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Cognitive Epidemiology Glossary Downloaded from jech.bmj.com on 31 October 2008 Cognitive epidemiology Ian J Deary and G David Batty J Epidemiol Community Health 2007;61;378-384 doi:10.1136/jech.2005.039206 Updated information and services can be found at: http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/61/5/378 These include: References This article cites 51 articles, 19 of which can be accessed free at: http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/61/5/378#BIBL 1 online articles that cite this article can be accessed at: http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/61/5/378#otherarticles Rapid responses You can respond to this article at: http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/eletter-submit/61/5/378 Email alerting Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article - sign up in the box at the service top right corner of the article Notes To order reprints of this article go to: http://journals.bmj.com/cgi/reprintform To subscribe to Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health go to: http://journals.bmj.com/subscriptions/ Downloaded from jech.bmj.com on 31 October 2008 378 GLOSSARY Cognitive epidemiology Ian J Deary, G David Batty ................................................................................................................................... J Epidemiol Community Health 2007;61:378–384. doi: 10.1136/jech.2005.039206 This glossary provides a guide to some concepts, findings and to be underutilised in epidemiology generally. To date, total mortality has been the principal out- issues of discussion in the new field of research in which come studied. Given the well-established pattern- intelligence test scores are associated with mortality and ing of total mortality by socioeconomic position morbidity. Intelligence tests are devised and studied by (SEP),29–31 and the fact that intelligence is sig- differential psychologists. Some of the major concepts in nificantly associated with indicators of SEP,25 there was a good prima facie case for introducing differential psychology are explained, especially those intelligence differences into the epidemiology of regarding cognitive ability testing. Some aspects of IQ chronic diseases. (intelligence) tests are described and some of the major tests are outlined. A short guide is given to the main statistical techniques MAJORCONCEPTSINDIFFERENTIAL used by differential psychologists in the study of human mental PSYCHOLOGY abilities. There is a discussion of common epidemiological Differential psychology Differential psychology is the branch of psychology concepts in the context of cognitive epidemiology. concerned with the nature, origins and applica- ............................................................................. tions of individual differences. Its principal topics are cognitive abilities and personality, but it also ince the start of the new millennium, addresses attitudes, moods, and other psychologi- although there have been some earlier stu- cal states and traits. It can be traced back to the Sdies,1–5 low intelligence test scores have begun London School of Psychology and Charles to appear in epidemiological reports as a risk factor Spearman, the discoverer of general intelligence for total mortality and possibly some disease- (g) and pioneer in the statistical field of factor 32 specific outcomes, including coronary heart dis- analysis. Differential psychologists use the statis- ease.6–17 This new field has been termed cognitive tical techniques of psychometrics and are, partly, epidemiology.18 The association between cognitive concerned with the devising and validating of test scores and mortality was probably first mental tests. The statistical techniques include demonstrated at the group, rather than individual, correlation, factor analysis, item response theory level in 1933 by Maller.19 and structural equation modelling. An accessible The study of human intelligence has a long and introduction to the topics and techniques of 33 contentious research history, characterised by differential psychology is provided by Cooper. highly technical debates, multiple controversies and some scandal.20–24 However, there is, in fact, Cognitive function(s): modal structure of much consensus among researchers in the field mind versus individual differences regarding the measurement and validity of differ- Those higher mental functions that are not ences in human intelligence differences.25–27 It is principally sensory, emotional or conative (related important for those engaged in cognitive epide- to the will) are cognitive, comprising a large range miology research to understand this area if they of functions related to the selection, storage, are to use intelligence intelligently as a new risk manipulation and organisation of information. In indicator for health and disease. This glossary aims psychology, there are two quite different to provide four services. Firstly, it introduces the approaches to the study of cognition, originally reader to major concepts in the field of differential associated with Cambridge and London 34 psychology. Secondly, it describes concepts and Universities. The experimental (Cambridge) See end of article for procedures in mental ability testing. Thirdly, it approach inquires after the modal structure of authors’ affiliations the mind. Largely, it studies those functions that ........................ describes statistical techniques in differential psychology. Fourthly, it sets common epidemiolo- are common to us all, and aims to provide a wiring Correspondence to: gical concepts in the context of cognitive epide- diagram that would apply to most of us, and/or to Professor I J Deary, people with specific disorders of cognition. The Department of Psychology, miology. The terms within the first three of these School of Philosophy, sections are listed in an order which progresses differential or correlational (London) approach is Psychology and Language from general to specific information, with the later interested in individual differences, and studies Sciences, University of items typically developing ideas presented in the the nature, number, causes and consequences of Edinburgh, 7 George variance in people’s cognitive performance. There Square, Edinburgh EH8 earlier ones. 9JZ, Scotland, UK; Cognitive epidemiology is used here to mean the have been repeated calls for combining the two 34 [email protected] use of cognitive ability test scores as risk factors for approaches. human health and disease outcomes, including Accepted 7 September 2005 mortality. This usage was urged by Lubinski and Abbreviations: g, general intelligence; NART, National ........................ Humphreys,28 who considered IQ-type test scores Adult Reading Test; SEP, socioeconomic position www.jech.com Downloaded from jech.bmj.com on 31 October 2008 Cognitive epidemiology 379 Cognitive abilities: examining individual differences statistical finding. Typically, g is the first unrotated principal The construct ‘‘cognitive abilities’’ appears under different component (or factor) from a battery of mental tests terms, which might mean the same or slightly different things administered to a sample of a population. It describes the to the user—for example, intelligence(s), psychometric intelli- near-universal finding that all mental tests tend to correlate gence, mental abilities, cognitive functions or IQ. People differ positively. The g extracted from different, large mental test in how accurately and quickly they perform mental work. The batteries correlates at levels that are above r = 0.9.43 The g factor number of concepts we should use in order to describe these tends to have the best correlations with outcomes such as differences has been the topic of a century-long debate.26 There educational and occupational success.35 To date, studies on are those who emphasise people’s differences in g,35 and those mental ability, and mortality and physical health have tended who focus on people’s relative strengths on a number of to use single mental tests rather than a general factor extracted supposedly different (even independent) abilities.36 There is a from a battery of varied tests (see section Cognitive abilities). growing consensus that it is valid to do both.27 That is, it is Theories on human mental abilities that posited some number correct to acknowledge general and specific cognitive abilities. of uncorrelated multiple intelligences and excluded a general This concept has arisen because of the pioneering work of factor36 44 45 are not consistent with datasets gathered for over researchers such as Gustafsson,37 who used confirmatory factor 80 years.38 analysis to test different models of the structure of cognitive ability differences, and Carroll,38 who retrieved and re-analysed Crystallised and fluid intelligence (using a standard methodology) most of the major intelligence The psychologists Cattell and Horn articulated a theory about datasets from the 20th century. Both of them suggested that a two (substantially correlated) aspects of g, fluid and crystal- hierarchical model of cognitive abilities best accommodates lised.46 Briefly, fluid intelligence is seen as our basic informa- most data. At the pinnacle of the hierarchy, g accounts for tion-processing capability. This is best tested using culture- about half of the total test score variance. Next, accounting for reduced, novel material, often under time pressure. Crystallised relatively small amounts of variance, there are group factors of intelligence is regarded as the stored knowledge produced over ability, which describe major correlated domains of cognitive
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