Koe Sio FakaTonga ‘ae ‘Aati FakaTonga

John Webber (After), William Byrne (Engraver). Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

Tongan Views of Tongan Arts: The Arts of John Webber

Hūfanga-He-Ako-Moe-Lotu, Professor ‘Ōkusitino Māhina

Unity in Diversity and Diversity in Unity Lagi-Maama Academy & Consultancy (June 2021) Visible(/Invisible) Voices Research Project Auckland Art Gallery Toi O Tāmaki (September 2019) Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND

Koe Sio Fakatonga ‘ae Aati FakaTonga Tongan Views of Tongan Arts: The Arts of John Webber

Hūfanga-He-Ako-Moe-Lotu, Dr ‘Ōkusitino Māhina, PhD Professor of Tongan Philosophy, Anthropology & Aesthetics Vava‘u Academy for Critical Inquiry & Applied Research (VACIAR) Vava‘u, KINGDOM OF TONGA

&

Professorial Associate Investigator Marsden Project Vā Moana: Space & Realtionality in Pacific Thought & Identity Research Cluster Auckland University of Technology (AUT) - City Campus Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND

&

Hikule‘o Fe‘ao-moe-Ako Melaia Māhina Fakakaukau/Fakamaau Koloa, Thinking/Collating Tongan Treasures Lagi-Maama Academy & Consultancy Tāmaki Makaurau, AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND & Vava‘u Academy for Critical Inquiry & Applied Research (VACIAR) Vava‘u, KINGDOM OF TONGA

with

Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai & Toluma‘anave, Barbara Makuati-Afitu Lagi-Maama Academy & Consultancy Tāmaki Makaurau Auckland, AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND

2 | Page

Koe Sio FakaTonga ‘ae ‘Aati FakaTonga, Tongan Views of Tonga Arts: The Arts of John Webber

The dispute between epistemology (ways of knowing) and ontology (ways of being) is over reality as we know it and reality as it is; the dispute is therefore not how we know what we know, nor where we know what we know, nor when we know what we know, nor why we know what we know, but rather what we really know.

In Moana Oceania generally, and in Tonga specifically, it is thought that, paradoxically, people walk forward into the kuongamu‘a (age-in-the-front; past) and, at the same timespace, they walk backward into the kuongamui (age-in-the-back; future), both contemporaneously in the kuongaloto (age-in-the-middle/centre; present), where both the already-taken-place past and the yet-to-take-place future are constantly mediated in the ever-conflicting present – and that, historically, the fact that the kuohili (that-which-has-passed; past) has stood the test of timespace, it is put in front of people, as guidance and, given the fact that the kaha‘u (that-which-is- yet-to-come; future) is yet-to-take-place, it is brought behind people, guided by past experiences, both concurrently in the lotolotonga (that-which-is-now; present), where the illusive ‘known’ past and elusive ‘unknown’ future are permanently fakatatau (mediated) in the ‘knowing’ conflicting present.

Like fuo (form) and uho (content), on the concrete level, tā (time) and vā (space), on the abstract level, are inseparable in reality, as they are in nature, mind and society, thereby realistically-tāvāistically pointing to their being four-dimensional as opposed to their being problematically treated as three-dimensional.

As tā-vā (temporal-spatial), fuo-uho (formal-substantial) entities, ‘ilo(/poto) (knowledge[/skill]), fonua/kalatua (culture) and tala/lea (language) are inseparable entities in reality, as in nature, mind and society, where knowledge(/skill) are dialectically composed in culture as a human receptacle and historically communicated in language as a social vehicle, with both culture and language merely as vaka (mediums).

The Tonga tāvāist philosophy of ako (education) is defined as the historical yet dialectical tā-vā (temporal-spatial), fuo-uho (formal-substantial), and ‘aonga-ngāue (functional-practical) transformation of the human ‘atamai (mind) and fakakaukau (thinking) in the ‘uto brain, on the one hand, and ongo (feeling) and loto (desiring) in the fatu/mafu (heart), on the other, from vale (ignorance) to ‘ilo (knowledge) to poto (skill), in that logical order of precedence.

Tā-Vā Time-Space Philosophy of Reality

3 | Page Talakamata Introduction

This investigative exercise titled “Koe Sio FakaTonga ‘ae ‘Aati FakaTonga, Koe ‘Aati ‘a John Webber: Tongan Views of Tonga Arts, The Arts of John Webber” was written as part of the Visible(/Invisible) Voices Project of Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki in September 2019 and has been refined, updated and added to in June 2021 as part of the “Unity in Diversity and Diversity in Unity” UDDU project led by Lagi-Maama Academy & Consultancy.1 As a critical exercise, it does inquire into the arts of John Webber, who was the expedition artist in Captain James Cook‘s third voyage, 1776-1780. This investigation will look at these Tongan artforms from Tongan perspectives, viewed from the Tā-Vā Time-Space Philosophy of Art, a derivative of the Tā-Vā Time-Space Philosophy of Reality, as opposed to Tongan arts seen from Western perceptions. The former involves a kind of mediation and liberation, in stark contrast to the latter as a type of imposition and domination, requiring a constant yet consistent shift in this problematic axis from the former to the latter.2

It does so by way of critiquing both “text” and “context,” thereby reflectively focusing on a range of key aesthetic and pragmatic features linked to the questions of “what they are,” that is, artwork, “what they are for,” that is, art use, and “what they are by means of,” that is, art history. That is, the artwork is primarily concerned with “what art is” or the beauty/quality of art, i.e., the ontological questions, and both the art use and art history are secondarily associated with “what art does” or the utility/functionality of art, i.e., the epistemological questions. From a tāvāist (and realist) philosophical perspective, the epistemological questions are considered secondary to the ontological questions, in view of the philosophical (anf logical) fact that ‘what is of art’ or its beauty/quality predecedes ‘what does of art’ or its utility/functionality.

Not withstanding the said problematic axis, viz., the condition of imposition and domination versus the state of mediation and liberation, i.e., of seeing Tongan arts from Tongan views versus seeing Tongan arts from European / Western views, that we hereby adopt an innocence of eye and ear and of mind and heart on the matter under reflective thinking and emotive feeling. While we are so grateful for both the respective verbal/written3 and artistic glimpses and images by Cook and his artist Webber, we are primarily here concerned with both the complexity and plurality of things, occurrences, or states of affairs as specific texts. Furthermore, as intersecting or connecting and separating entities, identities, or tendencies in the broader context of the clash of cultures and languages over knowledge of the single level of reality. The onus is on our shoulders to fill in the gaps in knowledge as knowledge of time and space acquired in education and constituted or composed in

1 . The title of this exercise is taken from the subtitle of a soon-to-be-published book entitled “Tongan Performance, Material & Fine Arts/Faiva, Tufunga & Nimamea‘a FakaTonga: Tongan Views of Tongan Arts/Sio FakaTonga ‘ae ‘Aati FakaTonga” by Kolokesa Uafā Māhina-Tuai & Hūfanga, ‘Ōkusitino Māhina. 2 . This is what can be meant by a shift from ‘colonised knowledge’ to ‘decolonised knowledge.’ 3 . The verbal and the written, as in oral and written history, are of the same logical status, differentiated only by their mediums of constitution or composition and transmission or communication of knowledge.

4 | Page culture and transmitted or communicated in language merely as social vaka vessels.

Generally, Tongan arts are divided into three main genres, namely, faiva (performance), tufunga (material), and nimamea‘a (fine) arts. Whereas the faiva arts are tefito-he-sino (body-centred), both the tufunga and nimamea‘a arts are tefito-he-tu‘a-sino (non-body-centred). By way of gender division of functions, both the faiva and tufunga arts are largely tefito-he-tangata (male-based), while the nimamea‘a arts are tefito-he-fefine (female-led). Both ‘aati (art) and ako (education) were organised alongside each other; the organisation of the latter was done along the three main divisions of arts, namely, faiva, tufunga, and nimamea‘a, respectively organised into the ha‘a faiva (professional classes of performance artists), ha‘a tufunga (professional classes of material artists), and ha‘a nimamea‘a (professional classes of fine artists). Given the coexistence of beauty / quality and utility / functionality as both process and outcome of art in the productive and consumptive processes, not only were arts produced to be faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beautiful), they were also created to be ‘aonga/ngāue (useful), that is, the more beautiful the more useful and, conversely, the more useful the more beautiful.

As a derivative of tāvāism, the Tā-Vā Time-Space Philosophy of Art deploys a number of relevant general and specific tenets which include, inter alia, the following: • that tā (time) and (vā) space as ontological entities are the common medium in which all things in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society; • that tā (time) and vā (space) as epistemological entities are socially arranged in different ways in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society; • that tā (time) is a verb and marker of vā (space) which is, in turn, a noun and composer of tā – as is fuo (form) as a noun and marker of uho (content) which, in turn, a noun and composer of fuo; • that tā (time) and vā (space), on the abstract level, like fuo (form) and uho (content), on the single level, are inseparable in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society; • that that tā (time) and vā (space), on the abstract level, like fuo (form) and uho (content), on the single level, are tafa‘akifā/tapa‘akifā (four-dimensional) and not tafa‘akitolu/tapa‘akitolu (three-dimensional) in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society; • that all things in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to order and/or conflict; • that as a corollary everywhere in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society, is intersection, and there is nothing over and above connection and separation; • that as a corollary everywhere in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society is mata-ava (eye-hole) and there is nothing above and beyond mata (eye) and/or ava (hole); • that order and conflict are, in a single level of reality, as in nature, mind and society, of the same logical order, in that order is a form of conflict;

5 | Page • that order is, in a single level of reality, when equal and opposite forces, energies or tendencies meet at a common point, defined as noa (0; zero-point), that is, mata (eye) and/or ava (hole); and • that mathematically mata (eye) and/or ava (hole), that is, point, is the intersection or connection and separation of two or more kohi (lines); a kohi is a collection of mata and/or ava; and ava is a summation of kohi.

Glossary ‘Aati - Art Ako - Education ‘Aonga/ngāue - Useful Faiva - Performance arts Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beautiful Fuo - Form Ha‘a faiva - Professional classes of performance artists Ha‘a nimamea‘a - Professional classes of fine artists Ha‘a tufunga - Professional classes of material artists Kohi - Lines Mata-ava - Eye-hole Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Tā - Time Tafa‘akifā - Four-dimensional Tafa‘akitolu - Three-dimensional Tapa‘akifā - Four-dimensional Tapa‘akitolu - Three-dimensional Talakamata - Introduction Tā-vā - Time-space Tefito-he-fefine - Female-led Tefito-he-sino - Body-centred Tefito-he-tangata - Male-based Tefito-he-tu‘a-sino - Non-body-centred Tufunga - Material arts Uho - Content Vā - Space

6 | Page Plate #20

Ko Pau koe Tu‘i ‘oe ‘Otumotu Anga‘ofa (Tonga) He‘ene Taumafa Kava Pau, King of the Friendly Islands, drinking Kava “Poulaho, King of the Friendly Islands, drinking Kava”

John Webber (After), William Sharp (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This ‘ata (image)4 depicts a taumafa kava (royal kava ceremony), presided over by the 36th Tu‘i Tonga, Pau (historically written as Poulaho or Paulaho), was held in the village of Mu‘a,5 the last of several Tu‘i Tonga royal residences for over some eight hundred years. While this ‘ata centres on the performance art of faiva inukava6 (kava-drinking),7 there are other faiva (performance), tufunga (material), and nimamea‘a (fine) arts indirectly involved in the event. These include, inter alia,

4 . Made up of “drawing” as tufunga takohi‘ata and “engraving” as tufunga to‘oliu‘ata/to‘oliukupesi. However, both the material arts of tufunga to‘oliu‘ata/to‘oliukupesi (engraving) and tufunga hiki‘ata (printing) were reproduced from the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing). 5 . The village of Mu‘a is made up of the adjoining villages of Lapaha and TatakamoTonga. 6 . Also called faiva ‘ilokava (chiefly kava) and faiva taumafakava (royal kava) as more honorific terms. 7 . Now commonly called taumafa kava for the king (tu‘i), ‘ilo kava for the chief (hou‘eiki) and inu kava for the commoners (tu‘a).

7 | Page the performance arts of faiva lea (speech-giving), faiva milolua8 (kava-making)9 and faiva teuteu (dress-wearing), as well as the material arts of tufunga langafale (house-building), tufunga lalava (kafa-sennit-lashing) and tufunga ngaohiteuteu (dress-making), and fine art of nimamea‘a lālanga10 (mat-weaving). Behind the takafalu (or tu‘a; back) of Tu‘i Tonga Pau is an upright stretch of fine rolled-mat called takapau11 woven in kupesi12 (geometric designs), a space-divider demarcating both his ‘eiki (chiefly) and tapu (sacred) status against his mere mortal subjects. The rolled-out faliki (floor covering) is a fala (mat) woven with the kupesi named veimau (orderly-water-flow) as a variation of kupenga (net) and vice-versa.

This multiplicity of faiva or fakafelavai (intersecting) fakahoko (connecting) and fakamāvae (separating) faiva, tufunga and nimamea‘a arts generally is mirrored in the intersection or connection and separation of the performance art of faiva inukava and material arts of tufunga langafale (house building) and tufunga fo‘uvaka (boat-building). The kava is creating the point, that is, the mata (eye) and/or ava (eye) where the fale (house) and vaka (boat) commonly fetaulaki (meet), that is, fakafelavai or fakahoko and fakamāvae. In this intersecting or connecting and separating context, the fale (house) is an vaka fakafo‘ohifo (upside-down boat) and, by the same token, the vaka (boat) is a fale fakafo‘ohake (downside-up house).13 It was in this fakafelavai or fakahoko and fakamāvae of fale and vaka that the kava was created as a significant social and ceremonial institution of immense political and economic importance. In Tongan thinking and practice, the fale14 is a fefine (female) and, by implication, the vaka and kava are also a fefine.

The name Poulaho (or Paulaho), which literally means “Pau-the-testicles,” is highly problematic to have been named this way, especially from a Tongan view of such a being of his stature, in terms of both his double langi-maama (heavenly-earthly), ‘otua-tangata (god-human) origins. This possible problem of mind in thinking about reality was probably either a typographical error of the word “laho” in place of “lahi,” a suffix to a chief of noble birth such as the Tu‘i Tonga Pau, considered an ‘eiki lahi, that is, great chief, or an insult quietly spoken or grumbled by an oppressed person such as a cook, who would refer to such persons in positions of power as the Tu‘i Tonga by such attribute as “laho.” The strict absence of the name Paulaho in tala-tuku-ngutu (oral history), which literally means “telling-placed-in-

8 . Or faiva ngaohikava, a less honorific term. 9 . The term milolua is a variant of vilolua, both meaning “double-twist,” which is reference to the stylistic vilo (twists) and takai (turns) going in hoa/soa (pairs of equals and opposites) and involved in kava-making as a performance art. 10 . Also called nimamea‘a lālangafala, that is, fine art of mat-weaving. 11 . Also called tapakau. 12 . Which include, amongst others, the kupesi amoamokofe as a tool of operation made of kofe (bamboo) and fata-o-Tu‘i-Tonga as pall-bearer of Tu‘i Tonga. 13 . The major seating positions in the kava are named after the vaka (boat) in the tahi (sea), notably, olovaha the taumu‘a (bow) for the Tu‘i Tonga, ‘alofi the rowers on both sides of the vaka, where chiefs and their matāpule (orators) are seated in order of ranking away from the olovaha towards the tou‘a (kava makers) as the anchor at the taumui (stern), the opposite end. 14 . The words fale, fa‘e (mother) and fā‘ele (birth-giving) are cognates of kelekele (soil/earth), all as feminine tā-vā (temporal-spatial), fuo-uho (formal-substantial) entities.

8 | Page the-mouth,” versus its presence in tala-tuku-tohi (or tala-tuku-peni or tala-tuku- pepa) literally meaning “telling-placed-in-writing” (or “telling-placed-in-pen” or “telling-placed-in-paper”), strongly points along these two possibilities.

Glossary ‘Alofi - Both sides of the kava circle; a symbol for rowers Amoamokofe - Name of a kupesi (geometric designs) as abstraction of healing tools made from bamboo ‘Ata - Image; also picture and mirror Ava - hole; cf. Fakamāvae (separation) ‘Eiki - Chiefly or godly; chief ‘Eiki lahi - Great chief Faiva - Performance arts Faiva ‘ilokava - Performance art of chiefly kava-drinking Faiva inukava - Performance art of commoner kava-drinking Faiva lea - Performance art of speech-giving Faiva milolua - Performance art of royal kava-making; milolua is a corruption of vilolua, which means “double twist” Faiva ngaohikava - Performance art of ordinary kava-making Faiva taumafakava - Performance art of royal kava-making Faiva teuteu - Performance art of dress-wearing Fakafelavai - Intersect; intersection; intersecting Fakahoko - Connect; connection; connecting; cf. Mata (eye) Fakamāvae - Separate; separation; separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fala - Mat Fale - House Fale fakafo‘ohake - Downside-up house, that is, the vaka (boat) Faliki - Floor covering Fata-‘o-Tu‘i-Tonga – Name of kupesi (geometric dsigns), which literally means “pall- bearer-of-tu‘i-Tonga” Fefine - Woman; cf. Fale (house) Fetaulaki - Meet; cf. Meeting-point Hou‘eiki - Chiefs; chiefly class Kofe - Bamboo Kupenga - Net; name of kupesi (geomtertic designs) Kupesi - Geometric designs Laho - Testicles Langi-maama - Sky-earth; cf. ‘otua-tu‘i (priest-king) Mata - Eye; cf. Fakahoko (connection) Matāpule - Literally meaning “eye/face-of-authority,” that is, “face/eye-of-the-chief;” “orators; cf. Tufunga lea (speech-making) and faiva lea (speech-giving) Milolua - Corruption of vilolua, that is, viloua, both of which mean “double-twist” Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Nimamea‘a lālanga - Fine art of weaving Nimamea‘a lālangafala - Fine art of mat-weaving Olovaha - Also known as taumu‘a, that is, bow of the kalia

9 | Page ‘Otua-mo-tangata - God-and-man; demi-god Poulaho - That is, Paulaho, which literally means “Pau-the-testicles” Tahi - Sea Takafalu - Honorific term for the king‘s back, which commonly means tu‘a Takai - Roll Takapau - Also known as tapakau as a type of mat made from coconut leaves Tala-tuku-ngutu - Oral history, which literally means “telling-placed-in-the-mouth,” that is, history by word of mouth Tala-tuku-peni - Written history, that is, “telling-placed-in-the-pen” Tala-tuku-pepa - Written history, that is, “telling-placed-in-the-paper” Tala-tuku-tohi - Written history, that is, “telling-placed-in-writing” Tapu - Taboo; state of orderliness (and of beauty) Taumafa kava - Royal kava ceremony Taumu‘a - Bow of the vaka (boat) Taumui - Stern of the vaka (boat); also known as taumuli Tou‘a - Kava makers; also known as taula (anchor) Tu‘a - Commoner; cf. Commoner classes Tu‘i - King Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga, most ancient of the so-called three kingly lines. Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga fo‘uvaka - Material art of boat building Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art of printing Tufunga lalava - Material art of kafa-sennit-lashing Tufunga langafale - Material art of house-building Tufunga ngaohiteuteu - Material art of dress-making Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art of drawing Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art of engraving Vaka - Boat Vaka fakafo‘ohifo - Upside-down boat, that is, the fale (house) Veimau - Name of kupesi (geometric design); literally meaning “orderly-water-flow” Vilo - Twist; cf. Takai (turn); vilotakai (twist-and-turn)

10 | Page Plate #18

Ko Pau koe Tu‘i ‘oe ‘Otumotu Anga‘ofa (Tonga) Pau, King of the Friendly Islands “Poulaho, King of the Friendly Islands”

John Webber (After), John Hall (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

11 | Page This ‘ata (image)15 depicts Pau (Poulaho, that is, Paulaho), the 36th Tu‘i Tonga, wearing a helu (comb) that was named Palātavake either by the tufunga ngaohihelu (material artist of comb-making)16 Havea Hikule‘o, and/or the user, wearer and owner, the Tu‘i Tonga himself. The tufunga ngaohihelu of the helu named Palātavake by Havea Hikule‘o, who made it as a me‘a‘ofa (gift) to Pau who, in turn, gifted it to Captain James Cook. Given both the beauty and utility, especially when this specific helu was worn as a kalauni (crown), the chiefly hereditary title Helu after the helu was installed on Havea Hikule‘o by Pau. It is said that Helu made two helu, both named Palātavake, for Pau, where one was gifted to Cook in Ha‘apai. And the other was later gifted to Captain Alejandro Malaspina, the Italian-born, Spanish-based, naval officer, by Tupoumoheofo, the wife (moheofo) of Pau, in Vava‘u. There is a place in Neiafu called Helu, said to be in commemoration this great feat by Helu, the renowned tufunga ngaohihelu, who made them as great works of material arts.

The word helu (combs) is generic for all types of helu, be they helu toa (iron-wood combs), helu kofe (bamboo-wood combs) or helu nge‘esifingota (seashell combs). This generically includes, inter alia, the specific helu teuteu (decorative combs)/helu tu‘u (standing combs) and helu helu (combing combs) for both faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beauty) and ‘aonga/ngāue (utility) respectively. The Palātavake is a name given specifically to this specific helu teuteu/helu tu‘u so-named Palātavake, having both social and ceremonial significance, especially as a kalauni (crown), where power and status are politically displayed. As a material art of tufunga ngaohihelu, the Palātavake is made from the colourful fulufulu‘imanu ‘oe tavake (feathers of tavake birds) as a fungani (top layer), feta‘aki (plain bark-cloth) as a base, palalafa (coconut frond spine) as radiating-outwardly-strips,17 and nge‘esifingota (seashells) named fuiono as laloni (bottom layer). These components are all crafted together as a complete helu.

The name Poulaho (or Paulaho), which literally means “Pau-the-testicles,” is highly problematic to have been named this way, especially from a Tongan view of such a being of his stature, in terms of both his double langi-maama (heavenly-earthly), ‘otua-tangata (god-human) origins. This possible problem of mind in thinking about reality was probably either a typographical error of the word “laho” in place of “lahi,” a suffix to a chief of noble birth such as the Tu‘i Tonga Pau, considered an ‘eiki lahi, that is, great chief, or an insult quietly spoken or grumbled by an oppressed person such as a cook, who would refer to such persons in positions of power as the Tu‘i Tonga by such attribute as “laho.” The strict absence of the name Paulaho in tala-tuku-ngutu (oral history), which literally means “telling-placed-in- the-mouth,” versus its presence in tala-tuku-tohi (or tala-tuku-peni or tala-tuku- pepa) literally meaning “telling-placed-in-writing” (or “telling-placed-in-pen” or “telling-placed-in-paper”), strongly points along these two possibilities.

15 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of tufunga to‘oliu‘ata/to‘oliukupesi (engraving) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 16 . The material art of comb-making is also termed as tufunga ngaohihelu. 17 . The tafa‘aki lafalafa (top-flat side).

12 | Page Glossary ‘Aonga/ngāue - Functional-practical; utility, functionality or practicality ‘Ata - Image; cf. Mirror, picture or symmetry ‘Eiki lahi - Great chief ‘Otua-mo-tangata - God-and-man; demigod Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty Feta‘aki - Plain bark-cloth, that is, white bark-cloth Fulufulu‘imanu ‘oe tavake - Feathers of tavake bird Fungani - Top layer (of flowers) Havea hikule‘o - Name of goddess of Pulotu; name of the original helu, the maker of the comb Palātavake Helu - Comb Helu helu - Combing comb Helu kofe - Bamboo-wood comb Helu nge‘esifingota - Seashell comb Helu teuteu - Decorating combs; cf. Helu Palātavake comb Helu toa - Iron-wood combs Helu tu‘u - Standing combs; cf. Helu teuteu Kalauni - Crown Laloni - Bottom layer (of flowers or of fine seashells named fuiono in this case) Langi-maama - Sky-earth; cf. ‘otua-tu‘i (priest-king) Me‘a‘ofa - Gift; cf. Samoan me‘alofa Moheofo - Beautiful women presented to the tu’i Tonga Nge‘esifingota - Seashells Palalafa - Coconut frond spine Palātavake - Name of helu (comb) Poulaho - that is, Paulaho, which literally means “Pau-the-testicles” Tafa‘aki lafalafa - Top-flat side Tala-tuku-ngutu - Oral/verbal history, literally means “telling-put-in-the-mouth,” that is, “history by word of mouth” Tala-tuku-tohi - Written history, literally meaning “telling-placed-in-the pen,” Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art of printing Tufunga ngaohihelu - Material art/artist of comb making Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art of drawing Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi – Material art of engraving Tupoumoheofo - Wife of Tu‘i Tonga Pau

13 | Page Plate #15

Koe Faiva Fuhu ‘i Ha‘apai A Performance Art of Boxing in Ha‘apai “A Boxing Match in Hapaee”18

John Webber (After), Isaac Taylor (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

18 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). Now edited as A Boxing Match in Ha‘apai, which is corrected as A Performance Art of Boxing in Ha‘apai, translated as Koe Faiva Fuhu ‘i Ha‘apai; Ha‘apai is an island group in Tonga.

14 | Page Tonga is roughly divided into five ‘otumotu (island groups),19 namely, Tongatapu,20 Ha‘apai, Vava‘u,21 Niua, ‘Eua and ‘Ata. These groups of islands are largely organised along the Tonga-tokelau (south-north) axis, beginning with Tongatapu in the Tonga (south), then followed by Ha‘apai as tokelau-ofi (near-north), Vava‘u as tokelau-lotoloto (middle/central-north) and Niua as tokelau-mama‘o (remote-north). The Niua island group is made up of Niuatoputapu (Niua-the-most-beautiful/ sacred),22 including the island of Tafahi, and Niuafo‘ou (Niua-the-new), which was possibly newly acquired from Sāmoa. On the other hand, the high island of ‘Eua is in the Tonga-hahake (south-east) of Tongatapu. ‘Ata island to the Tonga-hihifo (south-west), whose people were vacated and relocated to ‘Eua due to the problem of blackbirding, and is now uninhabited. Tonga and its neighbouring islands are said to have been fished up by Maui, excepting ‘Eua and ‘Ata, taken as the oldest Tongan islands.

The reception of Captain James Cook in Ha‘apai took weeks of kātoanga (festivities), which included kai (feasting), hiva (singing) and haka (dancing),23 as well as other faiva (performance arts), such as faiva tāpalalafa (coconut-spine- combating), faiva fangatua (wrestling), and faiva fuhu (boxing). While faiva fuhu, the performance art of boxing, is the focal point in this image, there are other faiva (performance), tufunga (material), and nimamea‘a (fine) arts involved. These include faiva teuteu (dress-wearing), tufunga teuteu (dress-making), tufunga ngaohi‘ulu (hair-dressing), nimamea‘a ngaohino‘o (belt-making).

The word fuhu is made up of fū and hū, that is, “clenching-of-the-fist” and “making- it-going-through,” points to the centrality of the nima (hands). Given their parallels, both the old Tongan and newly introduced performance arts of boxing are called faiva fuhu. The poses of the nima and va‘e (feet), as well as the wearing of both vala (wraparound) and no‘o (belt), speak of the techniques used.

Glossary ‘Aho‘eitu - First Tu‘i Tonga ‘Ata - An island group in Tonga

19 . The word motu (now variously known as mutu, putu, potu, popo and poko) means “break” and “island,” both distinct yet related. Cf. the use by eminent Tongan anthropologist, theorist, novelist and poet Professor Dr Epeli Hau‘ofa in his seminal essay Our Sea of Islands, translated as “hotau tahi ‘otumotu,” that is, “our sea of connected and separated or intersected lands.” 20 . Considered to be the main Tongan island, Tongatapu, which literally means “Tonga-the-beautiful/sacred”), is also known as Tonga‘eiki (Tonga-the-godly/chiefly) and Tongalahi (Tonga-the-great/abundant”). In short, Tongalahi simply means, in its totality, “Tonga having ‘eiki and tapu in great abundance.” These social and ceremonial attributes point to the double langi-maama (sky-earth), ‘otua-tangata (gold-earthly), origins of the most ancient Tu‘i Tonga (King of Tonga). 21 . The name Vava‘u is, in all probability, Samoan, which means tupu‘a (ancient) or motu‘a (old), as in tala ole vavau, that is, “telling-of-the-ancient” (or “telling-of-the-old”), respectively meaning tupu‘a and motu‘a, especially in view of powerful waves of influence coming from Sāmoa (and later Fiji) both known symbolically and named as Langi (Sky) and Pulotu, the ancestral homeland and afterworld, in the direction of Vava‘u. 22 . The fa‘ē (mother) of the first Tu‘i Tonga, ‘Aho‘eitu, was an earth woman of noble birth named ‘Ilaheva and later Va‘epopua from the island of Niuatoputapu, with both names associated with faka‘ofo‘ofa (beauty). 23 . These are the performance arts of faiva kai (feasting), faiva hiva (singing), and faiva haka (dancing).

15 | Page ‘Eua - An island group in Tonga ‘Otua-mo-tangata - God-and-man; demigod ‘Otumotu - Island groups Fa‘ē - Mother Faiva - Performance arts Faiva fangatua - Performance art of wrestling Faiva fuhu - Performance art of boxing Faiva haka - Performance art of dancing Faiva hiva - Performance art of singing Faiva kai - Performance art of feasting Faiva tāpalalafa - Performance art of coconut-spine-combating Faiva teuteu - Performance art of dress wearing Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty Fuhu – Boxing; The word is made up of fū and hū, that is, “clenching-of-the-fist” and “making-it-going-through” Ha‘apai - An island group in Tonga Haka - Dancing Hiva - Singing Kai - Eat; eating; feasting Kātoanga - Festivities Motu (now variously known as mutu, putu, potu, popo and poko) – Means both break and island. Motu‘a - Old Nima - Hands Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Nimamea‘a ngaohino‘o - Fine arts of belt-making Niua - An island group in Tonga No‘o - Belt Tala-tuku-ngutu – Oral history, literally means “telling-put-in-the-mouth,” Tala-tuku-tohi - Written history, literally means “telling-placed-in-the pen” Tokelau-lotoloto - Middle/central-north Tokelau-mama‘o - Remote-north Tokelau-ofi - Near-north Tonga - South Tonga‘eiki - Another term for the main Tongan island, literally means “Tonga-the- godly/chiefly” Tonga-hahake - South-east Tonga-hihifo - South-west Tongalahi - Another term for the main Tongan island, literally means “Tonga-the- great/abundant” Tongatapu - Main Tongan island, it literally means “Tonga-the-beautiful/sacred”. Tonga-tokelau - South-north Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga, also one of the three kingly lines. Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art/artist of printing Tufunga ngaohi‘ulu - Material art/artist of hair-dressing Tufunga ngaohihelu - Material art/artist of comb making Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art/artist of drawing

16 | Page Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art/artist of engraving Va‘e - Feet Va‘epopua - Literally “Feet-of-Popua,” heliaki metaphor for hoihoifua beauty; Mother of the first Tu’i Tonga Vala - Clothe; body-cover; wraparound Vava‘u - An island group in Tonga

17 | Page Plate #14

Koe Kātoanga Talitali ‘o Kapiteni Kuki/Tute ‘i Ha‘apai The Reception of Captain Cook in Ha‘apai 24 “The Reception of Captain Cook in Hapaee”25

John Webber (After), James Heath (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

Tonga is roughly divided into five ‘otumotu (island groups),26 namely, Tongatapu, Ha‘apai, Vava‘u, Niua, ‘Eua and ‘Ata. These groups of islands are largely organised along the Tonga-tokelau (south-north) axis, beginning with Tongatapu in the Tonga (south), then followed by Ha‘apai as tokelau-ofi (near-north), Vava‘u as tokelau-

24 . Translated from a Tongan view as: “Koe Kātoanga Talitali ‘o Kapiteni Kuki/Tute ‘i Ha‘apai,” that is, “Koe Kātoanga Talitali ‘o Toutaivaka/‘Eikivaka Kuki ‘i Ha‘apai;” with both toutaivaka and ‘eikivaka (that is, literally meaning “chief-of-the-boat,”) meaning “navigator” and “master navigator” respectively. The word ‘eiki points to both the ‘eiki (godliness/chiefliness), tapu (orderliness/cleanliness) and mana (mightiness/powerfulness) of both faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beauty) and ‘aonga/ngāue (utility) at the centre of the performance art of faiva faifolau (navigation/voyaging), both as an artform and a way of life. 25 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 26 . Professor Epeli Hau‘ofa heliaki metaphorically called the moana (ocean) as hotau tahi ‘otumotu (our sea of islands), a vast expanse of space made up of islands, defined as lands intersected or connected and separated by the sea, ocean, or water, i.e., hotau tahi ‘otumotu (our sea of islands).

18 | Page lotoloto (middle/centre/central-north) and Niua as tokelau-mama‘o (remote-north). The grand talitali (reception) of Cook was done on the island group of Ha‘apai, marking weeks of ongoing kātoanga (festivities) of kai (feasting), hiva (singing) and haka (dancing), as well as other faiva (performance arts), which included, inter alia, faiva tāpalalafa (coconut-spine-combating),27 faiva fangatua (wrestling), 28 and faiva fuhu (boxing). His great talitali was both formally and substantially carried out with immense hospitality, generosity and sincerity which Cook, by way of real admiration, appreciation and recognition, called them the “friendly islands,” translated as “‘otumotu anga‘ofa.”29

Basically, there are two main faiva (performance arts) involved in this image, namely, faiva tāpalalafa and faiva fuhu, concurrently taking place at the same tā-vā (time-space). Besides, there are other faiva, tufunga (material) and nimamea‘a (fine) arts indirectly engaged, namely, faiva teuteu (dress-wearing), tufunga teuteu (dress-making), tufunga ngaohi‘ulu (hair-dressing) and tufunga langafale (house- building).30 The temporal fakafelavai (intersection) or fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation) between the spatial entities loto (inside) and tu‘a (outside), respectively corresponding to maau (order) and felekeu (chaos), are done by way of mata (eye) and/or, its mirror image, ava (hole) as forms of fakahoko and fakamāvae, that is, fakafelavai. From a tāvāist philosophical view, everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society, is fakafelavai and there is nothing over and above fakahoko and fakamāvae; and, by the same token, everywhere in reality, as in nature and society, is mata-ava (eye-hole), and there is nothing above and beyond mata (eye) and ava (hole).31

Glossary ‘Ata - An island group in Tonga ‘Eua - An island group in Tonga ‘Otumotu - Island groups ‘Otumotu anga‘ofa - Friendly islands; symbolic name for Tonga ‘Ufi - Yams Ava - Hole Ava-e-fa‘o - Hole-of-the-nail Faiva - Performance arts Faiva fangatua - Performance art of wrestling Faiva fuhu - Performance art of boxing

27 . Also known as faiva taupalalafa, with both terms tā and tau meaning hit, beat or combat, using palalafa (coconut-leaf spine) as a means of tempo-marking of vā (space). 28 . The word fangatua means fanga (setting-up or abetting) one‘s opponent for tua (attack). 29 . The word motu means “break” and “island,” both distinct yet related. Cf. the use by eminent Tongan anthropologist, theorist, novelist and poet Professor Dr Epeli Hau‘ofa in his seminal essay Our Sea of Islands, translated as “Hotau Tahi ‘Otumotu,” that is, “our sea of connected and separated or intersected lands.” 30 . The two parallel tall upright structures on both sides are probably stacks of ‘ufi (yams) of the chiefly kahokaho variety, as well as puakatoho (huge pigs), with marine products of high quality at the foot, all as gifts for their special guests. 31 . From tāvāism as a philosophy of reality, mata or, its opposite, ava is where ivi (energy) is most dense and intense, as in the mata-e-fa‘o (eye-of-the-nail) and/or ava-e-fa‘o (hole-of-the-nail).

19 | Page Faiva tāpalalafa - Performance art of coconut-spine-combating Faiva teuteu - Performance art of dress-wearing Fakafelavai - Intersecting; cf. Fetaulaki (meeting-point) Fakahoko - Connecting; cf. Mata (eye) Fakamāvae - Separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fangatua - Wrestling; Means ‘fanga’ setting-up or abetting one‘s opponent for ‘tua’ or attack. Felekeu - Chaos Ha‘apai - An island group in Tonga Haka - Dancing Hiva - Singing Hotau tahi ‘otumotu - Our sea of islands Ivi - Energy Kahokaho - Chiefly variety of yam Kai - Eat; eating; feasting Kātoanga - Festivities Loto - Inside Maau - Order Mata - Eye Mata-ava - Eye-hole Mata-e-fa‘o - Eye-of-the-nail Motu - Means ‘break’ and ‘island’. Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Niua - An island group in Tonga Palalafa - Coconut leaf spine Puakatoho - Huge pigs Talitali - Reception Tā-vā –-Time-space or temporal/spatial Tokelau-lotoloto - Middle/central-north Tokelau-mama‘o - Remote-north Tokelau-ofi - Near-north Tonga - South Tongatapu - i.e., Sacred Tonga; Main island group in Tonga; also called Tonga‘eiki (Chiefly Tonga) and Tongalahi (Great Tonga), linked to the godly origin of the ancient Tu‘i Tonga dynasty, i.e., Tonga in abundance of kings and chiefs of both godly and earthly origin. Tonga-tokelau - South-north Tu‘a - Outside Tua - Attack Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art of printing Tufunga langafale - Material art of house-building Tufunga ngaohi‘ulu - Material art of hair-dressing Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art of drawing Tufunga teuteu - Material art of dress-making Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art of engraving Vava‘u - An island group in Tonga

20 | Page Plate #17

Koe Pōme‘e ‘ae Kau Fefine ‘i Ha‘apai A Night Dance by Women in Ha‘apai32 “A Night Dance by Women in Hapaee”33

John Webber (After), William Sharp (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This performance was done as part of the grandiose talitali (reception) of Captain James Cook in Ha‘apai, which is said to have lasted for some two weeks, when he aptly described the group “friendly islands,” translated as “‘otumotu anga‘ofa.”34 This great talitali seems to have involved a continuing kātoanga (festivities) of kai (feasting), hiva (singing) and haka (dancing), as well as the other related faiva (performance), tufunga (material) and nimamea‘a (fine) arts, including of the exchange of me‘a‘ofa (gifts) concerning both foaki-me‘a‘ofa (gift-giving) and tali- me‘a‘ofa (gift-receiving), of immense bodily-physical, social-ceremonial and artistic- literary significance. Most probably, this pō-faiva (night dance) performance was either a ula, me‘elaufola, he‘a or ‘upē dance, which are all forms of women‘s or female dance. These have all gone into extinction, except the me‘etu‘upaki and

32 . Edited as “A Night Dance by Women in Ha‘apai” and translated as “Koe Pōme‘e ‘ae Kakai Fefine ‘i Ha‘apai”. 33 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 34 . Tonga has ever since been metaphorically called Friendly Islands, that is, ‘Otumotu Anga‘ofa.

21 | Page ‘otuhaka dances, with both the former and the latter as male and female dances respectively. The ‘otuhaka dance, like the much-later Samoan-introduced mā‘ulu‘ulu35 dance, is a faiva ta‘utu (sitting dance).

The prefixed word pō (night), suffixed by specific dance forms/art forms, as in pōula (night of ula), pōme‘e (night of me‘e, either me‘etu‘upaki or me‘elaufola), pōhe‘a (night of he‘a), and pōtau‘olunga (night of tau‘olunga), as well as pōfaiva (night of faiva), pōhiva (night of hiva [of singing]), pōlea (night of lea [of speaking]), pōlotu (night of lotu [of worshipping]), pōlave (night of lave [of sweet-talking]), pōtatala (night of tatala [of open-talking]), pōtalanoa (night of talanoa (of critical-yet- harmonious-talking]) and pōfananga (night of fananga [of legend-telling]), point to the fact that these disciplinary practices and forms of social activity were performed largely during the pō – chiefly for reasons of both beauty and utility.

Of direct relation to the women‘s dance performance, are the faiva ta‘anga (poetry), faiva hiva (music), faiva tukipitu (stamping-tube-playing), with the latter two performed predominantly in the afo fakafa‘ahikehe (minor tune).36 These are indirectly related to the performance arts of faiva teuteu (costume-decorating), which involves tui-teuteu (dress-wearing) and tui-kakala (head-band-wearing), material arts of tufunga ngaohitukipitu (stamp-tube-making), tufunga teuteu (dress-making) and tufunga ngaohi‘ulu (hair-dressing) and fine art of nimamea‘a tuikakala (head-band-flower-designing) amidst others. Apart from an exhibition by way of impressions of elegance, gracefulness and beauty, underlined the actual dance performance, the organisation of the parts within the whole is done by means of mata (eye) and/or, its symmetry, ava (hole),37 as in seating (and standing) arrangements of the kau matafaiva (spectators) and kau faiva (performers), that is, both dancers and musicians, made up of kau-hiva (singers) and kau tāme‘alea (players of the instruments), notably, tukipitu (stamping-tubes) as kau tukipitu (players of stamping tubes).

The seating arrangement of the kau matafaiva (spectators) functioned to differentiate between the loto (inside) and the tu‘a (outside) (and mu‘a [front/before] and mui [back/behind]), on the physical-material level, and tapu (orderliness) and ngofua (disorderliness), on the social-ceremonial level. Cf. the parallel distinction between matafale (face-of-the-house) and tu‘afale (back-of-the-house). Besides, we can witness the aesthetically-pleasing founga ta‘utu (sitting techniques) between tangata (men) and fafine/fefine (women), which are known as fakata‘ane (sitting-

35 . The tau‘olunga is a faiva-tu ‘u (standing dance) also originated in Samoan taualuga, both named after the top-most part of the fale (house), was introduced more or less at the same time-space as mā‘ulu‘ulu. 36 . The term fakafa‘ahikehe literally means “sound-of-a-different side/order,” that is, “of mate” (death and the dead) as opposed to maisoa/mīsoa (major sound)-led “fa‘ahitatau/fa‘ahitaha” as “sound-of-the-same- side/order, “ that is, “of life” (life and the living). From a Tongan tāvāist philosophical view, the afo fakafa‘ahikehe (minor tune, tone, key, note or sound) is a vaka (medium) for paying tribute to the dead by the living. The word minor is translated into mīnoa/maina, which the missionaries called ongo fakatētēvolo or “devilish in sound,” thereby moralistically problematising it as both evil and sinful. 37 . Deriving from a tāvāist philosophical tenet, that all things in reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to maau/fenāpasi (order) and/or felekeu/fepaki (chaos) and, as a corollary, everywhere in reality is fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation), and there is nothing over and above fakafelavai (intersection).

22 | Page cross-legged) in fesi/fasi (straight lines) and fakafāite (sitting-parallel-legged) in ngaofe/ofe (curved lines), informed by a sense of both masculinity and femininity. Cf. this parallel gender-led distinction in dance, defined in 45/45 and 30/60 degrees respectively for both tangata (male) and fafine (female). As a matter of interest, it is worthy of note the sort of awkward, less orderly way in which Cook is specifically seated, which is in a half-sitting, half-lying-down fashion right in front of the circle of seated spectators.

Glossary Ava - Hole Afo fakafa‘ahikehe - Minor tune, tone, key, note or sound Fa‘ahitatau/fa‘ahitaha - Literally means “sound-of-the-same-side/order“ Fafine/fefine – Women/Female Faiva - Performance arts Faiva hiva - Performance art of music Faiva ta‘anga - Performance art of poetry Faiva ta‘utu - A type of sitting dance or performance art Faiva teuteu - Performance art of costume-decorating Faiva tukipitu - Performance art of stamping-tube-playing Fakafa‘ahikehe - Literally means “sound-of-a-different side/order” Fakafāite - Sitting-parallel-legged for women Fakafelavai - Intersect; intersection; intersecting Fakahoko - Connect; connection; connecting; cf. Mata (hole) Fakamāvae - Separate; separation; separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fakata‘ane - Sitting-cross-legged for men Fale - House; cf. Fefine (woman) Felekeu/fepaki - Chaos Fesi/fasi - Curved straight lines Foaki-me‘a‘ofa - Gift-giving Founga ta‘utu - Sitting techniques Haka - Dancing He‘a - A type of ancient dance now extinct Hiva - Singing Kai - Eating; feasting Kātoanga - Festivities Kau faiva - Performers Kau matafaiva - Spectators Kau tāme‘alea - Players of instruments Kau tukipitu - Players of stamping tubes Kau-hiva - Singers Loto - Inside; centre; middle Mā‘ulu‘ulu - Samoan-introduced sitting dance Maau/fenāpasi - Order Maisoa/mīsoa - Major tune, tone, key, note or sound Mata - Eye Matafale - Face/eye-of-the-house Me‘a‘ofa - Gifts

23 | Page Me‘elaufola - A type of ancient dance now extinct Me‘etu‘upaki - A type of ancient dance Mīnoa/maina - Minor tune, tone, note, key or sound Mu‘a - Front/before Mui - Back/behind Ngaofe/ofe - Curved lines Ngofua - Disorderliness Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Nimamea‘a tuikakala - Fine art of head-band-flower-designing ‘Otuhaka - A type of near-extinct dance ‘Otumotu anga‘ofa - Friendly islands; cf. Symbolic name for Tonga Ongo fakatētēvolo - Literally means “devilish in sound” in reference to minor tune, tone, note, key or sound Pō - Night Pō-faiva - Night dance Pōfaiva - Night of performance Pōfananga - Night of fananga (legend-telling) Pōhaka - Night dance Pōhe‘a - Night of he‘a dance Pōhiva - Night of hiva (singing) Pōlave - Night of lave (sweet-talking) Pōlea - Night of lea (of speaking) Pōlotu - Night of lotu (worshipping) Pōme‘e - Night of me‘e dance, either me‘etu‘upaki or me‘elaufola Pōtalanoa - Night of talanoa (critical-yet-harmonious-talking) Pōtatala - Night of tatala (of open-talking) Pōtau‘olunga - Night of tau‘olunga dance Pōula - Night of ula dance Tali-me‘a‘ofa - Gift-receiving Talitali - Reception Tangata - Men Tapu - Taboo, that is, orderliness (and/or beauty) Tau‘olunga - Standing dance Tu‘a - Outside Tu‘afale - Back-of-the-house Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art/artist of printing Tufunga ngaohi‘ulu - Material art of hair-dressing Tufunga ngaohitukipitu – Material art/artist of stamp-tube-making Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art/artist of drawing Tufunga teuteu - Material art/artist of dress-making Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art/artist of engraving Tui-kakala - Head-band-wearing Tui-teuteu - Dress-wearing Tukipitu - Stamping tubes; long-extinct Ula - A type of near-extinct ancient dance; also known as fa‘ahiula or faha‘iula ‘Ūpē - A type of long-extinct ancient dance Vaka - Boat; medium

24 | Page Plate #16 Koe Pōme‘e ‘ae Kau Tangata ‘i Ha‘apai A Night Dance by Men in Ha‘apai38 “A Night Dance by Men in Hapaee”39

John Webber (After), William Sharp (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This performance was done as part of the grandiose talitali (reception) of Captain James Cook in Ha‘apai, which is said to have lasted for some two weeks, when he aptly described the group “friendly islands,” translated as “‘otumotu anga‘ofa.”40 This great talitali seems to have involved a continuing kātoanga (festivities) of kai (feasting), hiva (singing) and haka (dancing). Also, it included other related faiva (performance), tufunga (material) and nimamea‘a (fine) arts, as was the exchange of me‘a‘ofa (gifts) concerning both foaki-me‘a‘ofa (gift-giving) and tali-me‘a‘ofa (gift- receiving), of immense bodily-physical, social-ceremonial and artistic-literary significance. This pō-faiva41 (night dance) performance was either a male dance or

38 . Both edited as “A Night Dance by Men in Ha‘apai” and translated as, “Koe Pōme‘e ‘ae Kakai Tangata ‘i Ha‘apai.” 39 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 40 . Tonga has ever since been metaphorically called Friendly Islands, that is, ‘Otumotu Anga‘ofa. 41 . The prefixed word pō (night), suffixed by specific dance forms/art forms, as in pōula (night of ula), pōme‘e (night of me‘e, either me‘etu‘upaki or me‘elaufola), pōhe‘a (night of he‘a), and pōtau‘olunga (night of tau‘olunga), as well as pofaiva (night of faiva), pohiva (night of hiva [of singing]), pōlea (night of lea [of

25 | Page male version of either a ula, me‘elaufola, he‘a or ‘upē dance, all as predominant forms of female dances. These have all gone into extinction, except the ‘otuhaka and me‘etu‘upaki42 dances, with the latter being mainly a male dance. The ‘otuhaka dance, like the much-later Samoan-introduced mā‘ulu‘ulu43 dance, is a faiva ta‘utu (sitting dance).

Besides the men‘s dance performance,44 there are also the faiva ta‘anga (poetry), faiva hiva (music), faiva tukipitu (stamping-tube-playing),45 with the latter two performed predominantly in the afo fakafa‘ahikehe (minor tune).46 These are indirectly related to the performance arts faiva teuteu (costume-decorating), which involves tui-teuteu (dress-wearing) and tui-kakala (waist-band-wearing), material arts of tufunga ngaohitukipitu (stamp-tube-making), tufunga teuteu (dress-making) and tufunga ngaohi‘ulu (hair-dressing) and fine arts of nimamea‘a tuikakala (waist- band-designing) amidst others. Apart from the conspicuous exhibition of molumalu (elegance) and faka‘ei‘eiki (gracefulness), on the one hand, and potupotutatau (harmony) and faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beauty), on the other, thereby upholding the actual dance performance, the actual organisation of the parts within the whole is truly worthy of come critical discussion. Specifically, this is afforded by means of mata (eye) and/or, its symmetry, ava (hole),47 as in both the seating (and standing)

speaking/speech-giving]), pōlotu (night of lotu [of worshipping]), pōlave (night of lave [of sweet-talking]), pōtatala (night of tatala [of open-talking]), pōtalanoa (night of talanoa (of critical-yet-harmonious-talking]) and pōfananga (night of fananga [of legend-telling]), point to the fact that these disciplinary practices and forms of social activity were performed largely during the pō – chiefly for reasons of both beauty and utility. 42 . The me‘etu‘upaki, literally meaning “dance-standing-with-paki (paddles),” which was performed as a prayer by navigators/voyagers to the gods of the wind and sea, Lulu and Lātū, seeking their divine protection. The lyrics also mentions voyaging techniques and ports of call in their seascape movement from the north- west Moana all the way to Tonga, where they had kava as a celebration. 43 . The tau‘olunga is a faiva-tu‘u (standing dance) also originated in Samoan tau‘aluga, both named after the top-most part of the fale (house), was introduced more or less at the same timespace as ma‘ulu‘ulu. 44 . The haka (dance) movements, notably, the nima (hands) are organised roughly along the angular 45/45 degrees as opposed to those of the women at 30/60 degrees. Cf. the angular arrangements of sitting techniques of fakata‘ane (crossed-legged) for tangata and fakafāite (parallel-legged) for fafine/fefine. 45 . The three performances lie in closer affinity, in that ta‘anga (poetry) is put to hiva (music), which is, in turn, put to haka (dance), in that logical order of precedence, respectively engaging in the mediation of intersecting or connecting and separating human meanings, tunes, tones, notes or sounds, and bodily movements. Apart from ta‘anga, both hiva and haka are devoid of meaning. 46 . The term fakafa‘ahikehe literally means “sound-of-a-different side/order,” that is, “of mate” (death and the dead) as opposed to maisoa/mīsoa (major sound)-led “fa‘ahitatau/fa‘ahitaha” as “sound-of-the-same- side/order, “ that is, “of life” (life and the living). From a Tongan tāvāist philosophical view, the afo fakafa‘ahikehe (Minor tune, tone, key, note or sound) is a vaka (medium) for paying tribute to the dead by the living. The word minor is translated into mīnoa/maina, which the missionaries called ongo fakatētēvolo or “devilish in sound,” thereby moralistically problematising it as both evil and sinful. By the way, the Tongan afo fakafa‘ahikehe and European/Western minor tune, like Tongan afo fakafa‘ahitatau and Europen/Western major tune, are different ways of knowing a specifc ongo (sound), which can be mediated by way of tatau (similarities) and kehekehe (differences). 47 . Deriving from a tāvāist philosophical tenet, that all things in reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to maau/fenāpasi (order) and/or felekeu/fepaki (chaos) and, as a corollary, everywhere in reality is fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation), and there is nothing over and above fakafelavai (intersection).

26 | Page arrangements of the kau matafaiva (spectators)48 and kau faiva (performers), that is, both dancers and musicians, made up of kau-hiva (singers) and kau tāme‘alea (instrument-players),49 notably, tukipitu (stamping-tubes) as kau tukipitu (stamping-tube-players.).

Glossary Afo fakafa‘ahikehe - Minor tune, tone, note, key or sound Ava - Hole Fa‘ahitatau/fa‘ahitaha - Literally meaning “sound-of-the-same-side/order” Fafine/fefine - Women Faiva - Performance arts Faiva hiva - Music Faiva ta‘anga - Poetry Faiva ta‘utu - Sitting dance Faiva teuteu - Costume-decorating Faiva tukipitu - Stamping-tube-playing Faka‘ei‘eiki - Gracefulness Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty Fakafa‘ahikehe - Literally meaning “sound-of-a-different side/order” Fakafāite - Sitting-parallel-legged as a technique for women Fakata‘ane - Sitting-cross-legged as a style for men Fale - House Felekeu/fepaki - Chaos Fesi/fasi - Curved straight lines Foaki-me‘a‘ofa - Gift-giving Founga ta‘utu - Sitting techniques Ha‘apai - Island group in Tonga Haka - Dancing, dance He‘a - A type of ancient dance now extinct Hiva - Singing Kai - Eating; feasting Kātoanga - Festivities Kau faiva - Performers Kau matafaiva - Spectators, viewers, seers, audience

48 . The seating arrangement of the kau matafaiva functioned to differentiate between the loto (inside) and the tu‘a (outside) (and mu‘a [front/before] and mui [back/behind]], on the physical-material level, and tapu (orderliness) and ngofua (disorderliness), on the social-ceremonial level. Cf. the parallel distinction between matafale (face-of-the-house) and tu‘afale (back-of-the-house). Besides, we can witness the aesthetically- pleasing founga ta‘utu (sitting techniques) amongst tangata (men), which known as fakata‘ane (sitting-crossed- legged) in fesi/fasi (straight lines), defining a sense of masculinity) (as opposed to the sitting techniques amongst fafine/fefine (women] called fakafāite (sitting-parallel-legged) in ngaofe/ofe (curved lines), defined by a sensibility of femininity. Interestingly, it is worthy of note the sort of awkward, less orderly way in which Cook and his crew men specifically sat in the circle of kau mamata (and immediately stood behind it). 49 . Besides the supporting faiva, tufunga and haka, the equal attention given to all the three performance arts, namely, ta‘anga and especially hiva and haka, is worthy of critical note, especially when both the kau hiva, including the kau tukipitu, and kau haka, both in the centre of the circle, are fully exhibited not only in themselves as aesthetic qualities but also for the purpose of both viewing and enjoying.

27 | Page Kau tāme‘alea - Players of the instruments Kau tukipitu - Players of the stamping tubes Kau-hiva - Singers Loto - Inside; centre; middle Lulu and Lātū - Gods of wind and sea Maau/fenāpasi - Order Maisoa/mīsoa - Major tune tone, tone, key or sound Mata - Eye Matafale - Face/eye-of-the-house Me‘a‘ofa - Gifts; cf. Samoan me‘alofa Me‘elaufola - A type of ancient dance now extinct Me‘etu‘upaki - A type of dance, literally meaning “dance-standing-with-paki (paddles) Mīnoa/maina - Minor tune, tone, note or sound Molumalu - Elegance Mu‘a - Front/before Mui - Back/behind; cf. Muli Ngaofe/ofe - Curved lines Ngofua - Disorderliness Nimamea‘a – Fine arts Nimamea‘a tuikakala – Fine art of waist-band-designing ‘Otuhaka – A type of near-extinct dance ‘Otumotu anga‘ofa – Friendly islands; symbolic name for Tonga Pō – Night Pō-faiva – Night dance Pōfaiva – Night of faiva Pōfananga – Night of fananga (and of legend-telling) Pōhaka – Night dance Pōhe‘a – Night of he‘a dance now extinct Pōhiva – Night of hiva (of singing) Pōlave – Night of lave (of sweet-talking) Pōlea – Night of lea (of speaking) Pōlotu – Night of lotu (of worshipping) Pōme‘e – Night of me‘e, either me‘etu‘upaki or me‘elaufola Pōtalanoa – Night of talanoa (of critical-yet-harmonious-talking) Pōtatala – Night of tatala (of open-talking) Pōtau‘olunga – Night of tau‘olunga Potupotutatau – Harmony Pōula – Night of ula dance Ta‘anga – Poetry Tali-me‘a‘ofa – Gift-receiving Talitali – Reception Tangata – Men Tapu – Taboo, that is, orderliness (or beauty) Tau‘olunga – Faiva-tu‘u (standing dance) Tu‘a – Outside Tu‘afale – Back-of-the-house Tufunga – Material arts

28 | Page Tufunga hiki‘ata – Material art of printing Tufunga ngaohi‘ulu – Hair-dressing Tufunga takohi‘ata – Material art of drawing Tufunga teuteu – Dress-making Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi – Material art of engraving Tui-kakala – Waist-band-wearing Tui-teuteu – Dress-wearing Tukipitu – Stamping-tubes Ula – A type of ancient dance; also known as fa‘ahiula or faha‘iula ‘Ūpē – A type of long-extinct dance Vaka – Boat

29 | Page Plate #23

Koe Fefine ‘Eua A Woman of ‘Eua50 “A Woman of Eaoo”

John Webber (After), John Hall (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This ‘ata (image)51 depicts a portrait of a woman of ‘Eua.52 The island of ‘Eua, together with the island of ‘Ata, are both respectively situated to the Tonga-hahake

50 . Edited as “A Woman of ‘Eua” and translated as “Koe Fefine ‘Eua”; there exists a lea heliaki proverbial saying, koe ‘uli‘uli a fine ‘Eua (blackness of a woman of ‘Eua), a reference to the hoihoifua beauty of ‘Eua women. 51 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 52 . The women of the island of ‘Eua were renowned for their great faka‘ofo‘ofa (beauty) and this is reflected in the old lea heliaki (proverbial saying), namely, “Koe ‘uli‘uli ‘a fine/fefine ‘Eua” (The blackness of a woman of ‘Eua), which is a reference to the greater attractiveness of the blackness of ‘Eua women. From a tāvāist

30 | Page (south-east) and Tonga-hihifo (south-west), of the main Tongan island, variously named Tonga‘eiki, Tongatapu and Tongalahi.53 All of Tonga and her neighbouring islands are said to have been fished up by Maui, except ‘Eua and ‘Ata, which were created by god Tangaloa Tufunga as a great tufunga material artist or artisan, who resided up in the Langi (Sky).54 By tipping over the efuefu (dusts) from his fale tufunga (workshop) in the Langi above, thereby creating both the islands of ‘Eua and ‘Ata.55 As separate island groups, both the islands of ‘Eua and ‘Ata are, by virtue of their being created earlier in history,56 considered as the oldest islands in the whole of Tonga. It is quite simply suffice to say that ‘Eua was once a great centre of culture57 for around a thousand years, which actively involved intense development across the whole social spectrum, when it all began with the Maui gods58 through Tafakula and Nāfanua59 demigods and Lo‘au the famous tufunga fonua60 (social architects/social engineers) to Kaufana and Puakatau61 as fearless and brave to‘a tete‘e (warriors).

The portrait of this woman of ‘Eua points to the overlays of a number of faiva (performance), tufunga (material), and nimamea‘a (fine) arts, as well as artistic concepts and practices, including the thinking and praxis of such occurrences as

perspective, kula (red) is tangata (male) and ‘uli (black) is fefine (female), both epistemologically-symbolically derived from tā (time) and vā (space) as ontological-actual entities, identities or tendencies. 53 . The main Tongan island is linked to the first Tu‘i Tonga, ‘Aho‘eitu, whose Langi (Sky, that is, Sāmoa) father was overly handsome god Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a and Maama (Earth, that is, Tongan) mother was a most beautiful woman of noble birth ‘Ilaheva, who was later named Va‘epopua. The names Tonga‘eiki, Tongatapu and Tongalahi refer to the lahi (greatness) of the main island in being both ‘eiki (godliness/chiefliness) and tapu (orderliness), divine and beautiful, that is, full of mana (powerfulness/mightiness). 54 . By distinguishing between the historical and the metaphorical on the basis of heliaki, which engages in wrapping-up of history in symbols, it can be argued that both Tangaloa and Maui could be either foreign and/or local powerful individuals or political ideologies actively involved in the development of society. 55 . Severely suffered from kaiha‘a tangata (blackbirding), the rest of the people of ‘Ata were coincidently relocated to ‘Eua, where they were socially-culturally converged in their being diversified. 56 . According to the talatupu‘a (myths) (and fananga [legends]) of origins, Tonga began with natural elements in hoa/soa (pairs of equals and opposites) emerging out of the land and sea through the emergence of tangata (men) to the rise of ‘otua (gods), all in hoa/soa, when history continues to repeat itself in circular ways, not wholly totally but essentially partially. 57 . Or great centre of civilisation. 58 . Who were both intensively and extensively involved in the domestication of plants and animals, as well as marine-based development in both knowledge and skills concerning the performance arts of toutaivaka (long- distant-seafaring) and toutaiika (deep-sea-fishing), not to mention such performing arts as faiva sika‘ulutoa (javelin-throwing) and faiva fānifo (surfing) and many more. 59 . Who were fiercely involved in serious land disputes with Sāmoa. 60 . Besides ‘Eua, considered as ‘Eua Lahi (big ‘Eua), the Lo‘au as tufunga fonua, carried out a programme of plant domestication through experimentation, which involved the kava and tō (sugarcane) plants, physically characterised by their respective kona (bitterness) and melie (sweetness) tastes, on the small neighbouring island of ‘Eueiki, that is, ‘Eua Si’i (Small ‘Eua). The story of the origin of the kava and tō was set as a faiva fakamamahi (tragedy), which peaked in the feilaulau (sacrifice) of their daughter Kava by her parents. The moral of the kava story is, that all beautiful and useful things that last, one symbolically has to inu (drink) the kona of the kava then followed by kai (eating) the melie of the tō. The kumā (mouse) was successfully used to test the level of kona and melie in both plants. 61 Both Kaufana and his brother Puakatau were crucially instrumental in the successful political campaign of King George Tāufa‘āhau through tau lingitoto (bloody wars) for control over the whole of Tonga.

31 | Page tatau (symmetry), potupotutatau (harmony), and faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beauty).62 From a Tongan view of tatau, potupotutatau and faka‘ofo‘ofa,63 that is, talavou64 fakaTonga, the whole of the sino (body), especially the individual parts, begin with the ‘ulu (head), lou ‘ulu (hair), mata (face), kemo (eyebrows), la‘e (forehead), ngutu (mouth) and kia (neck) through the upper body, such as the uma (shoulders), fatafata (chest), huhu (breasts), and nima (hands) and the lower body, for example, tu‘ungaiku (buttock), tenga (thighs), and mahaki (genitals) to the va‘e (feet), especially the alanga (legs), ‘ate‘iva‘e (calves), and mui‘iva‘e (heels) and many more. Of all these, both the lou‘ulu and ‘ate‘iva‘e stand out as criteria of faka‘ofa‘ofa.65 The faiva, tufunga and nimamea‘a involved here include, inter alia, faiva teuteu (dress- wearing), tufunga teuteu (dress-making), tufunga ngaohi‘ulu (hair-dressing) and nimamea‘a tuikahoakula (bead-necklace-making).

Glossary ‘Aho‘eitu - First Tu’i Tonga ‘Ata - Image, picture, photograph, mirror, symmetry ‘Ata - Island group in Tonga ‘Ate‘iva‘e - Calves ‘Eiki - Godliness/chiefliness ‘Eua - An island group in Tonga ‘Eualahi - Big ‘Eua ‘Eueiki - Island in Tonga; Small ‘Eua ‘Otua - Gods ‘Uli - Black ‘Ulu - Head ‘Ululoloa - Long hair Alanga - Legs Efuefu - Dusts Faiva - Performance arts Faiva fakamamahi - Tragedy Faiva teuteu - Performance art of dress-wearing Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty; cf. hoihoifua beauty Fale tufunga - Material art workshop Fananga - Legends

62 . As aesthetic concepts and practices, the states of affairs of faka‘ofo‘ofa/māfana (beauty) is a function of both tatau (symmetry) and potupotutatau (harmony). 63 . In view of the intrinsic quality of beauty, the terms faka‘ofo‘ofa applies to both tufunga and nimamea‘a, while the word mālie is used for faiva. 64 . In addition to the word faka‘ofo‘ofa, the terms talavou and hoihoifua are both used for physical beauty. 65 . The famous love stories of the Langi (Samoan) god Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a, who fell in love with the noble birth Maama (Tongan) woman ‘Ilaheva, whose name was later changed to Va‘epopua (Feet-of-Popua) for her extreme faka‘ofo‘ofa. ‘Eitumātupu‘a and ‘Ilaheva/Va‘apopua are the parents of the first Tu‘i Tonga, ‘Aho‘eitu. The 24th Tu‘i Tonga, Takalaua, fell in love with ‘Ulukihelupe, the name of whom was later changed to Va‘elaveamata (Feet-injuring-eyes) for her immense faka‘ofo‘ofa. Besides their well-proportioned, well-formed ‘ate‘iva‘e, both had ‘ululoloa, both as markers of great faka‘ofo‘ofa (or talavou).

32 | Page Fānifo - Surfing; as a performance art, faiva fānifo makes use of the spiral-like, vortex-type, waves and winds by way of mata-ava (eye-hole) Fatafata - Chest Fefine - Female Feilaulau - Sacrifice Heliaki - Proverbial saying Hoa - Pairs of equals and opposites; cf. Samoan soa Hoihoifua - Another term for physical beauty Huhu - Breasts Inu - Drink Kai - Eat Kaiha‘a tangata - Black-birding Kaufana - Weapon for shooting Kemo - Eyebrows Kia - Neck Kona - Sourness (or bitterness) Kula - Red Kumā - Mouse (or rat) La‘e - Forehead Lahi - Great; greatness Langi - Sky Lo‘au - Ancient social architect/social engineer (tufunga fonua) Lou‘ulu - Hair Maama - Earth Mahaki - Genitals; genitalia Mata - Face; eye Maui - God of Earth (Maama) and Underworld (Lolofonua/Lalofonua) Melie - Sweetness Mui‘iva‘e - Heels Nāfanua - Tongan goddess linked to ‘Eua; cf. Samoan Nāfanua as goddess of war Ngutu - Mouth Nima - Hands Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Nimamea‘a tuikahoakula - Bead-necklace-making Potupotutatau - Harmony Puakatau - A notable warrior of the island of ‘Eua and younger brother of renowned warrior Kaufana Sika‘ulutoa - Javelin-throwing Sino - Body Tā - Time Tafakula - A demigod of the island of ‘Eua Takalaua - 24th Tu‘i Tonga Talatupu‘a - Myths Talavou - Another term for physical beauty Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a - Samoan god of the Langi (Sky), aristocratic father of first Tu’i Tonga Tangaloa Tufunga - Samoan god of the Langi (Sky) of material arts (tufunga) Tangata - Men

33 | Page Tapu - Taboo, that is, orderliness (or beauty) Tatau - Symmetry Tau lingitoto - Bloody wars Tenga - Thighs Tō - Sugarcane To‘a tete‘e - Outstanding warriors Tonga‘eiki - Another term for the main Tongan island, literally meaning “Tonga- the-godly/chiefly” Tonga-hahake - South-east Tonga-hihifo - South-west Tongalahi - Another term for the main Tongan island, literally meaning “Tonga- the-great/abundant” (that is, in both ‘eiki and tapu) Tongatapu - Main Tongan island, literally meaning “Tonga-the-beautiful/sacred” Toutaiika - Deep-sea-fishing Toutaivaka - Long-distant-seafaring Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga Tu‘ungaiku - Buttock; literally meaning “place-where-the-tail-stands” Tufunga - Material Tufunga fonua – Material art/artist of social architects/social engineers Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art/artist of printing Tufunga ngaohi‘ulu – Material art/artist of hair-dressing Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art/artist of drawing Tufunga teuteu – Material art/artist of dress-making Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art/artist of engraving Uma - Shoulders Vā - Space Va‘e - Feet Va‘epopua - Noble-birth Tongan mother of first Tu’i Tonga

34 | Page Plate #21

Koe Fa‘itoka pē Mala‘e ‘i Tongatapu A Fa‘itoka or Mala‘e in Tongatapu66 “A Fiatooka or Morai in Tongataboo”

John Webber (After), William Ellis (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This ‘ata (image)67 depicts the scenery of a fa‘itoka or mala‘e (burial place) in Tongatapu, which is the main island of Tonga. The island of Tongatapu (Sacred/Orderly Tonga) is also known as Tonga‘eiki (Godly/Chiefly Tonga) and Tongalahi (Abundant/Great Tonga). It quite simply means that, by virtue of the double langi-maama (heavenly-earthly), tapu-ngofua (sacred-profane), tupu‘anga (origins) of the first Tu‘i Tonga (King of Tonga), ‘Aho‘eitu,68 the main island of Tonga is therefore considered to be lahi (abundant/great) in both ‘eiki

66 . Edited as “A Fa‘itoka or Mala‘e in Tongatapu” and translated as “Koe Fa‘itoka pe Mala‘e ‘i Tongatapu”. 67 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 68 . The double origins of the first Tu‘i Tonga, ‘Aho‘eitu, are derived from his Langi (Sky, that is, Samoan) father, god Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a, and noble birth Maama (Earth, that is, Tongan) mother, ‘Ilaheva later changed to Va‘epopua (Feet-of-Popua), both meaning great faka‘ofo’ofa (beauty). Besides faka‘ofo‘ofa, the words talavou and hoihoifua are used for physical beauty.

35 | Page (chiefliness/godliness) and tapu (orderliness).69 The fa‘itoka70 (place of lying- down [of the mate or dead]), mala‘e (cemetery) and langi71 (sky) are used for royal tombs, where both fa‘itoka and mala‘e are used interchangeably for both Tu‘i Ha‘atakalaua and Tu‘i Kanokupolu kingly lines, while langi is reserved only for the Tu‘i Tonga dynasty.72 As for the tu‘a (commoner) classes as opposed to the aristocratic classes, their burial places of the mate, are called tanu‘anga (place of burial [of the mate]) and tānekinanga73 (place of collection [of the mate]).

There are two material arts which are primarily concerned with mate (both death and the dead), namely, tufunga ngaohifa‘itoka and tufunga ngaohimala‘e (burial-place-building) and tufunga nimatapu (literally meaning “sacred/orderly- hands”74 or dead-handling, that is, undertaker). Obviously, the other material art is tufunga langafale (house building),75 as in the fale (houses) adjoining the fa‘itoka and/or mala‘e, where the laumālie (souls) of the dead are thought to take shelter. The concept and practice of fonua76 is defined by the dialectical human- environment movement people from fā‘ele (birth) through mo‘ui (life) to mate (death). This anthropo-ecological movement goes through three fonua, namely, the valevale (foetus) and taungafanau (mother‘s placenta) to kakai (people) and ‘ātakai (environment) to the mate (dead) and fa‘itoka/mala‘e (burial place). The souls of the dead are said to return upon mate to the ancestral homeland and afterworld Pulotu,77 considered as the fa‘ahikehe (side-of-a-different-order) as opposed to the-side-of-the-living named fa‘ahitaha/fa‘ahitatau (side-of-the-same-

69 . Or faka‘ofo‘ofa, talavou and hoihoifua (beauty). 70 . Short for fai‘angatoka, that is, “place-of-lying-down-(of-the-dead). 71 . The royal tombs of the Tu‘i Tonga are called langi, named in view of their double langi-maama origins. 72 . Apart from the three lines of kings, namely, Tu‘i Tonga, Tu‘i Ha‘atakalaua, and Tu‘i Kanokupolu, there exists a fourth kingly line, which we have called Tu‘i Tupou (now renumbered I-VI) as a new line of kings of the Tautahi (Warriors-of-the-sea), made up of the islands of Vava‘u, Ha‘apai and later ‘Eua. The Tautahi was led by the victor, King George Tāufa‘āhau Tupou 1, who combined the whole of Tonga under his kingship, marked by all the so-called modern trappings. 73 . The word tānekinanga is a corruption of tānaki‘anga, which both mean “place-of-collection (of the dead).” 74 . There is an old Tongan lea heliaki (proverbial saying) which says, “‘Oku toki ‘eiki ‘ae tangata he‘ene mate” (Man only becomes godly/chiefly when he dies) and, by virtue of the material art of tufunga nimatapu, the same can be said “‘Oku toki tapu ‘ae tangata he‘ene mate” (Man becomes orderly when he dies). Herein, both ‘eiki and tapu as godly/chiefly and orderly tendencies amount to a state of faka‘ofo‘ofa. 75 . The fale (house) is a vaka fakafo‘ohifo (upside-down boat) and the vaka (boat) is a fale fakafo‘ohake (downside-up house), where the kava is created at their fakafelavai (intersection) or fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation). The seating positions in the kava circle are named after the vaka, such as olovaha as the taumu‘a (bow), ‘alofi (rowers) on both sides and tou‘a (anchor) at the taumui (stern). 76 Which variously exists throughout the Great Moana Levu/Lahi/Tele/Nui as honua, hanua, vanua, fanua, fenua, enua and whenua. 77 . Pulotu, symbolic name for Fiji, is the divine domain of Hikule‘o, goddess of fertility and harvest, as well as guardian of past refined ‘ilo (knowledge) and poto (skills). Cf. the divine realms of Maama (Earth) and Langi (Sky), symbolic names of Tonga and Sāmoa. Of all the three regimes, Pulotu, Maama and Langi respectively represent the kuohili/kuongamu‘a (past), lotolotonga/kuongaloto (present) and kaha‘u/kuongamui (future), where the Moanans as TāVā (Time-Space) Travelers freely move forward into the kuohili/kuongamu‘a and move backward into the kaha‘u/kuongamui (future), both in the lotolotonga/kuongaloto, where the illusive, already-taken-place kuohili/kuongamu‘a and the elusive, yet-to-take-place kaha‘u/kuongamui are constantly mediated in the social process.

36 | Page order). While Pulotu78 is the ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hihifo (western Moana), Hawaiki is the ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hahake (eastern Moana).

Glossary ‘Aho‘eitu - First Tu‘i Tonga ‘Alofi - Rowers; also refers to both sides of the kava circle ‘Ata - Image, picture, mirror, photograph ‘Ātakai - Environment (land, sea, sky, earth) ‘Eiki - Chiefliness/godliness ‘Eua - Island group in Tonga ‘Ilo - Knowledge Fa‘ahikehe - Literally meaning “sound-of-a-different-order/side;” also minor tune, tone, note, key or sound Fa‘ahitaha/fa‘ahitatau - Literally meaning “sound-of-the-same-order/side;” also major tune, tone, note, key or sound Fā‘ele - Birth Fa‘itoka - Burial place and short for fai‘angatoka “place of lying-down of the dead” Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty Fakafelavai - Intersect; intersection; intersecting Fakahoko - Connect; connection; connecting; cf. Mata (eye) Fakamāvae - Separate; separation; separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fale - House Fale fakafo‘ohake - Downside-up house, that isa, the vaka (boat) Fonua - Land or in this context, placenta Ha‘apai - An island group in Tonga Hawaiki - The ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hahake (eastern Moana) Hikule‘o - Tongan goddess of fertility and harvest, with Pulotu as ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hihifo (western Moana) Kaha‘u/kuongamui - Literally meaning “that-which-is-yet-to-come”/“age-in-the- back;” that is, future Kakai - People Kulo‘umea - Pottery Kuohili/kuongamu‘a - Literally meaning “that-which-has-passed”/“age-in-the-front,” that is, past Lahi - Abundant/great Langi - Sky Langi-maama - Sky-earth Laumālie - Souls Lea heliaki - Proverbial sayings Lotolotonga/kuongaloto - Literally meaning “that-which-is-now”/“age-in-the- middle;” that is, present

78 . As far as the case of both Moana hihifo generally and of Tonga specifically goes, their ancestors came from Pulotu, should they then be called the people of Pulotu and their kulo‘umea (pottery) be also called Pulotu pottery as opposed to their being named the Lapita ancestors and their kulo‘umea Lapita pottery?

37 | Page Maama - Earth Mala‘e - Burial place; cf. Fa‘itoka (burial place) Mate - Dead or death Mo‘ui - Life or living Moana hahake - Eastern Moana Moana hihifo - Western Moana Olovaha - Rowers; both sides of the kava circle; also means taumu‘a (bow) Poto - Skills Pulotu - The ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hihifo (western Moana); abode of goddess (Havea) Hikule‘o, of both fertility and harvest Talavou - Beauty Tānekinganga - Place of collection of the dead, corruption of tānaki‘anga. Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a - Samoan God, father of the first Tu‘i Tonga Tanu‘anga - Place of burial of the dead Tapu - Taboo, that is, orderliness or beauty Tapu-ngofua - Sacred-profane Taumu‘a - Bow; also known as olovaha Taumui - Stern; also known as taumuli Taungafanau - Mother‘s placenta; literally meaning “child-hanger” Tautahi - Warriors-of-the-sea Tā-vā - Time-space, that is, temporal-spatial Tonga‘eiki - Godly/chiefly Tonga Tongalahi - Abundant/great Tonga Tongatapu - Main island in Tonga, sacred/orderly Tonga Tou‘a - Anchor (taula) Tu‘a - Commoner class Tu‘i Ha‘atakalaua - One of the three kingly lines in Tonga Tu‘i Kanokupolu - One of the three kingly lines in Tonga Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga, also the name of one of three kingly lines in Tonga Tu‘i Tupou - Current and fourth line of kings in Tonga Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art of printing Tufunga langafale - Material art of house building Tufunga ngaohifa‘itoka - Material art of burial-place-building Tufunga ngaohimala‘e - Material art of burial-place-building Tufunga nimatapu - Literally meaning “sacred/orderly-hands” or dead-handling, that is, undertaker as a material artist Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art of drawing Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art of engraving Tupu‘anga - Origins Vaka fakafo‘ohifo - Upside-down boat, that is, the fale (house) Valevale - Foetus Vava‘u - Island group in Tonga

38 | Page Plate #22

Koe Kātoanga ‘Inasi Hono Fakalangilangi ‘ae ‘Alo ‘oe Tu‘i ‘i Tongatapu (Tonga‘eiki/Tongalahi) The ‘Inasi, a Ceremony in Honour of the King‘s Son, in Tongatapu79 “The Natche, a Ceremony in Honour of the King‘s Son, in Tongataboo”

John Webber (After), John Hall (Engraver), Samuel Middiman (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This ‘ata (image)80 depicts the most beautiful scenery of a grand festival of ‘inasi (first fruits ceremony) honouring the Tu‘i Tonga‘s son81 in Tongatapu, the main island of Tonga. The other parallel festival was the polopolo (small scale ‘inasi),

79 . Edited as “The ‘Inasi, a Ceremony in Honour of the King‘s Son, in Tongatapu” and translated as “Koe ‘Inasi, koe Kātoanga Fakalangilangi ‘ae ‘Alo ‘oe Tu‘i, ‘i Tongatapu.” Now, the honorific term ‘alo is used in place of the common word foha, both meaning “son.” 80 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 81 . In all probability, he was the son of Tu‘i Tonga Pau was Fatafehi Fuanunuiava, the 38th Tu‘i Tonga, whose mother was Tupoumoheofo.

39 | Page which took place all year round, depending on the seasons and seasonal productions. The Tu‘i Tonga was in all probability Pau, the 36th Tu‘i Tonga, whose son was Fatafehi Fuanunuiava, the 38th Tu‘i Tonga. The ‘inasi was most probably held in the Mala‘e Feingakotone at Lapaha in Mu‘a, the royal capital. As an open space, the Mala‘e Feingakotone stood opposite the Tu‘i Tonga royal residence Olotele. However, the island of Tongatapu (Sacred/Orderly Tonga) is also known as Tonga‘eiki (Godly/Chiefly Tonga) and Tongalahi (Abundant/Great Tonga). It quite simply means that, by virtue of the double langi-maama (heavenly-earthly), ‘eiki-tu ‘a (godly/chiefly-commonly), tapu-ngofua82 (sacred-profane), tupu‘anga (origins) of the first Tu‘i Tonga (King of Tonga), ‘Aho‘eitu,83 the main island of Tonga is therefore considered to be lahi (abundant/great) in both ‘eiki (chiefliness/godliness) and tapu (orderliness).84

The ‘inasi ceremony is said to have taken twice yearly, depending on the ‘inasi ‘ufimui (early) and ‘inasi ‘ufimotu‘a (late) harvests of yams, notably, the so-called ‘ufi‘eiki (chiefly) variety called kahokaho.85 The ‘inasi festival basically involved the offerings of the fuatapu (sacred first fruits) of the land to goddess Hikule‘o,86 who resided in Pulotu, through her representative on Maama (Earth),87 the Tu‘i Tonga. Such first fruits included the best of the best in all forms of social production, syphoned from the whole of Tonga and its neighbouring islands, which defined the pule‘anga hau (empire) of the Tu‘i Tonga. In addition to these so-called first fruits, the festivities taken place also entailed a selection of the best, much-beautiful types of faiva (performance), tufunga (material) and nimamea‘a (fine) arts, such as hiva (singing), haka (dancing), fuhu (boxing), fangatua (wrestling) and inukava (kava- drinking).88 By the way, the tā-vā (temporal-spatial) of the mala‘e (field-space) is

82 . As distinct but closely related social phenomena, both ‘eiki and tapu are states of tatau (symmetry), potupotutatau (harmony), and faka‘ofo‘ofa (beauty), which are, in turn, exhibited by way of mana as a condition of mafai (power). 83 . The double origins of the first Tu‘i Tonga, ‘Aho‘eitu, are derived from his Langi (Sky, that is, Samoan) father, god Tangaloa ‘Eitumātupu‘a, and noble birth Maama (Earth, that is, Tongan) mother, ‘Ilaheva later changed to Va‘epopua (Feet-of-Popua), both meaning great faka‘ofo‘ofa (beauty). Besides faka‘ofo‘ofa, the words talavou and hoihoifua are used for physical beauty. 84 . Or faka‘ofo‘ofa, talavou and hoihoifua (beauty). 85 . As material objects, the ‘ufi (yams) are socially classified into ‘ufi ‘eiki (chiefly yams) and ‘ufi vale (commoner yams), as in the case of kakala (flowers), which is categorised into kakala ‘eiki (chiefly flowers) and kakala vale (commoner flowers). 86 . Not only was Hikule‘o the goddess of fertility and harvest, she was the staunch guardian of past refined knowledge and technological skills. By acquiring them through sacrifice and life of toil, the people of Maama by way of development and refinement put before them in the present as guidance, thereby bringing the future behind them in the present, informed by the quality knowledge, skills and experiences of the past 87 . The whole of Tonga is divided into the realms of Pulotu, Maama and Langi, respectively symbolising Fiji, Tonga and Sāmoa, guided and guarded by the respective goddess and gods, namely, Hikule‘o, Maui and Tangaloa. In temporal-spatial ways, the realms Pulotu, Maama and Langi, in correspondence to Hikule‘o, Maui and Tangaloa, are organised into the past, present and future, where the illusive already-taken-place past is put in front and the elusive yet-to-take-place future behind, where they are constantly mediated in the ever— changing, conflicting present. 88 . As far as the ‘inasi festival goes, the whole of the Tu‘i Tonga pule‘anga hau (empire), both locally and regionally, was politically and economically mobilised in truly significant social and ceremonial ways.

40 | Page worth noting, especially by way of mata (eyes) or, their mirror images, ava (holes),89 made up of a series of so-called fuopotopoto (concentric circles),90 moving both ways tu‘a-ki-loto (inwardly) and loto-ki-tu‘a (outwardly) in great tatau (symmetry), potupotutatau (harmony) and, more importantly, faka‘ofo‘ofa beauty. These so named mata (eyes) and ava (holes) are where ivi (energy) is most dense and intense.

Glossary ‘Ata - Image, mirror, picture, photograph ‘Eiki - Chiefliness/godliness ‘Eiki-tu‘a - Godly/chiefly-commonly ‘Inasi - Festival of the presentation of the first fruits of the land and its people ‘Inasi ‘ufimotu‘a - Late ‘inasi ‘inasi ‘ufimui - Early ‘inasi ‘Ufi - Yams ‘Ufi ‘eiki - Chiefly yams ‘Ufi vale - Commoner yams Ava - Hole; cf. Separation (fakamāvae) Faiva - Performance arts Faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie - Beauty Fakafelavai - Intersect; intersection; intersecting; cf. Meeting-point (fetaulaki) Fakahoko - Connect; connection; connecting; cf. Mata (eye) Fakamāvae - Separate; separation; separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fangatua - Wrestling Fatafehi Fuanunuiava - 38th Tu‘i Tonga, son of Tu‘i Tonga Pau Felekeu/fepaki - Conflict Fuhu - Boxing Fuopotopoto - Concentric circles Haka - Dance; dancing Hikule‘o - Goddess of fertility and harvest whose realm was pulotu Hiva - Sing; singing; music Hoihoifua - Beauty Inukava - Performance art of kava-drinking Ivi - Energy Kahokaho - Chiefly variety of yams Kakala - Sweet-scent flowers; designed flowers Kakala ‘eiki - Chiefly flowers Kakala vale - Commoner flowers Lahi - Abundant/great

89 . Following mata and ava, they coincide with a tenet and corollary of tāvāism, that all things in reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to maau/fenāpasi (order) and felekeu/fepaki (conflict) and, as a corollary, that everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society, is fakafelavai (intersection) and there is nothing above and beyond fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation). 90 . The outer fuopotopoto temporally-spatially, formally-substantially, defines both the loto (inside) and tu‘a (outside), where the former is ‘eiki and tapu and he latter as ngofua, both as expressions of maau/fenāpasi and felekeu/fepaki respectively.

41 | Page Langi - Sky Langi-maama - Sky-earth Lapaha - A village in mu‘a, the royal tu‘i Tonga residence Loto - Inside Loto-ki-tu‘a - Inside-out; outwardly Maama - Earth Maau/fenāpasi - Order Mafai - Power Mala‘e - Field-space or ceremonial space; also burial place; cf. Fa‘itoka Mala‘e Feingakotone - Ceremonial space or mala‘e of Tu‘i Tonga, as in the case of ‘inasi and polopolo Mata - Eye, that is, meeting-point or point of intersection Maui - God of maama (earth) and underworld (lolofonua/lalofonua) Ngofua - Profane, that is, free of tapu/taboo Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Polopolo - Small scale ‘inasi Potupotutatau - Harmony Pule‘anga hau - Empire Pulotu - The ancestral homeland and afterworld of moana hihifo (western moana) Talavou - Beauty Tangaloa - Tongan God of the sky (langi), symbolic name for Samoa Tapu - Taboo, that is, orderliness or beauty Tapu-ngofua - Sacred-profane Tatau - Symmetry Tā-vā - Time-space, that is, temporal-spatial Tonga‘eiki - Godly/chiefly Tonga Tongalahi - Abundant/great Tonga Tongatapu - Sacred/orderly Tonga Tu‘a - Outside; also commoner classes Tu‘a-ki-loto - Outside-in; inwardly Tu‘i Tonga - King of Tonga Tu‘i Tonga pau - 36th Tu‘i Tonga Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art/artist of printing Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art/artist of drawing Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art/artist of engraving Tupoumoheofo - Wife of Tu‘i Tonga Pau Tupu‘anga - Origins

42 | Page Plate #13 Koe ‘Ata ‘o Nomuka A View at Nomuka91 “View at Anamooka”

John Webber (After), William Byrne (Engraver) Source: Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki

This ‘ata (image)92 depicts a view of a most beautiful scenery at the old village of ‘Āhau on the island of Nomuka where Cook and his crew anchored in Ha‘apai to the tokelau-ofi (near-north) of the main island group of Tongatapu (also known as Tonga‘eiki and Tongalahi).93 In the tokelau-lotoloto (central/centre-north) and tokelau-mama‘o (remote-north) are Vava‘u and Niua, which consists of Niuatoputapu and Niuafo‘ou. But, to the Tonga-hahake (south-east) and Tonga- hihifo (south-west) of Tongatapu are the respective islands of ‘Eua and ‘Ata. The Ha‘apai islands group94 is divided into Ha‘apai hahake (eastern Ha‘apai), including all the islands of Kauvai, namely, Mo‘unga‘one, Muitoa and

91 . Edited ad “A View at Nomuka” and translated as “Koe Sio/Vakai ki Nomuka.” 92 . Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of engraving tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (drawing) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing). 93 . In Tongan philosophical views, the earth is divided into four major divisions and/or directions, namely, hahake (east), hihifo (west), tokelau (north) and Tonga (south). These positions are fixed in terms of the ‘aho- pō (day-night) movement of the sun around the earth – which begins with the sunrise from the hahake (east) across the tokelau ‘olunga (above) in the ‘aho (day) and sunset in hihifo (west), where it tō (sets) – and through the Tonga (south) lalo (below) during the pō (night) to the hahake (east), when it hopo (rises). 94 . All the islands have, inter alia, long been inhabited.

Fakakakai, Ha‘ano and Foa;95 Ha‘apai lotoloto (central Ha‘apai), which includes the islands of Lifuka,96 Uoleva,97 Felemea and ‘Uiha, Tungua,98 and Lofanga; and Ha‘apai lulunga, that is, Ha‘apai hihifo99 (western Ha‘apai), inclusive of the islands of Ha‘afeva, Kotu, Mango, Fonoifua, Fotuha‘a, and ‘O‘ua, as well as the high volcanic islands of Kao and Tofua, and ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a,100 which consists of Nomuka, Nomukeiki, Mango, Fonoi, and Tonumea.

From a perspectival viewpoint, all the objects composed in the ‘ata converge at a common mata (eye) or ava (hole), that is, point,101 along where both tahi (sea) and fonua (land) commonly fetaulaki (meet). Their common meeting, that is, intersecting or connecting and separating, point, is called matātahi (eye-of-the- sea) and matāfonua (eye-of-the-land). These compositional objects, including both flora and fauna, are organised both vertically and horizontally by way of foregrounding and backgrounding them, all in fuopotopoto (concentric circles). These objects are faka‘esia (framed) multiply, as in the outer ‘esia (frame), demarcated by the fetaulaki (meeting or felavai [intersecting] or fakahoko [connecting] and fakamāvae [separating]) point, that is, mata or ava,102 of the langi (sky). Both the original material art of tufunga takohi‘ata (drawing) and duplicated material art of tufunga to‘oliu‘ata (engraving) are now both a material art of tufunga hiki‘ata (printing).

In Tongan tāvāist philosophical views, the earth is divided into four major divisions and/or directions, namely, hahake (east), hihifo (west), tokelau (north) and Tonga (south). These positions are fixed in terms of the ‘aho-pō (day-night) movement of the sun around the earth – which begins with the sunrise from the hahake (east) across the tokelau ‘olunga (above) in the ‘aho and sunset in hihifo (west), where it tō (sets) – and through the Tonga (south) lalo (below during the pō to the hahake (east), when it hopo (rises).

95 . On the island of Foa is Lotofoa, the village of Helu, tufunga ngaohihelu material artist and maker of Palātavake as a royal crown-like helu teuteu/helu tu‘u (decoration comb) for Tu‘i Tonga Pau. 96 . The grand talitali (reception) of Captain James Cook was done in Pangai on the island of Lifuka in Ha‘apai. 97 . Cook and his men are said to have also anchored at the island of Uoleva, where such animals as sipi (sheep) and hoosi (horses) were left for the purposes of their being locally domesticated. 98 . The villages of Felemea, ‘Uiha and Tungua all have direct links to the Tu‘i ‘ Tonga. 99 . Both the names lulunga and hihifo mean “west;” the word lulunga is derived from the la‘ā (sun) setting in the hihifo (west), for example, “‘Oku lulunga ‘ae la‘ā ke tō” (The sun is setting into the west). It is also used as a heliaki (metaphor) for a person getting old, especially to the point of mate (death), symbolically marking the end of mo‘ui (life). By the way, la‘ātō (sunset), as well as pō (night) and ‘uli (black) and fakapo‘uli (darkness/blackness) are heliaki (symbols) for mate. 100 . The name ‘Otumu‘omu‘a literally means the “islands in the front,” translated as “koe ‘otumotu ‘i mu‘a (or mu‘amu‘a and, its variant, mu‘omu‘a), situated next to Tongatapu (or Tonga‘eiki and Tongalahi). 101 . In mathematical terms, a mata or ava (point) is the intersection of two or more kohi (lines); a kohi is a collection of mata or ava, and vā is a summation of kohi (lines), all temporally-marked as spatial tendencies. 102 . From a tāvāist perspective, all things in reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to maau/fenāpasi (order) and/or felekeu/fepaki (conflict). By the same token, everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society, is fakafelavai (intersection), and there is nothing over and above fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation). Similarly, everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society is mata-ava (eye-hole), and there is nothing above and beyond mata (eye) and/or ava (hole).

All the islands have, inter alia, have long been inhabited. On the island of Foa is Lotofoa, the village of Helu, tufunga ngaohihelu material artist and maker of Palātavake as a royal crown-like helu teuteu/helu tu‘u (decoration comb) for Tu‘i Tonga Pau . The talitali lahi (grand reception) of Captain James Cook was done in Pangai on the island of Lifuka in Ha‘apai. Cook and his men are said to have also anchored at the island of Uoleva, where such animals as sipi (sheep) and hoosi (horses) were left for the purposes of their being locally domesticated. The villages of Felemea, ‘Uiha and Tungua all have direct links to the Tu‘i ‘ Tonga. Both the names lulunga and hihifo mean “west;” the word lulunga is derived from the la‘ā (sun) setting in the hihifo (west), for example, “‘Oku lulunga ‘ae la‘ā ke tō” (The sun is setting into the west). It is also used as a heliaki (metaphor) for a person getting old, especially to the point of mate (death), symbolically marking the end of mo‘ui (life). By the way, la‘ātō (sunset), as well as pō (night) and ‘uli (black) and fakapo‘uli (darkness/blackness) are heliaki (symbols) for mate. The name ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a literally means the “islands in the front,” translated as “koe ‘otumotu ‘i mu‘a (or mu‘amu‘a and, its variant, mu‘omu‘a), situated next to Tongatapu (or Tonga‘eiki and Tongalahi). In mathematical terms, a mata (eye) or ava (point/hole) is the intersection of two or more kohi (lines); a kohi is a collection of mata or ava, and vā (space) is a summation of kohi (lines), all temporally-marked as spatial tendencies.

From a tāvāist perspective, all things in reality, as in nature, mind and society, stand in eternal relations of exchange, giving rise to maau/fenāpasi (order) and/or felekeu/fepaki (conflict). By the same token, everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society, is fakafelavai (intersection), and there is nothing over and above fakahoko (connection) and fakamāvae (separation). Similarly, everywhere in reality, as in nature, mind and society is mata-ava (eye-hole), and there is nothing above and beyond mata (eye) and/or ava (sky) above and maama (earth) below. Of enormous interest here is the fetaulaki (meeting) point between vaka (boat) and fale (house), where vaka is a fale faka fo‘ohake (upside-down fale) and fale is a vaka fakafo‘ohifo (downside-up vaka). Apart from the other faiva (performance), tufunga (material), and nimamea‘a (fine) arts, there are two tufunga that stand out, namely, tufunga fo‘uvaka (boat-building) and tufunga langafale (house-building). Apart from the fale, there are also faiva related to the vaka, namely, faiva faifolau (voyaging/navigation), faiva lovavaka (boat-racing (faiva ‘a‘alo (rowing), not to mention the material art of tufunga lalava (kafa- sennit-lashing).

The ‘ata (image) depicts the fanga harbour or landing place of Fanga-ko-‘Āhau at the old village also named ‘Āhau on the island of Nomuka. The age-old 'ovava tree on the right, which now still stands, is known as ‘Ovava Kulu, short for ‘Ovava Kuluki. On the left of the peninsula is Vao Kakala, which literally means 'Bush of Sweet-smelling-flowers,' is a heliaki metaphor for beautiful women, and also nicknamed Hā‘ola, short for Palalafa ‘o Hā‘ola literally meaning ‘Coconut- mid-rib of Hā‘ola.’ The whole of the ‘Otumotu Ha‘apai (Ha‘apai Islands) is divided into three vahe (divisions), Ha’apai hahake (eastern Ha’apai), Ha’apai lotoloto (central Ha’apai),

and Ha’apai hihifo also known as Ha’apai lulunga (western Ha’apai). The latter is further divided into Ha’apai lulunga (western Ha’apai) and ‘Otu Mu’omu’a, the last of which is made up of the main island of Nomuka, including the smaller islands of Nomukeiki, Mango, Fonoifua, and the uninhabited Tonumea. The site of the old fa‘itoka/mala‘e cemetery stands in Vao Kakala also known as Ha‘ola, the burial place of our ancestors Paula Sinani and Mele, originally having respective genealogies to Pukotala and Ha'ano islands at Kauvai in Ha‘apai hahake (eastern Ha‘apai).

‘ANA LĀTŪ BELOVED ‘ANA LĀTŪ

Koe hiva ta‘anga faiva fakamamahi & faiva tengihia A sung poetry of performance arts of tragedy & mourning

Fakafatu/fakafa‘u & fakaafo/fakafasi ‘e Uaisēlē Tāufa (Tāufatofua) ‘oku-toe-‘iloa ko ‘Epalahame Uaisēlē (Tāufatofua) ‘o Kotu & Nomuka, ‘Otu Lulunga & ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a, ‘Otu Ha‘apai

Poetry & music composed by Uaisēlē Tāufa (Tāufatofua) also-known-as ‘Epalahame Uaisēlē (Tāufatofua) of Kotu & Nomuka, ‘Otu Lulunga & ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a, ‘Otu Ha‘apai

Liliulea ‘Ingilisi ‘e Hikule‘o Fe‘ao-Moe-Ako Melaia Māhina, Mele Ha‘amoa Māhina ‘Alatini & Hūfanga-He-Ako-Moe-Lotu, ‘Ōkusitino Māhina

English translation by Hikule‘o Fe‘ao-Moe-Ako Melaia Māhina, Mele Ha‘amoa Māhina ‘Alatini & Hūfanga-He-Ako-Moe-Lotu, ‘Ōkusitino Māhina

Kupu/Veesi 1 Verse 1 Neu fanongo au mei amá I overheard from the outrigger Kihe talanoa mei falevaká Talks from the boathouse Tokua kuo vaivai a ‘Aná That ‘Ana was weakening Pea to‘o leva ‘eku me‘afaná I grabbed ahold of my speargun ‘Ou numinumi mo si‘oku valá Folded up my outer garments Pea u hopo ki tahi ‘o a‘á And hopped into the sea

Kupu/Veesi 2 Verse 2 Tu‘u hifo au ‘i Fale Ha‘amoá I stopped off at Fale Ha‘amoa103 ‘O sio ki Mango mo Tonumeá And gazed at Mango104 and Tonumea105

103. Name of fa‘itoka/mala‘e cemetery in Nomuka. 104. Name of islands in ‘Otu Lulunga hihifo (west) of Ha‘apai Islands. 105. Name of uninhabited island in ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a in Ha‘apai Islands.

Ne hangē ha vaka ‘oku failā Like a flotilla with outstretched sails ‘Ae kite mai ‘a Kefikaná Kefikana106 appearing from afar

Kupu/Veesi 3 Verse 3 He uoiau to‘a vale ē Oh yes only the foolhardy hero Ho‘o nofo ‘o tufi e vevé Remains and gathers garbage ‘Ikai teke ‘oho mai pē And not rushing in ‘O hangē ā ko Uaisēlē Like the way of Uaisēlē

Kupu/Veesi 4 Verse 4 He uoiau ‘Ana Lātū Oh my beloved Ana Lātū ‘Ana tauele kiate aú ‘Ana how you've tempted me Si‘eta fononga he ‘one‘oné As we walked on the sand He na‘a ta topuva‘e taha pē Our footprints became one Koe‘uhi na‘a ‘iloa koé So that you are not known Kae ‘ita ‘eku kau fefine And irritate my women

Kupu/Veesi 5 Verse 5 Ta‘ahine ‘Ana tu‘u ke ta ō Lady ‘Ana arise and let us go ‘O ‘ai ho tekiteki hinganó Make a head flower of hingano Moho hāfuni fisi‘i kahó And headband of fine kaho Ne toki veuki ‘oka vaeuapō Only to be disturbed at mid-night

Kupu/Veesi 6 Verse 6 ‘Ofa fau si‘i nima ‘o ‘Aná I so loved the hands of ‘Ana He nima takai ‘ema suluká The hands that rolled our tobacco ‘Oka ma ta‘utu he ‘ulutoá When we sat under the toa107 trees Fakamalumalu ha ‘aho la‘ā Taking shelter from the burning sun

Kupu/Veesi 7 Verse 7 Si‘ota mohenga he pālaví Our lovely bed in the coastline He na‘a ta fala kihe fataí Our mat, the soft leaves of fatai ‘Oke tekiteki ai e huní With the huni flower as your head ornament Koe‘uhi keu va‘inga aí So that I may play with them

Kupu/Veesi 8 Verse 8 Si‘ota mohenga ‘i Hōfonú Our lovely bed at Hōfonu108 ‘Eta hala pālavi he likú Where we walked along the cliff shores

106. Name of reef in ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a in Ha‘apai Islands. 107. Casuarina or ironwood trees. 108. An ‘apikolo (town allotment) belonging to Tāufatofua in the kolo fo’ou (new) village of Nomuka island, where Hōfonu was named after the fonu (turtles), the catching and fishing of which were one of the chief roles of Tāufatofua as a delicacy for the Tu‘i Tonga; Tāufatofua of Tofua island, Fanualofanga of Lofanga island, and Kavamo‘unga‘one of Mo‘unga‘one island were the viceroys originally sent out by the Tu‘i Ha’atakalau to

Na‘e viku ai ho tapaveú Where your outer wear got wet ‘I hono afuhi ‘ehe peau By the sprays of the breaking waves

Kupu/Veesi 9 Verse 9 Si‘ota mohenga ‘i Matamaká Our treasured bed at Matamaka109 Ne huhulu pulepule ē la‘ā Where the sun shone in multi-colours Ho‘o kali toloni ‘i hoku nima My arm as your headrest ‘O va‘inga he‘eku kaukavá As you play with my beard

Kupu/Veesi 10 Verse 10 Si‘ota mohenga ‘i Hā‘olá Our most beautiful bed at Hā‘ola110 ‘Oka fasi malu ha ‘aho la‘ā The sun‘s shades began to fall Pea to‘oto‘o si‘eta laká As we walked hastily along the beach He valevale ‘a hono patapatá On the smooth texture of its pebbles

Kupu/Veesi 11 Verse 11 He loumaile ‘o ‘Āhaú The sweet-scented loumaile of ‘Āhau111 Hangē ha fononga pale navú Like well-groomed travellers Si‘ene nanivi kiate aú So pleasing they are to me ‘Ana ē, ‘eku tali ha‘o fotú Oh ‘Ana, will you ever show

Kupu/Veesi 12 Verse 12 Koe helu ē koe mama ē Here‘s my comb, here‘s my ring Ko si‘oto luosī fa‘u ē Here‘s my head amour of sī leaves ‘Atu ia keke ‘alu mo koé Wholly yielded to take with you ‘O tauhi‘ofa ‘aki mai pē As your beloved treasures of me

Kupu/Veesi 13 Verse 13 Kau tangatá, kau fefine Dear men, dear women Mou mātuku atu ‘o mohe Take your leave, go and rest Kae tuku keu ‘āfia pē Allow me to mourn alone He ko homa faka‘osi pō ē As tonight, is our final night

The inclusion of the 13 kupu (verse) hiva ta‘anga faiva fakamamahi and faiva tengihia (performance arts of tragedy and mourning) holds several important implications. Notably its close association with ‘ata (image) 10 about the island of Nomuka, where Captain Cook and his crew anchored; as well as its singing in

Ha‘apai Islands, collectively called ‘Otu Ha‘apai to supervise and organise the affairs of the Hau for the Tu‘i Tonga on the main island Tonga‘eiki, Tongatapu, or Tongalahi. 109. An ‘apikolo (town allotment) in the kolo fo’ou (new village) on the island of Nomuka. 110. Hā‘ola is short for Palalafa ‘o Hā‘ola said to have originated from a performance art of faiva tautāpalalafa coconut-mid-rib-playing between a Sāmoan and Tāufa‘āhau, who is also said to have tofikulu done with a hifofua one whole big blow cutting his head into two halves; the question thus asked following the match was, koe hā ‘ae ola (shortened as hā ola / hāola) what was the result/outcome? Tāufā‘ahau was since nicknamed Hifofua, which is also commonly associated with the Tu‘i Kanokupolu. 111. Name of old village on Nomuka.

the ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahikehe (sound-of-a-different-order or sound-of-mate [death]-and-the-kau mate [dead]), i.e., initially described by the missionaries in 1822 as mīnoa/maina (minor sound, tune, or tone). This is opposed to ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahitatau (sound-of-the-same-order/side or sound-of-mo’ui [life]-and- the-kau mo’ui [living]) also called as mīsoa/maisoa (major sound, tune, or tone). In doing so, it is envisaged for the purposes of a better critical understanding of the matter under discussion.

Both poetry and music were composed by punake kakato (master poet) Uaisēlē Tāufa also known as ‘Epalahame Uaisēlē of both Kotu and Nomuka on the death of his lover and sweetheart ‘Ana Lātū.112 ‘Epalahame Uaisēlē successfully deployed the three Tongan types of heliaki ‘metaphorically speaking one thing but historically meaning another,’ namely; 1. Heliaki fakafetongiaki (qualitative epiphoric heliaki); 2. Heliaki fakafekauaki (associative metaphoric heliaki); and 3. Heliaki fakafefonuaki (constitutive metonymic heliaki).

Missionary printer William Woon, observed and noted in his journal soon after arrival in Tonga that the missionaries, beginning with the missionary Walter Lawry and his servant Thomas Wright in 1822, noted in his attempt to teach foreign hymns to the Tongans were

“... anxious that I should do something to improve the singing among the natives ... something should be done soon to make the tunes they sing more like the originals. Several of our excellent tunes are spoiled by the natives from singing them in a minor key; others are so completely metamorphosed that we scarcely know what tunes they sing (Journal 14 June 1830) ... [t]he tunes composed in the major key are made completely minor, and such is the difference that sometimes their singing reminds me of some of our solemn dirges sung at funerals etc ... I believe that all this will be done away in time (Journal 5 September 1830).” (quoted in Moyle 1987: 23).

Both the vision and mission by the missionaries are now largely complete, which is specifically symptomatic of both the broader affects and effects of colonisation through both imposition and domination, strictly requiring decolonisation by way of both mediation and liberation. The singing of ‘Ana Lātū entirely in the ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahikehe113 (that is, minor sound, tune, or tone), is now predominantly, in the ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahitatau (that is, major sound, tune, or tone). The predominance of the ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahikehe (that is, minor sound, tune, or tone), given its chief concern with mate death, is in turn associated with Pulotu as the ancestral homeland and afterworld of Moana hihifo (western Oceania). This is in stark contrast to Hawaiki of Moana hahake (eastern Oceania),114 notably as a tribute of the kau mo‘ui (living) in Maama

112. The names ‘Epalahame, Uaisēlē, and ‘Ana are Tonganisation of Abraham, Wesley, and Anna, largely indicating both the affective nd effective missionary influences on Tonga. 113. Due to both the all-embracing affects and effects of missionary teachings and ideologies, the ongo, afo, or fasi fakafa‘ahikehe (sound, tune, or tone of a different order) has been regarded as ongo, afo, or fasi fakatētēvolo (sound, tune, or tone of the devil), having it associated with evil and sinful. 114. As opposed to Lapita as a form colonial imposition and domination.

(Earth) in the present to the kau mate (dead) in Pulotu now in the past by virtue of the refined knowledge.

This can be critically understood or made more meaningful in both the paradoxical/metaphorical yet historical/actual intersection or connection and separation between; the kuohili/kuongamu‘a (that-which-has-passed/age-in-the- front) past, lotolotonga/kuongaloto (that-which-is-passing/age-on-the- middle/centre) present, and kaha‘u/kuongamui (that-which-is-yet-to- come/pass/age-in-the-back). Both paradoxically/metaphorically yet historically/actually, the already-taken-place past which has stood the test of timespace is located in the front as guides and because the yet-to-take-place future is situated in the back, guided by past knowledge and refined experiences, where both the illusive past and the elusive future are both constantly mediated in the ever-taking, changing present.

Glossary ‘Ahau - Name of old village on Nomuka ‘Aho - Day ‘Aho-pō - Day-night ‘Ata - Image, picture, mirror, photograph ‘Ata - Island group in Tonga Ava - Hole ‘Esia - Frame ‘Eua - Island group in Tonga Faiva - Performance arts Faiva ‘a‘alo - Performance art of rowing Faiva faifolau - Performance art of voyaging/navigation Faiva lovavaka - Performance art of boat-racing Faka‘esia - Framed Fakafelavai - Intersect; intersection; intersecting; cf. Meeting-point or point of intersection (fakafetaulaki/fakafelavai) Fakahoko - Connect; connection; connecting; cf. Mata (eye) Fakakakai - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Fakamāvae - Separate; separation; separating; cf. Ava (hole) Fakapo‘uli - Darkness/blackness Fonoifua - Name of H ‘apai island Fale - House Fale fakafo‘ohake - Upside-down house, that is, the vaka (boat) Felekeu/fepaki - Conflict Felemea - Island in central Ha‘apai Fetaulaki - Meeting-point; point of intersection; cf. Mata (eye) and/or ava (hole) Foa - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Fonoifua - Island in western Ha‘apai Fonua - Land (and its people) Fotuha‘a - Island in western Ha‘apai Fuopotopoto/Tapotopoto - Concentric circles

Ha‘afeva - Island in western Ha‘apai Ha‘ano - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Ha‘apai Island group in Tonga Ha‘apai hahake - Eastern Ha‘apai Ha‘apai hihifo - Western Ha‘apai Ha‘apai lotoloto - Central Ha‘apai Ha‘apai lulunga Another term for western Ha‘apai (Ha‘apai hihifo) Hahake -East Hā‘ola - Name of place in Nomuka; see Vao Kakala Heliaki Proverbial saying, metaphor or symbol; artistic and literary device for the performance arts of poetry and oratory Helu - Title bestowed on the tufunga ngaohihelu material artist and maker of Palātavake Helu teuteu/helu tu’u - Decorative comb/standing comb. Hihifo - West Hōfonu ‘Apikolo village allotment on Nomuka Hoosi - Horse Hopo Rise Kao - Island in western Ha‘apai Kauvai - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Kefikana - Name of reef in Ha‘apai Islands Kohi - Line; also called tohi; both also meaning writing Kotu - Island in western Ha‘apai La‘ā - Sun La‘ātō - Sunset Langi - Sky Lifuka - Island in central Ha‘apai Lofanga - Island in central Ha‘apai Lotofoa - Village in Foa island Maama - Earth Maau/fenāpasi - Order Mango - Island in western Ha‘apai Mata - Eye Matāfonua - Eye-of-the-land, that is, meeting point with the sea Matamaka - ‘Api town allotment on Nomuka Matātahi - Eye-of-the-sea, that is, meeting point with the land Mo‘unga‘one - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Muitoa - Island in eastern Ha‘apai Nimamea‘a - Fine arts Niua - Island group in Tonga Niuafo‘ou - Island in Niua islands group Niuatoputapu Island in Niua islands group Nomuka - Island in western Ha‘apai Nomukeiki Island in western Ha‘apai Olovaha - Bow of the boat; also called taumu‘a ‘O‘ua - Island in western Ha‘apai ‘Otu Mu‘omu‘a –-Literally meaning “islands in the front,” translated as ‘otumotu ‘i mu‘a (or mu‘amu‘a and, its variant, mu‘omu‘a); island in western Ha‘apai

Pangai - Village in Lifuka island, Ha‘apai Pō - Night Sipi - Sheep Tahi - Sea Taumu‘a - Bow; also named olovaha Tofua - Island in western Ha‘apai Tokelau-‘olunga - Above/up north Tokelau-lotoloto - Central/middle/central-north Tokelau-mama‘o - Remote-north Tokelau-ofi - Near-north Tonga - South Tonga‘eiki - Godly/chiefly Tonga Tonga-hahake - South-east Tonga-hihifo - South-west Tongalahi - Abundant/great Tonga Tongatapu - Sacred/orderly Tonga Tufunga - Material arts Tufunga fo‘uvaka - Material art of boat-building Tufunga hiki‘ata - Material art of printing Tufunga lalava - Material art of kafa-sennit-lashing Tufunga langafale - Material art of house-building Tufunga ngaohihelu - Material art of comb-making Tufunga takohi‘ata - Material art of drawing Tufunga to‘oliu‘ata / tufunga to‘oliukupesi - Material art of engraving Tungua - Island in central Ha‘apai ‘Uiha - Island in central Ha‘apai ‘Uli - Black Uoleva - Island in central Ha‘apai Vaka - Boat Vaka fakafo‘ohifo - Downside-up boat, that is, the fale (house) Vao Kakala - Nickname for Hā‘ola; see Hā‘ola Vava‘u - Island group in Tonga

Ma‘ungatala (References)

Ka‘ili, T. ‘O. 2017. Marking Indigeneity: The Tongan Arts of Sociospatial Relations (with Foreword by ‘Ōkusitino. Māhina). Arizona: University of Arizona Press.

Ka‘ili, T. O., Māhina, ‘Ō., and Addo, P-A. 2017. Introduction: Tā-Vā (Time- Space) Theory of Reality: The Birth of An Indigenous Theory. Pacific Studies, special issue, 40 (1/2): 1-17.

Moyle, R. 1987. Tongan Music. Auckland: University of Auckland Press.

Tāufatofua (Tēvita Fīnau), personal communication, June 2021.

Taumoefolau, ‘I. K. 2011. Melenga-mei-Ono‘aho (moe Talamu‘aki ‘e ‘Ōkusitino Māhina). Hampton, Virginia: Contracting Studios.

Talangata Conclusion

From a tāvāist philosophical view, fonua/kalatua (culture) and tala/lea (language) as epistemological identities, like tā and vā (time and space) as ontological entities, are socially organised in different ways across societies. And that knowledge is knowledge of tā and vā (time and space) which is, in turn, constituted or composed in culture and transmitted or communicated in language merely as social vaka (vessels, vehicles, or mediums). This exercise is concerned with the clash of cultures and languages over knowledge, as in the works of art in tākohi‘ata (drawings) transforming through to‘oliu‘ata (engravings) and tāhiki‘ata (printings) as forms of abstraction and representation of the single level of reality by Webber. The transformation of these ‘ata (images) as glimpses of one and the same reality tends to undergo additions and/or subtractions which, in turn, require their mediation through sustained symmetry and harmony in the production of beauty, followed by their utility as diversified albeit unified tendencies, giving them a sense of continuity by way of both process ansd outcome.

These takohi‘ata (drawings), to‘oliu‘ata (engravings), and tahiki‘ata (printings), vary in subject matters under the creative process, as in the ‘ata (images) discussed in this paper. However, these ‘ata tend to demonstrate the tāvāist fact that they are merely a multiplicity of intersecting or connecting and separating kohi115 (lines) and vā (spaces). As spiral-type, vortex-like fakafelavai (intersecting) or fakahoko (connecting) and fakamāvae (separating) kohi and vā, defining all the ‘ata, have impressionistic effects, which are manifested by way of mata or ava, expressed as fuopotopoto or “concentric circles.” The mata (eyes) and/or ava (hole) is where ivi (energy) is most dense and intense, as in the mata

115 . The term kohi is a variation of tohi, both meaning “line,” which is a form of tā (time).

matangi (eye-of-the-wind) and/or ava matangi (hole-of-the-wind) and mata fa‘o (eye-of-the-nail) and ava fa‘o (hole-of-the-nail). In tāvāist philosophical terms, the mediation of these abstract fakafelavai or fakahoko and fakamāvae kohi and vā, where they are transformed from a condition of felekeu/fepaki (chaos) to a state of maau/fenāpasi (order) is done through sustained tatau (symmetry) and potupotutatau (harmony) to produce faka‘ofo‘ofa/mālie (beauty).

Glossary ‘Ata - Images Ava - Hole Ava fa‘o - Hole-of-the-nail Ava matangi - Hole-of-the-wind Fakafelāvai - Intersecting Fakahoko - Connecting Fakamāvae - Separating Faka‘ofo‘ofa/Mālie - Beauty Felekeu/fepaki – Chaos Fonua/Kalatua - Culture Fuopotopoto - Concentric circles Ivi - Energy Kohi- Lines Maau/fenāpasi - Order Mata - Eyes Mata fa‘o - Eye-of-the-nail Mata matangi - Eye-of-the-wind Potupotutatau - Harmony Tahiki‘ata - Printings Takohi‘ata - Drawings Talangata - Conclusion Tala/Lea - Language Tatau - Symmetry To‘oliu‘ata - Engravings Vā - Space