People and Culture in Oceania, 35: 109-125, 2019

Communication

A Report on the Reassessment of Navigation Stones on Arorae, Kiribati

Akira Goto,* Hideyuki Ohnishi,** Tomo Ishimura***

1. Introduction

This report is a reassessment survey of “navigation stones” on Arorae Island, southern Kiribati. The survey was conducted by Akira Goto, Tomo Ishimura, and Hideyuki Ohnishi in August 2016. Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) lies on the southern border of Micronesia fringed with the Cook Islands, Samoan Islands (both belonging to Polynesia), and Fiji (Melanesia), and so the culture of Kiribati has been formed from the mixture of Micronesian traditions (e.g. Caroine Islands and Marshall Islands) with influences from these neighboring islands in the south and the east (Figure 1: left). The so-called “navigation stones” are a series of stones found on the northwestern tip of Arorae Island (Figure 1: right). H. E. Maude, who later became a famous historian, first became interested in these stones when he was working as a government officer in 1933. It was then that

Figure 1. Left: Kiribati Right: Arorae Island (Red Circle Indicates the Researched Area)

* School of Humanities, Nanzan University, Japan. [e-mail: [email protected]] ** Faculty of Contemporary Social Studies, Doshisha Women’s College for Liberal Arts, Japan. [e-mail: [email protected]] *** Tokyo Institute of Cultural Property, Japan. [e-mail: [email protected]] 110 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Figure 2. Area Where Navigation Stones Distribute on Northwestern Tip of Arorae

he first made a rough sketch of these stones. Later, Captain E. V. Ward created a map showing the distribution of these stones, although his manuscript has never been published. D. Lewis, who is famous for his study of indigenous navigation in the Pacific, obtained Ward’s manuscript and analyzed the direction of these stones (Lewis, 1994: 363). In 1957, these stones were surveyed by Captain B. Hilder, who formally published his findings (Hilder, 1957) . Ward wrote that there are 13 stones, excluding one that is considered an “entrance stone,” but he posited that only 11 stones retained their original positions. In contrast, Hilder found 9 stones, including an entrance stone, and he created a map of these stones. Japanese archaeologists Takayama and Kaiyama surveyed these stones and reanalyzed these previous reports in the 1990s (Takayama and Kiyama , 1993). Unfortunately, Takayama and Kaiyama did not publish a revised map. When we examined these stones in 2016, we could identify 9 stones as Hilder described, although his description of the positions of the stones does not seem to be exact. We reassessed the positions and orientation of the stones using GPS (Figure 2). Before going into the details of our survey, we make a brief review of Kiribati starlore by examining information collected by Arthur Grinble and compiled by his daughter R. Grimble (Grimble, R., 1 972). Navigation Stones on Arorae 111

Figure 3. Traditional Meeting House, Maneba

2. Indigenous Navigation and Stars

Kiribati consists of a series of small atolls and coral islands situated on the equator. The people of Kiribati developed navigational skills that have been crucial for their survival. According to the information provided by Grimble from the navigator of Butaritari Island (Grimble , 1972: 215– 218), they learned navigational skills at a traditional meeting house, called maneba (Figure 3). Navigators’ lessons began in the maneba when the novice navigators sat at the base of the central pillar facing the eastern slope of the roof. The navigator regarded the sky as a vast roof supported by imaginary rafters (oka)—3 on the eastern slope and 3 on the west (Figure 4). Grimble explained in detail how to conceive astronomical phenomena in relation to the house roof (Figure 5):

Just as the roof was divided by vertical lines of rafters, so the heavens were plotted out for him in lines of principal stars. Every constellation was allocated its imaginary place in the thatch, according to what we would call its angula distance east or west of Rigel and its declination north or south of that star. (Grimble, 1972: 215–216). The apex of the middle pair of rafters is held to be at the point where the star Rigel (beta Orion) crosses the meridian. These middle rafters represent the Gilbertese celestial equator, which, being fixed by the declination of Rigel, is seen to be placed about 8° south of our own. The apex of the northern pair of rafters is said to be where the Pleiades cross the meridian which is about 24° north of true celestial equator and 32° north of the Gilbertese; while the 112 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Figure 4. Inside the Maneba

Figure 5. Model of Indigenous Astronomy and Calendar in Kiribati (Makemson, 1941: Figure 4)

star Antares (alpha Scorpionis) marks the meeting-point of the southern pair at 26° true south declination, or 18° south of the Gilbertese equator..... Lying across the rafters, like the steps of a ladder up the sky, the astronomer imagines a series of 3 equally spaced crossbeams or purlins on each slope of the roof (Grimble , 1972: 216).

Navigators had to memorize the names of more than 178 stars and also learned their courses and positions at particular seasons and times. One of the methods of memorizing the guiding stars Navigation Stones on Arorae 113

Figure 6. Orientation of Navigation Stones Researched by Hilder (Hilder, 1959: Figure 1) was to create a tale about them, wherein they figured as persons or objects seen during the voyage. Folk stories were often adapted to this purpose. Navigators watched the stars lying on their backs on the outrigger platform. Sometimes they turned around and, when they could no longer see any differences in a star’s altitude, that star was at the zenith. They memorized the stars that passed exactly over certain islands and would then try to keep directly beneath them as they approached the islands. On ocean voyages they may also have been able to estimate latitude by observing the meridian altitude of stars nearer the horizon (Grimble, 1972: 218–219). Like Carolinian navigators (Goodenough, 1952 ; Gladwin, 1970), Kiribati navigators also used the sun, wind direction, ocean swells, birds, color of the sea, floating objects, and other indices.

3. Navigation Stones

3.1 Survey by Hilder Hilder first published a map of navigation stones and analyzed their orientation (Table 1). He identified 9 stones as educational tools for navigation and saw the land where stones were distributed as a “navigational school” (Figure 6). 114 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Figure 7. Estimated Target Island (Hilder, 1959: Figure 2)

Hilder considered the easternmost stone, Stone A, whose direction did not seem to be related to those of other stones, as an entrance mark for the school. As for the other stones, Stones F and G are a pair and Stones H and I are another pair. In contrast, the remaining stones, B, C, D, and E, are lain independently. Hilder used a magnetic compass to estimate the orientation of each stone, considering the offset value (between true north and magnetic north). He then suggested to which island each stone or pair of stones was directed (Figure 7):

B to Onotoa 305° true, distant 86 miles; C and D to Tamana 273° true, distant 52 miles; F and G to Tamana 286° true, distant 52 miles; H and I to Nukunau 345° true, distant 74 miles (Hilder, 1962: 86).

Since Stone C and Stone D had almost the same orientation, Hilder believed both stones were directed toward Tamana Island. Stone C was originally situated near the beach, but the accumulation of sand caused Stone C to be situated inland. That is why another stone, Stone D, was lain near the beach. The pairs H-I and F-G are ideal devices for learning the course of stars used for navigation. The paired stones might be the improved form of a single stone (Figure 8). All the stones were paired originally, but some of the stones were lost, resulting in stones A, B, C, and D being independent. Navigation Stones on Arorae 115

Figure 8. Model of How to Use Navigation Stone (Hilder, 1959: Figure 3)

Hilder further considered the reason why pair stones H and I were directed toward Nikunau Island but not to the neighbor island, Beru. Beru lies 23 miles leeward of Nikunau. Hilder argued that if the navigator aimed to reach Nikunau it was easy to go down to Beru with wind. Neither the eastern nor western extension of Stone E is directed toward any island. Hilder argues that the direction of this stone is something mythical and that it may be directed toward “hell,” where outcasts were sent. Hilder’s estimate of the orientation of these stones, however, deviated about 5° from each island. Hilder argued that this systematic error was intentional, considering the effect of Equatorial Current.

3.2 Reanalysis of Ward by Lewis When Captain Ward surveyed these stones in 1946, he found 13 stones except for one that is considered to have been the entrance stone. According to Lewis, who reanalyzed Ward’s data, Hilder collected the names of each stone that indicate toward which island each stone was directed (Table 1). Lewis further pointed out that Hilder’s analysis was based on an interpreter who was not proficient in English, but that Ward himself and his informant could understand Kiribati. Unfortunately, Ward’s research has never been published. A famous researcher of indigenous navigation of the Pacific, Lewis reanalyzed Ward’s manuscript and found differences from Hilder’s estimate. For instance, a pair of stones, G and H, that Hilder considered to be directed toward Tamana, appears to actually be directing eastward toward Orana or Hulu Island in the Phoenix Islands. Since this island was not inhabited, it is more 116 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Table 1. Orientation of Navigation Stones Stone Ward’s Estimate Hilder’s Estimate Hilder’s 2016 Survey 2016 Survey Measurement Orientation Orientation (West) ±1° (East) ±1° A Entrance Entrance 234 54 B Onotoa Onotoa 306 300 120 C Orona Tamana 273 269 89 D Tamana Tamana 273 273 93 E No name No name 218 38 F & G Banaba Tamana 286 274–284 94–104 H & I Beru Nukunau 345 333–343 153–164 natural to think that this pair was directed westward to Tamana (Lewis, 1994: 365). Hilder argued that another pair, H and I, is directing to the east of Nikunau Island, but Lewis’ analysis indicates that the pair is directing to the west of Nikunau. Also, Lewis argued that Stone I is directing to Beru Island. In addition, although Hilder considered Stone B to be directing to the east of Onotoa Atoll, Lewis concluded that the same stone is directing to the west of Onotoa. Lewis also reported ethnographic information from these islands. The man whose name was Teitema, at the age of 72 in 1961, told Lewis that “the stones were set up in his father’s lifetime by a man named Tamake from Tamana, who married a Tamana woman and settled in Arorae. Tamake used the stones for frequent voyages to Tamana” (Lewis, 1994: 366). In addition, “the stones labeled ‘E’ by Hilder and ‘No Name’ by Ward, which puzzled both commentators by not pointing anywhere, had, according to Douglas, been ‘set up in Teitema’s own lifetime by the master of the John Williams’” (Lewis, 1994: 366). According to another informant, in contrast, the stones had already been lain before Westerners arrived, and some of them were certainly directed toward Tamana and Nikunau. The stone directed to Nikunau was called te atibu ni kamamate or the “stone of death.” If they sailed directly to Nikunau, it is believed they would have been caught in dangerous current, rin teaira, and the canoe would lose control. Therefore, it was necessary to go directly to the west of Nikunau first, avoiding the current, and then change direction to the east (Lewis, 1994: 366). Ward argued that Stone C was not directed toward Tamana, but rather toward Banaba, situated 300 miles west. Although the voyage from Beru of Kiribati to Banaba was certainly practiced before, both the wind and the current were unfavorable for sailing there. It was not impossible to sail from Kiribati to a single island, Banaba, relying on sea birds, but it was much safer to sail in the opposite direction, from Banaba to an archipelago, Kiribati: the archipelago is a bigger target than a single island. It is likely that the sailing route from Kiribati to Banaba had been abandoned for a long time (Lewis, 1994: 367–368). Navigation Stones on Arorae 117

Figure 9. Orientation and Distribution of Navigation Stones Researched in 2016

4. Reassessment of Navigation Stones

4.1 Process of Analysis We visited Arorae Island in August 2016 and conducted a GPS survey of the navigation stones (Figure 9). We could identify 9 stones shown on Hilder’s map (Hilder, 1959: Figure 1, 1962: Figure 1) (Figure 10). The orientation of the stones on Hilder’s map was nearly exact (Table 1), but the relative positions of stones were rather different between our map and the previous maps (also Lewis, 1994: Figure 67). Stones are of various shape and position, and the size varies from 30–40 cm to 60–70 cm. According to Ward and Hilder, each stone had the name of the target island, but this does not mean that these stones were actually visible during voyage. First, we could not view target islands from the stones. For instance, even the nearest island, Tamana, cannot be seen from the stone. This might also be true when we look at the stone from the sea on canoe. Even if coconut trees near the stone could serve as an index at the beginning of the trip, this tree cannot be seen throughout the entire voyage. Thus, in the following, we assume that these stones were used to observe and learn particular stars that could be used as an index for voyages. 118 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Figure 10. Navigation stone: (A) Stone A, (B) Stone B, (C) Stone C, (D) Stone D, (E) Stone E, (F) Stones F & G, (G) Stones H & I Navigation Stones on Arorae 119

Figure 11. Orientation of Navigation Stones and Islands of Kiribati. Blue Lines are the Orientations of Single Stones. Yellow Radiating Lines Indicate the Scope of the Target Island from Paired Stones

Since Arorae is located in the southeastern end of the Kiribati Islands, the islanders must voyage to the west or northwest when they go to other islands in Kiribati. Since navigation stones were situated on the northwestern tip of the island, it was convenient for the islanders to learn the stars that serve as indices to sail to the islands that lie westward. In this situation, the setting course of stars could be an index for the voyage; Table 1 indicates the azimuths of relevant stars’ setting points at the western horizon. In addition, Figure 11 indicates the orientation of each stone and the location of the islands in Kiribati. We further conducted a simulation by using the software Stella Navigator, Ver. 10, to assume the situation as it might have been in 1900. The reason we simulated the year 1900 is as follows: there was some controversy concerning whether these stones had been used since pre-Western contact. But the interviews by Ward and Hilder were conducted in the 1950s and it seems certain that the stones were used for navigation during his informants’ parents’ generation. We assumed that the stones must have been used at least around 1900, when the informants’ parents were active. Table 2 shows the altitude of each star in the western sky when stars’ azimuth is between 60° and 0° (=setting point). The blank cells in the Table correspond to the stars that do not rise to that altitude. For instance, α Centauri’s altitude at zenith is 32.2°, and so it never reaches an altitude over 40°. However, according to the experience of navigators, the stars whose altitudes are over 30° are 120 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Table 2 Basic Data for Stars Kiribati Azimuth Azimuth Azimuth at the Alititude in the Western Sky Alutitude Logo Vernacular Names Right Star at at at Declination in of Navigators’ Ascention Rise Set 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° Zenith Figure 11 Star* αCen (Centaurus) 150.6 209.4 208.8 204.5 191.9 32.2 -60.37 14h36m a βCen (Centaurus) 150.1 209.9 209.4 205.2 193.4 32.7 -60.7 14h00m b Kaama αCru (Crux) 149.3 210.7 210.2 206.1 195.3 33.5 -59.24 12h13m c (Southern Cross) Achernar 147.9 212.1 211.6 207.8 198 34.9 -57.29 1h35m d (Eridanus) Canopus (Carina) Ka-maiaki 142.8 217.2 216.8 213.8 206.7 180 40 -52.4 6h22m e Salgaz (Scorpius) 133 227 226.8 224.8 220.4 211.6 49.7 -42.6 17h33m f Shaula (Scorpius) 127.1 232.9 232.8 231.3 227.9 221.6 207.8 55.6 -37.04 17h30m g Kaus Australis 124.5 235.5 235.5 234.2 231.1 225.5 214.4 58.2 -34.24 18h20m h (Sagittarius) Formalhaut 120.2 239.8 239.8 238.7 236.3 231.9 223.3 202.2 62.5 -29.53 22h54m i (Piscis Austrinus) Nunki (Sagittarius) 116.5 243.5 243.6 242.8 240.8 237.1 230.3 215.7 66.2 -26.21 18h53m j Antares (Scorpius) Rimwimaata 116.3 243.7 243.8 243 241 237.5 230.6 216.3 66.4 -26.19 16h26m k Sirius Baba-ni-man 106.6 253.4 253.6 253.3 252.3 250.4 247.4 240.3 76 -16.4 6h45m l (Canis Major) Spica (Virgo) Mataroa 100.7 259.3 259.6 259.6 259.2 258.3 256.5 253.0 82 -10.54 13h22m m Matiriki Rigel (Orion) 98.4 261.6 262 262.1 261.8 261.3 260 257.8 84.3 -8.15 5h12m n (Pleiades?)* Tāni-Karoa Mintaka (Orion) 90.4 269.6 270.2 270.5 271.1 271.7 272.5 273.7 87.7 -0.2 5h29m o (Orion Belt) Procyon (Canis Minor) 84.5 275.5 276 276.7 277.8 279.3 281.7 285.7 81.9 5.22 7h36m p Betelgeuse (Orion) Kāma-n-uka 82.7 277.3 279 280.1 280.1 281.9 284.8 289.6 80 7.23 5h52m q Altair (Aquila) 81.4 278.6 279.2 280.1 281.5 283.5 286.6 292.1 78.8 8.43 19h48m r Regulus (Leo) 77.5 282.5 283.1 284.3 286 288.5 293.1 301 74.9 12.1 10h05m s Aldebaran Te Boto-n-aiai 73.7 286.3 287 288.4 290.5 294 299.4 310.1 71.1 16.26 4h33m t (Taurus) Aructru (Bootes) 70.3 289.7 290.5 292 294.6 298.7 305.7 318.7 67.8 19.28 14h13m u Pleiades (Taurus) Nei Auti 66.2 293.8 294.7 296.5 299.4 304.4 313 354 60.2 23.6 3h44m v Alphecca 63 297 298.1 300.1 303.6 309.4 320 58.9 28.2 15h44m w (Corona Borealis) Pollux (Gemini) Antimwamwa 61.8 298.2 299.3 301.4 305.1 311.3 322.6 79.5 27.4 7h42m x Castor (Gemini) Antimwamwa 58 302 303 305.8 310 317.3 332.4 58.9 31.2 7h30k y Vega (Lyra) 51.3 308.7 310.1 312.9 318.5 328.9 360.4 48.7 38.4 18h35m z Deneb (Cygnus) 45 315 316.6 320.4 327.4 344.2 360.2 42.4 45.06 20h39m a1 Capella (Auriga) 44 316 317.5 321 329 347.7 41.5 45.6 5h12m b1 Schnefar (Cassiopeia) 34 326 328.1 334 350 31.4 56.1 0h33m c1 Dubhe (Ursa Major) 28 332 335 343 25.1 62 11h00m d1 Kochab (Ursa Major) 15 345 351 13 74.2 14h50m e1 * Grimble, 1972: 241 Navigation Stones on Arorae 121

Figure 12. Estimated Star Course and Visible Range of Navigation Stones(for Star Names, See Table 2) not usable for navigation. Therefore, we may be able to ignore the data of altitudes over 40°. Figure 12 indicates the data used to estimate “star lines.” This Figure consists of a horizontal axis that shows the azimuth of each star at setting, and a vertical axis that shows its right ascension. Right ascension is an angle seen from the vernal equinox point. Stars with similar declination form a star line and the right ascension tells the order of these stars, as well as the season when each star is visible during the night. Figures 13 and 14 indicate the trajectory of several conspicuous stars in the western sky. Figure 13 is the result of simulation of star orbits at the northwestern tip of Arorae Island on 15 August 1900. The simulated time was from 5:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. Figure 14 is a result of simulation of 15 February 1900, in the same length of time. These Figures indicate the relationship among the altitude of setting stars and the visible range in the sky from each navigation stone. Stars in the middle (e.g. Betelgeuse, Rigel, and Mintaka of Orion) set almost vertically in this latitude (almost at the Equator) and their azimuth does not change very much, thus indicating that these stars could be a reliable index for navigation. On the other hand, stars near northern or southern poles (e.g. Big Dipper, Cassiopeia, and α and β Centaurus) change their azimuth significantly through time. 122 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Figure 13. Trajectory of Important Stars in the Western Sky, 15 August 1900: Simulated from 5:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. (for Star Names, See Table 2)

Figure 14. Trajectory of Important Stars in the Western Sky, 15 February 1900: Simulated from 5:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. (for Star Names, See Table 2) Navigation Stones on Arorae 123

4.2 Analysis From paired stones F and G it seems possible to observe stars whose setting points lie between 274–284° within the azimuth range of Tamana Island. As for particular stars, Altair (Figure 13: r), Procyon (Figure 14: p), Betelgeuse (Figure 14: q), and Regulus (Figure 14: s) set within this range. Ward argued that Arcturus (Figure 13: u) was observed from these stones when going to Tamana (Lewis, 1994: 367), but this star comes out of range as far as our research is concerned. In Grimble ’s ethnography, Betelgeuse and Orion’s Belt were navigation stars (Lewis, 1994: 367), with Kiribati navigators’ star names (Grimble, 1972: 241). Altair is also widely used for navigation (Gladwin, 1972 ; Goodenough, 1953) and must have been used as an index in the voyage to Tamana that lies almost west of Arorae. The next question to ask is whether these stars were visible during voyaging season. The islanders say that the months of June and August were voyaging seasons, and during these months Regulus sets near Tamana (282.5°) and Altair sets almost below Tamana (278.6°). According to Hilder, it takes half a day to voyage from Arorae to Tamana. If we leave Arorae around 5 p.m., looking at setting Regulus in the western sky, Altair is going to rise at the eastern horizon. At this time, navigators observe almost vertical motion of Altair during the night. After 12 hours (5 a.m.) they would find Tamana in the direction of setting Altair. Navigation stones must have also been used for learning stars in returning voyages. If we sit at the western side of stones and observe the eastern sky, Rigel would be seen above the space between stones F and G at around 3 a.m. in August. Rigel could then be a guiding star for returning voyages. Sirius (rising at 106°) could serve the same purpose. Although Spica rises at 100.7°, this star rises during daytime in August and could not be used for such purposes. There is also a controversy over the direction of paired stones H and I (Ward vs. Hilder), as Takayama and Kaiyama pointed out (Takayama and Kaiyama, 1993). Our survey indicates that these stones seem to be directed toward the sea between Beru and Nukunau. If navigators could reach the sea between the 2 islands, they could go either to Beru or Nukunau using other indices, such as sea birds, clouds over islands, reef color, and so on. Another possibility is, as Ward suggested, that it was an intentional strategy to go west first, avoiding strong currents, and then go east to reach the objective island. Constellations close to celestial poles could be used differently. Instead of observing their rising or setting points, the observation of their circular movement itself was important for estimating true north or south. Next, we analyzed the direction of the independent stones. The western orientation of Stone B is 300.7°, and it seems to be directed at Onotoa Atoll. If we try to find stars that set in this direction, Gemini seems to fit this condition: Pollux 298° (Figure 14: x) and Castor 302° (Figure 14: y). In 124 A. Goto, H. Ohnishi, and T. Ishimura

Grimble ’s ethnography, Gemini was included in a category of navigation stars (Grimble , 1972: 241). However, if we direct the canoe toward the setting point of Gemini, we have to voyage during January to February, which is not a favorable season. If we voyage back from Onotoa to Arorae, navigators might use Fomalhaul, which rises at 120°. As for other stones, it was difficult to relate them to particular islands. In the following, we discuss some astronomical possibilities for these stones. If we extend the direction of Stones A and B to both sides, i.e., east and west, the 2 lines form an X shape. Rising and setting points of all the major astronomical phenomena seem to lie within these axes: June and December solstices, maximum and minimum standstill of the Moon, and rising and setting points of Venus. In particular, the rising and setting points of June and December solstices correspond to those of 2 important stars used as an index of calendar, that is, Pleiades and Antares. As for 2 stones that were considered to be directed to Tamana, Stone C (89°–269°) and Stone D (93°–273°), our survey shows that they are directed slightly south of Tamana. Each is an independent stone and thus its direction cannot be decided precisely. They could be related to Equinoxes or zenith pass of the sun, which occurs twice a year: 3 March (93°–267°) and 2 October (94°–266°). Finally, as for the “entrance stone,” Stone E, its western direction could be related to the setting point of another important star, Canopus (Figure 14: e).

5. Discussion

In this report, we have demonstrated the results of our GPS survey on navigation stones at Arorae Island. Assuming that these stars were used as educational tools for learning navigation, we analyzed the relevance of the direction of stones with stars. We also considered the possibility of the relevance of the stones to the indigenous calendar based on the cycle of constellation. When we reported these results at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) in Tokyo, Captain Tomoki Oku, who has commanded the voyages of several training ships that belong to Japan Navigational College, provided valuable comments. According to his experience as a captain and as a crew member on a traditional Polynesian canoe, Hōkūleʻa, he suggested that stars for navigation are not necessarily bright or conspicuous stars (e.g. first or second magnitude stars). Instead, the “star lines” that include minor stars are more important than particularly bright stars. Taking his comments into consideration, we continue to advance our research on ethnoastronomy and skyscape archaeology in Micronesia. Navigation Stones on Arorae 125

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our greatest gratitude to Mr. Itonga, former officer at the Culture Preservation Office of Kiribati Government, for his arrangement and help during our research. We sincerely thank the mayor of Arorae Island, Mr. Ioane Tanieru, and also all the people of the Arorae community for their hospitality and support. They had kindly cleaned the site by cutting grass before we arrived. Without their help and understanding, this research would have never been possible. This research was made possible by KAKENHI (16H05684), Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), titled “The Practice of Skyscape Archaeology in Micronesia (2016–2019).”

References

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