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Ce Document Est Le Fruit D'un Long Travail Approuvé Par Le Jury De Soutenance Et Mis À Disposition De L'ensemble De La Communauté Universitaire Élargie AVERTISSEMENT Ce document est le fruit d'un long travail approuvé par le jury de soutenance et mis à disposition de l'ensemble de la communauté universitaire élargie. Il est soumis à la propriété intellectuelle de l'auteur. Ceci implique une obligation de citation et de référencement lors de l’utilisation de ce document. D'autre part, toute contrefaçon, plagiat, reproduction illicite encourt une poursuite pénale. Contact : [email protected] LIENS Code de la Propriété Intellectuelle. articles L 122. 4 Code de la Propriété Intellectuelle. articles L 335.2- L 335.10 http://www.cfcopies.com/V2/leg/leg_droi.php http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/infos-pratiques/droits/protection.htm Université Paul Verlaine – Metz UFR Lettres et langues Master Langues et Cultures Étrangères Spécialité Mondes anglophones What Led to the Surge of New Religious Movements, Spirituality and Self-Development in the United States? Mémoire de recherche – UE 102 Présenté par Charles-Edouard BUSA Sous la direction de M. Peterson NNAJIOFOR Année universitaire 2010-2011 1e/2e session TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 3 1. The Evolution of America’s Religious Landscape Throughout History ............ 8 1.1. Religion in Colonial Times: Diversity and Tolerance? .......................... 9 1.2. The Great Awakenings ........................................................................... 13 1.3. America’s Religious Landscape from the 1920s Onwards ..................... 23 2. The Development of New Religious and Spiritual Movements ......................... 30 2.1. The 1960s: a New Age, a Turning Point ................................................ 30 2.2. New Religious Movements ..................................................................... 37 2.3. Spirituality .............................................................................................. 45 3. Self-Development ............................................................................................... 59 3.1. Toward More Pragmatism ...................................................................... 60 3.2. The Components of Self-Development .................................................. 70 3.3. Anthony Robbins: the Self-Development Guru ...................................... 85 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 99 2 Introduction: This thesis is a reflection on America’s religious landscape, which is unique in many ways. It is diverse because nowadays there are religions from all around the world: Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and so forth. But diversity is to be found even within denominations. For instance, there is not one large Protestant church only; there are dozens of them. I have personally met people who go to two or three different churches, and others who are very conservative and against change. However, diversity is nothing new. Indeed, during the colonial era, churches and religious practices were already eclectic. America’s religious landscape is also unique because most Americans will feel free to discuss religious matters, which would be taboo in France. A French person visiting the US is often offended when he or she is asked “What church do you go to?” As if it were not enough, dollar bills read “in God We Trust” and presidents often end their speeches by “God bless America.” Those obvious references to religion may be misleading and cause foreigners—the French for that matter—to think there is no separation of Church and State. However, the United States is a secular country. As a matter of fact, the First Amendment to the Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” 1 In Les métamorphoses de Dieu, Frédéric Lenoir says that the confusion is due to what Americans know as civil religion. The word “god” is used so as not to value a religion more than another. This reference is more of a way for the American people to feel united and share common values. 2 President Dwight Eisenhower reinforced America’s civil religion by asserting that: “[The American] government makes no sense unless it is 3 founded in a deeply felt faith—and I don’t care what it is.” On the other hand, if a French president were to say “God bless France,” it would result in a polemic, as there is no civil religion in this country and that the word “god” would mainly be associated with the Roman Catholic Church. France is the country where the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was written in 1789, in which one can read that “No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, 1 Constitution of the United States: Bill of Rights. “Avalon Project”. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved fr. <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rights1.asp> October 24 2009. 2 Frédéric Lenoir. Les métamorphoses de Dieu. La Nouvelle Spiritualité Occidentale. Paris: Plon, 2003. 34. 3 Dwight Eisenhower in Diana L. Eck. A New Religious America. How a "Christian Country" Has Become the World's Most Religiously Diverse Nation. New York: HarperOne, 2001. 61. 3 including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public 1 order established by law.” It is also the country where the 1905 Law of Separation of Church and State was passed. 2 Judging from the law, the two countries should thus theroretically be equally secular. However, in practice they are not. In France, new religious movements and spiritual groups have been discriminated against, and often put into the same category as cults. Although they are regarded as sectes, it is important to bear in mind that the French word secte is not a translation of the English word “sect.” The former is akin to the English word “cult,” while having further connotations. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, a cult is: “a religion or sect considered to be false, unorthodox, or extremist, with members often living outside of conventional society under the direction of a charismatic leader;”3 while a sect is generally: “a Christian denomination characterized by insistence on strict qualifications for membership, as distinguished from the more inclusive groups called churches.” 4 The Society of Friends (the Quakers) is a Christian sect, for instance. In France however, the MIVILUDES (Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lute contre les pratiques sectaires) established a list of criteria so as to distinguish between a secte and a church. According to these criteria a secte resorts to brainwashing, demands important financial contributions, isolates its members from the outside world and may physically abuse them. Furthermore, a secte often criticizes the government, as well as society.5 The French attitude toward new religious movements may be a remnant of the past. Contrary to the US, whose Constitution has always been secular, France used to be a Roman Catholic country, where dissent was not tolerated. This led to the Wars of Religion6 and the discrimination against Protestants. Even in 19th-century France, 1 “Declaration of the Rights of Man — 1789.” n.d.. Retrieved fr. <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.asp> November 4 2009. 2 “Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Eglises et de l’Etat. Version consolidée au 14 mai 2009.” May 14 2009. Retrieved fr. <http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do;jsessionid=83BC7A7115A996F71681CDEFA11FA671.tpdj o11v_1?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000508749&dateTexte=20100112> November 4 2009. 3 “Cult.” Def. 6. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. CD-ROM. Vers. 3.0. Random House, Inc, 1999. 4 “Sect.” Def. 3. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. CD-ROM. Vers. 3.0. Random House, Inc, 1999. 5 “Identifier le risque sectaire.” n.d.. Retrieved fr. < http://www.miviludes.gouv.fr/-Comment-reagir- face-au-risque-?iddiv=3> June 5 2010. 6 Vincent, Gourdon. “Guerres de Religion en France.” Universalis.fr. Encyclopaedia Universalis France. 2010. <http://www.universalis.fr/corpus2- encyclopedie/117/0/Z020032/encyclopedie/GUERRES_DE_RELIGION_EN_FRANCE.htm> Dec. 26 2009. 4 Protestantism was still considered a heresy and a cult. 1 The weight of France’s Catholic past is also put forward by Danielle Hervieu-Léger who, quoting Jean-Paul Willaime, describes France as a “secular country of Catholic culture.” 2 Today, the target may be different but France remains cautious. In Made in USA, Guy Sorman writes that many churches are run like businesses and openly sell their beliefs as any commercial company would sell its products and services, which sounds shocking to the French while Americans have no objection to that. 3 If someone were to run a religious or spiritual movement like a business in France, they would be considered dangerous gurus. The latter word sounds pejorative in French as it is often associated with cult leaders: it suggests a corrupt and greedy person who tries to mesmerize gullible people so as to make money; conversely, it is quite neutral in America, where it mainly means “leader;” as it does in its original definition according to the Hinduist tradition.4 If France misunderstands America’s religious landscape, it is also true that the French position on that matter leads to confusion in the US. Danièle
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