A Needs Assessment of Soccer Uniforms Nancy M

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF HUMAN SCIENCES

A NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF SOCCER UNIFORMS

NANCY M. HOLLAND

A thesis submitted to the Department of Textiles and Consumer Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2007 The members of the Committee approve Thesis of Nancy Holland defended on March 22, 2007.

______Catherine Black Professor Directing Thesis

______Rinn M. Cloud Committee Member

______Emily Haymes Outside Committee Member

Approved:

______Joe Nosari Interim Chair, Department of Textiles and Consumer Sciences

______Billie J. Collier, Dean of Human Sciences

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my husband, Gary, and my son, John, for patiently tolerating my mental and physical absenteeism around the home and supporting me in my quest of attaining my master’s degree. Without the encouragement and support of the fine people that work in the College of Human Sciences and the Department of Textiles and Consumer Sciences, the opportunity to further my education would not have materialized. I am very grateful for the knowledge I have gained, for the fellowship of colleagues, and for the teaching opportunities. For the development of this research, I am indebted to Dr. Catherine Black for her valuable critiques and insights. I also appreciate the additional assistance from Dr. Rinn Cloud and Dr. Emily Haymes as members of my thesis committee. A special thanks again to Dr. Cloud, as well as to Wanda Brown, Dr. Jessica Barker, and Dr. Mary Ann Moore, for being key supporters in providing friendship, encouragement, and research advice. Statistical assistance, provided by Matt Dutton, was also appreciated. This research would not have been possible without the assistance and approval of the Leon County District School Board, and the affiliated schools, principals, coaches, and students. Many thanks to Coach Andy Warner who gave me an initial vote of confidence and shared his expertise giving me an overview of soccer management and soccer garment production. To Barbara McDonald, from Nike, thanks for your insights, and thanks to Coaches Craig Bultmann, Scott Hardin, Santiago Molina, Danny O’Donnell, Sherry Rudd, and Beverly Warner for allowing me to interrupt valuable practice time with your teams.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... vi List of Figures ...... vii Abstract ...... viii

1. INTRODUCTION...... 1

Purpose ...... 2 Research Questions...... 2 Objectives ...... 3 Rationale for the Study...... 3 Limitations ...... 4 Assumptions...... 4 Definition of Terms ...... 4

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 6

Assessment of Needs ...... 6 Commitment...... 6 Hypothesis 1 ...... 7 Design Process Models ...... 7 Functional Components ...... 9 Comfort ...... 9 Fit ...... 12 Mobility ...... 13 Protection...... 14 Hypotheses 2a-d ...... 17 Expressive Components ...... 17 Aesthetic Components ...... 18 Hypothesis 3 ...... 19

3. METHODOLOGY...... 20

Functional, Expressive, Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model ...... 20 Instrument Development ...... 20 Pilot Test ...... 21 Instrument Description ...... 22 Data Collection...... 23 Data Analysis ...... 24

iv 4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...... 25

Description of Sample ...... 25 Demographic Characteristics ...... 26 Preferred Brands of Soccer Uniforms ...... 26 Discussion and Summary of Research Questions ...... 26 Commitment and Overall Satisfaction ...... 26 Functional Components of Garment Types...... 30 Garment Types ...... 31 Comfort...... 31 Fit ...... 32 Mobility...... 33 Impact Protection ...... 33 Functional Components vs. Aesthetic Components...... 33 Functional Properties ...... 36 Thermal Comfort...... 36 Fit Properties of Garment Types...... 37 Non-Uniform Garments and Special Properties...... 39 Protection...... 39 Testing of Hypotheses...... 41

5. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 49

Summary of the Study...... 49 Summary of the Findings ...... 49 Implications to Sport Clothing Manufacturers...... 52 Implications to Sport Clothing Coaches...... 52 Recommendations for Further Research ...... 52

APPENDICES ...... 54

A Research Approval Letters ...... 55 B Questionnaire Documents ...... 58 C Respondent’s Comments...... 66

REFERENCES ...... 68

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 75

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Age. Height, Weight, and Ethnicity ...... 27

Table 2: Participation in Soccer...... 28

Table 3: Preferred Brands of Soccer Uniforms...... 29

Table 4: Commitment to Soccer...... 30

Table 5: Overall Satisfaction with Uniforms...... 31

Table 6.1: Satisfaction with Functional Components of Garments ...... 32

Table 6.2: Alternate Format: Satisfaction with Functional Components of Garments ...... 34

Table 7: Aesthetic Garment Needs ...... 35

Table 8: Thermal Sensations ...... 37

Table 9: Thermal Comfort Properties of Garment Types...... 38

Table 10: Fit Properties of Garment Types ...... 38

Table 11: Non-Uniform Garment and Special Properties ...... 40

Table 12: Sun Protection in Soccer Uniforms...... 40

Table 13: Shin Guard Replacement and Properties...... 42

Table 14: Commitment and Overall Uniform Satisfaction...... 43

Table 15: Paired Samples t-test for Uniform Garment Types...... 46

Table 16: Garment Type Effect on Satisfaction...... 47

Table 17: Difference Between Functional Components of Garments Types...... 47

Table 18: Satisfaction with Soccer Uniforms ...... 49

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (Lamb & Kallal, 1992) ...... 22

Figure 2: Scales, Variables, and Question Numbers on Questionnaire. 23

Figure 3: Scales, Previous Reliability, and Outcome Reliability 23

vii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to investigate the relationship between commitment to soccer and satisfaction with soccer uniforms; 2) to investigate gaps in functional uniform needs, and 3) to investigate the relationship between functional and aesthetic satisfaction of soccer uniforms for adolescents. Studies of golf, basketball, in-line skating, bicycling, tennis, and dance have identified gaps in satisfaction aimed at improving the design of designated uniforms, however, a very limited knowledge base exists for soccer. Using the design process mode, adolescent soccer players (ages 14-18) were surveyed regarding satisfaction of their team uniforms. Measures included commitment to soccer, satisfaction with comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection of recent soccer uniforms. Satisfaction of functional and aesthetics components were also comparatively weighed and measured. Gaps in satisfaction were found, with results indicating less than 50% of the adolescents were comfortable in their uniforms. Additionally, the fit of shorts were satisfactory to only 35% of the soccer players, and 40% found aesthetics could be improved.

viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Soccer is a worldwide sport enjoyed by many as a leisure activity as well as a competitive sport. The 2005 State of the Industry address of the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association (SGMA) reported the sport in the United States had nearly 18 million participants. The American Youth Soccer Organization (AYSO) (2006) boasts of more than 50,000 teams and 650,000 players. These statistics represent a large participation coming from school and community teams (SGMA, 2005). Similar statistics are available for all age groups around the world, testifying of the popularity of soccer. In addition, SGMA 2004 sales figures (SGMA, 2005) noted active sportswear, as designed for specific sports, indicated a favorable increase. As demand increases, user needs increase. Available products may not meet the needs of soccer players, as competency increases from increased participation. In the game of soccer, field players may use any part of their body except their hands and arms to propel the ball, thus requiring spontaneous and unrestrained body movement. Soccer uniforms worn today include a shirt, shorts, stockings (calf-length socks), shin guards, and footwear (Federation of Internationale de Football Association [FIFA], 2005). Aesthetic factors such as color, and garment style in addition to uniform fit and comfort are factors contributing to satisfaction of a sport uniform (Feather, Ford, & Herr, 1996; Wheat & Dickson, 1999). For the athlete, satisfaction with garment fit varies according to the movement demands of the sport (Feather et al., 1996; Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Additionally, satisfaction may vary with functional garments which include a protective component (Watkins, 1977). Typically, sports apparel is designed for the adult male (Barbara McDonald, product developer from NIKE, personal phone interview, January 31, 2006). Streamlining of adult aesthetic and functional specifications may not meet the needs of females or adolescent soccer players.

1 Adolescent soccer uniform needs and specific garment types of the soccer uniform, with the exclusion of footwear, will be assessed in this research.

Purpose of Study The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to investigate the relationship between commitment to soccer and satisfaction with soccer uniforms; 2) to investigate gaps in functional uniform needs; and 3) to investigate the relationship between functional and aesthetic satisfaction of soccer uniforms for adolescents.

Research Questions The following research questions were explored: 1. What is the relationship between commitment to soccer and overall satisfaction of the uniform? Wheaton (2000) suggested excessive amounts of time and effort devoted to a sport indicates a very high level of commitment. Does high level commitment moderate satisfaction? In the study of tennis wear, Chae (2002) found a significant positive correlation between tennis commitment and tennis clothing satisfaction. 2. Does comfort, fit, mobility, or impact protection have an effect on satisfaction of soccer uniforms? Applicable to soccer, functional components of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection were identified in the Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (FEA) (Lamb & Kallal, 1992). Basketball players were concerned with comfort and fit issues (Feather, Ford & Herr, 1996), while impact protection needed improvement for hockey (Watkins, 1977). Golfers were concerned about the poor fit of their uniforms inhibiting their mobility (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). 3. Will there be a strong relationship between functional satisfaction and aesthetic satisfaction of soccer uniforms? Functional and aesthetic user needs are essential considerations in analysis and evaluation phases of the apparel design process (Lamb and Kallal, 1992). Wheat and Dickson (1999) findings suggest both functional and aesthetic aspects of clothing interrelate to meet the needs of golfers.

2 Objectives The purpose of this study was addressed through the application of the Lamb and Kallal (1992) Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (FEA). Key objectives were to: 1. Identify a level of commitment to the sport of adolescent soccer players. 2. Identify a level of satisfaction for comfort of soccer uniforms. 3. Identify a level of satisfaction for fit of soccer uniforms. 4. Identify a level of satisfaction of mobility of soccer uniforms. 5. Identify a level of satisfaction of impact protection of soccer uniforms. 6. Investigate the relationship between functional needs of comfort and the aesthetic needs of the soccer player. 7. Identify a level of satisfaction of sun protection in soccer uniforms.

Rationale for the Study The review of literature for sports apparel discloses users are not satisfied with garment fit below the waist (Feather, Ford, & Herr, 1996; Wheat & Dickson, 1999), with body movement being constrained by apparel (Watkins, 1977), and by limited selections available for females (Fowler, 1999; Wheat & Dickson, 1999). A needs assessment was selected to determine if gaps exist between identified garment needs of soccer players and the recent uniforms made available to the adolescent through team association. This research will contribute to the limited academic material regarding soccer uniforms and increase understanding of soccer uniform needs. As a growing sport, soccer reports a high incidence (33%) of annual injuries (Emery, Meeuwisse, & Hartmann, 2005). Shin guards are the only mandatory protective article worn by soccer players (FIFA, 2005). Current literature points out soccer players may be vulnerable to injury from insufficient impact protection (Emery et al., 2005; National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment, 2006). Literature additionally documents the health risks from lack of sun protection (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006) and lack of adherence to published guidelines to ensure personal protection (Buller & Borland, 1998; Cardinez, Cokkinides, Weinstock, &

3 O’Connell, 2005). Player vulnerability and adequacy of protection for impact protection and sun protection will be discussed. Measurement of satisfaction in functional and aesthetic components of soccer uniforms identified criteria for refinement of design to further meet adolescent needs of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection. In addition, identified needs may be beneficial to manufacturers, product developers, coaches, and purchasers of team uniforms.

Limitations Limitations for this study were: 1. The sample was purposively chosen from four high schools located in one county in southeastern United States. 2. Demographics of this study were limited to a subset of youth in the southeast of the United States. Findings from this study may not be generalizable.

Assumptions Assumptions to the study include: 1. That adolescents are able to perceive and recall the attributes of their soccer uniform, worn through the year, to identify specific characteristics of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. 2. That adolescents want specific uniform properties for their soccer uniform. 3. That adolescents were able to express their needs and responded conscientiously.

Definition of Terms Aesthetic component: includes art elements, design principles, and body/garment relationships (Lamb and Kallal (1992). Adolescents: are high school students, ages 14-18. Commitment: is priority given to sport by participants (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). Comfort: a state of satisfaction indicating physical balance among a person, his/her clothing, and his/her environment (modified from Branson & Sweeney, 1991, p. 99). Ease: amount of additional dimension beyond the related body measurement which varies depending on the function of the garment (Ashdown in Watkins, 1995, p. 264).

4 Fit: incorporates both the body dimensions of a person and the amount of ease necessary to perform required activity and maintain a satisfactory level of comfort. (Watkins, 1995). Functional component: comfort, fit, mobility, and protection (Lamb & Kallal, 1992). Impact protection: padding to shield the body from a forceful strike (Watkins, 1977). Movement: an action of the body’s moving to cause a change of position or posture, measured by direction and degree of the change (Watkins, 1995). Mobility: is ease of movement without stress or strain from apparel (Choi & Ashdown, 2002). Moisture management: “ability of a clothing material to transport moisture from sweat wetted skin” (Barker, 2002, p. 187). Needs assessment: “a tool which formally harvests the gaps between current results (or outcomes, products) and required or desired results, places these gaps in priority order, and selects those gaps (needs) of the highest priority for action, usually through the implementation of a new or existing curriculum or management procedure” (English & Kaufman, 1975, p. 3). Performance enhancement: “aspects of the uniform that enhance athletic performance” (Wheat & Dickson, 1999, p. 7). Shin guards: protective pads used to absorb forceful strike on soccer player's shin to prevent fracture of the tibia (Francisco, Nightingale, Guilak, Glisson, & Garrett, 2000). Sun protection: shielding body from exposure to ultraviolet rays of the sun (Buller & Borland, 1998). Thermal comfort: “that condition of mind in which satisfaction is expressed with thermal environment.” (ASHRAE, 1993)

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature addresses criteria that may be factors in a soccer player’s satisfaction assessment of their soccer team uniform. The Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (FEA) proposed by Lamb and Kallal (1992) will be used to assess the target needs of adolescent soccer players. In addition, team members subjectively evaluated team uniforms worn at outdoor games in the year prior to the survey. Research specific to soccer uniforms was scant, therefore requiring the reliance on other sport clothing or ready to wear assessments to establish a foundation.

Assessment of Needs Stevens and Gillam (1998) suggest a needs assessment of individuals rather than total reliance on assessment of a population when evaluating the infrastructure of public health programs. Applicable to all disciplines, exploration of user needs for product or service may enhance existing protocol and/or propose a new design model. In addition, reliance on expert knowledge rather than participatory input may hinder advancement (Stevens & Gillam). English and Kaufman (1975) report the identification of gaps, or needs, through a needs assessment, may aid in prioritization and formulating resolutions. Rosenblad-Wallin (1985) propose ongoing outreach to user needs would surpass conventional market research for satisfying consumer needs.

Commitment Commitment is priority given to a sport by participants (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). Dickson and Pollack identified five factors measuring commitment: frequency of participation, happiness, priority over other activities, relaxation, and time and effort increasing competency. In an assessment of in-line skating purchasing trends, a regression model predicted commitment as a significant variable (Dickson & Pollack,

6 2000). Chae (2002) also found tennis players with a greater commitment indicated a greater tennis clothing interest. Wheaton (2003) proposes varying levels of commitment may be measured by participation and knowledge of the sport by participants. Studies of identity in sport subcultures suggest a player may want to dress and act like an authentic player to both the people in and out of the sport (Donnelly & Young, 1988; Wheaton, 2000). Committed bicyclists represent their authenticity with fashionable apparel (Casselman-Dickson & Damhorst, 1993). The following hypothesis was developed:

H1: There is a positive correlation between soccer commitment and overall satisfaction with soccer uniforms.

Design Process Models Records indicate apparel design processes evolved from intuitive creativity to a more systematic analysis of garment purpose and user needs (DeJonge, 1984). An overview of two functional and one engineer design process models will be reviewed (DeJonge, 1984; Regan, Kincade, & Sheldon, 1998; Lamb & Kallal, 1992). Functional Design Process DeJonge (1984) proposed a systematic clothing design process wherein design ideas were formulated based on a general request, or a broad problem statement regarding clothing need. Next, the design situation explored phase defines objectives, suggests literature research, market analysis, and refinement of the definition of the problem. As third step, the DeJonge (1984) process suggests a needs assessment, movement analysis, thermal assessment or similar measures in the problem structure perceived stage. Specifications and design criteria in the next two stages include prioritizing and confirming details of objectives before the final stages of prototype development and design evaluation. Flexibility of this process is non-linear, wherein application on the stages is based on critical factors found within the process. Additionally, DeJonge (1984) proposes the development of an interaction matrix as design criteria are being established to address conflicts between factors.

7 Engineer Design Model An engineer based functional design process includes a similar step by step analysis as the DeJonge (1984) process, but includes considerable study of alternative solutions to clarify objectives before prototype development and expenditures (Regan et al., 1998). Both the engineering and the functional design processes may be iterative, or analysis stages repeated, until problem is solved. Quantification of criteria and written solutions increase effective solutions rather than reliance on subjective interpretations (Regan et. al., 1998). Functional, Expressive, Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model Using several previous design process models as a foundation, Lamb & Kallal (1992) proposed the Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (FEA) as a conceptual framework to be included before and throughout design development or assessment. The purpose of the model was to require potential designers to consider all user needs, beyond an assumed use-situation. A profile of the functional, expressive, aesthetic needs and wants of the end user is a critical preliminary stage of the design process. The functional component proposes utilitarian considerations such as fit, mobility, comfort, protection, donning and doffing. The expressive component includes symbolic communicative properties to establish identity such as values, roles and self esteem. Aesthetic considerations include visual impact interest in art elements, design principles, and body garment relationships. In addition, the profile must reflect the cultural influences to identify customary uses, form, and fit expectations. Lamb and Kallal (1992) extended previous design development models to pair both apparel and functional consideration of a client’s needs. A six step process was proposed which includes problem identification, preliminary ideas, design refinement, prototype development, evaluation, and implementation. The first three stages of the FEA model are based on the Koberg and Bagnall (1981) design process of Accept Situation, Analyze, Define, Ideation, and Select stages. The fourth stage, prototype development, corresponds to two design process methods: Koberg and Bagnall’s Implement stage (1981) and Hanks, Belliston, and Edwards’ Analysis stage (1977). In

8 the latter two stages, Lamb and Kallal point to the use of both subjective and objective measurements to assess the alignment with the FEA components. Applications of the conceptual FEA model are often paired with an accompanying operational model. An extensive collection of profile information, following the FEA model framework, was combined in the Watkin’s (1995) design process method in the creation of a satisfying prototype garment for sailing (Bye & Hakala, 2005). Preliminary research identified specific female user needs with emphasis on the functional needs of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection for sailing competition with necessary inclusion of aesthetic and expressive factors. Prior research presented applications of this model in the development of designs for figure skaters, for clean room garments, and for a Spina Bifida client (Lamb & Kallal, 1992). The FEA model has also been used in design research and prototype development (Orzada & Moore, 2005) and educational settings (Kim & Farrell-Beck, 2003). Selected Model Based on conceptual guidelines which assess functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs of client, the FEA model was most applicable for this study. Specific concerns identified by soccer players contributed to development and prioritizing of design criteria focused on increasing satisfaction.

Functional Components In this study, four functional components addressed soccer players’ uniform needs. The components to be analyzed are comfort, fit, mobility, and protection, as identified in the FEA model. Comfort The physical dimension triad of comfort outlined by Branson & Sweeney (1992) suggests the interaction of person, clothing, and environment attributes. This study proposes a measure of physical comfort on this categorical level of classification. In addition, this study assesses thermal comfort as one of the numerous subsets of the physical dimension triad. Physical comfort. Several studies have identified comfort as an influential factor in determining satisfaction of apparel with either male or female participants.

9 (Choi & Ashdown, 2002; Fowler, 1999; Frith & Gleeson, 2004; Wheat & Dickson, 1999). In an assessment of the design needs of pear farmers, Choi and Ashdown (2002) found 29% of male responses to a fit test of prototype protective garments ranked comfort as the most important characteristic. Fowler (1999) reported comfort as an important consideration for consumers of active sportswear (75%). Comfort ranked as the most important factor by male respondents in a survey of preferences of male attire (Frith & Gleeson, 2004). Built upon previous research, Branson and Sweeney (1991) defined comfort as: “a state of satisfaction indicating physiological, social-psychological and physical balance among a person, his/her clothing, and his/her environment” (p.99). In addition, Branson and Sweeney identified clothing comfort as a “true Gestalt, or whole, in which each part influences and in turn is influenced by every other part” (p.100). The proposed organizational strata of the topic of comfort provide a larger view of interactive possibilities by identifying the person, clothing, and environment triad as having two dimensions: the physical and the social-psychological. The physical attributes assessed in this study are limited to fit, design, and fabric characteristics, although the Branson and Sweeney’s list of factors is more extensive. The social psychological triad attributes incorporate aesthetics, style, and color as additional factors of this study, while Branson and Sweeney provide a more thorough list of potential descriptors. According to Branson and Sweeney, a perceptual response from both the physical and social-psychological attributes is produced and filtered through past experiences to identify a comfort judgment. According to this model, a comfort assessment will reflect the passage through four defining levels: physical dimension, social-psychological dimension, physiological/perceptual response, and filter of past experiences. Survey questions have evolved in the research domain to examine one or more of the subsets of comfort. In-line skaters (Dickson & Pollack, 2000) reported feminine appearance was greater than comfort as an influence on likelihood of buying. Wheat and Dickson (1999) found 11% of collegiate females dissatisfied with the comfort of a golf uniform. Fabric choices for sport uniforms should help keep the body comfortable during game participation (Feather, Ford, & Herr, 1996). Literature supports comfort as the dominant label for overall satisfaction or dissatisfaction of apparel, while satisfaction

10 with fit conceptually appears secondary (Casselman-Dickson & Damhorst, 1993; Feather et al., 1996; Wheat & Dickson, 2000). Wear studies of socks have identified comfort as the leading influence on satisfaction (Morris, Prato, & White, 1984-85; Purvis & Tunstall, 2004). Manufacturers are producing socks with activity and sport specific properties based on proprietary research data and consumer feedback programs. In a wear study of socks, Morris et al. found subjective responses to sock softness and foot dryness were better predictors of satisfactory comfort than fabric properties. Using pre-selected socks, Purvis and Tunstall (2004) sought thermal heat balance responses from subjects. Differences in physiological and thermal responses to a standard sock and an ergonomic sock were negligible. Ergonomic socks were identified by Purvis and Tunstall (2004) as inducing a higher body temperature. Subjects, however, still chose the ergonomic sock as their preference. Pressure induced by the stretch in the top of the sock based on duration of wearing time is a predictor of comfort (Tsujisaka, Azuma, Matsumoto, & Morooka, 2004). In attribute rankings for socks between male and females, there was a significant difference in fit (Tsujisaka et al., 2004). Thermal comfort. Branson and Sweeney (1991) suggest moisture/vapor transfer properties qualify as a subset of the physical dimension triad. Other research identifies these properties as measurable properties under the heading of thermal comfort (Li, Keighley, & Hampton,1988; Nielsen, Gavhed, & Nilsson, 1989, Walde- Armstrong, Branson, & Fair, 1996; Zhang, Gong, Yanai, Tokura, 2002). Environmental conditions and personal perceptions affect human comfort (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004). Li, Keighley, and Hampton (1988) measured thermal comfort in a controlled environment comparing subjective responses to descriptors of fit and wet sensations such as snug, loose, cold, or damp to objective measures of garment sweat absorption of several different fibers. Findings verified thermal wet sensations increase with exercise. In addition, Li, Keighley and Hampton reported fabric skin contact from wearing clothing indicated a better assessment of sensorial comfort than did tactile alone. In an analysis of ballistic vests, Fowler (2003) found lack of breathability, absorbency, and weight of the fabric to be deterrents of thermal comfort of ballistic

11 vests. Zhang et al. (2002) suggests that heat and moisture measurement based solely on water retention ratio of fabric in past research, be modified to accommodate both latent and apparent sweating of the user. Psychophysical responses (Bakkevig & Nielsen, 1995; Nielsen et al., 1989) to overall thermal sensation, degree of shivering, sweating, wetness, sensation of clothing wetness were compared in varying levels of activity (in laboratory, established as 30 and 40% activity levels) and fiber types. Findings indicated comfort ratings were lower during rest periods after high activity level due to increased sweat accumulation, higher skin temperature, and warm sensations. Current marketing suggests new fiber treatments, some identified by trademark, have made great strides in improving moisture management of garments promising greater satisfaction to the user (Eurosport, 2006; Walde-Armstrong et al,, 1996). Satisfaction data for advertised products remains proprietary only. Fit In 1999, Fowler was critical of global marketing efforts in regard to sports apparel for men and women. Identified was the issue of manufacturers targeting the male figure silhouette, more than the female. With limited production of golf wear specific to the sport, Wheat and Dickson (1999) indicated that females were limited to menswear golf apparel which did not fit satisfactorily. Wheat and Dickson reported 66% female dissatisfaction with fit of golf attire. Fowler (1999) also noted sports apparel did not provide different sizing ratios for male and female athletes, particularly in chest, waist, and hips measures. Sizing systems currently in use for active sportswear may not accommodate the petite and larger size range. Yoo, Khan, and Black (1996) report negative relationships between clothing needs and satisfaction for petite sizes and tall sizes. Garment type measures for dancewear specify fit concerns relating to the garment and dance (Turk, 2002). LaBat and DeLong (1990) administered a level of satisfaction questionnaire directed to body image (cathexis) in relationship to fit, using separate scales for fit satisfaction and cathexis. In a questionnaire, subjects used a body schematic diagram identifying points of reference on the body to match with the garment. A fit assessment was made at these points. Results identified the least satisfaction for fit was directed to lower body sites in the crotch, thigh, buttocks, and hip areas. While LaBat and DeLong

12 used their fit satisfaction scale under static conditions for the user, a modification of the same fit satisfaction scale was used for dynamic fit of basketball players by Feather et al. Their findings confirmed the lower body fit of clothing to be the least satisfactory. Using a 5-point scale, basketball uniform fit for the lower part of the body pointed to greater dissatisfaction than did the shoulders or neck. Specific style and fit preferences defined a baggy style short with an elastic drawstring for basketball. Ashdown and DeLong (1995) found the proportions of the garment to the body and the tolerable amount of ease may be based upon functional expectations. Current size choices for soccer garments (Eurosport, 2006) show these variations for size small: Men--waist 28”-30”, chest 34”-37”; Women—waist 24”-26”, chest 33”-35”. Youth sizes offer medium and large, with large measurements for waist being 26-28” and chest 27”-30.” Mobility Participation in any sport requires movement without resistance from the designated apparel. Lack of ease of movement was reported to be an influence on satisfaction for bicyclists (Casselman-Dickson & Damhorst, 1993) and golfers (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Choi and Ashdown (2002) indicated that ease of movement, without stress or strain from apparel, was a goal of functional work clothing. Satisfaction with mobility in designated apparel may lead to improved work efficiency (Adams, Slocum, & Keyserling, 1994; Choi & Ashdown, 2002). Likewise, satisfaction with designated apparel for a sport may also enhance performance (Dickson & Pollack, 2000, Casselman-Dickson & Damhorst, 1993). To establish improved output of workers requiring protective apparel, Adams et al., (1994), identified four evaluative measures for observing wearer movement: 1. clothing displacement (clothing sliding across skin), 2. clothing expansion (stretch), 3. bend (fold), and 4. bunch up (compress). To establish or improve design specifications for functional clothing, Watkins (1995) suggests thorough movement studies be charted from many participants for comparative study of the stress points of the body versus the apparel in various sports and occupations. Movement studies were analyzed in sports films for ice hockey players (Watkins, 1977) to determine points of impact for development of protective padding. Through prototype development, segmented padding at the waistline, elbow and knees, were added to allow appropriate bending.

13 Stretch fabric, in addition to open areas of the bodysuit, contributed to a more satisfying functional garment. For sailing, Bye and Hakala (2006) developed a prototype sailing uniform for females after identifying mobility needs through observation and interviews. Mobility was found to be a significant factor in safety and performance in confined spaces. Biomechanical studies have identified movement patterns in soccer include kicking, passing, trapping the ball, tackling, falling behavior, jumping, running, sprinting, starting, stopping, and changing direction (Lees & Nolan, 1997). Movement studies assessing the soccer uniform was not found in the literature. Protection Two classifications of protection address the needs of soccer players: sun protection and impact protection. Sun protection was researched based on increased findings of cancer due to sun exposure (Center for Disease Control, 2005) (CDC), and participation in sports in peak sun exposure hours of the day (National Institute of Health, 2004). Impact protection was included because soccer is a contact sport with kicking and shoving in pursuit of the ball. Sun protection. In America in 2004, the projected number of cases of skin cancer deaths was 9,800 (CDC, 2005), Numerous government, medical, education, and volunteer groups host a coalition of resources, working to increase public awareness of the genuine threat of sun damage to the skin and methods of prevention. Healthy People 2010 (U. S. Health & Human Services, 2005) suggest limiting sun exposure, seek shade whenever possible, wear sunscreen, wear protective clothing and accessories, and avoid tanning beds. Research reports gaps in the application of the guidelines by the general public due to lack of information, non-acceptance of personal threat, unwillingness to change behavior, or disparity between practice and beliefs (Black, Grise, Heitmeyer, & Readdick, 2001; Cardinez, Cokkinides, Weinstock & O’Connell, 2004; Jackson & Aiken, 2000; Kirsner, R., Parker, Thomas, Tajada, & Trapido, 2005). Black et al. observed that preschoolers may not consistently be protected with dark colored apparel, sunscreen, or hats. In a study of parents of youth aged 11-18, a need was found to educate the public that a combination of sun protective behaviors was essential. Although adolescents and

14 college-aged children may often neglect all warnings (Buller & Borland, 1998; Lower, Girgis, & Sanson-Fisher, 1998), parental example of using combined safeguards increases the likelihood of adolescent acceptance of the guidelines (Cardinez et al., 2004). In addition, Buller & Borland (1998) reported Australian and North American adolescent females are more precautious in their sun protective behavior than males. In a personal phone interview with Barbara MacDonald of Nike, Inc. (January 31, 2006), sun protective consideration was limited to swimwear and outerwear. Market research indicates manufacturers are incorporating UV protective soccer wear in limited regular production lines, thus not readily available without concerted effort (Eurosport, 2006). Empirical studies warn of an over reliance on sunscreen, which varies in its reliability depending on other measures, such as continual reapplication needs and thermal conditions (Buller & Borlund, 1998; Cardinez et al., 2004). Behavioral change is impacted by perception of a personal risk (Jackson & Aiken, 2000; Pagoto, McChargue, & Faqua, 2003; Rosenstock, 1990; Sung, 2003). While textile research continues to refine methods of producing fabrics with sun-protective properties (Gamlichler, Laperre, & Hoffmann, 2002; Gies, Roy, McLennan, Diffey, Pailthrope, & Driscoll, 1997; Song & Stone, 2005), perseverance in sun protection education, motivation incentives and behavior interventions must remain a priority (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2006; Jackson & Aiken, 2000; U.S. Health and Human Services, 2005). In addition, the National Institute of Health (2004) suggests the inclusion of UV protective components in more sports apparel. Skepticism toward the acceptance and use of protective apparel may be founded on the belief that it is a trade off for comfort or appearance (DeJonge, Vredevoogd, & Henry, 1983-84; Song & Stone, 2005). Impact protection. Generated by a public trend crediting thermal pants to offer some protective value in soccer participation, Upton, Noakes, and Juritz (1995) evaluated thermal pants composed of closed cell neoprene material (1.5 mm thick) with nylon laminated on both sides. While the conclusions did credit the pants to be a factor in injury prevention, Upton et al. identified other factors as having a greater influence, such as preseason fitness, and warming up/stretching procedures. Characteristics and incidence of injuries to soccer players, ages 14-20, playing amateur soccer, identified the ankle and knee, along with muscles of thigh and calf as

15 the most traumatized by impact (Junge, Cheung, Edwards, & Dvorak, 2004; Emery et al., 2005). Emery et al. (2005) also reports nearly 47% injuries were caused by direct contact with another player, and that most injuries occur during a game, rather than at practice. Shin guards stand alone as the only required protective equipment for the game of soccer (Junge, et al, 2004; Federation of Internationale de Football Association [FIFA], 2006). Shin guards made of plastic, fiberglass, compressed air, and Kevlar materials were evaluated for their effectiveness in protection (Francisco, Nightingale, Guilak, Glisson, & Garrett, 2000). Regardless of the material, all guarded legs had more protection than the unguarded leg, reducing force by 11 -17% and strain by 45 - 51%. The analysis was done in a lab on a fiberglass model of a lower leg. Twenty- three different types from eleven brands of shin guards were evaluated. Findings suggest custom-fit fiberglass shells displayed the best distribution of impact force. Compressed air pads and thickness of padding material proved the most protection. However, research does not specifically address the manner in which shin guards are secured to the leg. The personal choice method of adhering the shin guards to the legs may not provide the needed protection. Bir, Cassata, and Janda (1995) cited comfort as the determinant of whether players will utilize shin guards as intended. Protection standards in the United States have been raised above the generalized international regulations. FIFA (2006) specifies basic compulsory player equipment is as follows: jersey or shirt, shorts (may include matching color thermal undershorts), stockings (socks), shin guards, and footwear. FIFA further establishes that shin guards be covered in entirety by the stocking, made of appropriate materials (such as rubber, plastic, or similar substance), and provide a reasonable degree of protection. Effective in 2007, compliance with the National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOCSAE) specifications for shin guards will be required by the National Federation of High Schools (NFHS). The NOCSAE logo on newly manufactured shin guards will ensure correct sizing, composition, and impact resistance, with the expectation the user will follow the guidelines for adherence to the shin.

16 Watkins’ (1977, 1995) research identifies a common conflict is often found between protection and motion in sporting apparel and equipment. Observations, rigid experimentation of materials, and medically supported data on shape and structure of protective equipment, were components in the landmark study of ice hockey equipment. A padded prototype garment was developed for hockey incorporating the results of both impact and movement studies, as well as the appropriate shape and nature of the materials used in the protective gear (Watkins, 1977). In a Wheat and Dickson (1999) survey, subjects identified an interest in protection being offered by skating apparel. Bicyclists favored protection on specific body sites to shield the abrasion of contact with the bicycle seat (Casselman-Dickson & Damhorst, 1993). Public interest in further soccer protection has led to the development of a helmet (Nelson & Carter, 2002; Trakh, 1999) and a female chest protection pad (Jancowski, 2005). As of 2006, the NFHS (National Federation of High Schools, 2006) accepts non-protruding face masks to be worn as advised by physician based on prior injuries. Empirical research information could not be found for these protection items. To test the influence of each functional component, these hypotheses were proposed: H 2a: For the uniform tops, there is significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. H 2b: For the uniform shorts, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. H 2c: For the uniform socks, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection of socks. H 2d: For the uniform shin guards, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection.

Expressive Components The conceptual guidelines in the FEA model proposes design analysis may not address all FEA components in equal proportions. Status as a team player is confirmed upon issuance of team uniform. Expressive input is constrained by team rules and soccer culture, thereby limiting the scope of the expressive component in this study.

17 Research indicates athletes may value brand names as representative of sport identity (Dickson & Pollack, 2000; Wheat & Dickson, 1999; Wheaton, 2000; Wheaton, 2003). Findings also indicate an athlete may value a particular brand name regardless of the functional contributions of a garment. Wheat and Dickson (1999) found that golfers may compromise their fit, comfort, and mobility standards to favor a reputable brand of apparel. It was reported that 20% of the golfers studied, relied on brand as criteria for their satisfaction (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Similarly, in the study of socks, subjects were found to favor a type of sock based on its ergonomic classification rather than on performance (Tsujisaka et al., 2004).

Aesthetic Components Three aesthetic components, outlined in the Lamb and Kallal (1992) FEA model as art elements, design principles and body/garment relationship, make contributions to satisfy the human desire for beauty. To further define aesthetics, Morganosky and Postlewait (1989) proposed a consumer’s judgment of apparel is reliant on pleasing lines (style), designs, colors, and shapes. In a factor analysis of golf uniforms (Wheat & Dickson, 1999) identified eight items in a scale titled Comfortably Attractive Appearance. Five of the items suggest aesthetic components: fashionable color; style, attractive uniforms, colors I like to wear, and social-psychological comfort. Concern for beauty, or attractiveness, has been identified in various sports. Through a clothing interest survey and interviews, Casselman-Dickson and Damhorst (1993) found attractiveness was more important than comfort for female bicyclists. Female in-line skaters were also shown to have a greater interest in fashion over comfort, indicating a need to psychologically present the self as attractive in uniform (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). In an assessment of golf uniforms, 28% of players were dissatisfied with available colors, and 14% were dissatisfied with overall style (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Female sailors reported an interest in finding functional clothing that would flatter the body (Bye & Hakala, 2005). Likewise, Frith and Gleeson (2004) found men desire to look good and wear clothes that flatter the body.

18 Chattaraman and Rudd (2006) report evaluation of aesthetic (styling) of a garment is influenced by body size (20.8% of the variance). Overall findings from the Chattaraman and Rudd (2006) study of aesthetics suggest the interaction of both physical (body size) and social psychological (body image) qualify as measurable variables for defining comfort satisfaction, which supports established conceptual framework (Branson & Sweeney, 1991; Lamb & Kallall, 1992). The following hypothesis was generated:

H3: There is a positive correlation between functional and aesthetic satisfaction with the soccer uniform.

Summary Comfort, fit, mobility, protection, attractiveness, style, and color are functional and aesthetic criteria contributing to the integrity of the design of sports apparel. Empirical studies indicate conflicts within these criteria are affecting the level of satisfaction of the end user (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). A needs assessment of soccer uniforms should provide information that will increase understanding of design criteria for adolescents.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

A survey was used as the methodological approach to obtain results from adolescent soccer players for identification of their soccer clothing needs. This chapter will outline the Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model (FEA) (Lamb & Kallal, 1992), instrument development, data collection procedures, description of the pilot study, sample selection, and data analysis.

Functional, Expressive, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model Using the FEA Consumer Needs Model presented by Lamb and Kallal (1992), the scope of this study identified the problem and developed preliminary ideas leading to design refinement, as part of the functional design process (Figure 1). Soccer uniforms were assessed to explore functional, expressive, and aesthetic criteria of the adolescent user. Applicable to soccer, the FEA criteria investigated functional components of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection; expressive components of status, and aesthetic components of art elements, design principles, and body/garment relationships.

Instrument Development A questionnaire was developed to assess commitment to soccer, investigate the functional needs of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection, as well as the aesthetic needs of adolescent soccer players. The questionnaire was selected as the instrument based on the ease of distribution and accurate method of recording the needs assessment data.

Figure 1. Functional, expressive, and aesthetic consumer needs model (Lamb & Kallal, 1992).

The questionnaire was composed of scales used in previous studies (Black, 1988; Dickson & Pollack, 2000; Wheat & Dickson, 1999; Yoo, Khan, & Black, 1999), and adapted to soccer. To increase internal validity, a principal component factor analysis was used to assess the Comfortably Attractive Appearance scale (Wheat & Dickson, 1999), The original 8 items were reduced to 5 items, based on factor loadings of .50 or higher. Headings throughout the questionnaire were non-specific to allow opinion responses without a directional pre-disposition to suit the researcher

Pilot Test A pilot test was administered to a purposive sample of 23 soccer players, ages 14-18, participating in soccer camps at various locations in June, 2006. After

21 administering the instrument, modifications were made to tighten the focus of the study. Questions were reduced by removal of redundant questions and through elimination of topics not critical to the hypotheses.

Instrument Description Questions 1-5 measured respondent levels of participation. Likert 5-point scales (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) were used in questions 6-23, devised from two scales used in prior sports related studies. Reliability scores from a commitment measure (Dickson & Pollack, 2000), was 0.87; and for Comfortably Attractive Appearance scale (Wheat & Dickson,1999), was 0.91. Five additional questions were added to aid the researcher in giving direction to responses relating to the hypotheses. Questions were arranged in random order to avoid the stacking of responses. Questions 24-29 were developed by the researcher to measure thermal comfort based on prior research (Neilsen, Gavhed, & Nilsson, 1989). Questions were a combination of multiple choices and yes/no responses to identify comfort factors at different times during a soccer game. Questions 30-41 measure overall satisfaction of soccer uniforms, modified from Yoo, Khan, and Black’s (1999) satisfaction scale, reporting a reliability of 0.92. Questions 42-84 were derived from a scale developed by Black (1988) to measure variables pertaining to different garment types. The questions were adapted specifically to soccer uniforms. Questions 85-88 pertain to shin guard brands identified by Francisco, Nightingale, Guilak, Glisson, and Garrett (2000). Injuries were measured in questions 90-94, based on findings from Emery, Meeuwisse, and Hartmann (2005). Additional questions (89-90) were added by the researcher pertaining to other garment properties found in previous literature. Questions 95 -100 included demographic questions to describe characteristics of the sample. Figure 2 identifies the scales from previous studies and questions used in the research survey; Figure 3 reports reliability scores. Human Subjects approval was received on June 16, 2006 and a revision approved on August 24, 2006 (Appendix A).

Scales Item # on instrument Variable Dickson & Pollack (2000) 6,12, 14, 20, 23 Commitment (Commitment) Yoo, Khan, & Black (1999) 30-41 Overall Satisfaction (Satisfaction) Wheat & Dickson (1999) 7,10,11,13,15, Aesthetic Components (Comfortably attractive appearance) Black (1988) Top:42-45 Functional Components: (Garment types) Shorts: 56-59 Comfort Socks: 69-72 Fit Shin guards: 80-83 Mobility Impact protection

Figure 2. Scales, Variables, and Question Numbers on Questionnaire

Scales Previous Reliability Outcome Reliability Dickson & Pollack (2000) 0.87 0.62 (Commitment) Yoo, Khan, & Black (1999) 0.92 0.91 (Satisfaction) Wheat & Dickson (1999) 0.91 Modified, renamed (Comfortably attractive Aesthetic Components appearance) 0.76 Black (1988) - Adapted to soccer (Overall Garment types) 0.90

Figure 3 Scales, Previous Reliability, and Outcome Reliability

Data Collection The instrument was administered to potential soccer players in selected high schools in a classroom or outdoor soccer field setting by the researcher. Potential subjects were participating in preseason soccer tryouts. Responses were collected upon completion of the questionnaire on the same day.

23 Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were used to show frequencies, percentages, and means of subject responses. Using SPSS (2005), Hypothesis 1 was tested with the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients to measure the strength of the relationships between overall commitment and overall satisfaction. Hypotheses 2a-2d were analyzed using paired sample t-tests to measure differences between satisfaction of functional components of comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Hypothesis 3 was tested using the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients to measure the strength of the relationships between functional components and aesthetic components of the soccer uniform.

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to investigate the relationship between commitment to soccer and satisfaction with soccer uniforms; 2) to investigate gaps in functional uniform needs; and 3) to investigate the relationship between functional and aesthetic satisfaction of soccer uniforms for adolescents. A needs assessment questionnaire was administered. This chapter will outline the findings, and align the findings with the purpose, hypotheses, and literature review of the study. Included is a description of the final sample and results of the questionnaire investigating the following variables: commitment; overall uniform satisfaction; functional components of comfort, fit, mobility, impact protection; and aesthetic components of the soccer uniform. Frequency distributions were reported to describe demographics and preferences of adolescent soccer players. Three hypotheses were tested using bivariate correlations and paired t- tests for further statistical analysis.

Description of Sample Participants in preseason soccer activities at four public high schools in the southeast region of the United States were purposively selected. The data instrument received prior approval of local school board officials and presiding principals (Appendix A). One hundred and seventeen questionnaires were distributed to all potential participants at four schools in October, 2006. Three responses were eliminated due to incompletion of significant parts of their questionnaires. The final database consisted of 58 male and 56 female high school soccer players, ages 14-18.

25 Demographic Characteristics Age, Height, Weight, Ethnicity This purposive sample included soccer players with a fairly even distribution between ages 14-18 (Table 1). The average soccer player was 5’6” and 136 pounds. While the gender representations were closely equivalent, the ethnicity largely represented the Caucasian population (74%). Frequency of Participation in Soccer The largest number of players reported devoting a considerable amount of time to playing soccer, as indicated by participating for 8 or more years (47%, n = 53) and 8 or more hours per week (49%, n = 56). Forty-six percent of the players also reported 3 or more team affiliations during the year preceding the survey (Table 2).

Preferred Brands of Soccer Uniforms Brand name loyalty may influence satisfaction of garments. From numerous brands of available soccer apparel, soccer players were free to list any choice as their favorite brand name for tops, shorts, and socks selection. Brand choices were not identified by all participants. Adolescent soccer players favored Adidas brand for tops, shorts, and socks (Table 3). Nike and Adidas were indicated as the top two preferences of shin guards, based on eleven identified brands in previous research (Francisco, Nightingale, Guilak, Glisson, & Garrett, 2000). Brands had an important impact on satisfaction of users of team golf apparel (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Additionally, Dickson and Pollack (2000) emphasized the strong interrelationship between brand names, quality, performance enhancing characteristics, and consumer response. The findings in this study support previous research showing heavy reliance on the brand name which may not reflect actual experience with the product.

Discussion and Summary of Research Questions Commitment and Overall Satisfaction Research Question 1. What is the relationship between commitment to soccer and overall satisfaction of the uniforms?

26 Table 1 Age, Height, Weight, and Ethnicity

f (N=114) % M

Age 15.7 14 21 18.4 15 33 28.9 16 24 21.1 17 33 28.9 18 3 2.6

Gender Male 58 50.9 Female 56 49.1

Height 5.6 5’1” or less 17 14.9 5’2” – 5’5” 36 31.6 5’6” – 5’8” 34 29.9 5’9” – 5’11” 16 14.0 6’0” – 6’2” 11 9.6

Weight (pounds) 135.6 115 or less 23 20.2 116 – 130 31 27.2 131 – 140 15 13.2 141 – 155 23 20.2 156 or more 22 19.3

Ethnicity Caucasian 74 64.9 Hispanic 15 13.2 Black 13 11.4 Asian 3 2.6 Other 9 7.9

Soccer players were asked to respond to a five item 5-point Likert scale for assessing commitment (Dickson & Pollack, 2000) (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) and a twelve item 5-point Likert scale (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied) measuring overall satisfaction (Chae, Black, & Heitmeyer, 2006; Yoo et al.,

27 Table 2 Participation in Soccer

f (N=114) %

Years played 1 - 3 25 21.9 4 - 5 20 17.5 6 - 7 16 14.0 8 or more 53 46.6

Hours per week 1 - 3 11 9.6 4 - 5 24 21.1 6 - 7 23 20.2 8 or more 56 49.1

Number of team associations 1 26 22.8 2 36 31.6 3 41 36.0 4 10 8.8 5 1 .9

1999). Responses addressed Objective 1: Identify a level of commitment to the sport of adolescent soccer players. A high priority score (68%) was indicated by the purposive sample, as shown in a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) (Table 4). Soccer players also indicated a high frequency of playing soccer (75%), suggesting a high level of commitment. Less than 50% agreed with soccer helping relaxation, as compared to a high factor loading in a factor analysis by ice skaters (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). Players of the contact sport of soccer, apparently do not associate relaxation with commitment, but largely agree with other soccer commitment measures. In satisfaction measures, soccer players indicated the top three ratings for

28 Table 3 Preferred Brands of Soccer Uniforms

f %

Tops* Adidas 42 49 Nike 32 37 Puma 7 8 Diadora 2 2 Kappa 2 2 Under Armor 1 1 TOTAL 86

Shorts* Adidas 43 52 Nike 28 34 Puma 4 5 Kappa, 2 2 Kelme, 2 2 Under Armor 2 2 TOTAL 82

Socks* Adidas 34 52 Nike 17 26 Puma 5 8 Under Armor 3 5 Kappa 2 3 Fruit of the Loom 1 1 TOTAL 65

Shin guards** Nike 34 49 Adidas 31 45 Cobra 2 3 Kappa 1 1 Umbro 1 1 Puma. 1 1 TOTAL 70

Note. *Self reported brand identification. ** List of brands (Francisco et al., 2000). Brand choices not identified by all participants.

29 Table 4 Commitment to Soccer Disagree* Neutral Agree** f % f % f %

Helps relax 25 21.9 22 19.3 50 44.9 Higher priority 12 11.5 24 21.1 78 68.4 Time/competent 10 8.8 24 21.1 80 70.1 Increase happiness 10 8.8 20 17.5 84 73.7 Play frequently 8 7.0 20 17.5 86 75.4

Note. *Disagreement scores were tallied from ratings “1” (Strongly disagree), and “2” (Disagree). **Agreement scores were tallied from ratings “4” (Agree), and “5” (Strongly agree).

dissatisfaction were lack of size assortment (40.4%), poor fit (39.8%), and lack of attractiveness in uniforms (32%). Size assortment for the soccer players, based on verbal dialogue, meant the ready made sizes provided by the manufacturer. Comparatively, for tennis wear, two of the highest ratings of dissatisfaction were lack of size assortment and poor fit (Chae et al., 2006). Both measures of dissatisfaction and satisfaction contribute critical information in the evaluation of garments (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). In this study, soccer players indicated satisfaction with color (55%), comfort (51%), brand names (47%), and quality construction (47%) (Table 5). The remaining attributes rated only a 42% or less level of satisfaction. Data indicates 63%-67% of the adolescent respondents were not satisfied with style, fit, attractiveness, and size assortment. In golf, the attributes of comfort, fit, and color indicated the highest measures of satisfaction (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). In tennis, the three highest satisfaction ratings were identified by comfort, construction quality, and fabric quality. Hence, comfort was verified as an important attribute in evaluation of satisfaction of garments by the adolescents. Functional Components of Garment Types Research Question 2. Do comfort, fit, mobility, or impact protection have an effect on satisfaction of soccer uniforms? Using a sixteen item 5-point Likert scale (1 =

30 Table 5 Overall Satisfaction with Uniforms Dissatisfied* Neutral Satisfied** f % f % f %

Size assortment 46 40.4 26 22.8 42 36.8 Attractiveness 36 31.6 35 30.7 33 37.7 Fit 34 39.8 37 32.5 43 37.7 Style 25 21.9 51 44.8 38 33.3 Fabric quality 24 21.1 42 36.8 48 42.1 Pleasing to others 23 20.2 54 47.4 37 32.4 Fiber content 18 15.8 54 47.4 42 36.8 Comfort 17 15.0 39 34.2 58 50.8 Brand name 15 13.2 45 39.5 54 47.3 Construction quality 12 10.5 49 43.0 53 46.5 Color 10 8.8 41 36.0 63 55.3

Note. *Dissatisfaction scores were tallied from ratings “1” (Very dissatisfied), and “2” (Dissatisfied). **Satisfaction scores were tallied from ratings “4” (Satisfied), and “5” (Very satisfied).

strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), respondents were asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection of four garment types (Tables 6.1 & 6.2). Tables 6.1 and 6.2 report identical information in different formats for ease in tracking data. Objectives 2 – 6, identifying a level of satisfaction for comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection of soccer uniforms, were addressed by the interpretation of the frequency measures. Garment types. Less than 50% of soccer players were satisfied with the uniform tops or shorts. Socks and shin guards were moderately satisfactory, with the only high score for satisfaction attributed to impact protection of shin guards (72%) (Table 6.1). The researcher posits each of the garment types may be improved by addressing the specific functional needs of comfort, fit, mobility, and protection. Comfort. Satisfaction scores for comfort were found to be less than 50% for each garment type, suggesting adolescents were only somewhat satisfied (Table 6.2). Interestingly, for comfort of tops, the percentage of neutral responses (45%) exceeded

31 Table 6.1 Satisfaction with Functional Components of Garments Dissatisfied* Neutral Satisfied** Garment Type f % f % f %

Tops Impact Protection 50 43.9 40 35.1 24 21.0 Fit 32 28.1 44 38.6 38 33.3 Comfort 26 14.0 51 44.7 47 41.3 Mobility 17 14.9 43 37.7 54 47.4

Shorts Impact Protection 56 49.1 36 31.6 22 19.3 Fit 41 36.0 34 29.8 39 34.2 Mobility 26 22.8 36 31.6 52 45.6 Comfort 25 21.9 43 37.7 46 40.4

Socks Impact Protection 25 21.9 46 40.4 43 37.7 Comfort 15 13.2 43 37.7 56 49.1 Fit 12 10.6 42 36.8 60 52.6 Mobility 8 7.0 39 34.2 67 58.8

Shin guards Comfort 29 25.5 34 29.8 51 44.7 Mobility 21 18.4 32 28.1 61 53.5 Fit 20 17.5 36 31.6 58 50.9 Impact Protection 9 7.9 22 19.3 83 72.8

the satisfaction responses (41%). Comfort scores indicated greater satisfaction with socks, and least satisfaction with shin guards. Neutrality scores suggest comfort of the uniforms could be improved to elicit a higher satisfaction rating. Wheat and Dickson (1999) reported findings of 21% satisfied and 11% dissatisfied (N = 71) for golf wear, suggesting a similar high degree of

32 neutrality. Additionally, the golf wear study suggests players may indicate more neutral responses to uniforms unless a factor affects performance in the sport (Wheat & Dickson, 1999) (Table 6.2). Fit. Fit scores for shorts and tops were moderately low, whereas scores for shin guards and socks were in the median range. Soccer players reported the greatest fit dissatisfaction with shorts (36%) (Table 6.2). Similar to comfort scores, neutral ratings for shorts represented at least one third of the responses. Dissatisfaction with fit for garments covering the lower body was previously reported for basketball uniforms (Feather et al., 1996) and golf uniforms (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). The sum of neutral and dissatisfied scores for shorts in the soccer uniform (66%), suggests there is a large room for improvement. Likewise, the neutral/dissatisfied sum for tops (67%) suggests changes could be made to improve satisfaction. Mobility. Forty-six percent to 59% adolescents reported satisfaction with mobility, overall (Table 6.2). Of the functional components assessed for the soccer uniform, mobility scores indicated the highest level of satisfaction. For the tops, 47% were satisfied, yet a balance of 53% were less than satisfied, indicative of room for improvement. Wheat and Dickson (1999) report a performance enhancement property closely related to mobility (“suitability for context of wearing”) which suggests 76% are either neutral or dissatisfied. Research is limited on measures of mobility using survey methodology . Impact protection. Overall, impact protection in soccer uniforms appears to be limited to shin guards. As expected, soccer players indicated satisfaction with impact protection of shin guards. On the contrary, dissatisfaction scores for shorts (49%) and tops (44%), combined with 32% and 35% neutrality scores, indicated players are not satisfied with the limited protection found in these garment types (Table 6.2). Based on reported dissatisfaction levels, impact protection should be included in future analysis and evaluation stages of design development for tops and shorts. Observational studies were found in research of ballistic vests (Fowler, 2003) and ice-hockey protective equipment (Watkins, 1977). No comparable statistics were identified.

33 Functional Components versus Aesthetic Components Research Question 3. Will there be a strong relationship between satisfaction of comfort and satisfaction of aesthetics in soccer uniforms? A functional comfort score was drawn from the sum of garment type measures.

Table 6.2. Alternative Format: Satisfaction with Functional Components of Garments Dissatisfied* Neutral Satisfied** Functional Components f % f % f %

Comfort Shin Guards 29 25.5 34 29.8 51 44.7 Tops 26 14.0 51 44.7 47 41.3 Shorts 25 21.9 43 37.7 46 40.4 Socks 15 13.2 43 37.7 56 49.1

Fit Shorts 41 36.0 34 29.8 39 34.2 Tops 32 28.1 44 38.6 38 33.3 Shin Guards 20 17.5 36 31.6 58 50.9 Socks 12 10.6 42 36.8 60 52.6

Mobility Shorts 26 22.8 36 31.6 52 45.6 Shin Guards 21 18.4 32 28.1 61 53.5 Tops 17 14.9 43 37.7 54 47.4 Socks 8 7.0 39 34.2 67 58.8

Impact protection Shorts 56 49.1 36 31.6 22 19.3 Tops 50 43.9 40 35.1 24 21.0 Socks 25 21.9 46 40.4 43 37.7 Shin Guards 9 7.9 22 19.3 83 72.8 Note. *Dissatisfaction scores were tallied from ratings “1” (Very dissatisfied), and “2” (Dissatisfied). **Satisfaction scores were tallied from ratings “4” (Satisfied), and “5” (Very satisfied).

34 Aesthetic garment needs were measured using a replication of the comfortable attractive appearance scale (Wheat & Dickson, 1999) used for golf and adapted to soccer (Table 7). Overall, except for color and move freely, the majority of adolescents were not satisfied with the aesthetic appearance of soccer uniforms. Even the two highest scores in agreement with aesthetic properties of colors and movement, only represent 50% to 60% of the participants. Therefore, 40% of the adolescents indicated room for improvement in the aesthetics of soccer uniforms. Other specific findings indicated soccer players agreed with the availability of suitable colors (53 %) and fashionable colors (49%). On the contrary, female golfers were dissatisfied with limited color choices (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). For enhanced performance and style, soccer players reported neutral ratings that were higher than agree or disagree ratings. The large balance of responses that are not in agreement, support the conclusion that there is room for improvement (Table 7). Previous research reports aesthetic appeal of uniforms may contribute to psychological comfort, thereby contributing to performance in a sport (Wheat & Dickson, 1999, p. 9).

Table 7 Aesthetic Garment Needs Disagree* Neutral Agree** f % f % f %

Attractiveness 38 33.3 38 33.3 38 33.4 Styles I like 32 28.1 45 39.5 37 32.4 Fashionable colors 22 19.3 36 31.6 56 49.1 Uniform comfort 18 15.9 40 35.4 55 48.7 Colors I like 17 14.9 36 31.6 61 53.0

Note. *Disagreement scores were tallied from ratings “1” (Strongly disagree), and “2” (Disagree). **Agreement scores were tallied from ratings “4” (Agree), and “5” (Strongly agree).

35 The measure of attractiveness of the uniforms identified uncertainty among the players, shown with an even distribution of responses between disagree, neutral, and agree. The even distribution of scores may be the result of the feminine oriented word “attractiveness” on the survey, administered to both genders. Comparison of frequency responses for functional and aesthetic component of comfort addressed objective six. Further analysis of functional and aesthetic components is discussed in Hypotheses 3.

Functional Properties Thermal Comfort Thermal sensations. Frequencies were tallied for body shivering, body sweating, and wet uniforms, identified three times during a game of soccer. Warm-ups (before sweat accumulation), half-time (during sweat production and sweat accumulated), and end of game (sweat accumulated or evaporated) were reported. Sums of the frequencies indicated 76 incidents of body shivering, 243 incidents of body sweating, and 167 incidents of wet uniform (Table 8). High activity levels of subjects moderate thermal comfort, but material and textile construction can influence evaporation rates and increase level of comfort (Bakkevig and Nielsen,1995). Negative responses to questions of comfort at different times found 16% uncomfortable (dissatisfied) before sweat accumulation, 22% uncomfortable during sweat production and sweat accumulated, and 40% uncomfortable after sweat accumulation and evaporation. Soccer players’ subjective responses to thermal questions suggest thermal comfort needs are not being met. Thermal comfort of garment types. Summing the neutral and dissatisfied scores for each thermal comfort measure produces scores 51%-57% above the satisfaction scores (Table 9). Hence, a higher degree of soccer players agree there is room for improvement in fabric properties of the uniforms. Market research indicates fabrication for most tops and jerseys are 100% polyester, some having specialty treatments or finishes for moisture management (Eurosport, 2006). Fabric properties influence garment physical and psychological comfort (Bakkevig & Nielsen, 1995; Feather et al., 1996).

36 Table 8 Thermal Sensations

f M SD

Body shivering During warm ups 35 31 .46 At half time 19 19 .40 At end of game 22 17 .37

Body sweating During warm ups 55 48 .50 At half time 95 82 .40 At end of game 93 83 .37

Uniform wet During warm ups 19 17 .37 At half time 63 75 .44 At end of game 85 55 .50

Note. (n=114)

Question 16 of the survey, a response to “I feel I am a better soccer player when I wear my uniform” was included to measure the impact of the uniform on the level of comfort (Wheat & Dickson,1999). Respondents indicated an equal distribution for dissatisfaction, neutral, and satisfaction to this statement (Table 9). Soccer players imply soccer performance may be enhanced when wearing uniforms. Fit Properties of Garment Types Specific reference points on the uniforms were identified to assess satisfaction and give further direction to problem areas of fit (Table 10). Sleeve length and crotch length were two common problems in soccer uniforms. For soccer tops, most dissatisfaction was found in sleeve length (too long at 38% and fullness (looseness) of sleeve (too large at 28%). Similar dissatisfaction scores were reported for tennis wear: sleeve length (17%) and sleeve circumference (25%) (Chae, 2002).

37 Table 9 Thermal Comfort Properties of Garment Types Dissatisfied* Neutral Satisfied** Garment Types f % f % f %

Tops Feel of fabric 20 22.8 39 34.2 49 43.0 Weight of fabric 21 18.4 43 37.7 50 43.9 Shorts Feel of fabric 22 19.4 47 41.2 45 41.2 Weight of fabric 23 20.2 41 36.0 50 44.8

Socks Feel of fabric 15 13.2 44 38.6 55 47.2 Weight of fabric 13 11.4 45 39.5 56 49.1

Table 10 Fit Properties of Garment Types Too Small Too Large f % f %

Tops Neckline 17 14.9 12 10.5 Shoulder width 10 8.8 27 23.7 Sleeve fullness (looseness) 8 7.0 32 28.1 Sleeve length 9 7.9 43 37.7

Shorts Waist 24 21.0 14 12.3 Crotch length 25 22.0 34 29.8 Finished length 30 26.3 28 24.6

Socks Length 10 8.8 7 6.1

38 Past research has indicated basketball players identified greater dissatisfaction with lower body fit (Feather et al., 1996). Support for lower body dissatisfaction was found in the soccer uniforms, with the highest dissatisfaction rating for crotch length measure (30%). Likewise, dancers also reported problems with crotch length (51%) (Turk, 2002). Soccer players reported adapting their tops 49% of the time, indicating a need for improvement. For example, soccer players reported adapting their tops by rolling up their sleeves or tying their sleeves together with the shoulder seam. For the shorts, a common practice was to roll the waistband to shorten the crotch length. Overall responses to fit indicated 40% of soccer players reported soccer uniforms were too big, in response to Question 9: “My uniform is too big.” Similarly, in golf, 66% reported dissatisfaction with the fit (Wheat & Dickson, 1999), and 72% female tennis players indicated a need for improved fit (Chae et al., 2006). See Appendix C for responses by soccer players related to fit dissatisfaction. Non-uniform Garments and Special Properties Measures of non-uniform garments were collected for descriptive purposes only, but may be useful in future research. Of the female population (n = 56) of this study, 51% reported wearing a sports bra. Twenty-nine percent of respondents verified the use of specialty undershirts under their tops. A specialty undershirt was identified as shirts marketed for moderating body temperature or moisture management properties, whereas a standard undershirt stated no special properties. While additional garment layers could confound the results of satisfaction measurement, findings indicate thermal comfort may be enhanced by fibers, even if layered, that attribute to ventilation (Bakkevig & Nielsen,1995). Excluding the sports bra rating, between 22% and 26% of the soccer players acknowledged wearing garments in addition to their uniform (Table 11). Protection Sun protection in soccer uniforms. As noted in Table 11, sun protection was only a concern of 15% of the soccer players. However, less that 50% of the respondents indicated being satisfied with the sun protection of the uniform, and only 25% were satisfied with sun protection of their tops (Table 12). This suggests a

39 Table 11 Non-uniform Garments and Special Properties* f %

Non-uniform garments Sports bra 51 44.7 Specialty undershirt 33 28.9 Compression shorts 29 25.4 Standard undershirt 25 21.9 Other 3 2.6 Special properties Dries quickly 56 49.1 Neutralizes odor 38 33.3 Sun protective 17 14.9 Note. *Optional responses produce varying frequencies.

Table 12 Sun Protection in Soccer Uniforms Dissatisfied* Neutral Satisfied** f % f % f % M

Shorts 43 37.7 42 36.8 29 25.5 2.86 Tops 36 31.6 51 44.7 27 23.7 2.89 Socks 23 20.2 42 36.8 49 43.0 3.39

pm [81%]), a large percentage of playing soccer is reported in peak exposure times (12 – 2 pm) (56%), indicating protection needs. In the garment types section of the survey, soccer players identified satisfaction

40 potential need for increasing youth and adult awareness of sun protective needs during soccer participation, and additional research on potential providers. Time of day measures were also collected to compare with research literature which reports peak exposure to ultra violet rays usually occurs from 10 am to 2 pm (CDC, 2006), yet may be longer in warmer climates. While the greater frequency of playing soccer is identified in non-peak exposure time periods (2 – 4 pm [70%]; 4 – 6 level of sun protective properties of uniforms. Results indicated shorts and tops with dissatisfaction scores greater than satisfaction scores. The sum of dissatisfaction and neutral responses suggests improvements could be made to increase satisfaction. Impact protection and soccer injuries. As identified in the FEA model (Lamb & Kallal, 1992), protection is a potential variable in design development. Impact protection was indicated as a need in soccer due to a high frequency of injuries. Frequent bruising while playing soccer was reported by 36% of soccer players. Seventy two incidents of injury incurred at practices, whereas 79 incidents were reported for games, indicating a 7% variance. Likewise, a 7% variance (N=317) was also reported by Emery et al. (2005). Adolescents reported the highest frequency of injuries in the ankles (55) and knees (30) in the span of one year. Emery et al. also cited ankle and knee injuries as the most frequently reported. Injuries most frequently reported are found on body parts not covered by the soccer uniform. A challenge for designers may be to introduce new ways of providing protection in the soccer uniform. However, soccer players may resist added protection. Only 28% responded favorably to the statement: “The most important aspect of my soccer uniform is that it protects me from injury.” Shin guard properties. Securing with velcro and lightweight composition were identified as preferred properties of shin guards (Table 13). Francisco et al. (2000) reported there is the tendency for users to select lighter weight, but laboratory indices show medium weight absorbs impact force more effectively. In this study, soccer players reported 40% annual replacement of shin guards.

41 Testing of Hypotheses A Pearson product moment coefficient correlation was used to test the relationship between overall commitment to soccer and overall satisfaction with soccer uniforms. Sample paired t-tests were used to compare the means of the variables of comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Additionally, Pearson product moment coefficient

Table 13 Shin Guard Replacement and Properties f %

Replacement 6 months 18 15.8 1 year 45 39.5 1.5 years 8 7.0 2 years 21 18.4 Other 22 9.3

Securing Methods Velcro 53 46.5 Stretch/sleeve 35 30.7 Elastic 12 10.5 Tape 9 7.9 Other 5 4.4

Desirable Properties Lightweight 68 59.6 Medium weight 45 39.5 Heavy weight 1 0.9

correlation was used to measure relationship between satisfaction of functional components and aesthetic components of the uniform. Hypotheses 1: There is a positive correlation between soccer commitment and overall satisfaction with soccer uniforms.

42 A significant positive correlation (r = .234, p < .05) was found between commitment and satisfaction (Table 14). This correlation indicates that as commitment to soccer increases, satisfaction with soccer uniforms also increases. Parallel support to this correlation is suggested by high commitment measures (Table 3) and the large percentage of neutral responses found in this study. The findings of this study support significant positive correlation of commitment and satisfaction identified with tennis wear (Chae et al., 2006).

Table 14 Commitment and Overall Uniform Satisfaction OC OS Overall Pearson Correlation .234** Commitment (OC) Sig. (2 tailed) .013 N 113

Overall Pearson Correlation .234** Satisfaction (OS) Sig. (2 tailed) .013 N 113

Note. **significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Hypothesis two is composed of four sub-hypotheses for analysis of the soccer uniform garment types. Paired sample t tests were used to compare the means and computations were used to measure the magnitude of the effect of the four independent variables for satisfaction of comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Hypothesis 2a: For the uniform tops, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Results of the paired samples t- test indicated a statistical significant difference exists between the following pairs of variables (p < 0.01): comfort-fit, comfort-impact protection, fit-mobility, and fit-impact protection (Table 15). The comfort-mobility pair indicated no significant difference (t [113] = -0.44, p = 0.66).

43 Using Cohen’s (1988) guidelines for statistical power when comparing two groups (paired variables), effect was computed by subtracting the mean of the second group from the mean of the first group then dividing by the pooled standard deviation of both groups. The effect results indicated fit (d = .38) and impact protection (d = .37), were the lowest effect scores, in the less than typical range (Table 16). Table 17 correlates satisfaction mean scores of tops with the significant difference between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Inferences from the findings suggest: 1) gaps in satisfaction are in fit and impact protection, 2) there was no significant difference between comfort and mobility, as they were near equal measures of user satisfaction, and 3) design refinement may address the functional gaps, as well as comfort and mobility to increase the findings of moderate satisfaction. Hypothesis 2a was partially accepted. Hypothesis 2b: For the uniform shorts, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. The paired samples t- test indicated a significant difference between five out of six pairs (p < 0.01), to include: mobility-impact protection, comfort-impact protection, fit- mobility, fit-impact protection, and comfort-fit (Table 15). The comfort-mobility pair was not significantly different (t [113] = -1.25, p = 0.21). Effect measures identified satisfaction gaps as “less than typical” for standardized ratings of fit (d = .38) and impact protection (d = .35) (Table 16). Table 17 correlates satisfaction mean scores of shorts with the significant difference between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Findings suggest: 1) gaps in satisfaction are in fit and impact protection, 2) no significant difference between comfort and mobility, and 3) overall moderate satisfaction scores suggest room for improvement in each of the 4 functional components addressed. Hypothesis 2b was partially accepted. Hypothesis 2c: For the uniform socks, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. In the paired t-test, the comfort-fit pair was not significantly different (t [113] = 0.07, p = 1.00), while significant differences were indicated between remaining pairs: mobility-impact protection, comfort-impact protection, fit-mobility, fit-impact protection, and comfort-mobility (p < 0.01) (Table 15).

44 Effect scores for comfort, fit, mobility, and protection of the socks were all less than typical, with the lowest score for fit (d = .26). (Table 16). Table 17 correlates satisfaction mean scores of socks with the significant difference between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Implications from the findings suggest comfort and fit need improvement to increase satisfaction. Hypothesis 2c was partially accepted. Hypothesis 2d: For the uniform shin guards, there is a significant difference in satisfaction between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. No significant difference was identified in the fit-mobility pair in the paired sample t-test, indicating fit and mobility are similar measures of satisfaction for shin guards. The remaining measured pairs indicated a statistical significant difference between variables. Additionally, fit and mobility were major contributors to satisfaction identified by higher means within each pair of variables: comfort-impact protection, fit-impact protection, mobility-impact protection, comfort-mobility, and comfort-fit (Table 15). Due to low ratings in each pair of means tabulated in the paired samples t-test, an effect score was not generated for comfort, indicating little or no effect. Findings indicated the lowest effect measures were for fit (d = .26), close to the small effect range, and mobility (d = .17), below the smaller than typical effect (Table 16). Table 17 correlates satisfaction mean scores of shin guards with the significant difference between comfort, fit, mobility, and impact protection. Based on low effect values of comfort, fit, and mobility, on the likeness of mean scores of comfort, fit, and mobility, and on the comparison of the higher mean score of impact protection, Hypothesis 2d was rejected. Inferences from the findings suggest: 1) fit and mobility may need improvement, and 2) comfort is less important than impact protection. Hypothesis 3: There is a positive correlation between functional and aesthetic satisfaction with the soccer uniform. Results indicated a significant positive correlation between satisfaction of functional components and aesthetic components of the uniform (r = .469, p<.01) (Table 18). This correlation indicates that as satisfaction of functional components increases, satisfaction of aesthetic components also increases. Likewise, in previous studies, Turk (2002) found significant positive relationships were established between

45 Table 15 Paired Samples t-test for Uniform Garment Types

Paired Variables t p

Tops Mobility - Impact protection 6.90 0.000 Comfort - Impact protection 6.68 0.000 Comfort – Fit 4.72 0.000 Fit – Mobility 4.00 0.000 Fit - Impact Protection -3.96 0.000 Comfort - Mobility -0.44 0.664

Short Mobility - Impact protection 6.79 0.000 Comfort - Impact protection 6.54 0.000 Fit – Mobility 4.00 0.000 Fit - Impact Protection -3.78 0.000 Comfort – Fit 3.32 0.001 Comfort – Mobility -1.25 0.213

Socks Mobility - Impact protection 6.79 0.000 Comfort - Impact protection 6.54 0.007 Fit – Mobility -4.08 0.002 Comfort – Mobility -2.85 0.005 Fit - Impact Protection 4.78 0.006 Comfort – Fit 0 1.000

Shin Guards Comfort - Impact protection -5.33 0.000 Fit - Impact Protection -4.32 0.000 Mobility - Impact protection -3.89 0.000 Comfort – Mobility -2.79 0.006 Comfort – Fit -2.75 0.007 Fit – Mobility -0.70 0.486

Note. See Table 16 for effect scores. df = 113, p < 0.01.

46 Table 16 Garment Type Effect on Satisfaction

Garment Type Range of Effect on Satisfaction d

Tops Mobility Slightly above typical/medium .65 Comfort Typical/medium* (.54) .45 - .63 Fit Less than typical/medium .38 Impact Protection Less than typical/medium .37

Shorts Comfort Slightly less than typical/medium* (.46) .31 - .61 Mobility Less than typical/medium* (.38) .12 - .64 Fit Less than typical/medium .38 Impact Protection Less than typical/medium .35

Socks Mobility Less than typical/medium* (.35) .27 - .44 Comfort Less than typical/medium* (.38) .26 - .50** Impact Protection -*** - Fit Smaller than typical .26

Shin Guards Impact Protection Near typical/medium* (.44) .37 - .50 Mobility Smaller than typical* (.17) .07 - .26 Fit Smaller than typical .26 Comfort -*** -

Note: *Median of range ** When d is tabulated to 0, equals average, .50. ***No primary rating between pairs. Cohen’s statistical power: d =│.20│, small or smaller than typical effect; d =│.50│, medium or typical effect; d =│.80│, large or larger than typical effect.

47 Table 17 Differences Between Functional Components of Garment Types

M* SD

Tops Comfort 3.4b,d 0.94 Mobility 3.4d,b 1.05 Fit 3.1a,c,d 1.02 Impact Protection 2.6a,b,c 1.15

Shorts Mobility 3.4b,d 1.16 Comfort 3.3b,d 1.10 Fit 3.0a,c,d 1.17 Impact Protection 2.5a,b,c 1.21

Socks Mobility 3.8a,b,d 1.01 Comfort 3.6c,d 1.17 Fit 3.6c,d 1.06 Impact Protection 3.3a,b,c 1.33

Shin Guards Impact Protection 4.0a,b,c 1.08 Fit 3.6a,d 1.17 Mobility 3.6a,d 1.24 Comfort 3.4b,c,d 1.29

Note: *1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied Subscript indicates significantly different means: a = comfort; b = fit; c = mobility; d = impact protection.

48 Table 18 Satisfaction with Soccer Uniforms AS FS Aesthetic Pearson Correlation .469** Satisfaction Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 111

Functional Pearson Correlation .469** Satisfaction Sig. (2 tailed) .000 N 111

Note. ** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

satisfaction with aesthetics and between satisfaction and comfort. Accommodation of functional and aesthetic needs in a uniform increases satisfaction (Wheat & Dickson, 1999). Hypothesis 3 is supported. The researcher posits improvement in both functional and aesthetic components of the soccer uniform may enhance performance, thereby also increasing satisfaction. In summary, the acceptance of Hypothesis 1 indicates that as soccer commitment increases, satisfaction with the soccer uniform also increases. Soccer players may be difficult to please unless specific inquiries and observations are made in research. Overall, adolescents had neutral responses to satisfaction of garment types. Hypothesis 2 findings verified concerns of fit. Needed improvements were identified by dissatisfaction scores of fit of shorts and lack of impact protection. Hypothesis 3 found functional and aesthetic comfort had a positive significant relationship.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of the Study A needs assessment questionnaire was developed and utilized to assess soccer uniform worn by the adolescent, based on the purpose and objectives of the study. One hundred and fourteen potential soccer team players, ages 14-18, participated in the survey from four high schools in a southeastern city of the United States. Data were analyzed using frequency distributions to describe demographics, time commitment, and overall satisfaction of uniforms by the soccer players. Additionally, functional and aesthetic soccer uniform needs were analyzed using frequencies and percentages. Pearson correlations and paired t-tests were used to test the hypotheses.

Summary of the Findings Most respondents in the sample were Caucasian (74%), with Hispanic represented by 13%. The average height was 5’5”, with a mean weight of 135 pounds. Genders were represented by 58 males and 56 females.

50 Frequency measures of time commitment to soccer revealed the purposive sample had high priority (68%), with 47% reporting 8 or more years of experience, and 49% indicating playing soccer at least 8 hours per week. Overall satisfaction of the uniform by participants revealed dissatisfaction with lack of size assortment (40%), poor fit (40%), and lack of attractiveness (32%). Satisfaction scores were the highest for color (55%), comfort (51%), and brand name (47%). These findings suggest this purposive sample was familiar with the sport to contribute constructive responses. In addition, these findings identify attributes which could be further addressed by manufacturers to increase user satisfaction. Hypothesis 1, proposing a positive significant difference between commitment and satisfaction, was accepted. This finding, which reports that soccer players who are more committed to the sport are more satisfied with their uniform, gives direction for future design development. On average, soccer players were primarily neutral on the satisfaction assessment of the uniform. Overall, socks and shin guards were rated more satisfactory than top and shorts. Of the measured variables, dissatisfaction for impact protection was noted by nearly half of the soccer players for tops and shorts. Summation of the neutral and dissatisfied scores from the frequency measures indicated 11 out of 16 factors could be improved to increase satisfaction by 50% or more. Further analysis of the four garment types was addressed by four sub- hypotheses, each addressing a different garment type: Hypothesis 2a, tops; Hypothesis 2b, shorts, Hypothesis 2c, socks, and Hypothesis 2d, shin guards. Paired samples t- tests were used to compare the means and computations were made to measure the magnitude of the effect. Examining the magnitude and signs of the standard coefficients identified the relative contribution and gaps in satisfaction made by each variable. Overall, the most prevalent satisfaction gaps were found in fit and impact protection. Satisfaction scores, however, were found to be somewhat neutral, suggesting an overall need for design improvements. In comparing the variables, findings suggest comfort and mobility were near equivalent measures of satisfaction for tops and shorts; comfort and fit were near

51 equivalents for socks. Hypothesis 2a, 2b, and 2c were partially supported. Hypothesis 2d, for shin guards, was rejected with high satisfaction for impact protection and minimal effect from the remaining variables. Supporting previous findings, a positive correlation between satisfaction of functional and aesthetic components of soccer uniforms was identified (Dickson & Pollack, 2000; Turk, 2002; Wheat & Dickson, 1999;). Hypothesis 3 was accepted. Additional findings indicated thermal comfort readings for feel and weight of fabric had 11- 23% rates of dissatisfaction for the top, shorts, and socks. Fit measures of frequency noted dissatisfaction rates of 30% for crotch to waist, while 40% responses reported uniform to be too big. Frequency responses indicated 32 to 38% were dissatisfied with sun protective properties of the soccer uniform. Unlike neutral satisfaction responses throughout this survey, 37 to 44% neutral responses toward sun protection, may suggest ambivalence toward sun protection, rather than a sign of level of dissatisfaction. For athletic garments, the shift from fit and comfort emphasis, to performance enhancing emphasis as proposed by Wheat and Dickson in 1999, is still moving forward. Findings from this soccer study indicate aesthetics cannot be ruled out, even though sport participants demand task oriented garments. Marketing ambitions must not forego genuine needs of sport participants. Soccer players frown on soccer garments being defined by marketing schemes that do not rely specifically on user needs (Kernaghan, 2005). Using the Lamb and Kallal (1992) investigative approach, feedback from adolescent soccer players and insight into soccer culture contributed to greater understanding of sports participants and related apparel. Similar gaps in fit satisfaction were found in previous studies of college age athletes (Dickson & Pollack, 2000; Feather et al., 1996; Turk, 2002; Wheat & Dickson, 1999).

Implications for Sport Clothing Manufacturers Based on the findings of this study, adolescents are not satisfied with the fit of the crotch length in shorts. Committed sports enthusiasts consider aesthetics to be a significant factor of satisfaction. Continued support of integrating sun protection into the

52 mainstream of sports uniforms is a timely need as indicated in current research (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006; Kirsner, Parker, Brathwaite, Thomas, Tejada, & Trapido, 2005). Inclusion of sun protective fibers or treatments could provide a needed public service, although budget restraints would require minimal expense for non-professional use.

Implications for Soccer Coaches Standard sizing alone may not adequately suit the adolescent physique. Inappropriate sized uniforms may impede satisfaction or performance. Feather, Ford and Herr (1996) report coaches are often not aware of options for special sizing offered by manufacturers. Additionally, further consideration of health protection factors promoted by a limited number of manufacturers may need further investigation by team administrators to ensure players’ needs are met, as well as increase the protection of personnel and property.

Recommendations for Further Research Based on the findings of this study, suggested future research may be to: 1. Examine and compare current manufactured soccer shorts. Do a fit analysis. 2. Study fit of shorts with field observations, analyzing soccer movement and garment ease needs; develop prototype. 3. Examine and compare current manufactured soccer tops. Do a fit and thermal comfort analysis. 4. Analyze protective properties of uniform compared to comfort needs; measure UV properties in current use soccer uniforms. 5. Study the biomechanics of soccer to define actual performance enhancement factors. Examine whether performance is attributed to actual properties of the uniform. 6. Investigate satisfaction and protection coverage of shin guards using new standards and specifications. certified by National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOCSAE).

APPENDIX A

RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTERS

55 56

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE DOCUMENTS

Questionnaire Introduction Script

Introduce self as: Mother of soccer players, familiar with the game, uniforms, and complaints about uniforms; College student studying clothing and textiles, working toward master’s degree Motivation statements: Rarely do surveys collect data from adolescents; your input is valuable. I am seeking your input to see if any improvements in the uniform need to be made. Your input will be seen by those who make these products. Directives: The survey is kind of long. Please work quickly and answer the best you can. This is not a group survey, but one where I need your personal opinion. Please do not discuss your answers. Most of the questions simply ask you to check the box indicating your best answer. Some of the questions may seem silly to you. That might be because some the questions are designed to be answered by both males and females. Please just answer the best you can, and move on. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. Explanations: One specific item is repeated a few times. Let me explain it to you. The word is mobility. This is asking whether your uniform seems to be in the way of movement while playing soccer. For instance, as I lift my arm, you will notice this pulled fabric under my arm. Questions about mobility are asking: Does fabric at any point on the uniform prevent you from moving freely to play ball? Does it get in the way? When asked about a specialty undershirt, it is advertised as having special properties to help control body temperature or moisture management.

62 Soccer Uniform Questionnaire

We would like to have your opinion about your soccer uniforms. (There are no right or wrong answers. Your responses are recorded as anonymous.)

Please think about your soccer participation and soccer uniforms you have worn during this past year.

1 How many years have you played soccer? 1- 3 4-5 6-7 8+ 2 I have been a participant on the following types of soccer teams: Check all that apply. Indoor School Community Recreation Club Other: ______3 Approximately how many hours per week do you play or practice soccer? 1- 3 4-5 6-7 8+ 4 Which months of the year do you play outdoor soccer? Check all that apply. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 5 What time(s) of day have you participated in soccer games? (Check all that apply.) 9-11 a.m. 12-2 p.m. 2-4 p.m. 4-6 p.m. 6 p.m. and later

Circle the number that best describes your opinion. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 6 I give soccer higher priority than other activities. 1 2 3 4 5 7 My soccer uniforms are in styles I like. 1 2 3 4 5 8 Soccer uniforms should offer protection from the sun. 1 2 3 4 5 9 My uniforms are too big. 1 2 3 4 5 10 My uniforms are in fashionable colors. 1 2 3 4 5 11 My uniforms are comfortable to wear. 1 2 3 4 5 12 Soccer increases my happiness. 1 2 3 4 5 13 My soccer uniforms are attractive. 1 2 3 4 5 14 I play soccer frequently. 1 2 3 4 5 15 My uniforms are in colors I like to wear. 1 2 3 4 5 16 I feel I am a better soccer player when I wear my uniform. 1 2 3 4 5 17 My uniforms do allow me to move freely. 1 2 3 4 5 18 Shin guards are important. 1 2 3 4 5 19 The most important aspect of my soccer uniform is that it protects me from injury. 1 2 3 4 5 20 Soccer helps people relax. 1 2 3 4 5 21 My uniforms have enough pockets. 1 2 3 4 5 22 My uniform enhances my performance as a soccer player. 1 2 3 4 5 23 I spend considerable time and effort to become a more competent soccer player. 1 2 3 4 5

At gametime: Choose ALL that apply.

24 My body is shivering. During warm ups At half time At end of game Not at all 25 My body is sweating. During warm ups At half time At end of game Not at all 26 My soccer uniform feels wet. During warm ups At half time At end of game Not at all 27 Do you feel comfortable in the uniform during warm ups? Yes No 28 Do you feel comfortable in the uniform at half time? Yes No 29 Do you feel comfortable in the uniform at end of game? Yes No

63 What do you think of your uniform? Choose your best answer for each item. Very Very Dissatisfied Satisfied 30 Pleasing to others 1 2 3 4 5 31 Fabric quality 1 2 3 4 5 32 Brand name 1 2 3 4 5 33 Construction quality 1 2 3 4 5 34 Size assortment 1 2 3 4 5 35 Fiber content 1 2 3 4 5 36 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 37 Attractiveness 1 2 3 4 5 38 Style 1 2 3 4 5 39 Fashionable 1 2 3 4 5 40 Color 1 2 3 4 5 41 Fit 1 2 3 4 5

Satisfaction of Garment Types: Choose your best answer for each item.

Very Very Top: Dissatisfied Satisfied 42 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 43 Fit 1 2 3 4 5 44 Mobility 1 2 3 4 5 45 Impact Protection 1 2 3 4 5 46 Sun Protection 1 2 3 4 5 47 Feel of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 48 Weight of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 49 Neckline 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 50 Shoulder width 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 51 Sleeve fullness 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 52 Sleeve length 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 53 List other concerns: ______54 Do you adapt (adjust or fold) your tops when you wear them? Yes No 55 My personal brand choice would be: ______

Very Very Shorts: Dissatisfied Satisfied 56 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 57 Fit 1 2 3 4 5 58 Mobility 1 2 3 4 5 59 Impact protection 1 2 3 4 5 60 Sun protection 1 2 3 4 5 61 Feel of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 62 Weight of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 63 Waist 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 64 Waistband to crotch length 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 65 Finished length 1Too small 3Appropriate 3Too Large 66 Other concerns: ______67 Do you adapt (adjust or fold) your shorts in some way when you wear them? Yes No 68 My personal brand choice would be: ______

64 Very Very Socks: Dissatisfied Satisfied 69 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 70 Fit 1 2 3 4 5 71 Mobility 1 2 3 4 5 72 Impact protection 1 2 3 4 5 73 Sun protection 1 2 3 4 5 74 Feel of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 75 Weight of fabric 1 2 3 4 5 76 Length 1Too small 2Appropriate 3Too Large 77 Other concerns: ______78 How many pairs do you wear (layer) at one time? 1 2 3 79 My personal brand choice would be: ______

Very Very Shin guards: Dissatisfied Satisfied 80 Comfort 1 2 3 4 5 81 Fit 1 2 3 4 5 82 Mobility 1 2 3 4 5 83 Impact protection 1 2 3 4 5 84 I replace my shin guards every: 16 months 21 year 3 1½years 4 2 years 5other ______I would choose this type of shin guard: 85 Weight: 1Light 2Medium 3Heavy 86 Secured to leg by: 1Velcro 2Elastic 3Stretchy sleeve 4Tape 5Other: ______

87 Brand: Adidas Nike Umbro Diadora Kappa Cobra SSLInternatl Priva Sport Uhlsport 4C Sports Brine Don’t know 88 Other desirable properties: ______

Other: 89 Check any additional or specialty garments worn along with your uniform: standard under shirt Specialty under shirt Compression shorts sports bra other: ______89a Check important properties of overall uniform: neutralizes odor sun protective dries quickly

From playing soccer Mark your best answer. Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 90 I bruise frequently when playing soccer. 1 2 3 4 5 91 I wear shin guards at practice. 1 2 3 4 5 92 How often have you been injured during soccer practice in the past year? 0 1 2 3 or more 93 How often have you been injured during a soccer game in the past year? 0 1 2 3 or more 94 If injured, check all the injury regions that apply to you: 1Ankle 2Foot 3Lower leg 4Ribs 5Knee 6Upper leg 7Groin 8Neck 9Back 10Head/face 11Wrist/hand

General Questions: 95 Gender: Male Female 96 Approximate Height ______97 Approximate Weight ____

98 Current Age ______99 At what age did you first start to play soccer? ______100 Ethnicity: Asian Hispanic Black White Other______Your participation is appreciated. Your comments will be used in research to benefit YOU!

APPENDIX C

RESPONDENTS’ COMMENTS

TOPS Other: Too long for small people Collar very uncomfortable Needs to stay tucked in Too long Too short to tuck in Always too big; fabric not breathable Too big Itchy

SHORTS Other: Uncomfortable Stains easily A little tight Too short, needs to sag Too tight shorts Too long, too heavy

SHIN GUARDS Other: Desire washable

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Education M.S. in Apparel Product Development, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 2007 B.S. in Education, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 1973 Continuing Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 1988-1992 Continuing Education, El Paso Community College, El Paso, TX, 1997

Teaching Experience 2005 – Present Instructor, Religion class (before school), high school students (Volunteer) - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Tallahassee, FL 2004 – 2005 Graduate Teaching Assistant CTE 1310 Basic Clothing Construction, Summer 2004, Spring 2006 CTE 1310 Basic Clothing Construction, Lead Instructor, Spring 2005 CTE 3319 Intermediate Clothing Construction, Fall 2004 2003 – 2004 Substitute Teacher, Leon County Schools, Tallahassee, FL Sewing Instructor, Bernina Connection, Tallahassee, FL 2001 – 2002 Sewing Instructor, Stitches Galore, Tallahassee, FL 2000 – 2001 Typing Instructor/computer lab, Jackson Elementary, Ft. Campbell, KY Instructor, Manager, Crafty Eagle, Ft. Campbell, KY 1998 – 2001 Instructor, Religion class (before school), high school students (Volunteer) - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Ft. Campbell, KY 1997 – 1998 Instructor, Adult information and leadership training, (Volunteer) Army Family Team Building, Ft. Bliss, TX 1975 – 1976 Instructor, Allied Forces Central Europe Craft Shop, The Netherlands 1973 – 1975 Instructor, Homestead Elementary School, Homestead, FL

Professional Organizations International Textile and Apparel Association (ITAA) Surface Design Association

Certification Florida State University, Program for Instructional Excellence (PIE), August 2004