump. Each time it contracts it pumps out blood. Harvey then estimated how much blood was being pumped each time. In the 17th century medicine was helped by the microscope. In 1658 Jan Swammerdan first observed red blood corpuscles. In 1661 Marcello Malpighi discovered capilliaries. Then in 1665 Robert Hooke was the first person to describe cells in his book Micrographia. Meanwhile Britain's oldest scientific society began in 1645 a when group of philosophers and mathematicians began holding meetings to discuss science or natural philosophy as it was called. Charles II was interested in science and in 1662 he granted them a charter and they became the Royal Society. Isaac Newton is Britain's greatest scientist. In 1668, he invented a reflecting telescope. Newton published his masterpiece Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. It set out his theory of gravity and his laws of motion. Newton realized that there is a universal force (gravity) that attracts all objects in the universe to each other. His theory of gravity explained the movements of the planets. In 1704 Newton also published a book on light called Op- tics. Newton showed that white light is made up of several colors. Many other scientists worked in the late 17th century. Christiaan Huygens discovered Ti- tan, the moon of Saturn. In 1656 he made the first pendulum clock, which made accurate measurement of time possible. Science in the 18th Century During the 18th century chemistry made great advances. In 1751 Axel Cronstedt discovered nickel. In 1766 Henry Cavendish isolated hydrogen and studied its properties. He also calculated the density of the Earth. In 1772 Dan- iel Rutherford discovered Nitrogen. In 1774 Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen. In 1756 Joseph Black discovered carbon dioxide. Perhaps the greatest chemist of the 18th century was Antoine Lavoisier. He discovered that during combustion oxygen com- bines with substances. He also discovered the role of oxygen in respiration and corrosion of metals. Meanwhile during the 18th century people began to realize that the Earth is very old. A landmark in geology came in 1785 when James Hutton published his book Theory of the Earth. In 1781 the astronomer William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus. In 1784 John Goodricke discovered variable stars. Two great biologists of the 18th century were Georges Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and Karl Linnaeus. Linnaeus invented a method of classifying living things. Meanwhile people began to investigate electricity. In 1746 Petrus van Musschenbroek invented a way of storing electricity called a leiden jar. Then in 1800 Allessandro Volta invented the first chemical battery. However during the 18th century medicine made slow progress. Doctors still did not know what caused disease. Science in the 19th Century During the 19th century science made great progress. In 1803 John Dalton published his atomic theory. According to the theory matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles. Dalton also said that atoms of different elements had different weight. John Dalton also studied colour blindness.

20 In 1827 the German chemist Friedrich Wohler isolated aluminium. In 1828 he produced urea, an organic compound from inorganic chemicals. A Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the Periodic Table, which arranged all the known elements according to their atomic weight. Meanwhile people continued to master electricity. In 1819 Hans Christian Oersted discovered that electric current in a wire caused a nearby compass needle to move. Michael Faraday invented the dynamo. In 1847 Hermann von Helmholtz formulated the law of the Conservation of Energy, which states that energy is never lost but just changes from one form to another. In 1851 he invented the ophthalmoscope. Meanwhile geology made huge strides. Charles Lyell saw that rocks were formed by processes we see today. In 1830 he published his book Principles of Geology. In 1837 a Swiss, Lou- is Agassiz realized that a vast sheet of ice had once covered northern Europe. Furthermore scientists discovered more and more fossils and the word Dinosaur was coined in 1842. Darwin studied and collected specimens in different parts of South America and on the Galapagos Islands. By 1836 Darwin believed that species of animals could change. In October 1838 Darwin thought of a way in which one species could change into another. He noticed that individual members of a species vary. Furthermore all animals are competing with each other to survive. Darwin's monumental work The Origin of Species was published in 1859. It proved to be a bestseller. However Darwin's book also caused controversy. In 1866 an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of hereditary by breeding peas. Furthermore medicine and surgery made great advances in the 19th century. During the 19th century there were several outbreaks of cholera in Britain. It struck in 1832, 1848, 1854 and 1866. During the 1854 epidemic John Snow showed that cholera was transmitted by water. However doctors were not certain how. Later Louis Pasteur proved that microscopic organisms caused disease. In the early 19th century many scientists believed in spontaneous generation i.e. that some living things spontaneously grew from non-living matter. In a series of experiments between 1857 and 1863 Pasteur proved this was not so. Once doctors what caused disease they made rapid headway in finding cures or prevention. In the late 19th century physics made great strides. In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell showed that light is an electromagnetic wave. He also predicted there were other electromagnetic waves with longer and shorter wavelengths than light. Then in 1888 Heinrich Hertz proved the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell exist. In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. Then in 1898 Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radium. Finally at the end of the century scientists began to investigate the atom. In 1897 Joseph Thomson discovered the electron. In astronomy Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid, Ceres in 1801. In 1838 Frie- drich Bessel measured the distance to a star (61 Cygni) for the first time. The planet Neptune was discovered in 1846. Science in the 20th Century During the 20th century science continued to go forward at fantastic speed. During the 20th century scientists came to understand the atom. In 1910 Ernest Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus. He realized that almost all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus with electrons orbiting it. In 1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron. Physics was revolutionized by two men, Max Planck and Albert Einstein. In 1900 Planck proposed quantum theory, which states that energy is exchanged in discrete packets he called quanta. Einstein published his theory of Special Relativity in 1905 and his General Theory of Relativity in 1915. In 1927 Werner Heisenberg published his uncertainty principle, which states that is impossible to determine the position and speed of a subatomic particle.

21 In 1915 Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift. He said that all continents were once joined and they have drifted apart. In 1926 Arthur Eddington suggested that stars are powered by nuclear fusion. Also in the 1920s Edwin Hubble showed that our galaxy is only one of many galaxies. He also proved that the universe is expanding. In 1930 Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto. The first radio telescope was built in 1937. Meanwhile medicine was making great advances. In 1928 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. Meanwhile genetics was making great strides. In 1953 Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the double-helix structure of DNA. At the end of the 20th century genetic engineering became possible. In astronomy quasars were discovered in 1963 and pulsars were discovered in 1968. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990. At the end of the 20th century the first extra solar planets were discovered. At the other end of the scale scientists discovered many new subatomic particles. In 1964 Murray Gell-Mann suggested that quarks exist. The most famous physicist of the late 20th century is Stephen Hawking. Hawking is known for his research into black holes, relativity and cosmology.

Задание 2. Ответье на вопросы.

WHO? WHEN? WHAT?

1. Who invented the first chemical battery? 2. Who proved that the Moon's surface was rough, with mountains and craters? 3. Who created the theory of gravity and laws of motion? 4. Who realized that the Earth and the other planets orbited the Sun? 5. What did Galileo discover on the orbit of the planet Jupiter? 6. What helped to see red blood corpuscles? 7. When was the first pendulum clock made? 8. Who discovered oxygen? 9. When was the planet Uranus discovered? 10. Who discovered capilliaries? 11. When was a reflecting telescope invented? 12. Who formulated the Periodic Table? 13. What did Michael Faraday invent? 14. Who discovered the laws of hereditary? 15. When did Francis Crick and James Watson discover the structure of DNA?

Задание 3. Составьте предложения и обсудите, каким образом передавались знания в доисторическое время.

1 In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was a) because more time could be devoted to passed from … tasks other than survival. 2 The development of writing enabled knowledge b) astronomical information in a systematic … manner through simple observation. 3 Combined with the development of agriculture, it c) the real physical structure of the planets became possible for early civilizations to develop, and stars, many theoretical explanations … were proposed. 4 Many ancient civilizations collected … d) generation to generation in an oral tradition. 5 Though they had no knowledge of … e) to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity.

22 Задание 4. Вставьте пропущенные слова по смыслу. followers translations method produced foundations century advances science innovations published

1. Ancient Egypt made significant _____ in astronomy, mathematics and medicine. 2. Plato and Aristotle _____ the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. 3. In medicine, Hippocrates and his _____ were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. 4. The mathematician Euclid laid down the _____ of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today. 5. An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th _____. 6. At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin _____ of the main works of almost all the ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. 7. The scientific _____ was also better developed as the modern way of thinking empha- sized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations. 8. The history of _____ is marked by a chain of advances in technology and knowledge that have always complemented each other. 9. Technological _____ bring about new discoveries and are bred by other discoveries, which inspire new possibilities and approaches to longstanding science issues. 10. 10 In 1687, Isaac Newton _____ the Principia Mathematica, detailing two compre- hensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.

Задание 5. Прочитайте текст и определите его тему, придумайте заголовок.

The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long- held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only quantum mechanics showed that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturb- ingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Cur- rently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

23 Задание 6. Прочитайте текст и скажите, какие достижения современной химии значительно повлияли на нашу жизнь.

The history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661 (although the al- chemical tradition continued for some time after this) and the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer. Another important step was made by Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) through his recognition of oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev com- posed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953).

Задание 7. Постройте вопросительные предложения.

1. A Swede Nils Bohlin developed the three-point seat belt in 1959 (What?). 2. Felix Wankel invented the rotary engine in 1957 (Who?). 3. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming but it was not widely used till after 1940 (When?). 4. The laser printer was invented by Gary Starkweather in 1969 (What?). 5. Meanwhile the invention of fiber optics in the 1950s made possible the development of endoscopes in the 1960s (What?). 6. By the 1960s all kinds of household goods from drain pipes to combs were made of plastic (When?). 7. Nylon was first made in 1935 by Wallace Carothers and polyester was invented in 1941 (What?). 8. The first artificial satellite Sputnik I was launched in 1957 (When?). 9. In 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space (Who?). 10. 10 In 1963 Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space (When?).

Задание 8. Прочитайте текст и скажите, кто повлиял на развитие математики.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS By Tim Lambert Prehistoric people must have used simple arithmetic. However when people became civi- lized mathematics became far more important. Proper record keeping was essential. In Iraq a people called the Sumerians counted in sets of 60. We still divide hours into 60 minutes and minutes into 60 seconds. We also divide circles into 360 degrees.

24 The Egyptians had some knowledge of practical geometry which they used to build the pyramids. However the Greeks were interested in ideas for their own sake. Around 600 BC a Greek called Thales calculated the height of a pyramid by measuring its statue. But the most famous Greek mathematician was Pythagoras. He is famous for his theorem The square on the hy- potenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Theano of Crotona was a great woman mathematician. Euclid is most famous for his book about geometry Elements. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth. Archi- medes worked out formulas for the area of shapes and the volumes of solids. The last great mathematician of the Ancient World was a woman named Hypatia. Roman numerals consisted of I meaning one, X meaning ten, L meaning fifty and C meaning 100. They had no symbol meaning zero. However the Indians invented a symbol for zero and the numerals we now use were invented by them. They were later used by the Arabs and were first used in Europe in the Middle Ages. In Europe Fibonacci was a great mathematician of the Middle Ages. He discovered the Fibonacci series of numbers. In 1489 Johannes Widmann invented the + sign for plus and the - sign for minus. The = sign for equals was invented by Robert Recorde in 1557. During the 17th century mathematics made rapid progress. John Napier invented loga- rithms. William Oughtred invented the slide rule. He also began using the symbol X for multipli- cation. John Graunt was the first man to study statistics. Meanwhile Blaise Pascal studied probability. Renes Descartes invented the Cartesian co-ordinate system with x and y axes. Gottfried Leibniz invented calculus. One of the greatest mathematicians of the 18th century was Leonhard Euler. Euler made many discoveries and he wrote hundreds of books on mathematics. Another great mathematician was Maria Agnesi. In the 19th century Carl Friedrich Gauss made contributions to algebra, geometry and probability. Charles Babbage is called the father of the computer because he designed a mechanical calculating machine he called an analytical engine (although it wasn't actually built in his lifetime). Babbage was assisted by another great mathematician called Ada Lovelace. George Boole created Boolean algebra. Meanwhile in 1801 William Playfair invented the pie chart. John Venn invented the venn diagram. One of the most famous mathematicians of the 20th century was Alan Turing. He is famous for the Turing test, which states that a computer can be considered intelligent if a human being communicating with it cannot tell it is a computer. In the late 20th century computers became very useful to mathematicians.

Задание 9. Ознакомьтесь и историческими фактами о значимых изобрениях. Какая информация оказалась самой интересной? Обсудите в минигруппах.

Great Inventions in history The Egyptians invented the sailing ship about 3,100 BC. The wheel was invented in Sumeria (Iraq) about 3,400 BC. It may have been invented first as a potters wheel and later used for transport. The first carts had solid wheels and oxen pulled them. From about 3,300 BC onward both Sumerians and Egyptians developed writing. In the first century AD a man named Hero of Alexandria invented mechanical toys. He used steam to make a metal ball spin round. The Ancient Greeks are believed to have invented the watermill. (It was invented sepa- rately in China). The Greeks also invented the torsion catapult about 340 BC. Greek engineering reached a peak in the first century AD when they built the Antikythera Mechanism. This remarkable device was discovered in 1900. It seems to be a calculating device to predict the movements of the Sun, Moon and planets. The Romans are famous for their roads and aqueducts.

25 The Ancient Chinese were also very inventive. About 300 BC the Chinese invented the horse collar. Previously horses were attached to vehicles by straps around their necks. The horse could not pull a heavy load because the strap would constrict its neck! The horse collar allowed horses to pull much heavier loads. The compass was invented in China in the 3rd century BC but at first it was used for div- ination (a spoon like object made of magnetite was placed on a board and watched to see which way it would turn). About 100 AD a man named Cai Lun invented paper (previously people had written on silk or bamboo). Then in 132 AD a man called Cheng Hang invented the seisometer (a device for measuring the strength of earthquakes and locating their centre). The umbrella was invented in China in the 4th century AD. Covered in oiled paper it sheltered the user from both sun and rain. One big improvement in Medieval Europe was the heavy plow. Sometime before 900 a new kind of plow was invented which plowed the heavy, clay soil of northern Europe much more efficiently. Gunpowder was probably invented in China around the year 900 AD. At first it was used for rockets, grenades and bombs that were placed against the wooden gates of enemy cities. Printing with wooden blocks was also invented during the Tang dynasty in China (618- 907). The earliest printed book is the Diamond Sutra, printed in 868 AD. The windmill was invented in Iran early in the 7th century AD. However its vanes turned a vertical post. In the 12th century a windmill that turned a horizontal post was invented in Eu- rope. Watermills were also common in Europe. From the 11th century they were used not just to grind grain but for a variety of tasks. A great deal of ingenuity went into making weapons. In 678 the Byzantine Empire used a new weapon called Greek fire, a highly inflammable liquid. Earth, dust or cloth was soaked in Greek fire and fired from a catapult at enemy ships. Greek fire could also be held in a container of stone or metal, which exploded when it hit its target. It proved to be a deadly weapon. The glass mirror was invented in the late 13th century. Eyeglasses were first made in Ita- ly in the late 13th century. Perhaps the most important invention of the Middle Ages was the printing press. It was invented by a man named Johann Gutenberg in 1445 and it made books much cheaper. In 1593 Galileo invented a rudimentary thermometer. The microscope was also invented at the end of the 16th century. The pocket watch was invented in 1510. The pencil was invented in 1565 and the knitting machine was invented in 1589. In 1608 Hans Lippershey invented the telescope, which had a profound impact on astronomy. In 1642 Blaise Pascal invented an adding machine. Then in 1643 Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer. In 1650 Otto von Guericke invented an air pump. During the 17th century people became able to measure things more accurately. In 1636 William Gascoigne invented the micrometer. In 1656 Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock, which allowed people to measure time more accurately. In 1675 Denis Papin invented the pressure cooker and at the end of the 17th century people experimented with harnessing the power of steam. In 1698 Thomas Savery made the first steam engine. Meanwhile in 1901 Marconi sent a radio message across the Atlantic heralding a new age of mass communications. The BBC began broadcasting radio in 1922.

26 In 1925 John Logie Baird invented television. The BBC began broadcasting television in 1936. Meanwhile in 1927 the Jazz Singer the first film with sound was made. The transistor was invented in 1948. The first cell phone call was made by Martin Cooper in 1973. Perhaps the greatest invention of the 20th century was the computer. In the 1930s and 1940s electronic calculators were built. However the first computer program was written in 1948. The first commercial computer was sold in 1951. Computer technology proceeded very rapidly and computers rapidly became quicker and much smaller. The first pocket calculator was sold in 1971. Meanwhile the mouse was invented in the 1960s by Douglas Engelbert. The internet was 'born' in 1969 when 4 computers were linked. By the beginning of the 21st century the internet had become one of the most popular way to exchange information and ideas. At the end of the 20th century genetic engineering became possible. In 1997 Dolly the sheep, the first animal to be successfully cloned was born. Read more hear http://www.localhistories.org/

Задание 10. Напишите эссе (минимум 500 знаков) на тему «Самое значимое изобретение» в истории науки.

TEST YOURSELF!

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Was it interesting to know some facts abot great inventions? 2. What were the main periods in history of science? 3. What period greatly imressed you? Why? 4. Can you remember the most imressive inventions of the past? 5. Was it difficult for scientists living many years ago to invent and discover something? Why or why not? 6. What difficulties did ancient scientists face with? 7. Can you rememeber the scientists who suffered from society? 8. Why should we know the history of science? 9. What modern inventions can you name? 10. What inventions will appear in a century?

Final Test Test 1

Задание: Обсудите задания в микрогруппах, при необходимости используйте Интернет ресурсы.

1. One of the great achievements of nineteenth-century physics was the rejection of New- ton's particle model of light in favor of the wave model implied by Maxwell's equations. So you can imagine how upset physicists were when Einstein came along and proposed that light inter- acted with matter as a quantized, massless particle after all! What phenomenon was Einstein at- tempting to explain? a) blackbody radiation b) Brownian motion c) Compton effect d) photoelectric effect

27 2. In the 19th century, scientists were fascinated by the mystery of cathode rays: put a high voltage across a vacuum in a tube, and a ray of light would extend from end to end. But how? J. J. Thomson set out to solve this problem, and in 1897 he concluded that the rays were electric charge, carried by tiny particles with a high charge to mass ratio. He postulated that these "corpuscles" were constituents of the atom. What do we now call the particle he had discovered a) proton b) electron c) neutron d) positron

3. Alexander Fleming was a Scottish bacteriologist who was known for his discovery of penicillin. He made this amazing discovery in 1928 by luck. He noticed that the colony of staphylococcus that was accidentally contaminated with a type of fungus known as Penicillium notatum was destroyed. What exactly was this staphylococcus? a) a type of bacteria b) a type of protozoa c) a type of virus d) a type of algae

4. Charles Goodyear was famous for his vulcanization process that he discovered accidentally in 1839. He was surprised to find that when rubber was mixed with a special element in powder form, the rubber produced had better properties than the common rubber, namely more elastic and durable. What was this special element? a) sulfur b) nitrogen c) phosphorus d) chlorine

5. Bernard Courtois was a French chemist who was best remembered for his discovery of one of the halogens. He made his fortuitous discovery when he accidentally added in too much sulfuric acid to a mixture to treat the unwanted sulfur residue. As a result, he noticed that a violet vapor was produced, which when left to cool at room temperature, a solid metal of violet-gray color was observed. Which element had he discovered? a) bromine b) fluorine c) astatine d) Iodine

6. Henri Victor Regnault was a French thermodynamicist who was noted for the discovery of PVC. The incident took place in 1835 when he accidentally left a flask of colorless solution under sunlight. He returned several hours later, only to find that there was white solid formed in the flask. The solid was none other than the ever-useful PVC. What does PVC stand for? a) polyvanadium chromate b) polyvinyl chromate c) polyvinyl chloride d) polyvanadium chloride

7. Louis Daguerre was a celebrated chemist who was synonymous with his photography works. He brought along his camera obscura to capture different scenarios to help him in his paintings. However, the latent image produced from the chemical reaction between argentum and iodine was not practical - the photos took a long time to be developed. It was not until some liquid from a broken thermometer in his closet spilled on one of his photographs that he discovered a faster way to develop the photos. What was the liquid? a) alcohol b) hydrogen peroxide c) aqua regia d) mercury

8. Wilhelm Roentgen was a German physicist who was also the first recipient of the prestigious Nobel Prize for Physics in 1901. He was awarded the prize for his discovery of a type of rays in the electromagnetic spectrum by accident. If the cardboard he used in his experiment was not painted with barium platinocyanide, he would not have discovered these rays. What rays did he discover? a) ultraviolet (UV) rays b) infrared (IR) rays c) x-rays d) gamma rays

9. Henri Becquerel was a renowned chemist who had contributed greatly in the field of radioactivity. In 1896, he was performing some experiments on some phosphorescent substanc-

28 es. It happened that one of the phosphorescent crystals that he used contained a small amount of a radioactive element that led him to the discovery of radioactivity. What was the element? a) scandium b) helium c) uranium d) potassium

10 Sydney Ringer was a British pharmacologist who was most often associated with his Ringer's solution that was used primarily for intravenous administration purpose. He found that when a pure sodium chloride solution was mixed with two other elements in aqueous form, the solution produced would prolong the heartbeat of a dead frog's heart. These two elements were located next to each other on the periodic table of chemical elements. What were the two elements? a) fluorine and neon b) hydrogen and helium c) potassium and calcium d) boron and carbon

Test 2 Задание: Выберите правильный ответ, при необходмости воспользуйтесь раз- личными источниками.

1 The modern science of Genetics is based on work done in the 19th century by a German monk. What did he use when conducting his experiments? a) wheat b) apples c) sheep d) peas

2 In Physics, it took until the early 1900s for the atomic nucleus to be discovered. How- ever, the atomic theory of matter was first proposed in 1803 by which scientist? a) Marie Curie b) John Dalton c) Wilhelm Weber d) Blaise Pascal

3 Paleontology: In the 1790s French anatomist Georges Cuvier used comparative anatomy in the study of living and fossilized elephants, distinguishing African and Asian elephants as separate species, as well as identifying which extinct species, whose name comes from the Greek for "nipple tooth"? a) mastodon b) bibymalagasy c) mammoth d) quagga

4 Geology is the study of the origin and structure of the Earth. Since ancient times scientists have studied geology, but it was not until 1912 that Alfred Wegener formulated his theory that the land was once one giant continent that had split apart. What did he call his theory? a) Universal Shift b) Continental Drift c) Jigsaw Theory d) Split Earth

5 Surely one of the greatest breakthroughs in the history of science must be the discovery of antibiotics. In 1928 it was found that colonies of Staphylococcus aureus could be destroyed by a mold. What was it? a) Stachybotrys chartarum b) Rhizopus nigricans c) Cladosporium herbarum d) Penicillium notatum

6 Mathematics: Although analagous concepts had been used in both Mesopotamia and Egypt many centuries previously, which civilisation is credited as being the first to use 'zero' as a number, with one of the earliest mentions in the 7th Century book "Brahmasputha Siddhanta"? a) Greek b) French c) India d) Sumerian

7 Anatomy: Which famous Dutch anatomist of the 1500s is known as the founder of modern human anatomy? He made many corrections to the work of ancient anatomist Galen, such as determining that the human sternum had only three parts (unlike Galen's seven), and that the intraventricular septum of the heart is not porous. He also discovered the mitral valve in the heart.

29 a) De Luzzi b) Vesalius c) Tulp d) Bartholin

8 Astronomy: Astronomy is one of the world's oldest sciences, which is no surprise given how easy it is to look up at the sky. Advancements in astronomy have often been made with developments in telescopes, a notable example being the invention of telescopes designed to study what kind of electromagnetic radiation in the 1930s? a) radio b) infrared c) ultraviolet d) visible light

9 Evolution: Although Charles Darwin is the most famous evolutionist, there were many before him who put forward the idea of evolution, including a Greek philosopher born in 610 BC, who is one of the first known philosophers to write his work down, and who is regarded by some as the first proponent of evolution. Who is this pre-Socratic philosopher, born in Miletus (in modern-day Turkey)? a) Anaximander b) Epictetus c) Plato d) Avicenna

10 Space: What was the first man-made object to leave our solar system? a) Lunar 1 b) Voyager 1 c) Giotto d) Pioneer 9

Test 3 Задание: Выберите правильный ответ, при необходмости воспользуйтесь раз- личными источниками.

1 Who were the first to think of ideas relating to the definition of "substance"? a) Romans b) Greeks c) English d) French

2 This philosopher's idea was that change in matter could be explained by the motion of the particles in a void. Who was he? a) Democritus b) Aristotle c) Empedocles d) Plato

3 Empedocles was the first to say that these 4 metaphysical elements were the "essence" of all material substances. What were they? a) sun; god; fire; water b) fire; earth; wind; water c) water; fire; earth; air d) water; sun; earth; fire

4 Aristotle, most likely the greatest philosopher ever, had views concerning the entire universe. He accepted Empedocles' 4 elements but said they were a combination of these 4 qualities that we sense. What are the qualitites? a) hot; cold; soft; hard b) hot; cold; wet; dry c) wet; dry; dark; light d) soft; hard; dark; light

5 Thanks to Harry Potter, it is now much more well-known that alchemists sought the Philosopher's Stone, a catalyst capable of doing what? a) giving immortality b) changing base metals into gold c) curing all diseases d) giving information related to time travel

6 The balance was used accurately for chemical processes during the 17th century. But who was the man who used the balance accurately for the first time? a) J. L. Proust b) Antoine Lavoisier c) Joseph Black d) C. L. Berthollet

7 Current neuroscientists are well aware of many detailed aspects of brain anatomy, func- tions and mechanisms. But brain-related scripts were written by Egyptians as early as 5000 years

30 ago. Surprisingly, the Egyptians knew so much, that it is easier to ask which of the following they did NOT know? a) The brain controls the movement of the limbs. b) The laterality of a brain injury (left or right side) is related to the laterality of the symp- tom. c) Patients should be empirically examined, systematically diagnosed and indicated a treatment. d) Injury of different brain regions results in different types of symptoms.

8 The Egyptians strongly believed in life after death and skillfully mummified their Phar- aohs. Their view of the role of the different organs was reflected in the way they prepared them for use in the next life. How was the brain treated in the process of mummification? a) It was removed through an opening in the skull and conserved in jars. b) It was discarded. c) It was treated in the head itself and was left there. d) It was carefully removed and scarificed to Osiris, the god of the Dead.

9 Who proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom in 1897? a) J.J Thomson b) Henri Poincare c) Niels Bohr d) Ernest Rutherford

10 Who postulated the theory that magnetic fields are produced both by changing electric fields and by electric currents? a) Alessandro Volta b) James Maxwell c) Charles Coulomb d) Guliemo Marconi

Project «The scientist who changed the world»

Задание: Работая в минигруппах (3-4 человека), вам необходимо представить со- общение с презентацией об ученом, изобрение или теория которого, на ваш взгяд, имеет большое значение для человечества. В своем выступлении приведите весомые аргументы, доказывающие вашу точку зрения, можно использовать цитаты ученых, деятелей культу- ры. Опишите, каким бы был наш мир сегодня, если бы этого изобрения не было. Структура сообщения: 1) ученый и его достижение, изобретение (краткая библиографическая справка о нем); 2) аргументы; 3) каким был бы наш мир без этого изобретения; 4) значение для развития человечества. В процессе сбора информации можно обратиться к следующим электронным ре- сурсам: http://www.infoniac.com/hi-tech/famous-scientists-their-inventions-and-discoveries.html https://www.famousscientists.org/12-scientists-inventions/ http://www.scienceandinventions.com/11-great-scientists-of-the-world/ http://www.biographyonline.net/scientists/inventors.html Для высказывания своей точки зрения и обсуждения информации используйте сле- дующие фразы:

Персональная точка зрения I believe that … (Я считаю, что …) In my experience… (По моему опыту …) I'd like to point out that… (Я хотел бы отметить, что …) As far as I'm concerned… (Насколько я могу судить …) Speaking for myself… (Если говорить о себе …)

31 In my opinion… / In my view… / To my mind, … (По моему мнению …) Personally, I think… (Лично я думаю, …) I'd say that… (Я бы сказал, что …) I'd suggest that… (Я предложил бы, чтобы …) What I mean is… (Я имею в виду …) It seems to me that … (Мне кажется, что …) I have no doubt that … (Я не сомневаюсь, что …) I am sure / I am certain that … (я уверен, что …)

Общая точка зрения It is thought that… (Считается, что …) Some people say that… (Некоторые люди говорят, что …) It is considered… (Считается …) It is generally accepted that… (Принято считать, что …)

Согласие мнением других Of course! (Конечно!) You're absolutely right. (Вы совершенно правы.) Yes, I agree. (Да, я согласен.) I think so too. (Я тоже так думаю.) That's a good point. (Это хороший момент.) Exactly. (Именно!) I don't think so either. (Я не думаю так же.) So do I. (Я тоже.) I'd go along with that. (Я бы согласился с этим.) That's true. (Это правда.) Neither do I. (Я тоже.) I agree with you entirely. (Я полностью с вами согласен.) That's just what I was thinking. (Это как раз то, о чем я думал.) I couldn't agree more. (Я не могу не согласиться.)

Несогласие с чужим мнением That's different. (Это совсем другое дело.) I don't agree with you. (Я с Вами …согласен.) However… (Тем не менее / Все же …) That's not entirely true. (Это не совсем верно.) On the contrary… (Напротив …) I'm sorry to disagree with you, but… (Извини, что не согласен с Вами, но …) Yes, but don't you think… (Да, но Вы же не думаете …) That's not the same thing at all. (Это не одно и то же.) I'm afraid I have to disagree. (Боюсь, я вынужден не согласиться.) I'm not so sure about that. (Я не так уверен в этом.) I must take issue with you on that. (Я не могу согласиться с вами по этому вопросу.)

32 UNIT 3 OUR INSTITUTE

Задание 1. Ознакомьтесь со словами по теме и составьте с ними предложения:

1. to acquire получать, приобретать 2. approximately приблизительно 3. assignment задание 4. to attend посещать (лекции и т.п.) 5. background подготовка, образование; задний план 6. competition конкурс, конкуренция 7. competitive конкурсный completion завершение, окончание 8. construction site строительная площадка 9. credit test зачет 10. to make a decision принимать решение 11. decision решение 12. to earn зарабатывать 13. to engage заниматься чем-либо to engage in practical training проходить практику

14. to enjoy пользоваться, наслаждаться to enjoy rights пользоваться правами 15. equal равный, одинаковый 16. to evaluate оценивать 17. to express выражать 18. extent степень 19. free of charge бесплатный 20. to fulfill выполнять 21. grants стипендия 22. habit привычка 23. to manage справляться, мочь 24. to master овладевать 25. to meet the requirements удовлетворять требования 26. to obtain получать, приобретать 27. to participate in принимать участие 28. to pass examinations сдать экзамены 29. to prove доказывать, защищать 30. recreation отдых, развлечение 31. to relate со/относить/ся, связывать 32. student identification card студенческий билет

33. student’s record book зачетная книжка 34. to submit представлять 35. to take classes учиться, изучать 36. term paper курсовая работа 37. thoroughly основательно, глубоко 38. tuition обучение 39. variety разнообразие, эстрада various различный, разносторонний 40. works предприятие, мастерские

33 Задание 2. Заполните пропуски одним из подходящих слов из правой колонки:

1. Here is my … … . a. grants 2. He has good … in all the subjects. b. earn 3. If you are enrolled as a … …, the training course for you will last c. relaxation 4-5 years. 4. When do we receive our … ? d. fulfill 5. I’m afraid I can’t … this task, it’s too difficult for me. e. approximately 6. You can … some money during your vacation. f. record book 7. The semester ends with an examination period lasting … 3 weeks. g. background 1. Before afternoon classes, if we have any, we have a 45 h. manage minutes` period of … . 2. Only a person with the … in philosophy can be appointed the i. full-time students head of the Chair. 3. Sorry, but I don’t think I’ll … to meet their requirements. j. marks

Задание 3. Переведите однокоренные слова:

1) To graduate, graduate, graduation; 2) to lecture, lecture, lecturer; 3) to examine, examination, examiner, examining board; 4) to study, studies, studying; 5) to qualify, to be qualified, qualification; 6) to apply, applicant; 7) to train, clinical training; 8) to enter, entrance examinations; 9) to appoint, appointment; 10) science, scientist, scientific; 11) to attend, attendance.

Задание 4. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. What is the full name of our Institute? 2. When was the Institute founded? 3. What subjects do the students study at the Institute? 4. Where do students get their vocational training? 5. Will you name the places where final year students can work upon graduating?

Biysk Technological Institute formerly named Biysk Branch of the Altai Polуtechnical Institute was founded in 1959. Now the full name of the Institute is Biysk Technological Institute of the Altai State Technical University named after I.I. Polzunov. It has two faculties: Special Engineering Faculty (graduating with Master`s Degree) and Technological Faculty (graduating with Bachelor`s Degree and an opportunity of taking Master`s Degree in some specialities af- terwards). The Institute has tree departments: daytime, evening and extra-mural. The Institute oc- cupies three large buildings. There are many modern rooms and well-equipped laboratories at the Institute. They include modern apparatuses and all the instruments that are necessary for laboratory works and experiments. The standard of teaching is high. The teaching staff includes Doctors of Sciences, Candi- dates of Sciences and instructors. The Institute teaching staff and students carry out research in various fields of science and technology.

34 Twice a year students have their examinations. They study subjects of general and special education such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Technical Drawing, Economics, Elements of Machines, Electrical Engineering, Strength of Materials, Informatics, Biotechnology, Com- puter Graphics, etc. To be able to read information in scientific journals and books students must know foreign languages which are also taught at the Institute. The students are given the opportunity to do foreign languages courses at the Foreign Languages Teaching Center. The students get their vocational training at the plants, factories and industrial enterprises. Upon graduating the final year students are awarded the qualification of an engineer, an economist or an economist-manager. The graduates may work at educational institutions, various research centers and laboratories, in industry, business, banks and so on. Biysk Technological Institute is a fully accredited state establishment. It provides a high quality education in a wide range of engineering specialities to hundreds of students throughout the vast territory of the Altai region. The Institute is rather young. It celebrated its 55th anniversary in 2014. The academic reputation of Biysk Technological Institute is well established, and every year more and more school leavers give their preference to this Institute.

Задание 5. Прочитайте диалоги по ролям и переведите:

1  Hello, are you taking your exams?  I’ve already passed my last exam.  What did you get in mathematics?  I got a four. You passed your exams, too, didn’t you?  No, I didn’t. I failed in physics.  What a pity. I am so sorry for you. How did it happen?  It’s difficult to explain. My memory failed me and I forgot the simplest things. I think it was the result of a sleepless night.  That’s what I always told you. Don’t put off your work to the very last. What are you going to do now?  I’ll have to take my exam in physics for the second time. I’ve just been to the faculty office and the dean has already set the time.  I hope you’ll get a good mark next time. Good luck.

2  What year are you in at university?  I am in the second year.  How are you getting on at university?  Oh, I am doing well.  And your brother? What about him?  He studies at the extra-mural department at polytechnic college.  How is he doing at college?  He isn’t doing very well, because he has classes only during mid- sessional exams .  And when did he enter college?  He entered college 2 years ago.

3  Hello, …! How are you getting on?

35  Hello, …! Fine, thanks. You can congratulate me. I’ve passed my entrance exams successfully and now I am a student.  Good for you! It’s been a real turning point in your life, hasn’t it?  I suppose so.  I guess, you’ve chosen the University.  Exactly!  And what faculty?  Law faculty. I’ve done it on my parents’ advice and I’m not a bit sorry about it.  Why should you be sorry? The profession of a lawyer is very popular now. I wish you every success in your studies!  Thank you. I’ll do my best.

4  How are you doing?  Fine, thank you.  You are graduating this year, aren’t you?  Yes, in a month. I’ve already finished the required courses and passed my exams. I am only to defend my graduation paper.  How many exams did you have to take?  Three. It was not an easy task, I’d say.  I suppose, everything has turned out all right.  Yes, it has. All the three marks were excellent.  It’s a kind of reward for your hard work, isn’t it?  Perhaps. I’m looking forward to starting my work soon, though on the other hand, I’m really sorry that my student’s years have nearly passed.

5  Hi, …! Glad to see you!  Hi, …! I haven’t seen you for ages. You were going to enter the University, weren’t you? Has your dream come true?  Yes, it has. I’m a first-year student.  My congratulations! So in five years you’ll have a profession. How lucky you are! By the way, what will your future speciality be?  A teacher of drawing.  Is it difficult to study at your faculty?  Rather! We are taking a lot of subjects having three or four and even more lectures and classes a day. But still it’s interesting for me to study here. In short I like it.  And they say, it’ll be more interesting when you begin taking your special subjects.  I hope so.

Задание 6. Найдите синонимы (слова и фразы, имеющие схожее значение):

1. term A. grade 2. to enter the university B. deputy dean 3. mark C. to deliver a lecture 4. university teacher D. canteen 5. assistant professor E. semester 6. assistant dean F. grants 7. academic staff G. to be admitted to the university 8. scientist H. hostel 9. to give a lecture I. vice-rector 36 10. senior lecturer J. teaching staff 11. tutor K. lecturer 12. refectory L. associate professor 13. scholarship M.scholar 14. dormitory N.senior instructor 15. pro-rector O. credit test

Задание 7. Найдите антонимы (слова и фразы, имеющие разное значение):

1. give marks A. to attend classes 2. to enter the university B. junior students 3. to miss classes C. student 4. to pass exams D. graduate 5. senior students E. to fail smb. 6. instructor F. to receive marks 7. applicant G. to fail exams 8. to pass smb. H. to graduate from the university

Задание 8. Заполните пропуски одним из данных слов:

1) … is responsible for the work of each faculty. A) Head of Department B) Rector C) Dean D) Vice-rector

2) After … medical students receive the appointment to work. A) enrollment B) graduation C) finishing the university C) education

3) The … of lectures and classes is compulsory at our university. A) qualification B) examination C) appointment D) attendance

4) During clinical training medical students acquire different practical …. A) skills B) subjects C) studies D) examinations

5) Students can carry out … in numerous scientific societies at our university. A) research B) lectures C) classes D) training.

6) The period of … at the Faculty of Medical Diagnostics lasts five years. A) curriculum B) studies C) classes D) education

7) The students who have missed classes have to come to the … classes. A) make B) practical C) lecture D) make-up

8) All the clinical … are located in different hospitals of our city. A) departments B) classrooms C) physicians D) scientists

9) The … of the University have established 13 scientific schools. A) students B) scholars C) supervisors D) graduates

10) The Grodno State Medical University has a highly qualified academic … . A) staff B) personnel C) instructors D) lecturers

37 Задание 9. Дополните перевод:

Students` Life Студенческая жизнь Victoria: Oh, hi, Albert. It`s been long time I haven`t seen you! Альберт: Привет, Виктория. Я был по- близости, поэтому подумал зайти. Victoria: Come on in. Take a seat. Would you like anything to drink? Some Sprite or orange juice? Альберт: Спрайт было бы отлично. Как у тебя дела? Victoria: Oh, not bad. And you? Альберт: У меня дела в порядке, но уче- ба сейчас напрягает, и у меня нет време- ни, чтобы расслабиться. Victoria: By the way, what’s your major anyway? Альберт: Гостиничный менеджмент. Victoria: Well, what do you want to do once you graduate? Альберт: Я еще точно не решил, но я ду- маю пойти работать в гостиницу либо турагентство в этом районе. Как насчет тебя? Victoria: Well, when I first started college, I wanted to major in French, but I realized I might have a hard time finding a job using the language, so I changed majors to computer science. With the right skills, landing a job in the computer industry shouldn’t be as difficult. Альберт: Ты подрабатываешь, чтобы со- держать себя? Victoria: Well, fortunately for me, I received a four-year academic scholarship that pays for all of my tuition and books. Альберт: Ух ты! Отлично! Victoria: Yeah. How about you? Are you working your way through school? Альберт: Да. Я работаю три раза в неде- лю в ресторане возле кампуса. Victoria: Oh. What do you do there? Альберт: Я повар. Victoria: How do you like your job? Альберт: Нормально. Другие работники относятся дружелюбно, и оплата непло- хая.

38 Задание 10. Прочитайте сообщение о студенческой жизни в разных странах. Выделите и обсудите проблемы, затронутые в данной статье. Сравните с вашей страной:

Ever wondered what it is like to be a student in another country? Four students from around the world give us a look into their lives. The Netherlands Bastian Spijkman is a Financial Economics student at Radboud University in the city of Nijmegen. Studying: He studies “around 20-25 hours a week but it varies a lot per trimester. Most classes have either one or two lectures per week. So that comes to anywhere from four to eight hours of lectures per week.” Age wise, “most people start university at the age of 17 or 18 and take around four to six years to finish their degree.” On working hard Bastiaan states "compared to other countries, I don't think so. Most students do their work which generally doesn't take a lot of time. Near the end of the trimester is crunch time as everybody is studying for finals.” Cost: Confirming what many people love about the Netherlands, Bastiaan says “The best thing, in my opinion, is being able to enjoy a quality education for a relatively low cost. With a little bit of work and support anyone who is motivated enough can study. Tuition is set by the government at around €1,700 annually and slowly rising every year. Government student loans are available at very reasonable rates and repayment conditions are very lenient. Government subsidies are also available depending on your parents’ income.” Accommodation: Bastian similarly to many students lives “in a regular house converted for student housing in a regular neighbourhood with five housemates. There are usually two housing options either big student housing projects rented out by non-profit organizations or converted houses rented out by individuals or companies.” Fun: Like students in the UK, Bastian says his “free time is spent going to bars, exercis- ing, hanging out and making dinner with friends and generally wasting time. The nightlife is really active with lots of choices between bars and disco's.” Bastian finishes “I enjoy being a student immensely! It is not only a way to gain knowledge but also a way to develop yourself on a personal level which is just as, if not more important. This is also supported by Universities which creates an awesome blend between fun and studying.” Turkey Işıl Defterli studies Industrial Engineering at Kadir Has University in Istanbul. Studying: Işıl says “weekly I study approximately 10-12 hours, I have around 20 hours of lectures. We have a lot of private and state universities. The students are all over 18 but we have older students studying at their 2nd university. As seems to be common theme worldwide Işıl says “students here like to do things at the last moment, generally they work hard but it usually comes to last hours.” Cost: Işıl says “university is free for me because I have a scholarship. The government gives money to students but it’s like a loan. The students have to pay back the money when they start working. ” Accomodation: Işıl lives “in Istanbul with my parents. Generally students try to live close to the school. My home is not usual for a student because it is far.” Fun: In Istanbul “there are so many places to have fun day or night. My free time I usually spend with my friends in a house or outside. There are so many options when it comes to nightlife in Istanbul. You can pick clubs, just casual bars, jazz bars, karaoke bars or just a nice restaurant. The best part is the prices for students in particular places.” USA Alexandra Ziegler studies photography at rural Montana State University in Bozeman, Montana. Studying: Alexandra states “photography is a fairly demanding field, with other work I probably spend close to 40 hours a week on homework, going to classes, studying, and taking

39 pictures. I take four or five classes (which meet two or three times a week).” As in the UK, “most students range from age 18 to graduate students in their 30s and sometimes 40s.” Most UK students will sympathise with Alexandra here: “I try to apply myself to my schoolwork, although I am a horrible procrastinator. I enjoy learning and want to get the most out of my education.” Cost: Studying in the USA is expensive with price differences between state (government) and private education. Students who study in the state they live in can get cheaper tuition fees. Alexandra is part of an interesting scheme not available in the UK; she does a National Student Exchange program. “I am studying in Montana for a year but my home university is in Colorado where I live. I pay around $13,000, including housing and food to my home university in Colorado as in state student. Were I to attend Montana as my main university not through exchange it would cost about $26,000, because I live in a different state.” There is some help to the cost of fees: “many students can get financial aid or scholarships either from the school they are attending or from government grants”. Accommodation: Alexandra says “I live on campus during the school year. It is pretty normal for students to live on campus for their first two years of college, but after that most students move off campus.” Fun: “I really enjoy the freedom and flexibility that being a college student provides. Most of my free time is spent hanging out with friends at Cru or Crosslife (campus ministry) or just going out to a movie. This is going to make me sound very country, but swing dancing on Friday nights is a blast (not to mention good exercise)!” Alexandra also volunteers at a local therapeutic riding centre which has been “a huge part of my life this last semester. Working with horses is a huge passion of mine and being able to give up my free time to help people with disa- bilities ride has been so uplifting!” Norway Siri Eggset reads North America studies at the University of Oslo in Oslo. Studying: She says “I spend about eight to 10 hours a weekday on school work, including lectures and seminars. The number of lectures per week varies. I have from three to six lectures and three seminars a week divided between three classes. The student age varies from 19 to 70, but most are in the 20s. The work amount varies broadly amongst students. But most students work hard, especially the last month before the exams.” Cost: Tuition for Norwegian people is very cheap, lucky them! “The best thing about being a student in my country is that it is nearly free. We pay a small attendance fee at the beginning of the semester (about £140) and buy our own books. All students are granted a scholarship and a low-interest loan.” Accommodation: Siri shares “an apartment with my boyfriend, which is usual for many students. Other alternatives are sharing with friends or renting a student apartment.” Fun: Recreation in Norway is interesting and diverse “in my free time as a student I do downhill as well as cross country skiing, mountain biking, and other sports such as football. I also have two part time jobs- one as a teacher and one at a nursing home. Nightlife in Oslo is good. The weekends I am not working or away skiing, I like to go out in the more laidback areas of the city where a lot of students hang out. I like the flexibility of the student lifestyle.”

Задание 11. Передайте содержание сообщения на английском языке:

Есть много причин, по которым студенческая жизнь является интересной. Прежде всего, студенты учат то, что им понадобится для будущей профессии. Они изучают те дисциплины, которые им интересны. Во-вторых, быть студентом - не значит учиться все время. У тебя достаточно вре- мени для своих увлечений и любимых занятий. В-третьих, социальная жизнь студентов очень интересна. Ты знакомишься с новы- ми людьми, даже из других стран. Для многих людей студенческая жизнь – лучшее время в жизни.

40 Пока ты учишься, многие вещи вокруг меняются: мысли, идеи, окружение. Ты пе- рестаешь быть ребенком. Ты понимаешь, что вырос. Ты начинаешь зарабатывать первые деньги. Многие студенты в наше время работают и учатся одновременно. Со временем ты понимаешь, что это прекрасно – иметь ту работу, о которой мечтаешь. Высшее образова- ние может помочь получить работу своей мечты в будущем.

Задание 12. Обсудите проблемы, затронутые в диалогах:

1 Denis, a student at Technological Institute, was going to become a chemist. But in his third year he suddenly realized that chemistry was not his vocation and that he would rather take up a course of economics. Now he is thinking about studying at the Faculty of Information Sci- ence. 1. What did Denis want to become first? 2. What did he realize in his third year? 3. Does he think of changing the faculty to study at? 4. Dramatize a talk between Denis and his dean.

2 Andrew is an institute student. He has an important exam in a few days. He felt bad this morning. After breakfast he looked at his books but could not concentrate. He looked at himself in the mirror. What he saw was not very nice. His eyes were red, his face was pale. His sister said, “What you need is fresh air. You are studying too much.” They went for a walk in the park. Andrew felt much better and found he could concentrate on his books. 1. What was Andrew? 2. What was wrong with him on the eve of his exams? 3. Did he and his sister go to the park or to the cinema? 4. Dramatize a talk between Andrew and his sister.

Задание 13. Воспроизведите диалоги (работа в парах): 1  What did the Dean speak about?  He spoke of how to become a good student.  Did you find the talk useful?  Yes, very much. He said: “Every student should remember that being a student is a full-time job and like any other job it requires time, effort, concentration and appropriate techniques and habits.”  And do you agree with him?  I think, he is right.

2  When will your exams begin?  Oh, they are not far off. Here is the time-table of my exams.  You are nervous, aren’t you?  Of course, I am. Everybody is.  Are you reading for your exams now?  Yes, I am. I always take notes of the lectures but I can fail in the mathematics, I’m afraid.  Let’s hope for the best. Good luck.

41 3  What’s the total number of students at the faculties, including the evening and extra- mural departments?  The overall number of students is about 8 thousand.  Do students pay for tuition?  No, it’s free of charge. Though, there are a lot of new educational forms, where tuition is paid by students.  What’s the term of instruction at university?  It’s 5 or 6 years.

4  Your college has a large campus.  Yes, rather. Here is the administrative building. There are also three more teaching blocks, two libraries and two students’ hostels, a café, a service station and training workshops.  And how do your students spend their summer holidays?  - In different ways. Some return home, some work the whole summer.  What about sports, hobbies, music and dance?  Well, I think those things always come first.

5  How are you getting on at the Institute?  I am getting on well at the Institute.  What faculty are you studying at?  I study at the Chemical Technology and Machine Building Engineering Faculty.  How is your brother getting on at college?  Unfortunately, he isn’t doing very well at college.

6 – What is the total number of students at the faculties, including the evening and extra- mural departments? – The overall number of students is more than four thousand. – What subjects are taught at the Institute? – There are different subjects taught at the Institute depending on the faculty and the year. – Did you pass all your sessional exams? – Yes. I could hardly manage them. I was sure I would fail at least two of them.

Задание 14. Задайте вопросы своему товарищу: - what his idea of a good student is; - what his working day begins with; - what questions he likes to discuss with the friends; - how many classes and lectures he has; - how he gets to the Institute; - when he entered the Institute; - when he will have his exams (vacation); - whether he prefers to study at home or at the library; - why it is necessary to develop good study habits; - why some students fail at the exams; - what his favourite subjects are; - where he dreams to work after graduation from the Institute; - how many lectures and classes a day he has;

42 - when he will have his exams; - if he considers his speciality a modern one and why; - why it is necessary to develop good study habits.

Задание 15. Работа в парах. Составьте свой собственный диалог на тему «Сту- денческая жизнь», используя слова и выражения из предыдущих упражнений.

Задание 16. Ознакомьтесь с названиями специальностей в институте:

SPECIALITIES OF BIYSK TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

Бизнес-информатика Business Informatics Биотехнология Biotechnology Информационные системы и технологии Information systems and Technology Конструкторско-технологическое обеспе- Design and technological support of machine- чение машиностроительных производств building production engineering Продукты питания из растительного сырья Food products from vegetable raw materials engineering Приборостроение Instrument making engineering Строительство Building engineering Эксплуатация транспортно- Motor-Car Transport Engineering технологических машин и комплексов Прикладная информатика Applied Information Science Технологические машины и оборудование Technological machines and equipment engineering Боеприпасы и взрыватели Ammunition and detonators engineering Химическая технология энергонасыщенных Chemical technology of energy-saturated ma- материалов и изделий terials and products engineering Проектирование авиационных и ракетных Aviation and rocket engines design engineer- двигателей ing Товароведение Commodity Management Торговое дело Trade Management

Задание 17. Составьте рассказ, следуя предложенной схеме. Продолжите напи- сание рассказа:

– - My name is … . I’m a … year student at the … faculty of the … institute. – I study the following subjects: … … … … . – After I graduate from the institute, I’ll be … (a teacher, an engineer, a lawyer, …etc.) – My institute was founded in … . – It’s one of the … (oldest, newest, largest) higher education establishments in Russia. – The institute campus consists of a number of big buildings, including the teaching blocks, administrative block, libraries and hostels. – There are … faculties at the institute, including the faculty of … and … . – The overall number of students studying at the institute in the daytime and extra-mural departments is about … thousand (hundred). – - Part of the students live in the hostel, the others live either with their families or they rent rooms. – Students take an active part in social work. Most of us also go in for sport. Задание 18. Подготовьте высказывание по теме «Our Institute».

43 UNIT 4 MY SPECALITY AND PROFESSION

Задание 1. Прочитайте опорные словосочетания и подберите к ним соответст- вующий перевод. Составьте диалог, используя эти слова и словосочетания:

1. to be founded a. получить глубокие знания 2. to graduate from b. быть основанным 3. to receive fundamental c. оканчивать (институт) knowledge 4. in comparison with d. по сравнению с 5. to be authorized e. присуждается 6. to be awarded f. быть уполномоченным 7. to be at the core of g. занимать ключевое положение 8. to introduce oneself h. представляться 9. to be interested in i. интересоваться чем-либо 10. to choose a profession j. выбирать профессию 11. to be fond of k. увлекаться 12. to take examinations l. сдавать экзамены 13. to study at m. учиться в (на) 14. Mechanical Engineering Faculty n. механический факультет 15. to solve fundamental problems o. решать фундаментальные задачи 16. to be in great demand of smth p. требоваться 17. to stand in need of smth q. нуждаться в чем-либо 18. enterprise r. предприятие 19. to make contribution s. делать вклад 20. activity t. деятельность 21. to ensure u. обеспечивать 22. highly-qualified v. высококвалифицированный 23. do practical work w. проходить практику 24. extra-mural department x. заочное отделение 25. eneral and special subjects y. общеобразовательные и специальные предметы 26. to defend diploma z. защитить диплом 27. to graduate from aa. закончить (институт) 28. graduate bb. выпускник 29. advanced training cc. обучение высокого уровня 30. full-time department dd. дневное отделение

Задание 2. Прочитайте опорные словосочетания по вашей специальности и со- ставьте с ними предложения. Выучите слова:

Бизнес-информатика, Информационные системы и технологии, Приборостроение, Прикладная информатика to develop разрабатывать to determine определять to maintain поддерживать, обслуживать to support поддерживать to solve problems решать задачи enterprise предприятие to be engaged in заниматься чем-либо

44 establishment учреждение to research исследовать to transmit передавать to store хранить device устройство to process обрабатывать to debug устранять дефекты, налаживать программу to control управлять, проверить to create создавать network сеть developer разработчик application применение data данные to install устанавливать to load загружать software программное обеспечение hardware компьютерное оборудование data-base база данных digital цифровой computation вычисление to transfer передавать computer-aided design (CAD) автоматизированное проектирование computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) автоматизированное производство

Биотехнология, Продукты питания из растительного сырья to be linked with быть связанным с biochemistry биохимия vital importance первостепенная важность nutrition питание energy supply энергоснабжение bacterial and virus preparations бактериальные и вирусные препараты microbiological synthesis микробиологический синтез to prevail over diseases преодолевать болезни pharmacy manufacturing фармацевтическое производство cosmetics косметика stuff материал, продукт pharmaceutical company фармацевтическая компания growth stimulator стимулятор роста material of virusless nature вещество безвирусной природы commodity продукт, товар carry out выполнять consumer потребитель spoiled goods подпорченные товары perishable скоропортящийся separate отделять essential важный, необходимый ripening process процесс созревания dry out высушивать blend смешивать 45 flavour вкус odor запах grate тереть

Конструкторско-технологическое обеспечение машиностроительных производств, Строительство, Эксплуатация транспортно-технологических машин и комплексов, Технологические машины и оборудование

сomprise включать, охватытвать оutstanding выдающийся master овладевать purpose цель complicated сложный perfect улучшать supply поставлять effect влиять machine-tool станок lathe токарный станок grinding machine шлифовальный станок drilling machine сверлильный станок boring machine расточный станок numerical programme control программное управление unit блок, устройство actuate приводить в действие feedback обратная связь encode кодировать, шифровать provide обеспечивать, снабжать fulfill выполнять relative относительный sufficient достаточный specify точно определять convert превращать include включать particularity особенность lack недостаток, нужда accurate точный substantial существенный advantage преимущество simplicity простота execution выполнение determine определять maintenance эксплуатация, уход, содержание equip оборудовать, оснащать driver`s license водительские права saloon салон repair чинить, ремонтировать spare запасной automobile автомобиль safely безопасно improve улучшать, усовершенствовать 46 Боеприпасы и взрыватели, Химическая технология энергонасыщенных материалов и изделий, Проектирование авиационных и ракетных двигателей to be interested in интересоваться чем-либо to take examinations сдавать экзамены to study at учиться в (на) to possess обладать to meet modern requirements отвечать современным требованиям to provide предоставлять, обеспечивать enterprise предприятие extra-mural заочный level уровень to be in charge of быть ответственным за, отвечать за highly-qualified высококвалифицированный to be engaged in быть занятым speciality специальность to defend diploma защитить диплом to graduate from закончить (институт) graduate выпускник opportunity возможность facilities оборудование salary зарплата take into consideration принимать во внимание to deal with иметь дело с motive движущийся unit часть, элемент, устройство vehicle транспортное средство, машина lubricant смазочный материал to make a contribution to сделать вклад в viscoelasticity вязкоупругость combustion горение rotary ротационный, вращательный reciprocating возвратно-поступательный internal combustion engine двигатель внутреннего сгорания turbo-jet турбореактивный turbo-prop турбовинтовой shaft вал, ось axial осевой to have an advantage over иметь преимущество над ratio коэффициент liquid-fuelled rocket ракета на жидком топливе to launch запускать (ракету)

Товароведение, Торговое дело a variety большое разнообразие seller продавец independent employee независимый служащий wholesale company оптовая компания

47 customs таможня chair кафедра Trade Law [tred l:] торговoе право Legal regulation of the Foreign Eco- правовое регулирование внешнеэкономической nomic relations деятельности to bear in mind (syn. to keep in mind) иметь в виду a local fruit stall фруктовый ларек stock market фондовая биржа, рынок акций to transact business (syn. to make a совершать сделку deal) by adjustment of prices посредством корректировки цен to demand требовать limited resources ограниченные ресурсы the seller's viewpoint точка зрения продавца the cafe owner владелец кафе the rent арендная плата rich executives состоятельные служащие behind the counter за прилавком suitable подходящий to suit подходить part time job (ant. full time job) работа с неполной занятостью a bit of money (ant. scads of money) немного денег unskilled job неквалифицированная работа through the price system через систему цен to cover the cost покрывать расходы to run the cafe содержать кафе to devote resources выделять ресурсы to reduce the economy's ability снижать возможности экономики competition состязание, конкуренция to purchase scarce supplies скупать дефицитные ресурсы to reallocate resources перераспределять ресурсы to reflect the scarcity отражать дефицит to be involved in быть задействованным в the local labour market локальный рынок труда the local wholesale market локальный оптовый рынок the local market for rented buildings локальный рынок аренды помещений precise descriptions of markets точные описания рынков arrangements through, which prices in- структуры (механизмы), посредством которых це- fluence smth ны влияют на что-либо

Задание 3. Прочитайте слова и словосочетания и дайте их перевод:

a) сhemical, mechanical, speciality, engineering, profession, construction, special, technology, general, qualification, industry, activity, scientific, specialist; b) physics, interest, examination, technological, faculty, student, mathematics, engineer, university, process, institute, speciality, fundamental, method, lecturer, sphere, energy, accumu- lator, production, industry, rocket, system, company, diploma, perspective, course, construction, center; c) entrance exams, a second-year student, highly-qualified instructors, correspondence course department, military equipment, concentrated energy, consumer goods production, production management, fire-fighting aids, perfumery goods, domestic chemistry articles;

48 d) a student, industry, automatic, faculty, technological, institute, technical, university, sphere, program, management, system, information, course, basis, to train, certified, engineer, speciality, polymer, rocket, organic, biologically active, principle, designing, tare, packing, pharmaceutics, operation, machinery; e) a second-year student, a wide variety of programs, organic nitrogen compounds, all- round professional and theoretical knowledge, to create new theories and models, to get a job according to one’s speciality; f) biology, interest, examination, technological, faculty, student, physics, engineer, fermentation, process, institute, speciality, correspondence, lecturer, sphere, modern, microbiol- ogy, product, production, industry, method, material, characteristic, metrology, standardization, certification, practical; g) entrance exams, a second-year student, highly-qualified instructors, correspondence course department, foodstuff production, raw materials and foodstuff properties, computer mastering, production management, scientific research work, bakery-plant, meat and milk foodstuff production.

Задание 4. Соотнесите начало и конец предложения:

1 I want to have a job a advertising. 2 I strongly believe that if I am persistent and b some of us go to learn, where our friends ambitious learn, others study profession chosen by their parents. 3 I’ve always had a particular interest in c so I hope to become one someday. 4 When choosing a career one should take into d very interested in current economic processes consideration all the possibilities both in our country and in other countries. 5 Sometimes we do not choose what we need: e demands certain personal qualities. 6 I want to study economics as I’m f when it brings in money. 7 Today a good lawyer is of great demand, g where I can apply my creative skills. 8 If you are good at natural sciences h from different countries and social groups. 9 It’s my strong belief, that every profession i good working conditions, a certain position in from teacher to mechanic, from gardener to society, if there are chances for promotion. cosmonaut, from artist to businessman 10 You should know whether the profession j everything will become possible. you’ve chosen will guarantee you steady wag- es, independence, security, 11 Nowadays most people think that profes- k you should choose something closely con- sion is good nected with them. 12 The profession of an interpreter gives you l that it might provide. the opportunity to meet new people

Задание 5. Прочитайте текст, заполните пропуски и переведите:

My future profession

Let me introduce myself to you. My name is ... I was born in Biysk in ... At the age of 7 I went to school. At school I was interested in Physics, Maths and Chemistry. Now I am ... years old. I finished school in 20… and entered Biysk Technological Insti- tute of the Altai State Technical University. I am a second-year student of the … Speciality. The students of this speciality receive fundamental knowledge in Physics, Mathematics, Chemistry, Technical Drawing and other subjects of general education. Besides the students study the following special subjects: … . The qualification of the engineer is awarded upon the graduation. So I'll become a professional engi-

49 neer and work according to my speciality. The graduates may work as … . They also may work as … in the sphere of … . Besides graduates may work as teachers of educational institutions. The level of knowledge received by the graduates is high enough to work in all these spheres of activity. Intensive scientific activity of the faculty provides the training of highly qualified special- ists. The faculty maintains close cooperation with the enterprises of the city such as "Altaivitamins", Biysk Oleum Plant and "Altai" research centre. I dream to become a good specialist and work according to my speciality. So I’ll do my best to become a highly-skilled engineer.

Задание 6. Вставьте пропущенные предлоги, где это необходимо:

1. … school I was interested … chemistry. 2. I entered … the Institute … last year. 3. We did quite a lot of subjects … school. 4. The students …this faculty are taught … 5 years. 5. … the Institute we study general and special subjects. 6. I dream to work according … my speciality. 7. We also may work … the organizers and managers … small and middle businesses. 8. Every year a great number … students graduate … the Institute. 9. Our war industry is …great demand…skillful experts. 10. They are used…source …concentrated energy in military equipment objects. 11. The graduates … our institute may continue studying…the post-graduate course. 12. The students can do practical work …some enterprises. 13. The graduates of our institute can work …chemical plants. 14. We study general and special subjects … the institute. 15. My aim is to get education, defend my diploma successfully and work according…my speciality. 16. Highly qualified instructors whose majorities are doctors and candidates…science ensure training. 17. The graduates can also work … meat and milk foodstuff production.

Задание 7. Поставьте вопросы к выделенным словам и словосочетаниям:

1. My future speciality is Food Production Engineering. 2. We study various general and special subjects. 3. The students of our faculty are taught during 5 years. 4. The level of knowledge received by the graduates is high enough to work in all the spheres of activity. 5. Chemistry plays a great role in all spheres of our life. 6. We study various general and special subjects. 7. Polymer compounds are used as sourсe of concentrated energy. 8. Our institute was founded in1959. 9. My personal aim is to get education and successfully defend the diploma. (1 question.)

Задание 8. Передайте содержание текста на английском языке:

Я студент Московского Государственного Технического университета им. Н.Э. Баумана. Мой университет – один из старейших в России. Его история началась в 19 веке. Сегодня университет является одним из самых престижных образовательных учреждений нашей страны.

50 Мой университет является не только одним из лучших, но и одним из крупнейших ВУЗов России. Он состоит из 8 научно-учебных комплексов. Каждый комплекс включает в себя факультеты и научно-исследовательские институты. Профессиональная подготовка студентов ведется также на базе крупных предпри- ятий, расположенных в Москве и ее пригородах. Все это благодаря тесному сотрудниче- ству университета с промышленными компаниями нашей страны. Я учусь на факультете «Машиностроительные технологии». Этот факультет – один из старейших факультетов ВУЗа. Факультет занимается подготовкой специалистов в сфе- ре машиностроительных технологий. Уровень образования в университете соответствует высоким требованиям российских работодателей. Университет принимает активное участие в программах по обмену студентами. Он также участвует в различных научных исследованиях, разработках и международных конференциях.

Задание 9. Выделите и обсудите проблемы, затронутые в статье. Сравните, как обстоят дела в вашей стране: I. По утрам и вечерам вагоны Лондонского метро заполняются опрятно одетыми мужчинами и женщинами в серых, синих или черных костюмах с портфелями или газета- ми в руках. Как правило, они работают в Сити, и их рабочий день начинается в 9 утра, а заканчивается в 5 вечера. Эти часы столь распространены и неизменны, что существует особое понятие «работа с девяти до пяти» (nine-to-five job). Понятие, в которое включают- ся не только сами часы работы, но и то, что это работа в какой-нибудь конторе или учре- ждении, возможно, предполагающая даже и этот строгий костюм. А что делают те, кто не склонен подчиняться жестким требованиям учреждения? Прежде всего они, конечно, мо- гут стать «самонанятыми» (self-employed), зарегистрироваться в этом качестве и, разуме- ется, платить государству налог. Писатели, переводчики, журналисты могут работать «сдельно, по найму» (free lance), но, увы, вольнонаемные также должны платить налоги. Если же человеку просто нужно подработать, он занимается «jobing», т.е. выполняет от- дельные поручения разных людей. Этим занимается, например, садовник (jobing gardener), который выполняет разовую работу в чужих садах, и получает он, вероятно, наличные. В английском языке слово, обозначающее такую дополнительную работу, звучит почти ро- мантически – «moonlighting». Но объяснение у этой романтики прозаическое: в лунном свете работать приходится для того, чтобы не увидела налоговая инспекция. Есть еще бо- лее романтическая работа, даже с оттенком мистики: «ghosting» или «ghostwriter» – «быть призраком», «быть писателем-призраком». Проще говоря, писать статьи или книги за тех, кто сам этого делать не умеет, но очень хочет, чтобы на написанном стояло его имя. За это он готов платить. Славы, конечно, такая работа «призракам» не приносит, но прибавляет денег, в том числе и тех, что ушли бы на налоги, потому что призраки, танцующие в лун- ном свете, налогов не платят. Многие британцы в крупных городах, особенно молодые женщины, работают на временной работе (temp, сокр. от temporary) до получения посто- янного места (permanent). Существуют агенства, через которые фирмы и офисы нанимают временных работников на подмену заболевшего или ушедшего в отпуск сотрудника. II. Большинство людей, составляющих трудовую армию США, начинают с работы, не требующей квалификации. В Америке каждый стоит ровно столько, сколько он стоит. Многие американцы, желая получить профессию, совмещают учебу с работой; затем они используют эту неквалифицированную работу для получения рекомендаций при поиске работы по специальности. Работу, не требующую квалификации, на условиях полного или неполного рабочего дня можно найти практически во всех сферах деятельности. Оплата работы бывает почасовая и сдельная. Почасовая оплата исчисляется на ос- нове точного количества отработанных часов и существующих тарифов оплаты. Оплата сверхурочных часов производится в полуторном размере. Сдельная оплата часто исполь- зуется на поточном производстве. Это гарантирует работнику постоянный недельный за-

51 работок плюс дополнительную плату за каждое сделанное сверх установленного количе- ства изделие. Этот вид оплаты выгоден как работодателю, так и работнику. В США опре- деленные профессии, например, в сфере медицины, стоматологии, юриспруденции, строго регламентируются и требуют получения специальных удостоверений или лицензий. Чрезвычайно высоки требования к профессиональной этике. Малейшее ее наруше- ние может иметь очень серьезные последствия. Например, такая фраза, как: «Кто же вас так подстриг?», «Кто же вам так сшил костюм?», «Какой мастер так плохо сделал эту вещь?» и т.п., может привести к лишению лицензии и краху карьеры. В поисках работы помогают друзья, добровольные агенства штатов по трудоустройству (бесплатно), част- ные агенства по трудоустройству (за плату). III. Информация о трудоустройстве печатается на последних страницах местных ежедневных газет под рубрикой «Требуется помощь» или «Возможности трудоустройст- ва». Эти разделы обычно перечисляют в алфавитном порядке требуемые профессии, опи- сание работы и предлагаемый оклад. Сообщается также номер телефона и адрес работода- теля. Врачи являются одними из самых высокооплачиваемых профессионалов наряду с юристами. Врачи считают, что оценивать их доходы нужно с учетом того, сколько ими и их родителями было истрачено на получение медицинского образования, непомерного по продолжительности рабочего дня (врачи работают в среднем 58,8 часа в неделю), сил и нервов, которые тратятся во время работы. По величине дохода врачи очень различаются в зависимости от специальности. Считается, что самыми высокооплачиваемыми являются хирурги. За ними идут радиологи, акушеры и гинекологи, затем общепрактикующие, се- мейные врачи и педиатры. Есть интересная закономерность. Среди сотрудников фирм в разных отраслях экономики женщины в целом гораздо больше довольны своей работой, чем мужчины. Причем эта закономерность касается всех аспектов труда: обстановки на рабочем месте, продвижения по службе, отношений с коллегами, объема дополнительных льгот и многого другого.

Задание 10. Прочтите и переведите диалоги:

1 – Hi, Nancy! How do you do? – I am pretty good, Mark! Tell me what is your job? – I am a broker. I followed the steps of my father who helped me to climb the career ladder. Now I am a very successful broker with a potential income of 1 million a year. – That is pretty impressive. – You do no say. Tell me about your occupation. – You know I am a baby-sitter. I have been working with one family for a year and a half. This boy’s name is Danny and he is two years old. – That is a very nice profession. – I can not argue, I like it. – And what is your husband doing for a living? – He is an actor in theater, he is playing Hamlet. – Oh yes, I have seen him on stage several time this year.

2 – Good day to you, Mary! – How are you, Nick! – I am fine. Mary, tell be a little bit about your occupation. What do you do for living? – You know I am a nurse, in a mental institution. I have to bring pills to inmates and to look after them. And what about you, Nick?

52 – I am a professor at university. I teach mathematic and history. My job is extremely difficult because I have to give lectures to 150 students it is actually very hard to keep their attention. – I understand, I think you are coping with it. – Yes I do. Mary, tell me one more thing. What did you want to be when you were a child? – Oh, boy, it was so long ago. You see I wanted to be an actress in Hollywood a famous one and you? – I wanted to be a professor university. – Wow, at least one of us is living his dream…

Задание 11. Переведите английские фразы в диалоге на русский язык, а рус- ские – на английский:

- Good morning, sir! - Доброе утро, входите, входите смелее. Вы мистер Петров, не так ли? Сади- тесь,пожалуйста… Пока я заканчиваю подписывать бумаги, заполните, пожалуйста, эту анкету. Скажите, как долго Вы работали в фирме «Альфа»? - Five years. And now our firm is moving to Kostroma, but I think a change will do me good. - Что Вы знаете о нашей фирме? У Вас есть какие-нибудь вопросы ко мне? - I know that your firm is a very promising company but I’d like you to inform me on major focus of your several years operation. - Мы планируем развернуть деятельность в англоязычных странах. Поэтому, нам нужна сильная творческая команда. Мы хотим, чтобы наша фирма стала конкурентоспо- собной на мировом рынке. - What responsibilities and duties do you suggest during my first year? - Скажите, каковы Ваши три основные достоинства? - I suppose they are reliability, loyalty, energy. - Ладно. А как Вы выдерживаете повседневные нагрузки? - I am accustomed to work under pressure. - Вы по натуре лидер, предприниматель или только исполнитель? - I seem to be a leader by nature as I get along well with people. - Хорошо. Теперь, мистер Петров, я готов предложить Вам работать с нами. У Вас отличные отзывы с предыдущей работы. Какую зарплату Вы считаете достойной Вас? - Equivalent of $ 500. - Думаю, что мы начнем с $ 450 на испытательный срок (probation period). Если Вы хорошо себя покажете, то через три месяца у Вас будет реальная возможность про- двинуться по службе и, соответственно, иметь более высокую зарплату. - I’d like to know your working hours. - Мы работаем с 9.00 до 17.30 с часовым перерывом на обед обычно с двумя вы- ходными и с двухнедельным отпуском. Но в случае повышенной загруженности компании заказами Вам придется работать и по субботам, и по воскресеньям с соответствующей де- нежной компенсацией. - When do you want me to start, sir? - По возможности раньше, скажем, через неделю. - Settled. Thank you very much. I hope to find a good working environment here.Good bye. - До встречи, мистер Петров.

53 Задание 12. Составьте диалог, связанный с вашей будущей профессией, ис- пользуя следующие выражения:

What is your occupation? How long have you been working in this com- Кто вы по профессии? pany? Как давно ты работаешь в этой компании? What is your job? What do you do at your work? Что у тебя за работа? Что ты делаешь на работе? What do you do for living? What are your responsibilities at work? Как ты зарабатываешь на жизнь? Какие у тебя обязанности на работе? Where do you work? Do you work on commission? Где ты работаешь? Вы работаете на комиссионные? What is your position? Are you paid by hour? Какая у тебя должность? Тебе платят по часам? What field do you work in? Are you a business owner? В какой сфере Вы работаете? Вы - владелец бизнеса? What is your line of work? Does this position require a college degree? Какая у Вас работа? (в какой сфере вы ра- Нужно ли высшее образование для этой по- ботаете?) зиции (работы)? What is your line of business? Does this position require a lot of experience? Что у Вас за бизнес? (в какой сфере Ваш Нужно ли иметь много опыта для этой по- бизнес?) зиции (работы)? What kind of job do you have? Do you work from 9 to 5? Какая у тебя работа? Вы работаете с 9-и до 5-и? What kind of work can you do? Are your hours flexible? Какую работу вы можете делать? У вас гибкий рабочий график? Are you employed? Do you have to work shifts? Вы работаете? Нужно ли тебе работать по сменам? Do you work full time? Can you work from home? Вы работаете полный рабочий день? Ты можешь работать из дома? Do you work half time? Does one need a license to work in this posi- Вы работаете неполный рабочий день? tion? Нужна ли лицензия чтобы работать на этой должности? Is this a permanent or a temporary job? Who do you report to? I report to a managing Это постоянная или временная работа? director. Кто твой начальник? Мой начальник - управляющий директор.

Задание 13. Ответьте на предлагаемые вопросы:

1. What year student are you? 2. What Institute do you study at? 3. What faculty do you study at? 4. What are the three forms of education at your Institute? 5. Is it difficult to study and work at one and the same time? 6. What faculty can one choose when entering the Institute? 7. Who is in charge of training students? 8. What equipment is the Institute provided with? 9. What general and special subjects do you study at the Institute? 10. What is your aim? 11. Where can you work after graduating from the Institute?

54 12. Where do you dream to work? 13. How many exams do you take each session? 14. Who delivers lectures to you on different subjects? 15. How long does the course of studies last? 16. When will you graduate from the Institute? 17. What is your future speciality? 18. What exams are you afraid most of all? 19. Is it important for you what mark you get at the exam? 20. What are the subjects you give most attention to? 21. Who delivers lectures to you on different subjects? 22. Are you good at Chemistry? 23. Do you consider knowing foreign language to be necessary for you as a future engineer?

Задание 14. Подготовьте сообщение о своей будущей профессии, используя следующие фразы:

It is important to know that … – Важно знать, что… It is important to remember that … – Важно помнить, что… In conclusion,… – В заключение…, Как вывод… After all, … — В конце концов… In any case, … / Anyway, … / Either way, … — В любом случае…, Все-таки… Fortunately… — К счастью… Firstly, … — Во-первых, сначала… From time to time, … — Время от времени… Indeed, … — На самом деле, в действительности… In order to … — Чтобы, для того, чтобы…. In other words, … — Другими словами… It seems that … — Кажется, что… Besides, … — Кроме того… In addition, … – Вдобавок, к тому же… By the way, … — Кстати, между прочим… However, … — Тем не менее, все-таки… Frankly speaking, … — Честно говоря… In my opinion, … — На мой взгляд, по моему мнению… First of all, … — Прежде всего… On the one hand, … , on the other hand, … – С одной стороны, с другой стороны… I would like to … — Я бы хотел… I think, … / I believe, … / I guess, …/I consider… — Я думаю, я считаю, я предпола- гаю… Probably… — Наверное… It’s possible that… — Возможно, что…

55 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ Тексты для дополнительного чтения

Famous scientists in electronic engineering

Alessandro Guiseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta Alessandro Guiseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (b. Como, Italy, 18th Feb.1745, d. Como, Italy, 5th March 1827) was a pioneer in the field of electricity. The SI unit of electric potential was named after him as the Volt. The portrait (above) was featured on the Italian 10,000 Lire banknote. He came from a Lombard family ennobled by the municipality of Como and almost extinguished, in his time, through its service to the church. One of his paternal uncles was a Do- minican, another a Canon and the third an Archdeacon. His father, Filipo (1862-1752), after eleven years as a Jesuit, withdrew to propagate the line. Filipo married Maddelena de' conti Inzaghi in 1773. They had seven children; three girls, two of whom became nuns; three boys who followed the careers of their uncles; and Alessandro, the youngest. Alessandro was about seven when his father died. His uncle the Canon took charge of his education. Alessandro joined the local Jesuit College in 1757. His quickness soon attracted the attention of his teachers. In 1761 the philosophy professor, Girolamo Bonensi, tried to recruit him. This made his uncle want to take him from school. Volta continued his education at Seminario Benzi. His uncle wanted him to be an attorney. But, Volta chose the study of electricity. Alessandro was a large, vigorous man. He actively practised the Catholic faith. He, in the words of his friend Lichtenberg, "understood a lot about the electricity of women." For many years he enjoyed the favours of a singer, Marianna Paris, whom he might have married but for his theological and family opinion. Volta developed the concept of 'state of saturation of bodies' to explain attractions and re- pulsions of electrified bodies. The electrophore he invented was severely criticized by Beccaria, one of the chief authorities in electricity. In 1774, he became the principal of the state Gymnasi- um in Como. In 1775, he was granted the professorship of experimental physics. Cavendish's memoir of 1771 made Volta transform his notion of 'natural saturation' into the concept of potential. His last memoir was on galvanic and common electricity. Seeing Volta's demonstrations, Napoleon raised him to Count and Senator of the kingdom of Italy. During the last 20 years of his life he had the income of a wealthy man.

André-Marie Ampére André-Marie Ampére (b. Lyons, France, 22nd Jan. 1775, d. Marseilles, France, 10th June 1836) was a mathematician, a chemist, a physicist and a philosopher. The SI unit of electric current was named after him as the Ampere. His father, Jean-Jacques, was a merchant. Jean-Jacques exposed his son to a library and let him educate himself according to his own tastes. André- Marie soon discovered and perfected his mathematical talents. He even learned Latin in order to read the works by Euler and Bernoulli. The great encyclopédie had the most important influence on him. He was also thoroughly instructed in Catholic faith. During the French Revolution, his father was guillotined. André-Marie was unable to bear this shock. For a year, he retreated, not talking to anyone. During this time, he met Julie Carron who was somewhat older than he was. Ampére pursued Julie until she consented to marry him. They were wed on the 7th of August 1799 and their son, Jean-Jacques, was born.the following year. Ampére became the professor of physics and chemistry at the École-Centrale of Bourgen-Bresse, where he worked on probability theory. Julie died on the 13th of July 1803 of an illness. Ampére became inconsolable again. He married Jeanne Potot in 1806. After the birth of their daughter, Albine, they got a divorce. Between 1820 and 1825, after a series of experiments, Ampére provided factual evidence for his contention that magnetism was electricity in motion, summarized in his famous 9 points. They describe the law of action of current carrying wires, and model magnets as having circulat- ing currents in them. Ampére was able to unify the fields of electricity and magnetism on a basic

56 numeric level. Fresnel helped Ampére improve his theory by suggesting that there may be currents of electricity around each molecule. Ampére assumed that the 'electrodynamic molecule' was a molecule of iron that decomposed the aether, that pervaded both space and matter into the two 'electric fluids.' Ampere's theory of the electrodynamic molecule was not accepted by everyone. His primary opponent was Michael Faraday, who could not follow the mathematics and did not accept his theory. Ampére's son fell in love with Mrs. Jeanne Recamier, an entertainer and a great beauty of the empire. His daughter Albine, married an army officer who turned out to be a drunkard. Following this, after 1827, Ampére's scientific activity declined and he died alone, while on a tour in Marseilles.

James Prescott Joule James Prescott Joule (b. Salford, England, 24th Dec. 1818, d. Salford, England, 11th Oc- tober 1889) was the second son of a prosperous brewer. The SI Unit of energy or work was named after him as the Joule. James was not a strong child. He had a spinal injury which left a slight deformity. Because of this, his education was limited. To a large extent he was self taught. He even read relatively little and had no pretence of being a great scientist. When he was 16, he and his brother, Benjamin, studied under Dalton for about two years. His chief contact with the world was with the members of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. He began his quantitative electrical work when he was 19, using a standard resistance of copper wire. He was a simple, earnest and modest man. He was the first to give an expression for the heat generated in a resistor by current flow, in 1840, and to observe magnetostriction. He spent a major part of his life working on the mechanical equivalence of heat. In 1845, he investigated the relationship between the temperature and the internal energy of gas. In April 1847, he gave a popular lecture in Manchester in which he stated the concept of the conservation of energy. But, it went unnoticed. At a meeting at Oxford in June 1847, he was advised by the chairman to restrict himself to a brief oral report on his experiments, rather than a paper, and not to invite discussion. Fortunately, his idea was grasped by William Thomson, Faraday and Stokes. Recogni- tion to Joule came from Faraday who introduced Joule's 1849 paper to the Society. This paper won for him the 1852 Royal Medal. His last remarkable contribution was work in 1860 which resulted in a significant improvement of steam-engine efficiency. In the same year, he made one of the first accurate galvanometers and calibrated it by use of a voltmeter. He received many awards and medals including the 1870 Copley Medal and a pension from the queen in 1878. His mother died in 1836. His father retired in 1883 due to illness. James and Benjamin took over the family brewing. James married in 1847 and had a daughter and a son. After the death of his wife in 1854, the brewery was sold. Joule's health became worse as time passed. He suffered from frequent nose-bleeding, presumably haemophilia. But, he kept on working as much as he could until his death.

Georg Simon Ohm Georg Simon Ohm (b. Erlangen, Germany, 16th March 1789, d. Munich, Germany, 6th July 1854) was a mathematician and a physicist. The SI unit of electrical resistance was named after him as the Ohm. His father, Johan Wolfgang Ohm, was a master locksmith. Johan Wolf- gang married Maria Elizabeth Beck, daughter of a master tailor. They were a protestant couple. Of their seven children only three survived childhood: Georg Simon the eldest, Martin the mathematician, and Elizabeth Barbara. Johan Wolfgang gave his sons a solid education in mathematics, physics, chemistry and the philosophies of Kant and Fichte. Their mathematical talents were soon recognised by the Erlangen professor Karl Christian Von Langsdorf. Georg Simon matricu- lated on the 3rd of May 1805 at the University of Erlangen. He studied 3 semesters there until his father's displeasure at his supposed overindulgence in dancing, billiards, and ice skating forced him to withdraw to rural Switzerland. He began to teach mathematics in September 1806 in Gottstadt. He received his PhD on the 25th of October 1811. Lack of money forced him to seek employment from the German gov-

57 ernment. But, the best he could obtain was a post as a teacher of mathematics and physics at a poorly attended 'Realschule' in Bamberg. He worked there with great dissatisfaction. In 1817, Ohm was offered the position of 'Oberlehrer' of mathematics and physics at the Jesuit Gymnasi- um at Cologne. He began his experiments on electricity and magnetism after 1820. His first scientific paper was published in 1825 in which he sought a relationship between the decrease in the force exerted by current-carrying wires and the length of the wires. In April 1826, he published two important papers on galvanicm electricity. He published his book on Ohm's law, Die Galvanische Kette Mathematische Bearbeit, in 1827. Sir John Leslie had already provided both theoretical discussion and experimental confirmation of Ohm's law in a paper written in 1791 and published in 1824, which was not accepted. Ohm's law was so coldly received that Ohm resigned his post at Cologne. Ohm obtained the professorship of physics at the Polytechninische Schedule in Nuremberg in 1833. Finally, his work began to be recognised. In 1841, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London and was made a foreign member a year later.

Michael Faraday Michael Faraday (b. Newington, Surrey, England, 22nd Sep. 1791, d. Hampton Court, Middlesex, England, 25th August 1867) was a physicist, a chemist, a physical chemist and a natural philosopher. The SI unit of capacitance was named after him as the Farad (F). He was born into a poor family, of which he was he third of four children. His father, James Faraday, was a blacksmith. James Faraday's poor health prevented him from providing more than bare necessi- ties to his family. Michael later recalled that he was once given a loaf of bread to feed him for a week. His parents were members of the Sandemanian Church, and Michael was brought up within this discipline. His most favourite book was the Bible in which he had heavily underlined, Timothy 6:10, "The love of money is the root of all evil." Michael, at the age of 14, was appren- ticed to Riebau, a bookseller and a bookbinder, in whose shop he read books on science that came to his hands. In 1812, one of the customers at Riebau's shop, gave Faraday a ticket to attend the last four lectures of a course given by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He applied to Davy for employment, sending him as evidence of his interest the notes that he had made of his lectures. At the age of 21, he was appointed assistance to Davy to help with both lecture experiments and research. He accompanied Davy on a tour in Europe where he saw much of the active scientific research. In 1821, he married Sarah Barnard, a union that was happy though childless. Faraday became the discoverer of electromagnetic induction, of the laws of electrolysis, and of the fundamental relations between between light and magnetism. He was the origina- tor of the conceptions that underlie the modern theory of the electromagnetic field. He also discovered two unknown chlorides of carbon and a new compound of carbon. His last discovery was the rotation of the plane of polarization of light in magnetic field. When Faraday was en- deavouring to explain to the Prime Minister or to the Chancellor of the Exchequer an important discovery, a politician's alleged comment was, "But, after all, what use is it?" Whereupon Fara- day replied, "Why sir, there is a probability that you will soon be able to tax it!" His mind deteri- orated rapidly after the mid-1850s. In 1862, he resigned his position at the Royal Institution, re- tiring to a house provided for him by Queen Victoria at Hampton Court.

Nicola Tesla Nicola Tesla (b. Smiljan, Croatia, 10th July 1856, d. New York 7th Jan. 1943) was a pioneer in the field of high-tension electricity. The SI unit of magnetic flux density was named after him as the Tesla (T). He made many discoveries and inventions of great value to the development of radio transmission and to the field of electricity. These include a system of arc lighting, the Tesla induction motor and a system of alternating-current transmission, the Tesla coil, a transformer to increase oscillating currents to high potential, a system of wireless communication, and a system of transmitting electric power without wires. He designed the great power sys-

58 tem at Niagara. Tesla's advanced concepts include transmission of large quantities of electrical power without wires and inexhaustible energy supplies from the universe. Despite over 700 patents bearing his name he disliked being called an "inventor," much preferring the description "discoverer." He emigrated to United States in 1884 with the hope of finding a backer for his polyphase alternating current system. The magnet that drew him was the Niagara falls. As a boy in his teens he had seen a picture of the falls, ever since then the hope of converting the power of the falls into electricity had remained with him. It is said that when he thought of an object, he could see it physically and had no need of pencil and paper, just as when he read, which he did rapidly, he was virtually photographic. When Edison heard his ideas he was not interested but gave him a job. Edison promised $50,000 if Tesla could perfect a new type of dynamo. When Tesla succeeded and asked for the money he was told that he did not understand American sense of humour. At this point Tesla quit. He was unemployed and was forced to dig ditches at $2 per day to earn a living. Fortunate- ly his foreman introduced him to a Mr Brown of Westinghouse and once more he had a laboratory. Tesla continued on his invention and in May 1890, he was granted the first string of patents, and they grew faster. George Westinghouse offered one million dollars to Tesla for his patents. During the Spanish -American war Tesla offered to the government his invention of a "robot" to be operated by remote control by means of his wireless system. They laughed at him. He died a pauper leaving behind a golden legacy in the shape of his great inventions.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (b. Hamburg, Germany, 22nd Feb. 1857, d. Bonn, Germany, 1st January 1894), a physicist, whose research has come to be regarded as the starting point of radio - it was he who first detected and measured electromagnetic waves in space. The SI unit of frequency was named after him as the Hertz (Hz). His grandfather, Heinrich David Hertz, the youngest son of a wealthy Jewish family was converted to the Lutheran faith along with his wife and children. David Heinrich Hertz's son, Gustav, became a Minister of Justice and was the first to attend a university in the family. He married a classmate's sister, Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn, and had five children, the eldest of whom was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. He was an exceptionally gifted child and excelled in every way. After completing his secondary education, he wanted to be a structural engineer and served as an apprentice in a civil engineering office. Reading a lot of books, he became interested in telegraphy and enrolled in the Technical University of Dresden. Finding the level of instruction low for him, after one semester, he embarked on his year of compulsory military service. He then enrolled in the Technical Uni- versity of Munich to do physics, but later, switched to the University of Munich. He was still not satisfied, and after two semesters transferred to the University of Berlin where Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann Helmholtz taught physics. Very soon he was working as a student assistant to Helmholtz. He graduated the following year, before which he had written two papers on his research - determining if electrons have inertial mass and induction in rotating spheres. He obtained his doctorate in 1880 and was appointed assistant of Helmholtz. After three years, he went to the University of Kiel to become a lecturer in physics and soon he was promoted and became a professor at the Technical High School in Karlsruhe, and then he went to the University of Bonn. In 1886 he married Elizabeth Doll, and started his research on electric waves. He wrote many papers not only in electromagnetism but also in the theory of contact mechanics and the measurement of hardness. Suffering a severe illness which led to chronic blood poisoning he died after indescribable suffering. He was an extremely modest man and once denying the request for publishing his portrait he said, "... Too much honour cer- tainly does me harm in the eyes of reasonable men..." and four years after, following his death, his portrait was published.

Famous scientists chemical engineering

Niels Bohr Niels Bohr completely transformed our view of the atom and of the world. Realizing that classical physics fails catastrophically when things are atom-sized or smaller, he remodeled the atom so electrons occupied ‘allowed’ orbits around the nucleus while all other orbits were for- bidden. In doing so he founded quantum mechanics. Later, as a leading architect of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, he helped to completely reshape our understanding of how nature operates at the atomic-scale. Niels Henrik David Bohr was born on October 7, 1885 in Denmark’s capital city, Copen- hagen. He was the second of three children in a prosperous, upper-class family. His father was Christian Bohr, a brilliant physiology professor who would later be nomi- nated twice for a Nobel Prize. His mother was Ellen Adler, daughter of a wealthy Danish politician. His father had been raised in a Lutheran family and his mother in a Jewish family. Niels was baptized as a Lutheran at the age of six to please one of his grandmothers. Neither his father nor his mother practiced their religions. Niels’ parents were deeply passionate about their children’s education. Niels was taught at home until he started formal schooling aged 7 at the Gammelholm Grammar School. The school was both an elementary and high school. It had strict discipline and expected its students to work hard. His father would bring home a variety of his fellow professors from the University of Copenhagen and the Bohr children were allowed to listen to the conversations, which were wide- ranging, discussing science, philosophy and the arts. Niels was good at most school subjects, but was rather weak in his own native language, Danish. While he loved talking, he had a thorough dislike of writing essays. Naturally talented in mathematics, he became increasingly drawn to the sciences. Physics especially interested Niels and by the time he was a teenager he was correcting the mistakes in his schools’ textbooks. In addition to his intellectual vigor, he was also unusually strong physically. He didn’t just correct textbooks; he would also ‘correct’ other students, getting into fights at school, which he usually won. Although he would eventually become one of the world’s greatest theoretical physicists, he was talented in a practical way with his hands. He and his younger brother would spend hours making things in their father’s workshop. His father saw that Niels had the potential to become an outstanding scientist. However, neither he nor his mother wished Niels to grow up with narrow interests. They ensured he was well-educated culturally and in sports. His father was particularly enthusiastic about the works of the German author Goethe and would regularly recite large tracts of Faust to his children. His father was also loved soccer and encouraged his sons to play at school and university. Niels became a goalkeeper, while his younger brother Harald went on to play for Denmark on the international stage, winning an Olympic silver medal.

Robert Bunsen Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen was born on March 30, 1811, in Göttingen, Germany. He was the youngest of four sons. His father was Christian Bunsen, professor of modern languages and head librarian at the University of Göttingen. His mother came from a military family. After he had become a famous professor, Bunsen once recalled that he had been a way- ward child at times, but his mother kept him in line.

60 He attended elementary school and high school in Göttingen. When he reached the age of 15 he moved to the grammar school in Holzminden, about 40 miles (60 km) from Göttingen. In 1828, aged 17, he started work for his degree at the University of Göttingen. He took courses in chemistry, physics and mathematics, with some geology and botany. He won an award for his work on a humidity meter. When he wrote this work up in 1830, he was awarded a Ph.D. in chemistry – he was just 19 years old. Bunsen stayed at Göttingen until he won a government scholarship to travel around Eu- rope studying chemistry. He spend most of 1832 and 1833 learning chemical techniques in laboratories in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and France. In France he spent time in Paris working with the famous chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac. Recalling differences between his own time as a university student and many years later, Bunsen said: “In my day, we studied science and not, as now so often happens, only one of them.” Bunsen never married and had no children. He had a reputation as a fun person to be around, full of laughter, but not too careful about his personal appearance – he had better uses for his time than wasting it over selecting clothes and looking at himself in the mirror. Another professor’s wife once said that she would like to kiss him, but she would have to wash him first! He was a person who had a great reputation for warmheartedness, and enjoying jokes and fun. His students admired him greatly. He told a great many anecdotes. These were published after his death in a short book called Bunseniana. His work with arsenic, and with poisonous gases, his study of explosive chemical reactions, and his willingness to take equipment into the craters of active volcanoes and to lower it into geysers suggests he enjoyed living dangerously. In 1868 there was another explosion in his laboratory. This one involved iridium and rhodium metal powders, which can ignite spontaneously in air. Bunsen wrote: “It is still difficult for me to write, as my hands are not quite healed… on touching the finely divided metal… with my finger, the whole suddenly exploded with the energy of rammed- in gunpowder… My left hand… saved my eyes, as my face and eyes were only superficially burnt by the flames which penetrated through my fingers. My eyes are, with the exception of singed eyebrows and eyelashes, unhurt, and so the explosion will luckily leave behind no serious traces.” One of Bunsen’s favorite activities was walking in the woodland and hills around Heidel- berg – here he got time to think. On these walks, he said, his best ideas would come to him. Bunsen did a great deal of his laboratory work personally. He was a skilled glass blower, and he preferred doing experiments to anything else science could offer him.

Robert Bunsen’s Discoveries and Contributions to Science Arsenic – A Triumph and a Disaster In 1833, aged 22, Bunsen started working as a chemistry lecturer at the University of Göttingen. He had obtained his license to teach, but received no salary from the university. He tutored students and carried out research in the chemistry laboratories. In the early years of his career, Bunsen researched arsenic compounds – hazardous work. In 1834 he published his first important work – a triumph. Working with the physician Arnold Berthold he discovered an antidote to arsenic poisoning. He found that adding iron oxide hydrate to a solution in which arsenic compounds are dissolved causes the arsenic compounds to fall out of the solution as ferrous arsenate, which is an insoluble, harmless solid. Bunsen developed an ongoing passion for studying the compounds of arsenic. Like the good chemist he was, he tried to take precautions against the toxic effects of these compounds, He devised a face mask with a breathing tube which ran outside to feed him clean air while he worked.

61 Some arsenic compounds, however, are explosive. Without warning, they can explode in dry air. In 1843, nine years after finding the antidote to arsenic poisoning, Bunsen became a vic- tim of such an explosion when a sample of an arsenic compound called cacodyl cya- nide exploded, shattering his face mask and permanently blinding his right eye. The explosion also resulted in Bunsen suffering severe arsenic poisoning. He was saved from death by the iron oxide hydrate antidote he had discovered nine years earlier. Invention of the Zinc-Carbon Battery In 1841 Bunsen invented the zinc-carbon cell – often called the Bunsen battery. He saw this as an improvement on the expensive Grove cell, which was used, for example, to power telegraph lines. The Grove cell was a zinc-platinum cell. The platinum in it made it very expensive. Bunsen combined his zinc-carbon cells into large batteries, which he used to isolate metals from their ores. He was the first person to produce large scale samples of pure magnesium metal. His replacement of expensive platinum with cheap carbon also allowed other researchers who had been deterred by costs to carry out work in electrochemistry. Gas Analysis and Big Wins for Industry Bunsen developed a variety of new techniques to analyze gases. Between 1838 and 1846 he used his methods to study gases produced by industries. He found that in the steel industry, where heat was produced by burning charcoal, much of the charcoal was not burning completely. It was burning to form carbon monoxide, rather than carbon dioxide, which produces much more heat. To improve efficiency, Bunsen recommended that the exhaust gases from burning charcoal should be recycled to generate more energy by burning them. He estimated German furnaces were wasting 50 percent of their energy and British furnaces 80 percent. Eventually, the reluc- tant industries changed their ways and adopted Bunsen’s recommendations. An Expedition to Iceland – Bunsen Discovers how Geysers Operate Bunsen was interested in both gas analysis and geology. He was invited to Iceland in 1846 to study volcanic activity. The work he did made fundamental contributions to geochemis- try. By bravely standing at the sides of geysers and lowering scientific apparatus into their depths, he discovered that geysers had at their base a reservoir of superheated water: this water is much hotter than 100 °C. It is kept liquid by high pressure below ground. As this water rises from below, the pressure falls, and the water boils explosively producing a geyser. The Bunsen Burner Chemists and alchemists before them were aware that if you sprinkled a sample of a substance into a flame, the color you saw helped you identify chemical elements in the sample. Lith- ium compounds, for example, burn with a rose-red flame, while potassium compounds burn with a lilac flame. This is seen in the chemistry of fireworks, where different colors are produced using salts of different elements. Bunsen had observed that sodium compounds gave an orange-yellow flame. However, the color of the flame itself, before any chemicals were sprinkled into it, could interfere with the test, making it unreliable. Bunsen’s response was his gas burner. By introducing air into the gas in the correct proportion before it burns, a clean, soot-free, almost colorless flame is produced. Using his burner, Bunsen used flame tests to analyze substances much more reliably than ever before. The burners he designed were made by Peter Desaga, his laboratory assistant. Bunsen published the design of the burner in 1857, but he did not patent his design. He did not wish to make profits from science; he believed the intellectual rewards were more than enough.

62 His burner is now used not only for flame tests. It is used to heat samples and to sterilize equipment in medical laboratories all over the world. Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, whose use has saved untold millions of lives. Less well-known is that before making this world-changing discovery, he had already made significant contributions to medical science. Alexander Fleming was born on August 6, 1881 at his parents’ farm located near the small town of Darvel, in Scotland, UK. His parents, Hugh Fleming and Grace Stirling Morton, were both from farming families. His father’s health was fragile; he died when Alexander was just seven years old. Alexander’s earliest schooling, between the ages of five and eight, was at a tiny moorland school where 12 pupils of all ages were taught in a single classroom. Darvel School was Alexander’s next school, which involved an eight-mile round trip walk every school-day. At the age of 11 his academic potential was recognized and he was awarded a scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy, where he boarded for about two years before leaving for the city of London. Alexander arrived in London early in 1895, aged 13. This was the year his fellow Scot, Arthur Conan Doyle, published The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, in which readers were horri- fied to learn that their hero had died falling over the Reichenbach Falls. Alexander lived in the home of an older brother, Tom, who was a doctor of medicine. Most of the Fleming family ended up living with Tom, leaving the eldest brother, Hugh, running the farm. Alexander attended the Polytechnic School, where he studied business and commerce. He started in a class appropriate to his age, but his teachers soon realized he needed more challeng- ing work. He was moved into a class with boys two years older than him and finished school aged 16. His business training helped him get a job in a shipping office, but he did not enjoy working there. In 1901, at the age of 20, he inherited some money from his uncle, John Fleming. He decided to use the money to go to medical school; he wanted to become a doctor like his successful brother Tom. First, he needed suitable qualifications to enable him to join a medical school. This did not present any great difficulties; he passed his exams with the highest marks of any student in the United Kingdom. In 1903, aged 22, Alexander enrolled at London’s St Mary’s Hospital Medical School, graduating with distinction three years later as Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery. Rather than follow in Tom’s footsteps, Alexander was persuaded by Almroth Wright, an authority in immunology, to become a researcher in his bacteriology group at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School. While carrying out this research Fleming graduated, in 1908, with a degree in bacteriology and the Gold Medal for top student. St Mary’s Hospital Medical School then promoted him to the role of bacteriology lecturer. Almroth Wright was interested in our bodies’ natural ability to fight infection. Fleming became particularly fascinated by the fact that, although many people suffered bacterial infections from time to time, the majority of people’s natural defenses prevented infections from taking hold. Fleming’s Most Significant Contributions to Science In 1914 World War 1 broke out and Fleming, aged 33, joined the army, becoming a cap- tain in the Royal Army Medical Corps, working in field hospitals in France. There, in a series of brilliant experiments, he established that antiseptic agents used to treat wounds and prevent infection were actually killing more soldiers than the infections were!

63 The antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, boric acid and hydrogen peroxide, were failing to kill bacteria deep in wounds; worse, they were in fact lowering the soldier’s natural resistance to infection because they were killing white blood cells. Fleming demonstrated that antiseptic agents were only useful in treating superficial wounds, but were harmful when applied to deep wounds. Almroth Wright believed that a saline solution – salt water – should be used to clean deep wounds, because this did not interfere with the body’s own defenses and in fact attracted white cells. Fleming proved this result in the field. Wright and Fleming published their results, but most army doctors refused to change their ways, resulting in many preventable deaths. Nurses come to the aid of a wounded soldier. Fleming saved many soldiers’ lives in World War One by washing deep wounds with saline solution rather than the antiseptics recommended by medical textbooks. Discovery of Lysozyme In 1919 Fleming returned to research at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School in London. His wartime experience had firmly established his view that antibacterial agents should only be used if they worked with the body’s natural defenses rather than against them; in particular, they must not harm white blood cells. His first discovery of such an agent came in 1922, when he was 41 years old. Fleming had taken secretions from inside the nose of a patient suffering from a head cold. He cultured the secretions to grow any bacteria that happened to be present. In the secretions, he discovered a new bacterium he called Micrococcus lysodeikticus, now called M luteus. A few days later, Fleming was examining these bacteria. He himself was now suffering from a head cold, and a drop of mucus fell from his nose on to the bacteria. The bacteria in the area the drop had fallen were almost instantly destroyed. Always on the lookout for natural bacteria killers, this observation excited Fleming enormously. He tested the effect of other fluids from the body, such as blood serum, saliva, and tears, on these bacteria and found that bacteria would not grow where a drop of one of these fluids had been placed. Fleming discovered the common factor in the fluids was an enzyme. He named his newly discovered enzyme lysozyme. The effect of lysozyme was to destroy certain types of microbe, rendering them harmless to people. The presence of lysozyme in our bodies prevents some potentially pathogenic microbes from causing us harm. It gives us natural immunity to a number of diseases. However, lysozyme’s usefulness as a medicine is rather limited, because it has little or no effect on many other microbes that infect humans. It did, however, mean that Fleming had discovered a natural antibiotic which did not kill white blood cells. If only he could find a more powerful antibiotic, then medicine could be transformed. Today, lysozyme is used as a food and wine preservative. It is naturally present in especially large concentrations in egg-whites, offering protection against infection to chicks. It is also used in medicines, particularly in Asia, where it is used in treatments for head colds, athlete’s foot and throat infections. Lysozyme is shown here in blue. It is an enzyme, meaning it is a type of protein. It de- stroys bacteria by breaking down their cell walls, shown in pink. “The view has been generally held that the function of tears, saliva and sputum, so far as infections are concerned, was to rid the body of microbes by mechanically washing them away… however, it is quite clear that these secretions, together with most of the tissues of the body, have the property of destroying microbes to a very high degree.” Discovery of Penicillin In the month of August 1928, Fleming did something very important. He enjoyed a long vacation with his wife and young son.

64 On Monday, September 3, he returned to his laboratory and saw a pile of Petri dishes he had left on his bench. The dishes contained colonies ofStaphylococcus bacteria. While he was away, one of his assistants had left a window open and the dishes had become contaminated by different microbes. Annoyed, Fleming looked through the dishes and found something remarkable had taken place in one of them. A fungus was growing and the bacterial colonies around it had been killed. Farther from the fungus, the bacteria looked normal. Excited by his observation, he showed the dish to an assistant, who remarked on how similar this seemed to Fleming’s famous discovery of lysozyme. Hoping he had discovered a better natural antibiotic than lysozyme, Fleming now devoted himself to growing more of the fungus. He identified that it belonged to the Penicillium genus and that it produced a bacteria-killing liquid. On March 7, 1929 he formally named the antibiotic – it would be known as penicillin. Fleming published his results, showing that penicillin killed a variety of bacteria which were then the scourge of humanity, including those responsible for scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria. Furthermore, penicillin was non-toxic and it did not attack white blood cells. Unfortunately, the scientific world was largely underwhelmed, ignoring his discovery. Fleming faced a number of problems: it was difficult to isolate penicillin from the fungus producing it; he could not find a way of producing penicillin in high concentrations; penicillin seemed to be slow acting; clinical tests of penicillin as a surface antiseptic showed it was not especially effective. Fleming’s boss, Almroth Wright, had a generalized dislike of chemists and refused to al- low them in his laboratory. The presence of a skilled chemist would have been a huge benefit in terms of isolating, purifying, and concentrating penicillin. Regardless of these issues, Fleming continued with some work on penicillin in the 1930s, but never made the breakthrough he needed to produce it in large, concentrated quantities. Oth- ers, however, did. In the early 1940s a large team of University of Oxford scientists led by pharmacologist Howard Florey and biochemist Ernst Boris Chain finally transformed penicillin into the medicine we know today. In 1945 Alexander Fleming shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology with Flo- rey and Chain. The award was made: “for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases.” In his Nobel Prize winning speech in 1945, Fleming warned of a danger which today is becoming ever more pressing: “It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin in the laboratory by exposing them to concentrations not sufficient to kill them, and the same thing has occasionally happened in the body. The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.”

Famous scientists physics

John Dalton John Dalton was born on September 6, 1766, in Eaglesfield, England, UK. His father was a weaver, who owned a house and a small amount of land. Both of his parents were Quakers. Although Quakers were Christians, they were seen as dissenters by the established Church of England. As a result of this, John Dalton’s higher educational opportunities were restricted to dissenting places of education.

65 John Dalton was an intelligent child, who took an interest in the world around him and tried to learn as much as he could about everything. He attended his village school until he was 11, and then began helping as a teacher. At age 15, he started helping his older brother John to run a Quaker boarding-school in the town of Kendal, 40 miles from his home. All the while, he continued teaching himself science, mathematics, Latin, Greek and French. By the time he was 19, he had become the school’s principal, continuing in this role until he was 26 years old. It seems that the school’s students liked Dalton teaching them, one of them recalling: “The boys (were) all glad to be taught by John Dalton, because he had a gentler disposi- tion; and besides his mind was so occupied with mathematics, that their faults escaped his no- tice.” In the first half of 1793, aged 26, Dalton took the position of teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at Manchester’s New College, a dissenting college. In 1794, he wrote his first scientific paper which he called: Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colours. This was the first ever paper to discuss color blindness. Dalton had realized the condition was hereditary, because he and other members of his family had it. Ultimately, Dalton’s theory for color blindness was wrong, but as he was the first person ever to research it, the condition became known as Daltonism. Further research papers followed, in the physical sciences: heat conduction, gas expansion by heat, the properties of light, the aurora borealis, and meteorology. In 1800, Dalton began earning a living as a private tutor in science and mathematics. He resigned from New College, which was in financial difficulty. In 1801, Dalton gave a series of lectures in Manchester whose contents were published in 1802. In these lectures he presented research he had been carrying out into gases and liquids. This research was groundbreaking, offering great new insights into the nature of gases. Firstly, Dalton stated correctly that he had no doubt that all gases could be liquified provided their temperature was sufficiently low and pressure sufficiently high. He then stated that when its volume is held constant in a container, the pressure of a gas varies in direct proportion to its temperature. This was the first public statement of what eventually became known as Gay-Lussac’s Law, named after Joseph Gay-Lussac who published it in 1809. In 1803, Dalton published his Law of Partial Pressures, still used by every university chemistry student, which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total gas pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases. By now, Dalton’s work had distinguished him as a scientist of the first rank, and he was invited to give lectures to the Royal Institution in London. His study of gases led Dalton to wonder about what these invisible substances were actually made of. The idea of atoms had first been proposed more than 2000 years earlier by Democritus in Ancient Greece. Democritus believed that everything was made of tiny particles called atoms and that these atoms could not be split into smaller particles. Was Democritus right? Nobody knew! Dalton was now going to solve this 2000 year-old mystery. He carried out countless chemical reactions, and in 1808 published what we now call Dalton’s Law in his book A New System of Chemical Philosophy: If two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers. For example, Dalton found that 12 grams of carbon could react with 16 grams of oxygen to form the compound we now call carbon monoxide or with 32 grams of oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The ratio of oxygen masses of 32:16, which simplifies to 2:1 intrigued Dalton. Analyz-

66 ing all of the data he had collected, Dalton stated his belief that matter exists as atoms. He went further than Democritus, by stating that atoms of different elements have different masses. Although we have learned that atoms of the same element can have different masses (iso- topes), andcan be split in nuclear reactions, most of Dalton’s Atomic Theory holds good today, over 200 years after John Dalton described it. It is the foundation on which modern chemistry has been built. “Mr. Dalton’s permanent reputation will rest upon his having discovered a simple principle, universally applicable to the facts of chemistry – in fixing the proportions in which bodies combine, and thus laying the foundation for future labors… his merits in this respect resemble those of Kepler in astronomy.” Dalton did not marry and had no children. He remained a faithful Quaker all of his life, living modestly. In 1810, he declined an invitation to become a member of the Royal Society. In 1822, he was elected without his knowledge. In 1826, he was awarded the Society’s Royal Medal for his Atomic Theory. In 1833, the French Academy of Sciences elected him as one of its eight foreign members. In 1834, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him as a foreign member. When he was 71 years old, Dalton had a small stroke – or paralysis as it was known then. A year later, a more significant stroke left him unable to speak as clearly as he once could. In 1844, when he was 77, another stroke hit him. He died aged 77 on July 27, 1844. His scientific reputation was so great that when his body was placed in Manchester Town Hall it was visited by more than 40,000 people paying their respects. John Dalton was buried in Manchester in Ardwick cemetery.

Michael Faraday Michael Faraday, who came from a very poor family, became one of the greatest scientists in history. His achievement was remarkable in a time when science was the preserve of people born into privileged families. The unit of electrical capacitance is named the farad in his hon- or, with the symbol F. Michael Faraday was born on September 22, 1791 in London, England, UK. He was the third child of James and Margaret Faraday. His father was a blacksmith who had poor health. Before marriage, his mother had been a servant. The family lived in a degree of poverty. Michael Faraday attended a local school until he was 13, where he received a basic education. To earn money for the family he started working as a delivery boy for a bookshop. He worked hard and impressed his employer. After a year, he was promoted to become an apprentice bookbinder. Michael Faraday was eager to learn more about the world; he did not restrict himself to binding the shop’s books. After working hard each day, he spent his free time reading the books he had bound. Gradually, he found he was reading more and more about science. Two books in particular captivated him: The Encyclopedia Britannica – his source for electrical knowledge and much more Conversations on Chemistry – 600 pages of chemistry for ordinary people written by Jane Marcet. He became so fascinated that he started spending part of his meager pay on chemicals and apparatus to confirm the truth of what he was reading. As he learned more about science, he heard that the well-known scientist John Tatum was going to give a series of public lectures on natural philosophy (physics). To attend the lectures the fee would be one shilling – too much for Michael Faraday. His older brother, a blacksmith, impressed by his brother’s growing devotion to science, gave him the shilling he needed. It is worth saying that the parallels in the lives of Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry are rather striking. Both were born in poverty; had fathers who often could not work because of ill-

67 health; became apprentices; were inspired to become scientists by reading particular books; were devoutly religious; became laboratory assistants; their greatest contributions were made in the same scientific era in the field of electrical science; and both have an SI unit named in their hon- or. Faraday’s education took another step upward when William Dance, a customer of the bookshop, asked if he would like tickets to hear Sir Humphry Davy lecturing at the Royal Insti- tution. Sir Humphry Davy was one of the most famous scientists in the world. Faraday jumped at the chance and attended four lectures about one of the newest problems in chemistry – defin- ing acidity. He watched Davy perform experiments at the lectures. This was the world he wanted to live in, he told himself. He took notes and then made so many additions to the notes that he produced a 300 page handwritten book, which he bound and sent to Davy as a tribute. An 1802 drawing by James Gillray of another exciting science lecture at the Royal Insti- tution! Humphry Davy is the dark-haired man holding the gas bag. At this time Faraday had begun more sophisticated experiments at the back of the bookshop, building an electric battery using copper coins and zinc discs separated by moist, salty paper. He used his battery to decompose chemicals such as magnesium sulfate. This was the type of chemistry Humphry Davy had pioneered. In October 1812 Faraday’s apprenticeship ended, and he began work as a bookbinder with a new employer, whom he found unpleasant. And then there was a fortunate (for Faraday) accident. Sir Humphry Davy was hurt in an explosion when an experiment went wrong: this temporarily affected his ability to write. Faraday managed to get work for a few days taking notes for Davy, who had been impressed by the book Faraday had sent him. There were some advantages to being a bookbinder after all! When his short time as Davy’s note-taker ended, Faraday sent a note to Davy, asking if he might be employed as his assistant. Soon after this, one of Davy’s laboratory assistants was fired for misconduct, and Davy sent a message to Faraday asking him if he would like the job of chemical assistant. Would he like the job? Working in the Royal Institution, with one of the most famous scientists in the world? There could only be one answer! Faraday began work at the Royal Institution of Great Britain at the age of 21 on March 1, 1813. His salary was good, and he was given a room in the Royal Institution’s attic to live in. He was very happy with the way things had turned out. He was destined to be associated with the Royal Institution for 54 years, ending up as a Professor of Chemistry. Faraday’s job as a chemical assistant was to prepare apparatus for the experiments and the lectures at the Royal Institution. At first, this involved working with nitrogen trichloride, the explosive which had already injured Davy. Faraday himself was knocked unconscious briefly by another nitrogen chloride explosion, and then Davy was injured again, finally (thankfully) putting to an end to work with that particular substance. After just seven months at the Royal Institution, Davy took Faraday as his secretary on a tour of Europe that lasted 18 months. Faraday met many of Europe’s greatest scientists, including Alessandro Volta, pictured above. During this time Faraday met great scientists such as André-Marie Ampère in Paris and Alessandro Volta in Milan. In some ways, the tour acted like a university education, and Faraday learned a lot from it. He was, however, unhappy for much of the tour, because in addition to his scientific and secretarial work, he was required to be a personal servant to Davy and Davy’s wife, which he did

68 not enjoy. Davy’s wife refused to treat Faraday as an equal, because he had come from a lower class family. Back in London, though, things began to look better again. The Royal Institution renewed Faraday’s contract and increased his salary. Davy even began to acknowledge him in academic papers: “Indebted to Mr. Michael Faraday for much able assistance.” In 1816, aged 24, Faraday gave his first ever lecture, on the properties of matter, to the City Philosophical Society. And he published his first ever academic paper, discussing his analysis of calcium hydroxide, in the Quarterly Journal of Science. In 1821, aged 29, he was promoted to be Superintendent of House and Laboratory of the Royal Institution. He also married Sarah Barnard. He and his bride lived in rooms in the Royal Institution for most of the next 46 years: no longer in attic rooms; they now lived in a comfortable suite Humphry Davy himself had once lived in. In 1824, aged 32, he was elected to the Royal Society. This was recognition that he had become a notable scientist in his own right. In 1825, aged 33, he became Director of the Royal Institution’s Laboratory. In 1833, aged 41, he became Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He held this position for the rest of his life. In 1848, aged 54, and again in 1858 he was offered the Presidency of the Royal Society, but he turned it down. Michael Faraday’s Scientific Achievements and Discoveries It would be easy fill a book with details of all of Faraday’s discoveries – in both chemistry and physics. It is not an accident that Albert Einstein used to keep photos of three scientists in his office: Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell and Michael Faraday. Funnily enough, although in Faraday’s lifetime people had started to use the word physicist, Faraday disliked the word and always described himself as a philosopher. He was a man devoted to discovery through experimentation, and he was famous for never giving up on ideas which came from his scientific intuition. If he thought an idea was a good one, he would keep experimenting through multiple failures until he got what he expected; or until he finally decided that mother nature had shown his intuition to be wrong – but in Faraday’s case, this was rare.

Dmitri Mendeleev Dmitri Mendeleev was passionate about chemistry. His deepest wish was to find a better way of organizing the subject. Mendeleev’s wish led to his discovery of the periodic law and his creation of the periodic table – one of the most iconic symbols ever seen in science: almost everyone recognizes it instantly: science has few other creations as well-known as the periodic table. Using his periodic table, Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of new chemical elements. When these elements were discovered, his place in the history of science was as- sured. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was born February 8, 1834 in Verkhnie Aremzyani, in the Russian province of Siberia. His family was unusually large: he may have had as many as 16 brothers and sisters, although the exact number is uncertain. His father was a teacher who had graduated at Saint Petersburg’s Main Pedalogical Insti- tute – a teacher training institution. When his father went blind, his mother re-opened a glass factory which had originally been started by his father and then closed. His father died when Mendeleev was just 13 and the glass factory burned down when he was 15. Aged 16, he moved to Saint Petersburg, which was then Russia’s capital city. He won a place at his father’s old college, in part because the head of the college had known his father. There, Mendeleev trained to be a teacher.

69 By the time he was 20, Mendeleev was showing his promise and publishing original research papers. Suffering from tuberculosis, he often had to work from bed. He graduated as the top student in his year, despite the fact that his uncontrollable temper had made him unpopular with some of his teachers and fellow students. In 1855, aged 21, he got a job teaching science in Simferopol, Crimea, but soon returned to St. Petersburg. There he studied for a master’s degree in chemistry at the University of St. Pe- tersburg. He was awarded his degree in 1856. Mendeleev had trained as both a teacher and an academic chemist. He spent time doing both before he won an award to go to Western Europe to pursue chemical research. He spent most of the years 1859 and 1860 in Heidelberg, Germany, where he had the good fortune to work for a short time with Robert Bunsen at Heidelberg University. In 1860 Bunsen and his colleague Gustav Kirchhoff discovered the element cesium using chemical spec- troscopy – a new method they had developed, which Bunsen introduced Mendeleev to. In 1860, Mendeleev attended the first ever international chemistry conference, which took place in Karlsruhe, Germany. Much of the conference’s time was spent discussing the need to standardize chemistry. This conference played a key role in Mendeleev’s eventual development of the periodic table. Mendeleev’s periodic table was based on atomic weights and he watched as the conference produced an agreed, standardized method for determining these weights. At the conference, he also learned about Avogardo’s Law which states that: All gases, at the same volume, temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. By the time he returned to Saint Petersburg in 1861 to teach at the Technical Institute, Mendeleev had become even more passionate about the science of chemistry. He was also wor- ried that chemistry in Russia was trailing behind the science he had experienced in Germany. He believed that improved Russian language chemistry textbooks were a necessity, and he was determined to do something about it. Working like a demon, in just 61 days the 27 year old chemist poured out his knowledge in a 500 page textbook:Organic Chemistry. This book won the Domidov Prize and put Mendeleev at the forefront of Russian chemical education. Mendeleev was a charismatic teacher and lecturer, and held a number of academic positions until, in 1867, aged just 33, he was awarded the Chair of General Chemistry at the Univer- sity of Saint Petersburg. In this prestigious position, he decided to make another push to improve chemistry in Russia, publishing The Principles of Chemistry in 1869. Not only did this textbook prove popular in Russia, it was popular elsewhere too, appearing in English, French and German translations. “Knowing how contented, free, and joyful is life in the world of science, one fervently wishes that many would enter its portals.” The Periodic Table At this time, chemistry was a patchwork of observations and discoveries. Mendeleev was certain that better, more fundamental principles could be found; this was his mindset when, in 1869, he began writing a second volume of his book The Principles of Chemistry. At the heart of chemistry were its elements. What, wondered Mendeleev, could they reveal to him if he could find some way of organizing them logically? He wrote the names of the 65 known elements on cards – much like playing cards – one element on each card. He then wrote the fundamental properties of every element on its own card, including atomic weight. He saw that atomic weight was important in some way – the behavior of the elements seemed to repeat as their atomic weights increased – but he could not see the pattern. Convinced that he was close to discovering something significant, Mendeleev moved the cards about for hour after hour until finally he fell asleep at his desk.

70 When he awoke, he found that his subconscious mind had done his work for him! He now knew the pattern the elements followed. He later wrote: “In a dream I saw a table where all the elements fell into place as required. Awakening, I immediately wrote it down on a piece of paper.” It took him only two weeks to publish The Relation between the Properties and Atomic Weights of the Elements. The Periodic Table had been unleashed on the scientific world. Why was Mendeleev’s Periodic Table Successful? As with many discoveries in science, there is a time when a concept becomes ripe for discovery, and this was the case with the periodic table in 1869. Lothar Meyer, for example, had proposed a rough periodic table in 1864 and by 1868 had devised one that was very similar to Mendeleev’s, but he did not publish it until 1870. John Newlands published a periodic table in 1865. Newlands wrote his own law of periodic behavior: “Any given element will exhibit analogous [similar] behavior to the eighth element following it in the table” Newlands also predicted the existence of a new element (germanium) based on a gap in his table. Unfortunately for Newlands, his work was largely ignored. The reason Mendeleev became the leader of the pack was probably because he not only showed how the elements could be organized, but he used his periodic table to: Propose that some of the elements, whose behavior did not agree with his predictions, must have had their atomic weights measured incorrectly. Predict the existence of eight new elements. Mendeleev even predicted the properties these elements would have. It turned out that chemists had measured some atomic weights incorrectly. Mendeleev was right! Now scientists everywhere sat up and paid attention to his periodic table. And, as new elements that he had predicted were discovered, Mendeleev’s fame and scientific reputation were enhanced further. In 1905, the British Royal Society gave him its highest honor, the Copley Medal, and in the same year he was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Element 101 is named Mendelevium in his honor. “Dmitri Mendeleev was a chemist of genius, first-class physicist, a fruitful researcher in the fields of hydrodynamics, meteorology, geology, certain branches of chemical technology and other disciplines adjacent to chemistry and physics, a thorough expert of chemical industry and industry in general, and an original thinker in the field of economy.”

Alfred Nobel Alfred Nobel is famous for the annual prizes in science, literature, and peace awarded in his name. Although he was born into poverty, his family members were creative and entrepreneuri- al; they worked hard and became successful. Alfred was the scientist of the family, inventing and manufacturing dynamite, the blasting cap, gelignite and ballistite. He grew fantastically rich on the proceeds of his explosives businesses. In his last will and testament, he bequeathed over ninety percent of his fortune to fund the Nobel Prizes. Alfred Bernhard Nobel was born in Sweden’s capital city, Stockholm, on October 21, 1833. His father was Immanuel Nobel, a self-made engineer, inventor, and entrepreneur who had been formally schooled only to the age of 14. His mother was Andriette Ahlsell, an account- ant’s daughter. Although at first Immanuel Nobel’s business prospered, by the time Alfred was born, his father was bankrupt. A series of business misfortunes followed by the family home burning to the ground had left the family penniless.

71 Alfred was their fourth-born child and barely survived his first few days. He suffered ill- health for most of his life. Alfred’s mother and her sickly son formed a strong bond through the years of constant care she gave him during his frequent illnesses. When Alfred was four years old, his father left Sweden for Finland where he had been offered business opportunities; it was a long time before he sent any money home. Alfred’s mater- nal grandfather gave his daughter, Alfred’s mother, money to start a tiny grocery store in which she worked from first thing in the morning to last thing at night for a small profit. Alfred began school aged seven – a school for impoverished children called Jacob’s Par- ish Apologist School. The school’s pupils and teachers were tough; there were frequent fights in the playground and most pupils were beaten by their teachers every day for any small mistakes in their schoolwork. Alfred did well in his schoolwork, which made his absent father proud. Immanuel, Alfred’s father, had also been doing well, forming a company producing arms for Russia’s military. Now wealthy, and the owner of a foundry and a factory, he sent for his family to join him in Russia in the fall of 1842. Alfred was aged nine when he sailed for Russia’s capital St. Petersburg. There it took him just a year to learn Russian fluently. Instead of going to school, the Nobel children were taught by private tutors. Immanuel was a strong advocate of the Protestant work ethic. He taught his children that they could shape their own future prosperity with hard work and dedication. They were tutored and driven to work for long hours every day. Some children would have found this oppressive, but Alfred prospered. He loved learning, and added English, French and German to the languages he could speak fluently. His tutors were of the highest quality – he was taught chemistry, his favorite subject, by university professors. Meanwhile, Immanuel’s business was growing fast and he was making a wide and growing range of arms. After mastering English, he had become a big fan of Shakespeare’s plays and had started writing poetry influenced by Percy Shelley. Alfred’s father appreciated the importance of good literature, but he did not want his son to follow this path. He offered Alfred the opportunity to travel around Europe and the USA if he abandoned his literary aspirations and concentrated on working in the family’s prospering industrial and arms businesses. Alfred agreed. On his tour he spent time in place of business interest – laboratories and factories – and spent extended amounts of time in Paris and New York. When, aged 19, he returned to Russia in 1852, he worked in the family business: by now it had about 1,000 employ- ees. By the time he was 25, the family business was in severe trouble. After its 1856 defeat in the Crimean War, Russia’s government stopped paying its bills. During the Crimean war, Im- manuel had unsuccessfully tried to devise arms based on a new explosive, much more powerful than gunpowder, called nitroglycerin, but the substance proved difficult to detonate reliably. Alfred had learned a lot about nitroglycerin in Paris from Ascanio Sobrero, the chemist who had first produced it, and he would return to experimenting with it a few years later. The Nobels could not generate enough other work to compensate for the lost business from the Russian government. They liquidated most of their business, leaving what remained in the care of one of Alfred’s older brothers, Ludvig, who actually went on to make a great success of it. Alfred’s parents returned to Sweden with a small amount of money. Alfred and his brother Robert stayed in Russia, sharing an apartment in St. Petersburg. Alfred set up a laboratory in the kitchen and began working on inventions. In 1862, aged 29, he discovered that certain mixtures of nitroglycerin mixed with gunpowder allowed reliable detonation. His older brothers Robert and Ludvig helped him with large-scale testing on a frozen canal outside St. Petersburg.

72 Nobel had an extraordinarily innovative mind, from which new ideas poured. “If I come up with 300 ideas in a year, and only one of them is useful, I am content.” His genius was bolstered by steely determination to succeed and a huge capacity for hard work. These were driven by bitter memories of the poverty his family endured when he was a young boy. Nitroglycerin Early in 1863, Nobel returned from Russia to his hometown of Stockholm. Very soon he began experimenting in a laboratory on a small industrial site his father had taken in Heleneborg, outside the city. Although never physically strong, he worked 18 hour days, personally performing hundreds of experiments. After learning how to detonate nitroglycerin with a small amount of gunpowder, Nobel began producing nitroglycerin in late 1863, with significant production beginnning in the summer of 1864. However, disaster struck in September 1864. In a laboratory housed in a shed at Heleneborg, Nobel’s younger brother Emil was working alongside a student fulfilling a nitroglycerin order from a railroad company carving out a tunnel through rock. An accident in the shed caused a huge explosion, killing the pair instantly. Also killed were a young cleaner, a young boy, and a carpenter who, unluckily, was passing the site. Although he was upset about the deaths, Nobel continued production of nitroglycerin. Demand for the explosive was so strong that by the beginning of the 1870s Nobel had opened production facilities – some of which would be blown up in accidents – all over Europe and in the USA. Following nitroglycerin’s success, Nobel spent several years grappling with foreign patent offices whose rules made it difficult for a foreigner to prove he was entitled to a patent. He also spent precious time and energy battling with a number of crooks and shysters who tried to profit from his invention. The Blasting Cap Detonator In 1864, Nobel patented the blasting cap. He had performed many experiments seeking the best way to detonate explosives; in the blasting cap, he invented it. A blasting cap is a small amount of explosive that, when detonated, pushes a pressure wave through the main explosive charge causing instant detonation of all of the explosive. Variations of Nobel’s blasting cap are still the preferred way to detonate explosives. In fact, his blasting cap invention was used for over 50 years without modification. Dynamite In November 1863, Nobel mixed nitroglycerin with porous substances such as coal and produced a very powerful and stable explosive that could be detonated reliably. In January 1864, he applied for a Swedish patent for this mixture. He then did nothing. He was too busy manufacturing and selling nitroglycerin and fighting patent disputes. As he saw more and more nitroglycerin accidents occurring, Nobel returned to his experiments with nitroglycerin and porous substances. These experiments resulted in his creation of dynamite. His September 1866 Swedish patent reads: “My new explosive, called dynamite, is simply nitroglycerin in combination with a very porous silicate… it is a reddish-yellow, soft and plastic mass that is pressed into cartridges of a certain thickness and then enclosed in paper wrappers.” Nobel chose the word dynamite from the Greek worddynamis, which means power. He believed it would be used mainly for peaceful purposes, because: “My dynamite will sooner lead to peace than a thousand world conventions. As soon as men find that in one instant whole armies can be utterly destroyed, they surely will abide by golden peace.” Dynamite was safer to handle than nitroglycerin, but not as powerful an explosive.

73 Gelignite In 1866, Nobel tried to produce an explosive gel for the first time. He was finally successful in 1875, inventing gelignite, made of gelatinized glycerol and nitrocellulose. He invented gelignite in Paris, where he had settled permanently in 1873. Gelignite was better than dynamite in that it was more powerful; it could be used under- water making it much more versatile; and it did not suffer from sweating, which happened when nitroglycerin sometimes oozed out of dynamite rendering it dangerously unstable. Gelignite was very stable, very safe to handle, and could be molded easily to any shape. It was another great commercial success for Nobel, but success did not happen overnight. Gelignite was more expensive than dynamite, and although it was a safer product, its manufacturing process was actually more hazardous than dynamite’s. Ballistite Nobel invented ballistite while living in Paris. He patented it in the UK in 1887 and the USA in 1891 as a smokeless propellant to be used, for example, in bullets and artillery shells. Ballistite was made using nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. The French military had no interest in the product, but Nobel managed to license it to Ita- ly’s military. This resulted in a nasty media campaign against him in France orchestrated by the French government. The French police raided his laboratory and confiscated materials from it. In 1891, Nobel left France forever, and moved to Italy. Nobel Prizes Throughout his adult life, Nobel lived with an internal conflict. He saw himself as an honest, hardworking scientist, inventor and businessman. He remembered his impoverished roots, and gave a lot of his money to help the poor. Yet, because of the huge amount of money he made from arms, he knew he was regarded by many people as villainous. In fact, soon after the death of his brother Ludvig in 1888, Alfred turned to the newspaper obituaries. There he discovered his own obituary had been published in error. He read: “The Merchant of Death is Dead.” This could hardly have been comforting reading! It calls to mind the image of Scrooge transported by the Ghost of Christmas Future to see that nobody was grieving at his funeral. Having glimpsed one possible future, Nobel, like Scrooge, decided to use his money to shape a better world. Nobel bequeathed 94 percent of his enormous wealth to fund five annual prizes in: Chemistry, physics, medical science or physiology, literature. The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901. And, of course, we must remember that Nobel’s explosives were frequently used for peaceful purposes, creating, for example, hydroelectric dams and transport links, without which our societies would be much less prosperous than they are. By the early 1870s, Nobel was wealthy and spending most of his life on trains traveling around Europe to his factories and business meetings. In 1873, aged 40, he moved from Stockholm to Paris. He had enjoyed the time he spent there when he was younger and Paris was closer than Stockholm to most of his business interests. Also, Paris was a more culturally sophisticated city. He could afford a large, prestigious house in one of the city’s best neighborhoods. Language wasn’t a problem – he spoke French fluently. Nobel’s Paris home became a sort of business headquarters, where he invited business- men and financiers for discussions. Nobel enjoyed a fine, large home in Paris. It was equipped with an extensive private library and its own stables for the thoroughbred horses he enjoyed riding. Although he lived in a grand style, he remembered his own humble start and frequently gave money to the poor. One day, he asked one of his servants what gift she would like from him for her forth- coming wedding. The clever young woman replied, “as much as you earn in one day master.”

74 Nobel admired her canny response and gave her what she asked for. His gift, valued in today’s US dollars, was a six-figure sum. Despite his wealth, Nobel was a shy, reserved, and lonely man who found it difficult to make friends, particularly with women; he believed women found him unattractive. As a young man in St. Petersburg, he proposed marriage to a young woman called Alex- andra, who turned him down. In Paris, in 1876, he employed the Austrian Countess Bertha Kinsky as his personal assistant. He quickly fell in love with her. It seems she had a lot of affection for him too, but she was already engaged to be married. She left Paris to be married. Nobel and the Countess kept in touch by letter for the rest of Nobel’s life. Nobel was impressed by her high ideals, including her pacifism: she might have been the inspiration behind the Nobel Peace Prize. The Countess was awarded the 1905 Nobel Peace Prize for her work with the peace movement. In 1876, possibly on the rebound from his doomed relationship with the Countess, the 43 year-old Nobel began a relationship with a 20-year-old Austrian shop assistant by the name of Sophie Hess. He was embarrassed about their age difference and the fact that she was not very well educated. She also had no interest whatsoever in improving her education and her tastes in all things struck him as brash. She lived in Austria, and he would travel from Paris to see her. He did not introduce her to his acquantances in Paris. In 1891, Sophie had another man’s baby. No- bel continued to send her money until finally breaking off with her when she married the father of her child in 1894. After the witch hunt he suffered in France for selling ballistite to Italy, Nobel left Paris forever in 1891, aged 57. He settled in the small coastal resort city of San Remo in Italy. In his final years, Nobel suffered from heart disease, which, ironically, was treated with small doses of nitroglycerin. Alfred Nobel died aged 63 in San Remo on December 10, 1896 following a stroke. Most of his fortune went to fund the Nobel Prizes. He did not approve of inherited wealth. He thought parents and wealthy relatives should only bequeath money to provide their children with a first-class education and the basics in life; all other accumulated wealth should be fed back into society in some beneficial way. Although at one time he had stated that his body should be turned into plant fertilizer using acid, in the end he was cremated. His ashes were deposited in Stockholm’s Northern Ceme- tery.

Albert Einstein Albert Einstein rewrote the laws of nature. He completely changed the way we understand the behavior of things as basic as light, gravity, and time. Although scientists today are comfortable with Einstein’s ideas, in his time, they were completely revolutionary. Most people did not even begin to understand them. If you’re new to science, you’ll probably find that some of his ideas take time to get used to! Albert Einstein: • provided powerful evidence that atoms and molecules actually exist, through his analysis of Brownian motion. • explained the photoelectric effect, proposing that light came in bundles. Bundles of light (he called them quanta) with the correct amount of energy can eject electrons from metals. • proved that everyone, whatever speed we move at, measures the speed of light to be 300 million meters per second in a vacuum. This led to the strange new reality that time passes more slowly for people traveling at very high speeds compared with people moving more slowly. • discovered the hugely important and iconic equation, E = mc2, which showed that energy and matter can be converted into one another. • rewrote the law of gravitation, which had been unchallenged since Isaac New- ton published it in 1687. In his General Theory of Relativity, Einstein: showed that matter causes

75 space to curve, which produces gravity; showed that the path of light follows the gravitational curve of space; showed that time passes more slowly when gravity becomes very strong. • became the 20th century’s most famous scientist when the strange predictions he made in his General Theory of Relativity were verified by scientific observations. • spent his later years trying to find equations to unite quantum physics with general relativity. This was an incredibly hard task for him to set himself. To date, it has still not been achieved. Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Germany. He was not talkative in his childhood, and until the age of three, he didn’t talk much. He spent his teenage years in Mu- nich, where his family had an electric equipment business. As a teenager, he was interested in nature and showed a high level of ability in mathematics and physics. Einstein loved to be creative and innovative. He loathed the uncreative spirit in his school at Munich. His family’s business failed when he was aged 15, and they moved to Milan, Italy. Aged 16, he moved to Switzerland, where he finished high school. In 1896 he began to study for a degree at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. He didn’t like the teaching methods there, so he bunked classes to carry out experiments in the physics laboratory or play his violin. With the help of his classmate’s notes, he passed his exams; he graduated in 1900. Einstein was not considered a good student by his teachers, and they refused to recom- mend him for further employment. While studying at the Polytechnic, Einstein had learned about one of the biggest problems then baffling physicists. This was how to marry together Isaac Newton’s laws of motion withJames Clerk Maxwell’sequations of electromagnetism. In 1902 he obtained the post of an examiner in the Swiss Federal patent office, and, in 1903, he wedded his classmate Mileva Maric. He had two sons with her but they later divorced. After some years Einstein married Elsa Loewenthal. Einstein continued to work in the patent office, during which time he made most of his greatest scientific breakthroughs. The University of Zurich awarded him a Ph.D. in 1905 for his thesis “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions.” In 1905, the same year as he submitted his doctoral thesis, Albert Einstein published four immensely important scientific papers dealing with his analysis of: Brownian motion  the equivalence of mass and energy  the photoelectric effect  special relativity Each of these papers on their own was a huge contribution to science. To publish four such papers in one year was considered to be almost miraculous. Einstein was just 26 years old. Mass Energy Equivalence Einstein gave birth in 1905 to what has become the world’s most famous equation: E = mc2 The equation says that mass (m) can be converted to energy (E). A little mass can make a lot of energy, because mass is multiplied by c2 where c is the speed of light, a very large number. A small amount of mass can make a large amount of energy. Conversion of mass in atomic nuclei to energy is the principle behind nuclear weapons and explains the sun’s source of energy. The Photoelectric Effect If you shine light on metal, the metal may release some of its electrons. Einstein said that light is made up of individual ‘particles’ of energy, which he called quanta. When these quanta hit the metal, they give their energy to electrons, giving the electrons enough energy to escape from the metal.

76 Einstein showed that light can behave as a particle as well as a wave. The energy each ‘particle’ of light carries is proportional to the frequency of the light waves. Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity In Einstein’s third paper of 1905 he returned to the big problem he had heard about at university – how to resolve Newton’s laws of motion with Maxwell’s equations of light. His approach was the ‘thought experiment.’ He imagined how the world would look if he could travel at the speed of light. He realized that the laws of physics are the same everywhere, and regardless of what you did – whether you moved quickly toward a ray of light as it approached you, or quickly away from the ray of light – you would always see the light ray to be moving at the same speed – the speed of light! This is not obvious, because it’s not how things work in everyday life, where, for example, if you move towards a child approaching you on a bike he will reach you sooner than if you move away from him. With light, it doesn’t matter whether you move towards or away from the light, it will take the same amount of time to reach you. This isn’t an easy thing to understand, so don’t worry about it if you don’t! (Unless you’re at university studying physics.) Every experiment ever done to test special relativity has confirmed what Einstein said. If the speed of light is the same for all observers regardless of their speed, then it follows that some other strange things must be true. In fact, it turns out that time, length, and mass actually depend on the speed we are moving at. The nearer the speed of light we move, the bigger differences we seen in these quantities compared with someone moving more slowly. For example, time passes more and more slowly as we move faster and faster. As people read Einstein’s papers and argued about their significance, his work gradually gained acceptance, and his reputation as a powerful new intellect in the world of physics grew. In 1908 he began lecturing at the University of Bern, and the following year resigned from the Patent Office. In 1911 he became a professor of physics at the Karl-Ferdinand University in Pra- gue, before returning to Zurich in 1912 to a professorship there. Working on the general theory of relativity, in 1911 he made his first predictions of how our sun’s powerful gravity would bend the path of light coming from other stars as it traveled past the sun. A very, very rough approximation: the earth’s mass curves space. The moon’s speed keeps it rolling around the curve rather than falling to Earth. If you are on Earth and wish to leave, you need to climb out of the gravity well. Einstein published his general theory of relativity paper in 1915, showing, for example, how gravity distorts space and time. Light is deflected by powerful gravity, not because of its mass (light has no mass) but because gravity has curved the space that light travels through. In 1919 a British expedition traveled to the West African island of Principe to observe an eclipse of the sun. During the eclipse they could test whether light from far away stars passing close to the sun was deflected. They found that it was! Just as Einstein had said, space truly was curved. On November 7, 1919, the London Times’ headline read: Revolution in science – New theory of the Universe – Newtonian ideas overthrown. Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. People are sometimes surprised to learn that the award was not made for his work in special or general relativity, but for his overall services to theoretical physics and one of the works from his miracle year specifi- cally – the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect in 1905. The Royal Society of London awarded him its prestigious Copely Medal in 1925 for his theory of relativity and contributions to the quantum theory. The Franklin Institute awarded him with the Franklin medal in 1935 for his work on relativity and the photo-electric effect. Universities around the world competed with one another to award him honorary doctor- ates, and the press wrote more about him than any other scientist – Einstein became a celebrity. Einstein made his greatest discoveries when he was a relatively young man.

77 In his later years he continued with science, but made no further groundbreaking discoveries. He became interested in politics and the state of the world. Einstein had been born German and a Jew. He died an American citizen in 1955. Einstein was in America when Hitler came to power. He decided it would be a bad idea to return to Ger- many, and renounced his German citizenship. Einstein did not practice Judaism, but strongly identified with the Jewish people persecuted by the Nazi Party, favoring a Jewish homeland in Palestine with the rights of Arabs protected. It was Einstein’s wish that people should be respected for their humanity and not for their country of origin or religion. Expressing his cynicism for nationalistic pride, he once said: “If relativity is proved right the Germans will call me a German, the Swiss will call me a Swiss citizen, and the French will call me a great scientist. If relativity is proved wrong, the French will call me Swiss, the Swiss will call me a German, and the Germans will call me a Jew.”

Isaac Newton Isaac Newton is perhaps the greatest physicist who has ever lived. He and Albert Einstein are almost equally matched contenders for this title. Each of these great scientists produced dramatic and startling transformations in the physical laws we believe our universe obeys, changing the way we understand and relate to the world around us. Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643 in the tiny village of Woolsthorpe-by- Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England. His father, whose name was also Isaac Newton, was a farmer who died before Isaac Jun- ior was born. Although comfortable financially, his father could not read or write. His mother, Hannah Ayscough, married a churchman when Newton was three years old. Newton disliked his mother’s new husband and did not join their household, living instead with his mother’s mother, Margery Ayscough. His resentment of his mother and stepfather’s new life did not subside with time; as a teenager he threatened to burn their house down! Beginning at age 12, Newton attended The King’s School, Grantham, where he was taught the classics, but no science or mathematics. When he was 17, his mother stopped his schooling so that he could become a farmer. Fortunately for the future of science Newton found he had neither aptitude nor liking for farming; his mother allowed him to return to school, where he finished as top student. In June 1661, aged 18, Newton began studying for a law degree at Cambridge Universi- ty’s Trinity College, earning money working as a personal servant to wealthier students. By the time he was a third-year student he was spending a lot of his time studying mathematics and natural philosophy (today we call it physics). He was also very interested in alchemy, which we now categorize as a pseudoscience. His natural philosophy lecturers based their courses on Aristotle’s incorrect ideas from Ancient Greece. This was despite the fact that 25 years earlier, in 1638, Galileo Galilei had published his physics masterpiece Two New Sciences establishing a new scientific basis for the physics of motion. Newton began to disregard the material taught at his college, preferring to study the recent (and more scientifically correct) works of Galileo, Boyle, Descartes, and Kepler. He wrote: “Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my greatest friend is truth.” Reading the works of these great scientists, Newton grew more ambitious about making discoveries himself. While still working part-time as a servant, he wrote a note to himself. In it he posed questions which had not yet been answered by science. These included questions about gravity, the nature of light, the nature of color and vision, and atoms. After three years at Cambridge he won a four-year scholarship, allowing him to devote his time fully to academic studies.

78 In 1665, at the age of 22, a year after beginning his four-year scholarship, he made his first major discovery: this was in mathematics, where he discovered the generalized binomial theorem. In 1665 he was also awarded his B.A. degree. By now Newton’s mind was ablaze with new ideas. He began making significant progress in three distinct fields – fields in which he would make some of his most profound discoveries:calculus, the mathematics of change, which is vital to our understanding of the world around us; gravity; optics and the behavior of light. He did much of his work on these topics back home at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth after the Great Plague forced his college in Cambridge to close. At the age of 24, in 1667, he returned to Cambridge, where events moved quickly. First he was elected as a fellow of Trinity College. A year later, in 1668, he was awarded an M.A. degree. A year after that, the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Trinity College, Isaac Bar- row, resigned and Newton was appointed as his replacement; he was just 26 years old. Barrow, who had recommended that Newton should succeed him, said of Newton’s skills in mathematics: “Mr Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young, being but the second year master of arts; but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency.” Newton revealed his laws of motion and gravitation in his book the Principia. Just as few people at first could understand Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, few people understood the Principia when it was published. When Newton walked past them one day, one student remarked to another: “There goes a man who has written a book that neither he nor anybody else understands.” Newton’s ideas were spread by the small number of people who understood the Principia, and who were able to develop and convey its message in more accessible ways: people including Leonhard Euler, Joseph Louis Lagrange, Pierre Simon de Laplace, Willem Jacob ‘s Gravesande, William Whiston, John Theophilus Desaguliers, and David Gregory. Calculus Newton was the first person to fully develop calculus. Calculus is the mathematics of change. Modern physics and physical chemistry would be impossible without it. Other academic disciplines such as biology and economics also rely heavily on calculus for analysis. In his development of calculus Newton was influenced by Pierre de Fermat, who had shown specific examples in which calculus-like methods could be used. Newton was able to build on Fermat’s work and generalize calculus. Newton wrote that he had been guided by: “Monsieur Fermat’s method of drawing tangents.” From Newton’s fertile mind came the ideas that we now call differential calculus, integral calculus and differential equations. Soon after Newton generalized calculus, Gottfried Leibniz achieved the same result. To- day, most mathematicians give equal credit to Newton and Leibniz for calculus’s discovery. Universal Gravitation and the Apple Newton’s famous apple, which he saw falling from a tree in the garden of his family home in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, is not a myth. He told people that seeing the apple’s fall made him wonder why it fell in a straight line towards the center of our planet rather than moving upwards or sideways. Ultimately, he realized and proved that the force behind the apple’s fall also causes the moon to orbit the earth; and comets, the earth and other planets to orbit the sun. The force is felt throughout the universe, so Newton called it Universal Gravitation. In a nutshell, it says that mass attracts mass. Newton’s Laws of Motion Third Law: The rocket flies because of the upward thrust it gets in reaction to the high speed gas particles pushing downward from its engines. Newton’s three laws of motion still lie at the heart of mechanics.

79 First law: Objects remain stationary or move at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. This law was actually first stated by Galileo, whose influence Newton mentions several times in thePrincipia. Second law: The force F on an object is equal to its mass m multiplied by its acceleration: F = ma. Third law: When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts a force equal in size and opposite in direction on the first object. With Newton’s calculus, universal gravitation, and laws of motion, you have enough knowledge at your fingertips to plot a course for a spaceship to any planet in our solar system or even another solar system! And Isaac Newton figured it all out about 300 years before we actually did send a spaceship to the planets. Newton’s laws become increasingly inaccurate when speeds reach substantial fractions of the speed of light, or when the force of gravity is very large. Einstein’s equations are then required to produce reliable results. Optics and Light Newton was not just clever with his mind. He was also skilled in experimental methods and working with equipment. He built the world’s first reflecting telescope. This telescope focuses light from a curved mirror. Reflecting telescopes have several advantages over earlier telescopes including: they are cheaper to make they are easier to make in large sizes, gathering more light, allowing higher magnification they do not suffer from a focusing issue associated with lenses called chromatic aberra- tion. Newton also used glass prisms to establish that white light is not a simple phenomenon. He proved that it is made up of all of the colors of the rainbow, which could recombine to form white light again. Newton’s crucial 1672 experiment with two prisms. The result absolutely demolished competing theories, such as the proposal that glass added the colors to sunlight. Despite his brilliance, Newton was a very insecure man: most historians trace this back to his childhood family difficulties. Newton published very little work until his later years, because in his early years as a scientist, Robert Hooke had disagreed strongly with a scientific paper Newton had published. New- ton took criticism of his work in a very personal way and developed a lifelong loathing for Hooke. His lack of published work also caused a huge issue when Gottfried Leibniz starting publishing his own version of calculus. Newton was already a master of this branch of mathematics, but had published very little of it. Again Newton’s insecurity got the better of him, and he angri- ly accused Leibniz of stealing his work. The pros and cons of each man’s case have long been debated by historians. Most mathematicians regard Newton and Leibniz as equally responsible for the development of calculus. Newton was a very religious man with somewhat unorthodox Protestant Christian views. He spent a great deal of time and wrote a large body of private works concerned with theology and his interpretation of the Bible. His scientific work had revealed a universe that obeyed logical mathematical laws. He had also discovered that starlight and sunlight are the same, and he speculated that stars could have their own systems of planets orbiting them. He believed such a system could only have been made by God. This most beautiful system of the sun, planets and comets could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being. And if the fixed stars are the centers of other like systems, these, being formed by the like wise counsel, must be all subject to the

80 dominion of One; especially since the light of the fixed stars is of the same nature with the light of the sun.

Marie Curie Marie Curie discovered two new chemical elements – radium and polonium. She carried out the first research into the treatment of tumors with radiation, and she was the founder of the Curie Institutes, which are important medical research centers. She is the only person who has ever won Nobel Prizes in both physics and chemistry. Maria Salomea Sklodowska was born in Warsaw, Poland on November 7, 1867. At that time, Warsaw lay within the borders of the Russian Empire. Maria’s family wanted Poland to be an independent country. We shall refer to Maria as Marie Curie – her name after marriage – because that is how she is best known. Marie Curie’s mother and father – Bronislawa and Wladyslaw – were both teachers and encouraged her interest in science. When Marie was aged 10, her mother died and she started attending a boarding school. She then moved to a gymnasium – a selective school for children who were strong academically. Aged 15, Marie graduated from her high school with a gold medal as top studentand a burning interest in science. To overcome the obstacles they faced, Marie agreed to work as a tutor and children’s governess to support Bronya financially. This allowed Bronya to go to France and study medicine in Paris. And so, for the next few years of her life, Marie worked to earn money for herself and Bronya. In the evenings, if she had time, she read chemistry, physics and mathematics textbooks. She also attended lectures and laboratory practicals at an illegal free “university” where Poles learned about Polish culture and practical science, both of which had been suppressed by the Russian Tsarist authorities. In November 1891, aged 24, Marie followed Bronya to Paris. There she studied chemistry, mathematics and physics at the Sorbonne, Paris’s most prestigious university. The course was, of course, taught in French, which Marie had to reach top speed in very quickly. At first she shared an apartment with Bronya and Bronya’s husband, but the apartment lay an hour away from the university. Marie decided to rent a room in the Latin Quarter, closer to the Sorbonne. This was a time of some hardship for the young scientist; winters in her unheated apartment chilled her to the bone. In summer 1893, aged 26, Marie finished as top student in her masters physics degree course. She was then awarded industrial funding to investigate how the composition of steel affected its magnetic properties. The idea was to find ways of making stronger magnets. Her thirst for knowledge also pushed her to continue with her education, and she completed a masters degree in chemistry in 1894, aged 27. For a long time, Marie had been homesick. She dearly wished to return to live in Poland. After working in Paris on steel magnets for a year, she vacationed in Poland, hoping to find work. She found out that there were no jobs for her. A few years earlier she had been unable to study for a degree in her homeland because she was a woman. Now, for the same reason, she found she could not get a position at a university. Marie decided to return to Paris and begin a Ph.D. degree in physics. Back in Paris, in the year 1895, aged 28, she married Pierre Curie. Pierre had proposed to her before her journey back to Poland. Aged 36, he had only recently completed a Ph.D. in physics himself and had become a professor. He had written his Ph.D. thesis after years of delay, because Marie had encouraged him to.

81 Pierre was already a highly respected industrial scientist and inventor who, at the age of 21, had discovered piezoelectricity with his brother Jacques. Pierre was also an expert in magnetism: he discovered the effect now called the Curie Pointwhere a change of temperature has a large effect on a magnet’s properties. Marie Curie’s Scientific Discoveries The Ph.D. degree is a research based degree, and Marie Curie now began to investigate the chemical element uranium. Why uranium? In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen had discovered mysterious X-rays, which could capture photographs of human bones beneath skin and muscle. The following year, Henri Becquerel had discovered that rays emitted by uranium could pass through metal, but Becquerel’s rays were not X-rays. This was a new and very exciting area to work in, and Marie decided to investigate the rays from uranium. Discoveries came to her thick and fast. She discovered that: Uranium rays charge the air they pass through, so this air can conduct electricity. Marie detected this using an electrometer Pierre and his brother had invented. The number of rays coming from uranium depends only on the amount of uranium present – not the chemical form of the uranium. From this she theorized correctly that the rays were coming from within the uranium atoms and not a chemical reaction. The uranium minerals pitchblende and torbernite have more of an effect on the conduc- tivity of air than uranium does. She theorized correctly that these minerals must contain a chemical element that was more active than uranium. The chemical element thorium emits rays in the same way as uranium. (Gerhard Carl Schmidt in Germany actually discovered this a few weeks before Marie Curie in 1898: she discovered it independently.) By the summer of 1898 Marie’s husband Pierre had become as excited about her discoveries as Marie herself. He asked Marie if he could cooperate with her scientifically, and she wel- comed him. By this time, they had a one-year old daughter Irene. Amazingly, 37 years later, Ire- ne Curie herself would win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. “My husband and I were so closely united by our affection and our common work that we passed nearly all of our time together.” Discovery of Polonium, Radium and a New Word Marie and Pierre decided to hunt for the new element they suspected might be present in pitchblende. By the end of 1898, after laboriously processing tons of pitchblende, they an- nounced the discovery of two new chemical elements which would soon take their place in Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table. The first element they discovered was polonium, named by Marie to honor her homeland. They found polonium was 300 times more radioactive that uranium. They wrote: “We thus believe that the substance that we have extracted from pitchblende contains a metal never known before, akin to bismuth in its analytic properties. If the existence of this new metal is confirmed, we suggest that it should be called polonium after the name of the country of origin of one of us.” The second element the couple discovered was radium, which they named after the Latin word for ray. The Curies found radium is several million times more radioactive than uranium! They also found radium’s compounds are luminous and that radium is a source of heat, which it produces continuously without any chemical reaction taking place. Radium is always hotter than its surroundings. Together they came up with a new word for the phenomenon they were observing: radioactivity. Radioactivity is produced by radioactive elementssuch as uranium, thorium, polonium and radium.

82 Учебное издание

Замашанская Елена Сергеевна Клюева Юлия Викторовна Паршина Оксана Геннадьевна

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