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``Put Your Hands up in the Air''? the Interpersonal Effects of Pride And ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: xx September 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01361 1 58 2 59 3 60 4 61 5 62 6 63 7 64 8 “Put your Hands up in the Air”? The 65 9 66 10 interpersonal effects of pride and 67 11 68 12 shame expressions on opponents 69 13 70 14 and teammates 71 15 72 16 1* 2 1 73 Philip Furley , Tjerk Moll and Daniel Memmert Q1 Q2 17 74 1 2 Q7 Q8 18 German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK 75 19 76 20 The aim of the present research was to investigate the interpersonal effects of pride 77 21 and shame expressions amongst opponents and teammates in a soccer penalty 78 22 79 23 scenario. Across a series of experiments using the point-light method, pride and shame 80 24 expressions exerted strong effects upon observers’ anticipated emotions, associated 81 25 cognitions, and performance expectations. Using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) 82 26 in two pilot studies we demonstrated that the created pride and shame point-light 83 27 84 stimuli were implicitly associated with status and performance related attributes. In 28 85 Edited by: Experiment 1, observing pride expressions caused opponents to anticipate more 29 Gerben A. Van Kleef, 86 30 University of Amsterdam, Netherlands negative emotions, cognitions, and lower performance expectancies toward their next 87 31 Reviewed by: performance in comparison with neutral expressions. In contrast, pride expressions led 88 32 Jozefien De Leersnyder, teammates to anticipate more positive emotions (i.e., pride and happiness), cognitions, 89 33 University of Leuven, Belgium 90 and performance expectations toward their next performance than neutral expressions 34 Marc W. Heerdink, 91 35 University of Amsterdam, Netherlands (Experiments 2–4). The results are discussed within the emotions as social information 92 36 *Correspondence: (EASI, Van Kleef, 2009) framework by arguing that the social context has to be taken 93 37 Philip Furley, into account when investigating the interpersonal effects of emotion expressions. In 94 38 Institute of Cognitive and Team/Racket 95 Sport Research, German Sport conclusion, the present research highlights the potential interpersonal influence of the 39 96 University Cologne, Am Sportpark 40 nonverbal expressions of pride and shame in soccer penalty shootouts. 97 Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, 41 Germany Keywords: emotion expression, pride, shame, interpersonal effects, nonverbal behavior, point-light 98 42 [email protected] 99 43 100 44 Specialty section: Introduction 101 Q14 45 This article was submitted to 102 46 Emotion Science, Hardly any other sporting event is characterized by such intense emotional displays in close 103 Q5 a section of the journal 47 succession as penalty shootouts in soccer. From one moment to the other excessive celebration, 104 Frontiers in Psychology 48 not only of players but of whole nations, might be replaced by excessive tears and misery as 105 49 Received: 21 April 2015 ultimate success and failure lie very closely together in these situations. Two important emotions 106 Accepted: 24 August 2015 50 in this respect are pride and shame that recently have received increased research attention in 107 Published: xx September 2015 51 the psychological literature. An important question regarding these emotions is whether the 108 Citation: 52 expression of these emotions can merely be regarded an outcome as highlighted by previous 109 Furley P, Moll T and Memmert D 53 research (Tracy and Matsumoto, 2008) or whether these emotional expressions also influence 110 (2015) “Put your Hands up in the Air”? 54 111 The interpersonal effects of pride and competitive (opponents) and cooperative others (team-members) as indicated by a recent study 55 shame expressions on opponents and by Moll et al. (2010). 112 56 teammates. Front. Psychol. 6:1361. According to Van Kleef (2009) the psychological study of emotions has primarily focused 113 57 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01361 on intrapersonal effects of emotions and neglected the interpersonal effects. Van Kleef 114 Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1361 Furley et al. Post-performance nonverbal behavior 115 proposed the emotions as social information model (EASI-model) displaying shame may benefit expressers by functioning to 172 116 to better understand how distinct emotions (expressions) may appease onlookers after a social transgression (Keltner and 173 117 exert interpersonal effects via communicating specific social Buswell, 1997). That is, by showing shame individuals inform 174 118 information. This model originates from a social-functional others that they are aware of their failure, and take responsibility 175 119 perspective to emotion (Parkinson, 1996; Keltner and Haidt, for it to maintain respect and to avoid rejection (Gilbert, 2007). 176 120 1999; Shariff and Tracy, 2011) suggesting that emotions not only Of particular relevance for the present research is the 177 121 evolved to prepare individuals to respond adaptively to recurring increasing body of evidence demonstrating that emotions do not 178 122 stimuli but are fundamental in communicating critical social only affect those who experience and express them, but also those 179 123 information to coordinate social interactions and relationships. who perceive those expressions shaping their feelings, thoughts, 180 124 Of particular importance for the present research, several and actions (Elfenbein, 2007; Hareli and Rafaeli, 2008; Van Kleef, 181 125 theorists have proposed that emotional expressions can both 2009). Strikingly, Moll et al. (2010) demonstrated that 80 per 182 126 deliberately and unintentionally be used to influence others(Van cent of soccer players who celebrated a successful penalty by 183 127 Kleef et al., 2011, p. 154): “Emotion is not just a feeling. Emotion showing pride (in comparison to the ones who did not show 184 128 is for influence.” In the present paper we follow the call of Van pride after a successful penalty) during penalty shootouts in the 185 129 Kleef et al. (2011) of exploring the EASI model in the context of European and World Championships between 1972 and 2008 186 130 sport performance by investigating the interpersonal effects of the ended up winning the shootout. Similarly, a trend was evident 187 131 post-performance expressions of pride and shame on competitive indicating that players who showed nonverbal signs that are 188 132 (opponents) and cooperative others (team-members) in the typical of a shame display (i.e., gazing down) were less likely 189 133 soccer penalty shootout situation. to win the shootout. The main rationale of the present research 190 134 When individuals feel emotions they usually express emotions is therefore to investigate if this effect might have been caused 191 135 (there are some exceptions to this statement, e.g., anger might (or partly caused) by the fact that the pride and shame displays 192 136 be inhibited if it is not appropriate in a given social context), influenced opponents and team-mates as speculated by Moll and 193 137 and these emotion expressions can be observed by others. Pride colleagues. 194 138 is elicited after living up to a certain social standard—success, The EASI model suggests two specific mechanisms via 195 139 whilst shame is elicited after failing to live up to a certain which pride and shame expressions influence observers: 196 140 social standard—failure (Tracy and Robins, 2007b; Tracy and inferential processes and/or affective reactions. Inferential 197 141 Matsumoto, 2008). Evidence suggests that both pride and shame processes describe how an observer of emotional expressions 198 142 displays can be reliably recognized (see Martens et al., 2012 for a is able to infer certain information about the internal states 199 143 recent review). (e.g., feelings, attitudes, relational orientations) of other people. 200 144 Pride has a distinct and universally recognized expression Observers use this information to better understand the situation 201 145 consisting of an expanded and upright posture, the head tilted and it helps them to decide on an adaptive response. For example, 202 146 slightly upward, a small smile, and arms raised above the head when one is observing a pride display, one may conclude that 203 147 with hands in fists or the hands on the hips (Tracy et al., 2009). this individual has achieved something important (inference), 204 148 This pride expression is argued to promote high status for the and should be treated in accordance with this achievement (e.g., 205 149 expresser. By displaying pride after success, individuals signal Parkinson, 1996). In addition, the observed expressions can elicit 206 150 their success to others, thereby boosting status and acceptance affective reactions within the observer. One type of affective 207 151 (Tracy and Robins, 2007a). Further, the experience and display of reaction occurs via the process of emotional contagion whereby 208 152 pride has been associated with dominance, control, expertise, and individuals catch the expresser’s emotions through their facial 209 153 power (Williams and DeSteno, 2009; Birch et al., 2010; Fischer expressions, bodily movements and postures, or vocalizations 210 Q9 154 et al., 2011), activated feelings of confidence (Huang et al., 2010), (Hatfield et al., 1993). 211 155 and making one feel good, particularly about oneself (Martens Figure 1 displays the combined guiding model for the present 212 156 et al., 2012). More direct evidence comes from IAT studies research exemplified in a soccer penalty shootout. Depending on 213 157 showing that pride expressions were implicitly linked with high the outcome of an important soccer penalty kick, a penalty taker 214 158 status (e.g., Shariff and Tracy, 2009). will experience a certain emotion (e.g., pride after a successful 215 159 The shame expression consists of the head tilted downward, attempt and shame after an unsuccessful attempt) which in many 216 160 a lowered eye gaze, and a slumped posture (Keltner, 1995; cases leads to the nonverbal expression of the respective emotion 217 161 Tracy and Matsumoto, 2008; Tracy et al., 2009).
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