3 Linden, a Neolithic Activity Area in the Core Region Grave-Cuyk

Times fade away. The neolithization of the southern Netherlands Verhart, L.B.M.

Citation Verhart, L. B. M. (1999, June 2). Times fade away. The neolithization of the southern Netherlands. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13346

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3 Linden, a Neolithic activity area in the core region Grave-Cuyk.

3.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the core region Grave-Cuyk (fig. 3.1). It is a study of a regional distribution pattern of sites in relation to the investigation of a single site. The analysis of the settlement pattern using a.o. GIS is outside our scope. This analysis will be published elsewhere1.

3.2 The Middle Neolithic in the south of the Netherlands In 1973 the term ‘Middle Neolithic of Limburg’ was first introduced as a result of the Koningsbosch investigation2. This denoted chronologically the period between the Early Neolithic Bandkeramik and the Late Neolithic beaker- cultures. Culturally this Middle Neolithic encompasses the Michelsberg(MK)-culture (Middle Neolithic A) and the Wartberg/Stein/Vlaardingen(WSV)-complex3 (Middle Neolithic B). In this outline the emphasis will be on the MK-phase and less attention will be paid to the WSV-phase. The Middle Neolithic can in a material sense be recognized in the Meuse valley by the — rare — occurrence of mostly undecorated pottery with few typical features and large flint concentrations, both in number and in size. The sites usually palimpsests represent an accumulation of moments of use, not only from the Middle Neolithic, but often as early as the Macro region Mesolithic and as late as the Iron Age. The limited typological differences make it hard to distinguish pottery Core region and flint by period. Another remarkable phenomenon is the large number of sites dating from the Middle Neolithic. The origins of the MK-culture lie in the German Lower Rhine area. There a gradual typological development in the pottery can be discerned from Rössen to MK I and subsequently MK II4. Lüning assumed that not until phase MK III an expansion towards the north and west occurred5. This idea has been superseded by the occurrence of MK II-pottery outside this supposed centre, even as far as the Paris Basin6. 0 20 km As a result of recent research in the Limburg Meuse valley itself, but particularly in the adjoining areas like the west of Fig. 3.1 The macroregion and location of the core region Grave-Cuyk the Netherlands, West Germany and Belgium, the early indicated with a black line. phase of the Middle Neolithic, the period of the MK-culture, can be described more accurately7. In the south of the Netherlands Maastricht-Vogelzang8 and the recently discovered causewayed enclosure in Heerlen9

141 Fig. 3.2 Guide artefacts for the Middle Neolithic: pottery, macrolithic pointed blades, triangular, leaflike and teardrop-like arrowheads with semi- surface retouch.

are the sites where this early pottery occurs. In rough outline the presence of suitable local material. The most important the material culture of the northwestern group of the MK- sources were the flint mines of Rijckholt, but flint was also culture is characterized by the use of almost undecorated imported from Spiennes, the Haspengouw in Belgium and even pottery, of which pots with round bases and outward the north of France, from the vicinity of Romigny-Lhéry14. bending rims (tulip beakers) are most typical. In addition Little is known of the lay-out of the settlements. Until jars, bottles, spoons, storage jars and baking plates occur. recently the clearest example of a dwelling in the sandy area The composition of the range of pottery is often tied to a was a small rectangular building from Kruishoutem in particular region. Specific variations developed within the Belgium. However, this building turns out to have sprouted regions. A striking example is the Hazendonk-3 pottery from the excavator’s imagination and should therefore be decorated much more often and with a small range of removed as a source of knowledge of MK-culture shapes. In the flint industry macrolithic tools predominate, settlements15. Nevertheless, small rectangular buildings were usually made of imported mined flint. Characteristic tools in use during this period, as can be inferred from the are various types of quite thick arrowheads with semi- recently excavated settlement Wateringen IV. This is a small surface retouch, pointed blades, large blade and flake rectangular structure with dimensions of 11 by 4 metres. scrapers and axes, both of flint and stone. From Thieusies in Belgium a structure is known that might As yet, little is known of the economy of the Dutch MK10. be a building16. Within a causewayed enclosure a Information on the food supply is mainly provided by sites configuration of poles has been observed that are assumed to in the west of the Netherlands, like Brandwijk, Hazendonk, be housing constructions, but might also be part of the Rijswijk and Wateringen that date from this period, but may defense system. In France at Mairy in the Meuse valley a not be considered as typically Michelsberg11. In this large number of floor plans have been found with particular wetland area, not highly suited for agriculture, it is dimensions as large as 60 by 10 metres17. These floor plans not amazing that hunting and fishing were important are considered to be houses, but there is an alternative activities. Besides livestock, agriculture too contributed to explanation that this is an equivalent of the ‘causewayed the diet, as grain is known to occur on these sites. It is enclosures’, where various social and ritual acts were however doubtful whether grain was cultivated at the site performed. On the Aldenhovener Platte, on site Koslar 10, a itself. This would imply that elsewhere — probably in the large number of pits and post holes have been excavated, drier coversand area — agriculture contributed to a high allowing the inference of a rectangular structure of 6 by degree to the food supply12. The MK-sites containing grain 12 metres18. From some settlements in the eastern river are mainly located in the löss area. It is striking that on those district post traces are known, indicating the presence of sites mainly wheat was cultivated, whereas on the sites in houses there. Examples are Kraaienberg near Linden19 and the west of the Netherlands emmer and einkorn wheat were Pater Berthierstraat in Grave20. In the latter settlement still used13. Apparently the use of emmer and einkorn wheat, fragments of clay used for huts have been found as well. that already played such an important part in the food supply Besides permanent or semi-permanent settlements other in the Bandkeramik, continued in the coversand area. types of settlements are known as well. A small temporary It is remarkable that the production of tools was completely encampment is e.g. the site excavated in 1981 in Gassel21. In focused on good quality imported flint from the south, despite a quite different category are the large defenced areas known

142 as ‘causewayed enclosures’. These are mainly known from first specimen was recently discovered in Heerlen22. It is not the adjoining countries, Belgium and Germany, and impossible that there has been and partly still is one on the dominate settlement research there. In the Netherlands the Caberg near Maastricht23.

abc

def Fig. 3.3 Distribution of Middle Neolithic sites in the macroregion. a: triangular point; b: leaflike point; c: teardrop-like point; d: macrolites; e: pottery; f: settlements.

143 Almost nothing is known of burial procedures. In the sandy interred in a collective grave, like Stein40. Cremation of the area nothing has been found up to now, whereas in the west dead occurs with remarkable frequency in this period. of the Netherlands two cemeteries are known, a smaller one at Zoelen24 and a larger one at Rijswijk-Ypenburg25. In 3.3 The macroregion Belgium burials in caves are known26 In the macroregion there is a large number of sites from the The second phase of the Middle Neolithic is distinguished by Middle Neolithic, but it is hard to define the exact nature of the appearance of groups that are characterized archaeologically these sites. Therefore no statements can be made about as Wartberg/Stein/Vlaardingen27. After the discovery of the function and economy either. A relatively large number of Stein vault28, it became clear that much of the undecorated, guide artefacts can be distinguished for the Middle Neolithic quartz-grit tempered pottery belonged to this phase29. (fig. 3.2). For the Middle Neolithic A (MK-culture) these Subsequently it became apparent that there were strong are: three types of arrowhead, macrolithic flakes and blades, similarities in a material sense between the Vlaardingen- and pottery. Due to its fragility the last category is severely culture in the west of the Netherlands and the Wartberg under-represented. group from Hessen in Germany, and that all three could be Finds occur all over the Meuse valley, from Maastricht to considered a single cultural unit: the WSV-complex30. ‘s-Hertogenbosch, but with a distinct concentration in the Morphologically speaking, the range of pottery may be called middle of Limburg, southeast of Roermond (fig. 3.3a-f). poor. Simple cooking pots predominate, with occasional Individual objects like arrowheads and axes may indicate the appearances of small trays, bowls and collared flasks. Few occurrence of occasional activities like hunting, gathering diagnostic features are apparent in the flint industry as well. food or forestry work on that location or nearby. In order to Most noticeable are transverse arrowheads and tanged points ascertain the presence of a settlement, specific guide shaped like pine trees. Although occasionally macrolites may artefacts, or a combination of guide artefacts, have to occur occur, the importation of large semi-manufactured items like on a site. flakes and blades appears to have come to an end31. A settlement is in this study defined by: Almost nothing is known of the economy of these groups on – the presence of pottery the coversands in the south. The only source of information – the presence of two out of five guide artefacts, excluding on this period are the excavation data from the west and a combination of two points middle of the Netherlands. Although it is remains to be seen whether these are representative of the south of the In the settlement pattern, too, a concentration in the middle Netherlands, they do provide a picture of the possibilities. of Limburg can be discerned (fig. 3.3f), with a smaller The food economy shows a relatively wide range with number to the south and north. The differences in density settlements where hunting and fishing predominate may be caused by habitation intensity, but more likely reflect (Vlaardingen, Hekelingen, Hazendonk)32, versus settlements the collection and reporting efforts of amateurs41. A good with the emphasis on livestock (Voorschoten, Leidschendam, instance are the MK-finds in the core region Venray. On the Ewijk)33. There are also indications for agriculture, but this map of the macroregion no settlements are visible, whereas often appears not to have occurred at the site or in the investigation of the core region unearthed a quite impressive vicinity34. The picture is quite different in the south of the number of these in this region42. Despite these limitations the Netherlands. From Maastricht-Randwijck a pollen diagram is pattern clearly shows that Middle Neolithic communities had known exhibiting the presence of a ‘landnam’ in the WSV- settled over almost the entire area under investigation. phase, which might indicate a considerable contribution of agriculture to the food economy in the south of the 3.4 The core region Grave-Cuyk Netherlands in this period35. Comparable observations have The core region Grave and Cuyk is located in the eastern been made from the adjoining area in West Germany36 and part of the river district, in the north of the province of the eastern river district near Nijmegen37. Noord-Brabant. Its size is indicated in figure 3.4. To the Whereas there were hardly any indications for houses in the north the core region is bounded by the Meuse. Within the MK-phase, a small number are known for the WSV-period area the major cities are Grave in the west and Cuyk in the from the west of the Netherlands38. In most cases these were east. This core region has a surface of approx. 90 km2 and is small, rectangular, two-naved houses, but incomprehensible one of the smallest investigated within the Meuse valley post clusters occur as well which might each represent a project. large number of consecutive, non-rectangular huts. Despite the scarcity of excavation data, more is known of 3.4.1 GEOLOGY burial procedures in this period. The dead were individually For the description of the geology we used the study by Van buried (Hekelingen)39, with a wide range of burial rituals, or der Beek & Isarin43 extensively. Their investigation was

144 0 2km

Mook

Grave

Linden Gassel

Beers

Cuijk

Fig. 3.4 Core region Grave-Cuyk, bordered in the north by the Meuse, with the microregion Linden. The dot marks the location of the excavation Linden-De Geest.

aimed at the area around the microregion Linden in Groesbeek. As a consequence Meuse and Rhine sought their particular, but thanks to its broad geographical set-up, it way west to the sea as a single meandering river. Due to provides an up to date basis for the description of a large infilling of the valley floor by coarse-grained sand and part of the core region as well (fig. 3.5). For the areas not gravel a river plain came into being that sloped to the west. investigated in the core region we used supplementary This river plain is known as the Rhine and Meuse lower literature44. terrace45. In more than one respect the geology of the core region In the Allerød construction of the lower terrace was Grave-Cuyk is unusual. Apart from the fact that the complete and its destruction began. The Meuse drained into geological development is clearly visible, the so-called a number of deeply cutting meandering main channels — terrace intersection occurs here, the transition from the the Rhine had shifted its course to the north in the middle of western river district mainly characterized by sedimentary the Weichselien. The channels carrying less water now processes to the southern river district characterized by began to infill. almost continuous erosion. In the Younger Dryas a new terrace level came into being, In the penultimate ice age, the Saalien, the basis for the due to infilling of Allerød-cuts and erosion. This level is modern terrain was laid. The ice cap pushed far to the south referred to as the X-terrace46. In this period large sand drifts and created the lateral moraine system at Nijmegen and occurred as well, creating a large number of dunes of

145 0 2km

Mook

Grave

Linden Gassel

Beers

Cuijk

Fig. 3.5 Summary of geological research in the core region Grave-Cuyk: literature study (white) and field work (hatched).

varying shapes and sizes. As a result of predominantly this terrace by approx. 1 metre. The Meuse cut was western winds and the relatively northern course of the concentrated on two channels, the northernmost identical to Meuse in the middle and north of Limburg, these dunes the modern bed of the Katwijkse Meuse, the southern one occur mainly on the east bank. In the research area the dividing into two beds at Den Drul and merging again at De Meuse ran a more westerly course and the river dune Geest. In the middle Hoge Renning is located, as an island. systems are more numerous and smaller in size. One of the This course was to determine the geological development of largest now houses the villages of Klein- and Groot-Linden. the area. At De Geest the channel was approx. 300 m wide Small river dunes usually remained undeveloped. Instances and cut into the X-terrace to a depth of up to 4,5 m. of this are Kraaienberg, Nielt, Op den Drul and Hoge In the next phase, the Boreal (fig. 3.6), the course of the Renning. In the south of the research area coversand layers Meuse centred on the northern bed, while the southern bed formed, under the influence of aeolian processes. At the began to infill. From a C14-dating from the base of the peat same time a layer of loam was deposited from the active layer in this channel, at Sluisgraaf, this infill appears to start channels on the valley plain, referred to as ‘variegated early in the Boreal48. Outside these channels developments loam’47 and covering almost the entire valley plain, with the are momentarily at rest. There are no more sand drifts, no exception of the tops of the highest river dunes. cuts of new channels and inside this area there is no The Praeboreal was characterized by a deep cut of the sedimentation at all until the 16th century. Occasional floods Meuse into the X-terrace; at the same time erosion lowered deposit some clay into the channels only.

146 Fig. 3.6 Simplified paleogeography of the core region Grave-Cuyk in the Boreal. This is the basis for the distribution maps by period.

A radical change is caused by the realization of the Beerse distinguished in the research area (fig. 3.6). In the southwest Overlaat, as a result of which there is a forced sedimentation of the research area is the northeastern end of the extensive from the 16th century onwards, resulting in a clay layer of continuous Brabant/Limburg coversands. This coversand approx. 1,5 m thick covering the lower areas like a blanket. area was originally partly covered by peat, but has come to Only the tops of the sand dunes project over it. the surface as a result of the reclamation of the Peel. The next unit is a wide, relatively flat strip of land with 3.4.2 TERRAIN fluvial deposits consisting mainly of sand. This area was The area between Grave and Cuyk is gently sloping, with a originally cut by channels running southeast to northwest in clear division in land use between the higher, dry lands and general. This area contains river dunes as well. lower, wet lands. The higher lands encompass the coversand The third unit is a strip of land with more relief, consisting area, the sandy fluvial deposits and the river dunes. Besides of mainly clayey fluvial deposits with smaller and larger serving as settlement locations, these are mainly used as river dunes. The differences in height are partly related to arable land. Occasional forests occur. The lower lands are the greater height of the river dunes here, but the relative dominated by livestock, although improved drainage and EC difference in height is also caused by the low-lying fluvial subsidies have recently stimulated the growth of agriculture, deposits. in the form of maize cultivation. The drainage of the area has a marked southeast to north- From southwest to northeast three geographical units may be west trend. Due to canalization activities and improvements

147 Fig. 3.7 View of the river valley landscape with its modern human influences. At the front left the artificial sand dredging lake, in the centre the area under exploitation and right where the excavation is in progress.

in drainage, the natural course of brooks and rivers is hard to from the west of the Netherlands to Ravenstein in the east. distinguish. Originally the drainage will mostly have This confinement of the western part of the Meuse had occurred by the old channel system. In addition some water serious consequences for areas in the upper reaches of the courses can be recognized to have been natural originally. river. First it was attempted to stem the problems by Instances of this are Graafsche Raam with its tributaries like constructing dikes, but without much success. Due to bad Hooge Raam, Halse Beek, Laarakkerse Waterleiding and foundations and limited strength of the dikes, floods Sluisgraaf. Graafsche Raam drained surplus water from the occurred again and again. By the end of the 15th century an Peel area, whereas Sluisgraaf handled the river district area was set aside to temporarily contain the surplus Meuse between Cuyk and Grave. water. This buffer zone is known as the Beerse Overlaat. This did not imply the troubles were over. The next 3.4.3 HUMAN INFLUENCE centuries are characterized by water problems as well, since Initially human influence in the area and its effects on the the Beerse Overlaat could only function satisfactorily when terrain was limited, due to the presence of the Beerse private interests and disputes were set aside and the water Overlaat49. From Carolingian times man has been actively problem was approached collectively. That is why the fighting the flood waters of the Meuse, first by constructing authorities developed various plans, parts of which were a system of quays, designed to stop the water from the river realized and other parts were not. After the great floods at and pools. In the final stage of this development the quays the end of the last and the beginning of this century a final and dikes were built along the river itself. From 1300 solution was sought. By canalization of the Meuse and the onwards a single continuous Meuse dike exists, stretching construction of barrages the dikes downstream could be

148 Mook

Grave

Linden Gassel

Beers

Cuijk

0 2km

Fig. 3.8 Size and effects of the Beerse Overlaat in the study area. The light grey area could be flooded at high water levels.

raised and it became possible to close the Beerse Overlaat under those circumstances. In order to meet the growing (fig. 3.8). In 1941 the work had been completed and the demand for sand and gravel, exploitation of these resources Beerse Overlaat no longer existed. started in this area in 1971. Over the past 25 years a large The results of the activities of the Beerse Overlaat are lake district has been created here as a result. Current plans clearly visible in the terrain. Besides the numerous places for the period to 1998 will result in the exploitation of where the dike was punctured (pools) the Overlaat can also another 155 ha. be inferred from the habitation pattern, concentrated on the Apart from the fact that a beautiful (in our opinion) and highest points in the terrain: the river dunes. No farms original river district is fast disappearing, the consequences existed in the lower areas before 1940. The persistent threat for archaeology will be disastrous as well. Most seriously, of flooding caused people not to settle in the area of the archaeological sites will disappear completely. Ironically, spillway and stopped villages from developing there. The due to the sand and gravel extraction many sites will be result is an extremely pristine agrarian terrain. discovered as well. Although hardly any archaeological finds The pristine nature of the terrain is by now its greatest were known from this area prior to 1971, this has changed threat. The absence of habitation turns out to offer excellent dramatically, thanks to the unremitting activities of a small economic opportunities for sand and gravel extraction. After group of amateur archaeologists. all, agricultural land is cheap and relatively easy to Among human influence (albeit unintentional) on the terrain, expropriate, in contrast to built-on land that is usually spared drifting sands should be reckoned. To the southwest and east

149 of Grave relatively large areas of drifting sands have The amateur activities also led to the realization of a large developed in the Middle Ages. number of excavations in the area; settlements from e.g. More active human influence did not occur to a large extent Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages were investigated, as well as in the recent past. In the southwest of the research area the from the Roman and medieval periods50. Peel lies, reclaimed by the cutting of peat, and scattered over the entire research area a small number of plaggensoil. In the 3.4.4.1 Amateur activities north some instances of plaggensoil occur, mainly in the Amateur archaeologists only became interested in this area higher parts of the river dunes, larger numbers are located in at a late stage. An important incentive was the formation of the southwest of the research area. The area has at present a strongly agrarian nature, with mostly mixed farming. The emphasis in the southern part of the area is on pig farming, whereas diary farming is more prevalent in the Collector fields mining operations north. In agriculture mainly maize and beetroots are grown. Arts 0 1 3.4.4 ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CORE REGION Van Hassel 0 1 Until the seventies not many finds were known. For a long De Jong 0 2 time many Roman finds had been retrieved in Cuyk and as a Keereweer 2 1 Koeling 1 2 result, research often concentrated on this. In the countryside Koolen 1 3 between Grave and Cuyk several Neolithic axes had been Nagengast 0 1 found and in 1928 an investigation had been carried out at De Wit 1 3 Dommelsvoort, south of Linden into the presence of urns Verscharen 0 1 (fig. 3.9). no activities (0), occasionally (1), regularly (2), intensively (3)

Table 3.1 Summary of major collectors in relation to the relative intensity of their labour and search locations in the period 1970-1990.

Site nr. indet. Early -Middle- Late- Neo. 45F-109 x 45F-113 x x 45F-116 x 45F-125 x x 46A-108 x x 46A-113 x x 46A-118 x x Fig. 3.9 Newspaper cutting from the ‘Echo van ‘t Land van Cuyk’, 46A-119 x x dated 9 June 1928 concerning finds in Linden. 46A-122 x x 46A-127 x x The activities related to the sand extraction provided excellent 46A-130 x x opportunities for amateur archaeologists. Before large amounts 46A-131 x x x of sand and gravel find their way through the suction head of 46A-133 x x 46A-136 x x the dredging machine, the clay layer on top must be removed 46A-138 x x x x mechanically. This usually happens some time before the 46A-142 x x x actual suctioning starts. As the clay is removed, a beautifully 46A-144 x preserved, undisturbed Pleistocene soil is exposed, where 46A-146 x x x people have been living and active for thousands of years. Soil 46A-147 x x traces and finds bear witness to this. By repeatedly searching 46A-161 x x x these new surfaces, a treasure trove of archaeological data was 46A-176 x uncovered. This is mainly reflected in the annual reports of the Total 9 7 3 8 AWN-branch Nijmegen and the archaeological chronicle of the province of Noord-Brabant. From the start of this chronicle Table 3.2 Dates of Mesolithic sites. Last column indicates the in 1974 the area around Linden is mentioned every year. presence of Neolithic material on the site.

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92 Mook 156 153 62 90 106 130 100 144 58 120 142 80 Grave 127 138 146 155 107 136 147 134 150 109 112 121 133 122 132 149 145 148 125 Linden Gassel 124 126 139 116

159 108 110 113 131 114

112 113 117 Beers 115 119

114 Cuijk 161 162 179 174 184

118 168 171 99 183 180

155 unknown exact location 163 112

known exact location 176 newly discovered sites

Fig. 3.10 All sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. To the left sites numbered on topographic map number 45F, to the right sites on topographic map number 46A.

the AWN-branch Nijmegen and Vicinity in 1968. This Netherlands. There the finds are all over the place and can branch concentrated mainly on Nijmegen itself and the be collected by surveying the fields. This search strategy is eastern part of the river district. As some members from only useful in the region Cuyk-Grave in those parts that south of the Meuse, the Land of Cuyk and Grave, joined, have not been covered with sediments. As only a relatively interest in this area increased. Two pioneers deserve small part of the area meets this requirement, it is not mention: Mr. J. Koeling from Cuyk and Mr. M. Koolen surprising that such a strategy is barely used in this region. from Grave. They were walking encyclopedias for other The determining factor in the collection strategy of the amateurs in the vicinity. As a result, ever more people amateur archaeologists were the numerous mining operations became interested in archaeology and some form of in the area. From the early seventies onwards the large cooperation arose. A contributing factor was that chance mining operations on behalf of gravel exploitation began to finds by laymen in the field of archaeology became the north and northwest of Linden. The levels exposed after generally known sooner, as the amateurs were regularly the removal of the overlying sediments were regularly contacted by those regional finders. checked, as well as the profiles of the excavation walls. And As large parts of the research area have been covered by successfully, as quite soon the first finds were recovered. relatively recent sediments, the amateurs employ a research Over the years attention was concentrated on these areas, not strategy different from that used in the south of the only because of the good opportunities for finding anything,

151 0 2km

Fig. 3.11 Distribution map of all Stone Age sites in the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

but also because of the large number of artefacts and the 3.4.4.2 Inventory and composition of distribution maps large amount of work that collecting entails. The majority of the Stone Age finds from this core region Thanks to the protective covering relatively more pottery date from the Neolithic. Occasionally older finds occur, like than flint is found in this area, unlike the vast majority of the a Middle Palaeolithic hand-axe and some artefacts of coversand area in the south of the Netherlands, where possibly the same age51. In addition a small number of Late persistent weathering ensures an under-representation of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic finds are known. In this pottery. chapter emphasis will be on a summary of the available Amateur activities were therefore concentrated on several archaeological data from the Neolithic. areas opened up by digging activities (table 3.1). Therefore As far as we could ascertain, all amateur collections, finds the archaeological data collected in this way present a biased by non-amateur archaeologists and collections in museums picture of the overall find spread. We therefore do not have have been inventoried. In early 1992 the inventory was an even distribution pattern of the entire region. The pattern closed. The items have been described according to a displays marked clusters in those areas that were searched standard code and entered into a computer file. The often, the areas where mining operations occurred. The areas number of sites in the inventory is 118. The numbers of with less search activity are apparent as white spots. finds per site range from 1 to 36.367 artefacts.

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Fig. 3.12 Distribution map of all Mesolithic sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

The distribution map is a perfect illustration of the collection to be made on the function of the sites. But it is possible to strategies of local amateur archaeologists (fig. 3.10, 3.11). date a number of sites more accurately than simply The map is characterized by large areas with no or hardly any Mesolithic, on the basis of the typochronology of points finds, alternating with small areas displaying a strong clustering. (table 3.2). The distribution map is to a large extent therefore the result On almost all sites Neolithic material has been recovered as of amateur activities and barely reflects Mesolithic and well, with the exception of two Early-Mesolithic sites and Neolithic habitation intensities. Recent human disturbances possibly one site that can not be dated due to a lack of like plaggensoil, drifting sands and peat cutting did not play a characteristic points. In all areas where Late Mesolithic significant part in the realization of the pattern. Actually the activities can be identified, Neolithic activities occur as well. mining activities at Linden and the construction of a new Although the number of sites is not large, the differences in housing estate to the south of Cuyk dominate the pattern. distribution pattern by phase are striking. The Early Mesolithic sites are mainly located in the southern part of Mesolithic the research area, on the transition from coversand to river The number of Mesolithic sites is 21 (fig. 3.12). The plain (fig. 3.13). In this period the river dunes do not appear numbers of finds per site are too low to allow any statements to have been attractive locations for settlement. Apparently

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Fig. 3.13 Distribution map of all Early Mesolithic sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk.

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Fig. 3.14 Distribution of all Middle Mesolithic sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk.

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Fig. 3.15 Distribution of all Late-Mesolithic sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk.

this changed in the Middle to Late Mesolithic (fig. 3.14- Linden-Kraaienberg52 3.15). Sites from this period, scarce though they are, are Northeast of Linden, on the former hill Kraaienberg an area with more often located in the river dune area and less in the strongly disturbed edges was investigated in 1977, with traces of transition area between coversand and river plain. This habitation from Middle and Late Neolithic and the Iron Age. choice of location was apparently also preferred in the Scattered over the area a large number of soil traces have been found that we have been unable to arrange in any sort of order. Neolithic, since Neolithic material was found on all of these The numerous traces of posts and their size indicate these were Late Mesolithic sites as well part of some sort of dwelling that can not be defined more precisely. Exceptionally a pit was found containing at least seven Neolithic well-preserved pots of the Stein-group. This pit is taken to be a The majority of the finds from the core region consists of ritual deposition. The majority of the pottery can be attributed to the Middle Neolithic artefacts. Most of these have been chance finds - Neolithic and, on the basis of typological and technological for instance axes (fig. 3.16)- and/or single finds collected in features, to the Hazendonk-2 phase53. Most striking features are field reconnaissance. In addition some excavations were the tempering and coiled construction of the pottery, the rims conducted. The most important sources are three Middle- bending outward, the presence of ‘Tupfenleisten’, the occurrence Neolithic settlement areas that were excavated, to wit: of carination and the small number of decorated sherds, whose

156 0 2km

Fig. 3.16 Distribution map of all Neolithic axes within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

most typical adornment has been applied with a stick, the so- Gassel54 called ‘pinpricks’. Some years after the discovery of Kraaienberg, another Middle Another indication for this age is provided by the flint. The use Neolithic site came to light north of Gassel. of imported Rijckholt-type flint for the manufacture of tools is In 1983 a small, sharply demarcated concentration of pottery and typical. All tools recovered on Kraaienberg are made of this flint with a diameter of approx. 7 metres could be excavated material. In addition, some large, unused flakes and a trio of there. Soil traces were not uncovered. If these had been present blades fitting together have been found. in first instance, they will have been destroyed completely by Besides pottery and flint, a number of fragments of millstones subsequent soil processes. and grindstones have been excavated in the area. Although these The large numbers of decorated pottery show great similarities to can not be dated typologically, they are attributed to the Middle pottery recovered in Hazendonk phase 3. Gassel most likely Neolithic habitation. dates from this phase. The pottery displays a wide morphological On the basis of the data provided above, the site Kraaienberg is range. Besides small bowls and pots that may be considered considered to have been a settlement where a large number of tableware, some large pots can be distinguished that probably non-specialist activities occurred. The size of the terrain and the served for storage. The flint displays the same features as presence of soil traces are indicative of (semi)permanent Kraaienberg. All tools have been made of imported Rijckholt- settlement, presuming an agrarian way of life. type flint. Some items have been made of flint originating in the No statements can be made on the nature of the activities dating Haspengouw, Belgium. Among stone tools mill- and grindstones from the WSV-phase. occur once again.

157 Site nr. indet Haz 1 Haz 2 Haz 3 Mi-Neo WSV beaker 45F-033 x 45F-090 x 45F-092 x 45F-100 x 45F-106 x 45F-112 x 45F-113 x 45F-114 x 45F-118 xx 45F-120 x 45F-121 x 45F-122 x 45F-123 x x 45F-124 x x x 45F-125 x x x 45F-127 x x x 46A-058 x x x 46A-062 x 46A-080 x 46A-099 xx 46A-108 x 46A-110 x 46A-112 x 46A-113 x 46A-114 x 46A-115 x 46A-117 x 46A-118 x 46A-119 x x 46A-120 x 46A-121 x 46A-122 x 46A-124 x 46A-125 x 46A-126 46A-127 x 46A-130 x x 46A-131 x 46A-132 x 46A-133 x 46A-134 x 46A-136 xxx 46A-138 x x x x x 46A-139 x x 46A-142 x x 46A-143 x x x 46A-144 x 46A-145 x 46A-146 x x 46A-147 x 46A-148 x x 46A-149 x 46A-150 xx 46A-153 xx 46A-155 x x

158 Site nr. indet Haz 1 Haz 2 Haz 3 Mi-Neo WSV beaker 46A-156 x 46A-159 x 46A-161 x 46A-162 x 46A-163 x 46A-168 x 46A-171 x 46A-174 x 46A-179 x x 46A-180 x 46A-183 x x 46A-184 x x 46A-210 x 46A-213 x 46A-214 x x 46A-216 x 46A-217 x 46A-218 x 46A-219 x 46A-221 x 46A-222 x 46A-223 x Total 24 5 11 19 8 21 21

Table 3.3 All Neolithic sites, divided into phases on the basis of the presence of specific types of artefacts.

In its overall composition the find material displays marked dealing with a (semi)permanent settlement used over a long similarities to that of Kraaienberg. The distribution of the finds period of time, with a primarily agrarian function. The large and differentiation in distribution patterns of the various artefact number of arrowheads, like Kraaienberg, are indicative of a still classes point to a relatively short period of use of the settlement, large contribution by hunting to the food economy. however. This brief use of the settlement does not imply this would have been a ‘special activity site’. The presence of all For the distribution of settlements and the use of the terrain find categories is inconsistent with this. It would therefore in the Neolithic, the distribution pattern of the axes provides appear that the traditional basic functions known from agrarian a first indication (fig. 3.16). The axes are the type of artefact settlements are represented here as well. This site may be most insensitive to amateurs, as even laymen can recognize considered a ‘base camp’, with the herding of livestock for a and collect these tools. These occur in all types of terrain, season in the immediate vicinity a likely but hard to prove option. but there is nevertheless a clustering in areas traditionally visited by amateurs. Grave-Pater Berthierstraat55 A further investigation into the economy and use of the During a short investigation in the spring of 1988 a fragment of terrain in the Neolithic is hampered by the small amount of an originally larger settlement area at Zittert, west of Grave, finds on most sites, making it difficult to make statements could be investigated. The site is on the east bank of the river on settlement functions. In order to get an impression of the Raam which ran there originally. use of the area in the various periods, a series of distribution Some post traces were recovered here with sherds and pieces of maps has been drawn up. The basic assumption is that loam with wattle impressions, probably from the wall of a house. pottery or a combination of two or more types of flint Around these traces sherds and flint were scattered. The pottery is similar to both Kraaienberg and Gassel in features. Both artefacts are indicative of a settlement. For a further Hazendonk 2 and 3 are represented, so evidently the area was distinction the pottery has been used as the main used over a longer period or on two separate points in time. distinguishing criterion. Sites that did not yield any pottery The function of this site is considered to have been identical to are more difficult to date as flint — in particular the the settlement at Kraaienberg. In Grave, too, we would be arrowheads — is a less accurate cultural indicator. These

159 3 2

7 6

4 5 8 9 Fig. 3.17 Pottery from various sites in the core region. 1-3: Hazendonk 1 (46A-136: 3; 46A-138: 1-2); 4: Hazendonk 1/2 (46A-138); 5-9 Hazendonk 2 (46A-138);

sites without pottery can be attributed to the Middle Hazendonk 2-phase Neolithic, on the basis of the presence of numbers and For the identification of this material we may draw on the combinations of macrolites and various types of MK- one hand on the results of research at the Hazendonk and arrowheads. The WSV-phase is characterized by the Brandwijk, and on the other hand on the results of occurrence of transverse and pine-like points and the beaker- excavations at Kraaienberg near Linden and Pater phase by the occurrence of types of points with a complete Berthierstraat in Grave58. The number of sites in the core surface retouch. Sites with a single flint guide artefact have region has doubled in relation to the previous phase. therefore not been included in the distribution maps. The pottery is mainly undecorated, quite thin and fired hard, constructed in coils and characterized by a tempering of quartz, Hazendonk 1-phase chamotte and sand. Morphologically plates and pots with A small number of sites (5) have yielded some sherds highly outward-bending rims can be identified. Both flat and rounded similar to material uncovered in the oldest layer of bases occur. Most striking features are folded-over moulded Hazendonk, borough Molenaarsgraaf and in Brandwijk. The rims, carinated shoulders, ‘Tupfenleisten’ as rim finish and most important features of this pottery are the notched rims decorative patterns in the form of ‘pinpricks’ and impressions and impressions, ornamental impressions in squares and the on the carinated parts of the sides (fig. 3.17). In addition there tempering with organic material56. are other features that, however, also occur in the next phase, All instances of Hazendonk-1 material from the region Hazendonk 3, like surface coarsening and perforated lugs. The Grave and Cuyk are undecorated and may therefore only be chronological continuity of many of these features makes distinguished by the use of organic temper57. A single sherd distinction between these phases therefore quite difficult. is equipped with an engobe; one sherd is apparently a The distribution of the sites is primarily the result of amateur fragment of a round base (fig. 3.17:3). search activities (fig. 3.19). The three clusters: in the west Finds from this phase occur exclusively on the small river Zittert, in the centre the sand and gravel extraction between dunes in the northern part of the research area and the large Gassel and Linden and in the southeast the new housing river dune of the Zittert, west of Grave (fig. 3.18). estate of Cuyk, all indicate that in the Middle Neolithic both

160 10 11 12 13

14 15 16

17 18 19

20 22

26 25 24 Fig. 3.17 (continued) 10-26 Hazendonk 2/3 (46A-138: 10, 12-17, 20-26; 46A-139: 19; 46A-148: 11, 18). Scale 1:2.

small and large river dunes were used, as well as the representative59. The number of sites in the core region is 22. Pleistocene terraced lands in the southeast. Many of the pottery features are similar to those of the preceding phase. An important difference is the decoration Hazendonk 3-phase applied to the pottery. Undecorated pottery remains hard to For this phase as well the research at Hazendonk and the distinguish from the preceding phase due to almost identical settlements at Gassel and Grave-Pater Berthierstraat are tempering and coiled construction. As decoration serve nail

161 0 2km

Fig. 3.18 Distribution map of all Hazendonk 1-sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

162 0 2km

Fig. 3.19 Distribution map of all Hazendonk 2-sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

163 3 2 1

5 7 4 6

9 11 9 8 10 11 8 10

15 14 13 15 13 14 12 12

16 17 20 18 19

23 21 22

25 24 26

27 Fig. 3.20 Pottery from various sites in the core region. 1-26: Hazendonk 3 (46A-130: 6, 19; 46A-133: 5, 7-8, 10-14, 18, 23; 46A-134: 3, 21, 24, 26; 46A-138: 17, 22; 46A-143: 9, 25; 46A-146: 1-2, 4, 15-16, 20, 27). Scale 1:2.

164 0 2km

Fig. 3.21 Distribution map of all Hazendonk 3-sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location. and fingertip impressions, drawn lines, applied lumps of clay dated with the aid of flint guide artefacts. For the Middle and bands. Lugs occur as well, both perforated and Neolithic these are leaflike, teardrop-like and triangular unperforated (fig. 3.17; 3.20). arrowheads with semi-surface retouch and large tools, flakes Technologically the pottery appears to have declined, it and blades of imported flint, mainly of the Rijckholt-type. is generally thicker compared to the preceding phase and The distribution of the sites is markedly different from the the coiled construction is as often not visible. In the range preceding three phases (fig. 3.22). This time the sites are of shapes plates do not occur frequently in this phase. located in the area to the south and east of Grave. However, There is a predominance of quite weak profiles and the this is not due to a changing choice of location, but rather to pottery usually has a flat base, without a protruding foot. different conservation conditions and amateur search The distribution of the sites corresponds to a high degree activities. The sites south of Grave are almost exclusively with that of the previous phase, the only difference being an surface sites, where pottery is badly preserved. By the increase in the number of sites on the small river dunes in preserving action of overlying sediments in the northern part the north (fig. 3.21). of the research area and the manner in which these sites are discovered, the pottery has been better preserved and the Middle Neolithic phase chances of being found by amateurs have increased. Evidently Due to the absence of pottery -or the occurrence of pottery the pattern of sites with pottery and that of sites without without specific features- a number of sites can only be pottery are both distorted, but taken together, they do present a

165 0 2km

Fig. 3.22 Distribution map of all Middle Neolithic sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

complementary pattern. The entire river valley was apparently appear to have played a significant part in this phase, as in use during the Middle Neolithic, with the exception of the these are absent from the delta. coversand area, where so far no sites have been discovered. The distribution of sites matches those of the Middle Wartberg/Stein/Vlaardingen (WSV) phase Neolithic and the phases of Hazendonk 1-3 (fig. 3.24). The This phase has been defined by Louwe Kooijmans60 and is same area is in use and the number of sites on the large river characterized by the use of mostly undecorated pottery. dunes appears to increase relatively. As far as can be Technologically it is distinctive by its quartz, sand and determined, all sites may be considered settlements, with the chamotte temper, the lack of coiled construction, the exception of an infilled pit discovered during the excavation presence of base feet and S-shaped wall profiles. Another of Kraaienberg, which was probably a ritual deposit. feature, in particular for the Vlaardingen-component is the The pit also demonstrates how hard it is to define this phase use of rim perforations (fig. 3.23). chronologically, as a rim sherd with herringbone decoration There is a great deal of uncertainty about the use of flint in was retrieved from this pit as well. The Vlaardingen-material this phase in the east and south of the Netherlands. On the in the delta continues into the AOO-phase61. This also basis of finds from the west of the Netherlands and some appears to be the case for SOM, which means we have to instances from the east and south, transverse and pine-like take into account that part of the distribution pattern arrowheads are apparently characteristic. Macrolites do not surveyed might also belong to the next chronological phase,

166 29 28 27

30 32

34 35 Fig. 3.23 Pottery from various sites in the core region. WSV (46A-136: 33; 46A-138: 28-32, 34-35). Scale 1:2.

the beaker period, characterized by the occurrence of beaker According to the finder it was located among cremation material. remains. Due to the presence of Iron Age urn interments in the same terrain and the rarity of beaker phase cremation Beaker cultures phase remains, we doubted whether this could be interpreted as a The Late Neolithic in this area is distinguished by the burial find. As will become apparent later on, this find is not occurrence of protruting food beaker and bell beaker pottery unique to the region. As more graves with cremation and flint arrowheads with a complete surface retouch. In the remains are known from this period63, it is likely this is a preceding phase there were occasional signs that the finds burial find after all, unlike the ideas expressed by one of us did not solely reflect settlement activities. These signs before. become more distinct in this phase. Three sites may be The other two burial finds are an almost intact bell beaker interpreted as graves. In the vicinity of Kraaienberg a found to the northwest of Gassel and a second bell beaker bottom/body fragment of a bell beaker has been found62. found in the immediate vicinity with a large number of

167 0 2km

Fig. 3.24 Distribution map of all WSV-sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location.

associated finds. To start with the latter: in the period of from an almost complete Veluvian bell beaker, but no other heightened mining operations Mr. J. de Wit from Grave finds were recovered. Here, too, the almost intact nature of found some sherds just before nightfall in a recently cut area the find and the lack of attendant settlement material are in on the edge of the dredge lake. Further investigation of the favour of an interpretation as a grave. surface by the light of his car’s headlamps revealed even The remaining material from the region may be classified as more. The final tally was the almost complete bottom of a settlement material (fig. 3.26). Apart from the distinctive Veluvian bell beaker, a grinding and a hammer stone, two decorated beaker sherds, sherds from normal ‘domestic’ large unprocessed flakes, an amber pendant decorated with pottery were found in these areas, mostly tempered with spiral motifs and two thin gold clip-on earrings (fig. 3.25). chamotte, sand and some quartz. These are often relatively Although de Wit had found no indications for a burial site thick sherds, decorated with nail, fingertip and spatula such as a platform at that location and traces of ditches and impressions. post holes have not been observed, the find composition is in The settlement pattern demonstrates a distribution and favour of an interpretation as burial inventory. number of sites almost similar to the preceding phase. Some days afterwards de Wit surveyed the area again and Remarkably, the number of sites in the area with small river approx. 80 metres to the north he found a second dunes has decreased sharply. There appears to have been a concentration of bell beaker sherds. These proved to come certain preference for the larger river dunes and the remains

168 Fig. 3.25 Bell beaker found by mr. Jo de Wit. Pottery scale 1: 2; hamer stone, amber pendant, gold earrings and flint scale 1: 1. (Drawing Faculteit Archeologie Universiteit Groningen).

169 4 2 3 1

6 8 9

5 7

14 12 13

18 19 Fig. 3.26 Beaker pottery (1-10) and indeterminate Neolithic pottery (11-19). Scale 1:2.

170 0 2km

Fig. 3.27 Distribution map of all Late Neolithic (beaker) sites within the core region Grave-Cuyk. Open dots represent sites without exact data concerning the site location. of terraces south and southwest of Cuyk (fig. 3.27). more agrarian lifestyle. This pattern can also be distin- Over time, the settlement pattern has been subject to quite guished in the core region Venray64. some changes. In the Mesolithic the entire area was in use, initially only the south, but in the Late Mesolithic the 3.5 The microregion Linden northern river dune area as well. This latter zone was also 3.5.1 INTRODUCTION the preferred settlement area in the Middle Neolithic. By the To gain a more detailed understanding of the settlement end of the Neolithic the settlement preferences changed: the history and use of this river district area, we selected a small river district falls out of favour and the coversand area microregion for further investigation. The region lies to the appears to be more in use. south of Linden and measures approx. 2 by 1.5 kilometres Although actual food remnants are absent, the settlement (fig. 3.28). changes may be related to changes in the food economy. This choice was partially prompted by the severe threat to When hunting, fishing and food gathering are the main the area. The core region in its entirety was to be the subject means of subsistence, the settlements are located mainly in of the next stage of mining operations. As we write, the the geographically heterogeneous terrains, also distinguished research area has been converted to concrete, cement and by their large geographical diversity and attendant wide paving material and the area may be visited by boat. range of flora and fauna. In the Late Neolithic less The main purpose of our investigation was to document heterogeneous geographical terrain is preferred, indicating a which activities were performed here by prehistoric man

171 Fig. 3.28 Demarcation and topography of the microregion Linden. Scale 1:.

and, if possible, find and investigate an undisturbed 3.5.2.1 Historical development settlement from the Middle Neolithic before it was Geomorphology has strongly determined the historical destroyed. The various stages of the investigation, including development of the area. The oldest topographical map excavation, covered the years 1989-199265. known, the famous Tranchot survey from the beginning of last century (1803-1807), clearly displays the contours of the 3.5.2 GEOLOGY modern topography (fig. 3.29a). Almost the entire area is For a general description of geology and terrain we refer to already under cultivation. A dominant position is reserved paragraphs 3.4.1/3.4.2. The research area is dominated by a for the sand island referred to as Zeelands Scheurke, now river dune. Compared to the surrounding dunes this may be popularly called Hoge Renning. The main pattern of the considered a small one. Its shape is indicative of an original modern land division is already clearly visible. The island is parabolic dune. To the west the dune is low, increasing in mainly used for pasture and hay, to a lesser degree for fields altitude towards the east, with a top at 11.3 metres above and orchards. To the south, in an infilled residual channel of NAP. The west and south slopes are gentle, whereas the the Meuse, there is an elongated strip with pastures, north and east slopes are much steeper. The north slope changing to arable fields to the south. To the north of the appears to have been eroded, due to a residual Meuse island there is still an area of waste land, referred to as channel. The east slope was not affected. The river dune is Groot Linden Broek. This is a swampy area coinciding with an island surrounded on all sides by a complex of residual the major residual Meuse channel and containing the river Meuse channels. Sluisgraaf. To the north of this marsh is the large river dune

172 a b

c d

173 1234

Fig. 3.30 Simplified reconstruction of terrain and vegetation during the Neolithic. 1: open water/reed swamps; 2: alder carr; 3: riverine forest; 4: dense (dry)forest.

complex Groot Linden, with mainly fields and to the west On the map of 1928 (fig. 3.29d) it is clear that in the core pastures. region the drainage of the Sluisgraaf has been improved and The Topographical and Military Map of the Kingdom of the its course has been straightened. The previously waste land Netherlands, of 1859 (fig. 3.29b), plainly demonstrates that Groot Linden Broek has come under cultivation and is used this area has hardly been subjected to change. The number for pasture. The number of buildings in the area is still low, of buildings has barely increased and the land use has due to regular flooding by the Meuse. Only in Groot Linden basically remained the same as well. A striking difference is can some growth be seen. that the land division has become much more intricate, but The situation outlined above continues for quite some time. this may be the result of the quality of the field survey. After the abolition of the Beerse Overlaat the areas suffering Early in this century several civil engineering projects have most from floods are partitioned and used for pasture. The been carried out concerning the Beerse Overlaat (fig. 3.29c). remaining area barely changes, either topographically or in

174 land use, as does the pattern of roads. Only from the sixties vicinity. The sample that is closest and which covers the onwards do some changes occur, but initially only within Allerød up to the Subatlantic without any gaps, is located at the traditional framework outlined above (fig. 3.29e). The Dommelsvoort, in the southeastern corner of the research roads are improved and if necessary widened to some area66. Two samples providing additional data are located in degree, outside the old residential nuclei some farms are the valley of the Raam, the first in Esterbroek, south of built, part of the pastures is transformed into fields and the Escharen, the second at Zittert, southwest of Grave67. Other village of Groot Linden gradually expands. The major locations are further away, outside the core region. influence on the area are the mining operations starting to From these data a rough picture can be inferred that the north of the village of Groot Linden in the seventies. Neolithic vegetation was characterized by relatively dense Initially these are small-scale along the Meuse, but gradually forest on the higher grounds: coversands and large river the mine lakes increase. Hooge Voort, Kraaienberg, part of dunes (fig. 3.30). This forest consisted for the most part of Maaskampen, Ganzenorgel, Over de Voort and the western oak, elm and lime, with hazel and ash in relatively open part of the original Groot Lindens Broek successively spots. These trees will have been predominant on the smaller disappear into the dredging machines. As we write, the area river dunes as well, whereas the vegetation in the backlands, around Hoge Renning has disappeared as well and only the on clayey soils, will have consisted mostly of open mixed highest part of Hoge Renning is still clear of the water, like deciduous forest (riverine forest) with ash, elm, oak and an atoll in the Pacific. Plans exist to extend the mining hazel. The presence of hazel suggests there was a highly operations over the next few years to the east in the developed undergrowth as well. The high number of Alnus direction of Op den Drul and to the south between Grote pollen are an indication that in the wetter parts of the area a Geest and Dommelsvoort as far as the secondary road alder carr will have existed, composed of alder and willow, Grave-Cuyk. with an undergrowth of fern. Not much is known about the degree of wetness. Peat 3.5.2.2 Palaeogeography formation in the residual channels in the area suggests the It is far from simple to reconstruct the Neolithic terrain. possibility of a more open, but highly local, terrain Although the physical terrain and its genesis have become distinguished by a marshy vegetation. The alder carr known to a reasonable degree, there is not enough mentioned above might fit this in part, but a slightly more detailed pollen research to allow a reconstruction of the open vegetation dominated by reed and sedge is possible as vegetation. In point of fact, we have to transpose data well. This would however have been of limited size. For the from elsewhere to this area to allow a rough reconstruction. reconstruction we have therefore assumed that the old The basis for the geographical reconstruction was provided channel system was mainly covered with alder, in the form by the paleogeographical map of the Boreal. As there were of marsh forest, interspersed with small open zones with hardly any geographical changes after the Boreal, the reed and sedge. situation is almost identical for the Atlantic. The map shows The terrain is therefore highly diverse, with relatively open a river district north of a coversand area, with heights, the and dense zones and dry and wet areas. This is the type of river dunes, as separate elements or continuous dune terrain that will have accommodated a wide range of complexes. In between are older relicts like infilled channels animals. Species native to this kind of terrain and known and backlands of the Meuse. The river itself lies to the north, from excavations68 include aurochs, brown bear, red deer, in the bed of the Katwijkse Meuse, where it still is today. roe, boar, otter and marten. This type of terrain provides A C14-sample of a peat layer at the base of a residual excellent opportunities for hunting, fishing and the channel at the Sluisgraaf has yielded an age of 8830 ± 55 BP exploitation of vegetable food sources. On the river dunes, (GrN 17778). The area therefore appears to have been at rest in particular the flat and relatively large ones, agriculture since the Boreal, and only initially did peat formation occur might occur. However, the oldest traces of agriculture are in the deeper parts of the residual channels. We do not hard to infer from pollen diagrams. There is a general possess a pollen diagram or a C14-sample of the top of the decline of the forest from the beginning of the Atlantic peat, as a result of which no statements can be made about onwards, at first small- scale, but increasing in size in the the end of peat formation. This has barely developed Subboreal. However, clear indications for a ‘landnam’ with a laterally between the residual channels, since no peat is strong decline of elm, concomitant Cerealia and Plantago found between the channels and the heights. If the peat has pollen and an increase in the recovery phase of hazel and not been subject to erosion here, it would seem these areas birch, are absent in the research area itself. More to the were not extremely wet. south, in Helbroek between Oeffelt and Beugen, an identical For a regional reconstruction of the vegetation we have to development can be distinguished, while the first occurrence turn to a number of pollen diagrams from the immediate of Cerealia near the Kleefsche Beek, southeast of Cuyk, has

175 0 500m

0 0-120 cm > 120 cm gully

Fig. 3.31 Thickness of the clay layer on top of the Pleistocene substrate.

been dated around 4910 ± 35 BP69. Plantago lanceolata first It is questionable whether the influences that may be appears in the eastern river district in this period as well and inferred from the pollen diagrams, may be attributed to is indicative of human influence in the landscape around agriculture. The percentage of cereal pollen in these 3900 BC (cal), culturally defined as the Hazendonk 3-phase. diagrams is small. This may be explained by the fact that Clearer signs of human influence are apparent in the pollen fields were not in the vicinity of these sample points. Cereal diagram of Zittert70. This demonstrates a decline in the pollen is almost exclusively distinguishable in pollen forest, associated with Cerealia and Plantago pollen and spectra close by settlements and arable fields71. However, with fluctuating percentages of Corylus and Betula, in a non- no samples of the settlement locations are present. Yet it C14-dated pollen diagram, attributed to the Atlantic on the should not be ruled out that livestock was a major factor in basis of pollen analysis. the food economy. The data from Ewijk72 -albeit younger-

176 37 38 39

17 21 34 35

16 1 8 20 15 13 40 11 2 33 7 3 14 18 32 43 42 25 41 9 44 24 12 5 46 45 6 4 19 22 23 47 48 10 50 51 52 29 55 30 60 59 53 54 58 56 arable fields 28 31 57

meadows 26 27 a

stray finds exact location

Fig. 3.32 Land use. Arable fields and pastures (a). Find distribution of sites discovered b while surveying the fields (b).

177 0 500m

Fig. 3.33 Map of drill points (ø 10cm).

clearly demonstrate this. A similar activity can be investigation the number of finds from this area was distinguished by the occurrence and increase of Plantago therefore small. lanceolata. In the autumn of 1989 a single attempt was made to find out what the result of surveying the fields would be. At this 3.6 The pilot study stage it was only known that archaeological finds had been 3.6.1 INTRODUCTION made on the highest part of Hoge Renning. Opinions were The local geology greatly influenced the research divided about the conclusions that should be drawn from opportunities. In particular the presence and thickness of the these, ranging from Iron Age and/or Roman habitation to the recent clay deposits of the Beerse Overlaat determined to a presence of a medieval monastery. high degree the research strategy in this microregion. In 5 metre-wide strips all fields surrounding Hoge Renning There is only a small area where this clay does not occur at were surveyed (fig. 3.32). Results and research opportunities the surface or in the plough soil (fig. 3.31). This zone may of this exploration have been reproduced in figure 3.32b. therefore be explored by surveying the fields. As mentioned Thirty sites have been pinpointed, in almost all cases these before, this is a method of exploration employed only rarely were single finds of a single individual object. Indications by amateur archaeologists. Before the start of our for settlements were not present. The majority of the finds

178 a 0 100 500m

0 0

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

0 25m b c 01m

Fig. 3.34 Site 9 and the various methods of gathering data. a: drill study with a drill of ø10 cm and grid size of 25 metres, b: drill study with a drill of ø20 cm and a grid size of 12.5 metres (site 9, top centre), c: test pit where finds were collected by shovelling in squares of 25 by 25 cm. The square metre in the upper left hand corner has been sieved. To the left: flint ≤ 5 mm, to the right: flint > 5 mm.

179 26

7 5 8 4 6 10 19 9 18 3 11 17 20 12 2 23 13 24 14 22

15 27 25 21a 16

7 5 8 4 6 10 19 9 18 3 11 17 20 12 2 23 13 24 14 22

15 27 25 21a 16

large drill

small drill Fig. 3.35 Distribution of all sites plotted on the relative distribution of all finds (a). Sites and methods of b investigation by site (b).

180 26 26

1 1

5 7 5 7 86 4 86 4 10 10 19 19 3 9 18 3 9 18 11 11 17 17 20 12 20 12 2 2 23 13 24 23 13 24

14 22 14 22

15 15 27 25 27 25 21a 21a 16 16

a b

26 26

1 1

5 7 5 7 86 4 86 4 10 10 19 19 3 9 18 3 9 18 11 11 17 17 20 12 20 12 2 2 23 13 24 23 13 24

14 22 14 22

15 15 27 25 27 25 21a 21a 16 16

5 7 8 4 6 10 19 3 9 18 11 17 20 12 2 23 13 24 14 22

15 27 25 21a 16

Fig. 3.36 Age of the sites. a: Stone Age; b: Iron Age; c: Roman; d: medieval; e: indeterminate.

comes from an area around the top of the river dune. The 3.6.2 Research method top itself, the exact location of surface finds in the past, Surveying the fields is clearly not a suitable method for could not be investigated, as it was used for pasture. finding sites in this area, hence an alternative strategy was The results of this part of the investigation have been developed. The top of the prehistoric surface lies below the included in the results of another part: the pilot drilling study. recent clay deposits of the Beerse Overlaat. Two methods of

181 site indet. Stone Age Iron Age Roman Middle Ages investigation. The crop damage is extensive, as is the compensation that has to be paid. This also increases the 01 x x chance that farmers are unwilling to cooperate. 02xxx In order to meet all these drawbacks, a new research strategy 03 x has been developed. The essence is to map as many sites as 04 x x x 05xx possible with a minimum of disturbance, as little expenditure 06 x as possible and without inconveniencing the farmers. In this 07 x research method four stages may be distinguished. 08 x The first stage consists of the complete drilling of the entire 09xx research area, provided the prehistoric surface level is no more 10 x x x than 1 metre below the recent clay cover of the Beerse 11xxxx Overlaat74. With the aid of an Edelman drill (ƒ 10 cm) soil 12 x x samples of approx. 1 litre were collected from the top of the 13 x x x prehistoric surface, in a grid of 25 by 25 m. Overall, 1858 14 x holes were drilled (fig. 3.33). The samples were sieved on a 15 x 16 x sieve with 1 mm mesh. The residu was searched for the 17 x presence of small pieces of flint, pottery, bricks, charcoal and 18 x x bone. 19 x The results of this stage of the investigation may be 20xxxx translated into distribution maps with relative densities or 21(A) x presence/absence. Materials strongly susceptible to 22 x pulverization, like charcoal, brick and bone, are indicated by 23 x presence or absence, flint and pottery in relative numbers. 24 xxx As the basis for the definition of a site the number of 25 x artefacts per drill residu was taken. This should amount to at 26 x x 27 (21B) x least three pieces of flint and/or pottery. If drilling in the immediate vicinity yielded material as well, this was included 27 4 20 11 4 10 in the site, even if there were less than 3 items. An additional criterion was the occurrence of surface finds at the site. The Table 3.5 Summary of sites in the microregion Linden. results of site 9 may be taken as example (fig. 3.34). Overall, 27 sites could be defined (fig. 3.35a). However, this drilling method does not allow any statements on the size and date of the site. For this purpose a second stage of exploration may uncover sites in this kind of situation: investigation was devised. digging test pits and drilling. In the second stage the demarcated sites are drilled with a Mechanical digging of test pits is a research method often larger Edelman drill (diameter 15/20 cm) in a grid with finer employed in order to gain a quick insight into the presence meshes (12.5 by 12.5 m). This allows a larger sample of soil of archaeological sites73. For several reasons, this method is to be collected from the top of the sand. The different undesirable. First of all, it is not known where the sites are diameters were selected because during the investigation it and how large they are. There is a ready chance of missing a became apparent that it was almost impossible to have a drill large number of sites in digging the test pits. Another with a 20 cm-diameter penetrate the heavy clay for more problem is the severe disturbance created in excavating the than 80 cm manually. In cases where the sand was at a test pits. The finds may be collected at the dump heap, greater depth than 80 cm, we therefore employed a smaller without having been measured in three dimensions. Only the drill. In this way 19 sites have been investigated, performing profile and the finds it contains may be studied. In order to 265 drillings (fig. 3.35b). reduce these drawbacks as much as possible, a proportionate The soil samples have also been sieved on a 1 mm-sieve. amount of extra work is required. Mechanical digging is less This usually allows a multiple of archaeological material to desirable then and more should be done by hand. This leads be collected. In this way relatively detailed distribution us to the third and often most important reason: expenses. maps of the find spread can be made (fig. 3.36). In a Mechanical digging by itself is not inexpensive, but becomes number of cases this method also turned out to provide considerably more expensive when this should occur on additional data, allowing a determination of the age of a farmland still under cultivation at the time of the site.

182 In the third stage of the investigation a test pit is dug in the part present in samples from gravel-rich fluvial deposits is that demonstrating the highest density of a site. The aim is to gain during collection of the sample pieces of natural flint are insight into the soil constitution, determine the degree of struck by the metal Edelman drill. This causes the flint to disturbance, find out whether any soil traces are present and try crack and the fragments to display a striking similarity to and collect enough material to specify the date. In this way 6 flint waste created anthropogenically. We overcame this sites have been tested. The covering clay was removed mechan- problem by recording these occurrences during drilling in ically and the pit was shovelled by hand to a depth of approx. the field on the one hand, and on the other hand by 15 cm below the level of the last recorded find. The finds were considering samples with large amounts of identical flint collected in squares of 25 by 25 cm. The entire find layer of and a very fresh appearance to have been damaged by one square metre was excavated in squares of 25 by 25 cm and drilling. sieved on a 3 mm-sieve. Any soil traces, if present, at that level were sampled, cut and recorded in drawings and photographs. 3.6.4 INTERPRETATION Once all these stages were completed and sites appeared The emphasis in interpretation will be on the Stone Age suitable for further investigation, the fourth stage occurred: sites. A problem in the investigation of the drilling results is the actual excavation of a site. This occurred in one instance, the frequent absence of enough dateable material. which will be described in the next paragraph. Concerning the sites where no test pits were dug, we may only state that these can be dated Stone Age. Two of the 6 sites where a test pit was dug date from the Middle drill drill test pit excavation Neolithic, to wit MK-culture. 10 cm, 15/20 cm The distribution of the sites displays a rather uniform grid 25m grid 12.5m pattern and a strong correlation with the higher parts of the stage 1 river dune. Some sites have been found in the lower area. It find sites x is difficult to determine whether these are the result of human stage 2 activity, we cannot exclude the possibility that these are the demarcate sites x reflection of unidentified ‘flake’ material caused by natural stage 3 processes or unrecorded damage to flint during drilling. determine The number of finds per site is limited and the size of the quality sites x sites is modest. The largest site lies on the highest part of stage 4 the dune, but size is mainly determined by the spread of the determine nature Iron Age pottery. On the basis of the drill results, no size activities x statements can be made on the function of the sites at this stage. Table 3.4 3.6.5 CONCLUSIONS The drill method is a good way to trace sites. Additional 3.6.3 RESEARCH RESULTS investigation by means of drilling with a larger diameter and The results of the drill study, digging of test pits and in a denser grid provides data on the size of the site, but surveying the fields have been summarized in table 3.575. information on the age and function of the site can hardly or Twenty-seven locations are concerned, representing one or not at all be derived. The digging of test pits provides an more sites. By site we mean an activity that can be opportunity to collect more data on soil constitution and age, chronologically specified using the modest means at our but in that case the function of the site often remains disposal at this level of the investigation. The total number shrouded in mystery. Therefore an excavation will have to of sites is 50; these can be subdivided chronologically as provide a decisive answer to the meaning of these flint summarized in table 3.5 and the following maps (fig. 3.36a-e). spreads, hence we selected one site for further investigation. The contents of a sieve residu can easily be determined, with The results of this investigation may be correlated to the the exception of samples from the gravel-rich fluvial results of the drilling study. The correlation might lead to an deposits. In these samples it is often difficult to distinguish interpretation of the flint spreads for the entire area. between ‘flake’ material caused by natural processes and flint processed by man. As a distinguishing feature we have 3.7 Excavation Linden-De Geest chosen the presence or absence of patina on the flint. Flint 3.7.1 INTRODUCTION with patina was taken to be natural, whereas flint without In the period 11 March to 3 May 1991 one of the Middle patina was considered to be anthropogenic. Another problem Neolithic settlement areas, number 9, has been excavated76.

183 Linden- De Geest 1990/1991

0 10m

Fig. 3.37 Site 9 with 10 m-sample grid and relative density of flint finds. Maximum number of flints is 8.

Fig. 3.38 Photo showing various investigative levels. Topsoil has been mechanically removed. The regular pattern of the exploration square is visible, around the manually excavated centre of the site.

184 165

160 testpit 1991

excavated area 155

sample pits

150

145

140

135

130

125

120

110

105

100

Fig. 3.39 Excavation plan with the various investigative levels and location of the main profile in a thick black line.

185 P P P A A A N N N m m m 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . 9 9 9 + + + 0 0 0 4 2 0 3 3 3 8 8 8 3 1 9 3 3 2 6 6 6 9 3 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 9 3 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 1 9 3 3 2 0 0 0 3 1 9 3 3 2 d y n a a l s c 8 8 8 y y 8 2 0 2 3 3 d m y n a a a l o c l s 6 6 6 0 8 2 3 2 3 h c t i d n , w l i o w l o l o s r e b y h , , g d d 4 4 4 u n n 8 2 0 o l 2 3 3 a a s s p 2 2 2 2 0 8 3 3 2 e l i f o r p n i 0 0 0 0 a 8 2 3 2 3 M P P P 0 A A A 4 N N N . 3 m m m 1 2 3 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 g . . . i 9 9 9 F + + +

186 8 testpit 1990 5 48 6 7 47 10 12 46 1 44 11 43 33 42 45 2 32 30 34 31 41 1 27 2 6 3 4 29 28 10 14 15

50 21 25 40 22 8 7 24 23

18 19 20 37

39 recent 38

49 36 16 prehistoric 51 35

indefinite 34

05m

Fig. 3.41 Summary of location of all traces.

The site was on the south flank of the small Late Glacial Preparatory to the excavation we drilled the entire area in a river dune (fig. 3.34). In the discussion of this excavation we 10 m-grid, in order to determine its size. Overall, an area of shall also refer to a small pilot study conducted there in approx. 3600 m2 was investigated. The greatest find density 1989. We assume that the traces found here, at a distance of occurred in the high western part of the area. The relative approx. 30 metres from the 1991 excavation, are part of the flint density (fig. 3.37) appeared to indicate a relatively overall settlement area. The exact position in relation to the small site with dimensions of approx. 20 by 20 metres. In 1991 excavation is hard to ascertain, as in the autumn all the central part of the area under investigation some flint reference points had disappeared, as a result of digging up was found as well, but this was located in an elongated strip, and dredging off the western part of the river dune. On the more or less on the edge of the dune. During drilling pottery basis of the topographical data left we performed a site was only rarely encountered. location as best we could. The decision to excavate this particular site may come as a 3.7.2 EXCAVATION METHODOLOGY surprise, since there was a site with far more finds on the After the topsoil had been mechanically removed in two highest part of the river dune. Except for the fact that this stages, a 96 metres long and 4 metres wide pit was dug over terrain could not be investigated at that time due to an the presumptive core of habitation activity, in order to uncooperative tenant, we assumed that the degree of determine the eastern boundary of the site. The western disturbance of the area first used in the Stone Age caused by boundary could no longer be determined, as this part had subsequent Iron Age, Roman and medieval habitation already been quarried for sand. Subsequently the activities would be so extensive that an investigation did not investigation was extended to the north and south. appear very worthwhile. This disturbance would be far The procedure was to excavate a small, 25 by 25 cm square smaller on site 9. The small size of the site appeared to be a of each square metre, to a depth of 30 cm. The excavated favourable circumstance as well. Large sites are often the soil was sieved on a 3 mm-sieve. In this way an area of result of a series of habitation and use activities which are approx. 1150 m2 could be investigated. Subsequently in the often quite hard to unravel in analysing the excavation data. areas with the greatest find densities the ‘culture layer’ was These considerations led us to select site 9. excavated manually, with a shovel. The aim was to collect

187 6 (t)

6 6 (t)

1 (t)

34 51 34 51

1 12

11 0 50cm 36

0 32 45 38 3 (t)

21 35 16 25

31 26 33 17 2 (t)

0 50cm

Fig. 3.42 Cross-sections through recent traces. The addition ‘t’ refers to traces from the 1990 pilot study.

188 3 5 (t)

30 23 24

2 37 15

4 10 (t) 7 (t)

41 42 44

27 22

0 50cm

Fig. 3.43 Cross-sections through prehistoric traces. The addition ‘t’ refers to traces from the 1990 pilot study.

as much well-dateable material as possible and to find out to mechanically in two stages. On the first level the soil traces what extent soil traces could be ascertained in relation to the were photographed and drawn, and then the traces were cut finds. In this way an area with an overall surface of 450 m2 and the finds collected from the filling. Finally a second was exposed. This surface was shovelled level, pho- level was constructed, in order to verify whether soil traces tographed and drawn (fig. 3.38). Afterwards the part of the were present at a deeper level. Overall, an area of 2200 m2 area that had not been excavated manually was deepened was searched for soil traces in this way (fig. 3.39).

189 6 46 10

47 8

1 28

7 29 39

0 50cm

Fig. 3.44 Cross-sections through the indeterminate traces.

3.7.3 SOIL CONSTITUTION that played a part in the attribution are stratigraphic position A north-south running main profile, with a depth of 85 cm of the trace, shape, colour of the filling and contents, if any. and a length of 30 metres clearly demonstrates the soil Quite a considerable number, however, could not be constitution and geological development (fig. 3.40). At the attributed. bottom of the profile there is yellowish grey, highly ferriferous, somewhat loamy sand, containing thin sand 3.7.4.1 Recent lenticles. Towards the bottom these lenses increase in A large part, 27 items, of the soil traces is recent (fig. 3.42)77. number. Laterally, to the north, this layer becomes more These are traces from fence posts with sometimes even remains loamy. On top of this is another layer of sand, brownish of wood in the deepest part of the trace, ditches and pits. yellow in colour, with a thickness of 25 cm at the most. The pits could be distinguished from the other traces on the Here, too, the layer increases laterally in clay content and to basis of shape, filling and the fact they had been dug the north it even changes into a clay layer. At the top of the through the clay cover. Most of these pits are almost circular sand layer lies sand with an increasing clay content. Both in outline and have been dug perpendicular to the soil. At sand layers have been transported by wind and constitute the the bottom a thick layer of charcoal is present, ranging in top of the original river dune. size from particles to pieces with a diameter of 10 cm. One Against and on top of this dune is a layer of fluvial clay, of the pits (trace 1) has been dated by C14, yielding an age with a thickness of 30 cm at most. In the transition zone of 949 ± 35, calibrated 1027-1161 AD78. with the dune, this is highly sandy, but to the north and We did not succeed in finding a likely functional south it has a highly clayey texture. The top of the dune interpretation for these pits. An interpretation as ‘cartwheel appears to have eroded to a slight extent. This is difficult to pit’, previously suggested, appears untenable, on the basis of ascertain, as part of the top has been incorporated into the further investigation and its age79. plough soil. The thickness of the aeolian sand layer on the These traces are distributed more or less evenly over the southern flank, however, suggests a small degree of entire excavation area (fig. 3.41). No clustering or any kind disturbance. of pattern can be discerned in the distribution of the 11th- The finds were recovered to a limited degree from the century circular traces as well. bottom of the plough soil. The majority were in the upper, brownish sand layer. The yellow layer underneath contained 3.7.4.2. Prehistoric almost no finds. The 16 prehistoric soil traces consist exclusively of (faint) post traces and pits (fig. 3.43). With the exception of a 3.7.4 SOIL TRACES single pit (test pit 1990-trace 5), which contained a Neolithic In the area 57 soil traces have been found, dating from sherd, the traces are distinctive by the presence of some several periods (fig. 3.41). The soil traces can be scattered charcoal, occasional splinters of flint and by the distinguished chronologically into three groups. Elements absence of finds. Stratigraphic position, nature of the filling

190 Fig. 3.45 Iron Age pottery. Scale 1:2.

and finds, if any, were the features by which these have been The majority of the sherds is undecorated and tempered with interpreted as prehistoric soil traces. It was impossible to chamotte. Rusticated ware does not occur. Only a single make a more precise chronological distinction. sherd has been decorated, by impressions with a hollow The traces display no interconnection, but are located mainly tube. Non-rusticated pottery occurs predominantly in Late in the northeastern part of the excavation (fig. 3.41). and Early Iron Age80. Due to the absence of Late Iron Age features and Roman material, a date in the early phase of the 3.7.4.3 Indeterminate Iron Age or at the end of the Late Bronze Age is most A number of soil traces, 14 items, displayed so few features likely. In particular the sherd with circular impressions has or were so faint that no attribution to a specific phase was its equivalents in Haps81 and Hilvarenbeek-Laag Spul82. possible (fig. 3.44). No pattern can be discerned in the distribution of these traces at all (fig. 3.41). 3.7.5.1 Pottery Neolithic pottery is not numerous, either. Overall, 101 3.7.5 FINDS sherds have been recovered, only few of which display In describing the finds we have opted for an emphasis on culturally significant features (fig. 3.46). In all cases the Neolithic artefacts. A small number of artefacts have been pottery is undecorated and tempered with quartz, chamotte recovered that date from the Late Bronze/Iron Age (fig. and sand. A number of sherds displays a distinctive coiled 3.45). This is mainly pottery with remarkably few prominent construction with H- and N-coil joins83. In most cases the technological and morphological features. exterior of the pottery has a smooth finish, but due to

191 testpit 1990

feature 5

Fig. 3.46 Neolithic pottery. Scale 1:2.

secondary weathering processes the surface is rough in a Middle and Late Neolithic (fig. 3.47). This makes it difficult number of specimens. The range in shapes is narrow, partly to attribute artefacts without distinctive features to a specific as the result of the limited amount of sherds, and only small period. bowls and plates with outward bending rims are Some general remarks may be made concerning the 917 recognizably present. Some of the latter possess a distinct items of flint recovered. Besides the use of imported flint of shoulder carination. The sherds with coiled construction and the Rijckholt-type and from Haspengouw in Belgium, flint carination can be attributed to the Hazendonk 2-phase. The with river patina was collected in the immediate vicinity as other sherds are more difficult to attribute, these might be well. In addition, old and broken axes have served as a Hazendonk 2-material as well, but a younger date in the source of raw material as well. Five flakes have been found WSV-phase is also possible. Indications for this are provided with a polished surface, but larger pieces are absent. by some thick sherds and tempering with coarse quartz. Flint processing hardly occurred within the excavated area, as cores and the related production debris are almost 3.7.5.2 Flint completely absent. Only three cores have been excavated; The arrowheads that can be culturally attributed soon these are small, with more than one striking platform and demonstrate that in any case two periods are represented, the irregular in shape.

192 3 2

5 4

6 7 8 9

14 15 Fig. 3.47 Flint: 1-5 Middle Neolithic arrowheads, 6-8 transverse points, 9-12 retouched blades/blades with use traces, 13 retouched flake, 14 axe fragment, 15 retouched blade. Scale 1:1.

193 4 2 3 1

6 5

8 9

Fig. 3.48 Flint: 1-9 scrapers. Scale 1:1.

The blades and flakes with retouch have been made of The most common tools are scrapers, points and locally collected flint, but there are also some specimens flakes/blades with retouch. The scrapers are in general of a made of imported flint. These are mainly fragments of small size and possess mainly a single scraper hood. Large macrolithic blades. Both flat and steep retouch occur. scrapers made of imported flint, so characteristic for the

194 Middle Neolithic, are absent. Neolithic B. Leaflike points with semi-surface retouch occur Among the points two types may be distinguished. Five are particularly in the MK-complexes. Similar specimens are leaflike and have partial surface retouch on both proximal known a.o. from the sites Brandwijk, Hazendonk, Wijchen, and ventral sides. The second type is a transverse point, Kraaienberg, Gassel and Grave, all mentioned above, but three of which have been found. also from Maastricht-Klinkers84 and Maastricht-Vogelzang85. Transverse arrowheads occur especially in complexes of the Stein-group, in particular the Stein vault itself. n % In pottery both periods are probably present as well. The waste 882 96.2 undecorated pottery with coiled construction and carination artefacts with traces of use 11 1.2 is mainly attributed to the Hazendonk 2-phase. The tools 24 2.6 undecorated pottery without coiled construction may also be total 917 100.0 attributed to that phase, but a later date in the WSV-phase is likely as well. Table 3.6 Flint by functional groups. On the basis of the archaeological material the area appears to have been used in two phases in the Neolithic, with the n%exception of the Iron Age.

points 8 33.3 3.7.7 FIND DISTRIBUTION scrapers 9 37.5 3.7.7.1 Sieve squares ret. flake/blade 7 29.2 By excavating small squares per metre, an area with a total 24 100.0 surface of approx. 1150 m2 has been investigated, within the area searched for soil traces (fig. 3.39). The number of finds Table 3.7 Tools per square is usually quite low. The majority consists of flint, pottery occurs only occasionally. 3.7.5.3 Stone The flint displays a more or less even distribution over the During the excavation many stones were found, most of entire area (fig. 3.50b). To the south a clustering is visible which were natural pebbles and broken quartz. Among them and to the east the number of finds decreases. North of the was but a single tool fragment, the centre part of a lower cluster, in the centre of the research area, a zone may be millstone (fig. 3.49). discerned with barely any finds. This zone is also apparent in the distribution of the pottery (fig. 3.50a). The southern part has a thin but continuous, even spread of pottery, whereas the northern part displays a less continuous pattern. As a result of the predominantly fragmented nature of the pottery it was not possible to chronologically attribute the material with any reliability. Occasionally small numbers of larger sherds were found, dating from the Neolithic and Bronze/Iron Ages (fig. 3.45). In the distribution pattern of the flint it is remarkable that the burned flint lies mainly in the southern, crescent-shaped concentration, more in particular the eastern part of it (fig. 3.50c). The clustering in the overall flint distribution pattern is therefore a derivative of this concentration of burned flint. Secondly, a deviation from the overall pattern may be discerned in the distribution of the raw materials used. Many Fig. 3.49 Stone, fragment of a millstone. Scale 1:1. raw material groups are represented by only one or a few artefacts and are scattered over the entire area. The 3.7.6 DATING exception is the Rijckholt-type flint, which occurs in larger A C14-dating of the site was not possible, due to the lack of quantities. This material lies mainly in the southern part of suitable organic material. The age has to be determined the area under investigation (fig. 3.50d), more in particular therefore on the basis of the archaeological material itself. in the western part of the crescent-shaped concentration. The The flint arrowheads may be attributed on the one hand to distribution of tools, for that matter, displays no specific the Middle Neolithic A and on the other hand to Middle pattern or clustering (fig. 3.51).

195 a b

c d

Fig. 3.50 Relative density in sieved test squares (25 by 25 cm) of Neolithic pottery (a), flint (b), burned flint (c), Rijckholt flint (d).

3.7.7.2 Shovelled area The area where most finds have been recovered, has been excavated manually, by shovel. These parts have been indicated in figure 3.39. The find spread displays a strong overlap with the pattern already known from the sieved test pits86. In the distribution of pottery the crescent-shaped find spread is apparent as well, containing some small clusters inside (fig. 3.52a). The centre part of the shovelled area, the zone with the highest NAP-figures, is strikingly empty. The clusters correspond with the dark patches that stood out in the shovelled level. These dark patches are considered to be natural depressions and the concentrations therefore appear to be the result of natural conservation processes rather than specific human activities in the Neolithic. The distribution pattern of the flint (fig. 3.52b) is much more difficult to interpret. The pattern does not match that of the pottery. In particular in the western zone a more or less continuous clustering can be discerned, whereas the eastern part displays an irregular pattern with a single square providing a high find density. This is the result of a disintegrated burned piece of flint. In the western part, too, scraper burning plays an important part in the distribution and points density of finds. retouched

Fig. 3.51 Distribution of flint tools in sieved squares. 196 a b

Fig. 3.52 Relative density in shovelled squares of Neolithic pottery (a) and flint (b). The distribution of tools (c) in absolute numbers.

197 In the shovelled area no specific pattern can be discerned in 3.8 Synthesis the distribution of tools either (fig. 3.52c). It is remarkable For the Middle Neolithic A several types of activities may that everything is scattered wide and no form of clustering be distinguished in the core region: occurs. A good instance is provided by the distribution of – activities associated with (permanent) settlements flint arrowheads, which are scattered over a wide area – activities associated with temporary encampments (fig. 3.53). – activities associated with off-site zones It is unlikely that all these activities were part of a single connected settlement system. For that, the temporary encampments are too close to the presumed permanent settlements. An alternative explanation would be that the temporary encampments are indicative of a reconnaissance of the area, before settlement. This would be reflected by temporary encampments followed by (semi) permanent settlement. To meet this hypothesis, the oldest sites would have to have a temporary nature. This is contradicted by the site Gassel, which has a temporary nature but is assigned to the second half of the Middle Neolithic A (Hazendonk 3). The current data are indicative of various settlement types over time. Sometimes short-lived and temporary, sometimes points with surface retouch over a longer period in the form of (semi) permanent settle- transverse points ment. In both methods of settlement the surrounding area was Fig. 3.53 Distribution of arrowheads over entire research area. exploited in a way archaeologically manifest as the Linden-De Geest terrain. Such a zone may be referred to as an off-site area. In this way a model may be constructed for the exploitation of the research area in the Middle Neolithic (fig. 3.54). In 3.7.8 CONCLUSIONS the region (semi) permanent settlements occur, surrounded The area has been in use in both Middle Neolithic A and by zones of small-scale activities, directly connected to the Middle Neolithic B. The pilot study using the sieve squares settlement. In addition there are temporary encampments in demonstrated that a crescent-shaped concentration of flint relation to a permanent settlement. The encampments, too, and pottery was present in the south of the research area. A will have been surrounded by a zone of limited size, where clustering of finds in the eastern part is caused to a great activities occurred that were connected to the camp. The extent by the presence of a large amount of burned flint. permanent settlements associated with this, are located This pattern was essentially confirmed by the results of the outside the region. The distance between both types of excavation. The total find size, however, is small and settlement is hard to estimate, but will surely have been appears to be the result of various (specialized) activities. several days’ walk at the least. Finally, the area contains The low find density and the absence of post traces and pits artefacts that reflect all kinds of off-site activities, most make it likely that the finds may not be considered the strikingly hunting, in the form of the distribution of ‘single’ reflection of settlement activities — comparable to Grave, arrowheads. Gassel and Kraaienberg. It is remarkable that both in the microregion and the core The excavated area represents an accumulation of activities, region no indications occur for burial and ritual deposition of which only hunting can be specified, thanks to the of artefacts. A possible instance of the latter find category is presence of arrowheads. The excavated area may be a large number of Middle Neolithic flint tools, made of considered an off-site zone, where activities have occurred mined Rijckholt flint, that have been found together on the that on the one hand were associated with a presumed south side of De Zittert (Grave), at a distance of 500 metres settlement nearby, on Hoge Renning, and on the other hand from the settlement at Pater Berthierstraat, in the infilling of were not related to any settlement context. The accumulation the Raam river87. of these small-scale activities, which left little waste Remarkably, the choice of location appears to have been material, have finally resulted in the pattern as excavated in highly consistent over time. It looks like the core region was Linden. What remains of these activities is but the exploited for a long time in a varied way, with hunting imperishable component. playing an important part in the food economy far into the

198 t 4

t 3

t 2

t 1

Fig. 3.54 Exploitation model with various Middle Neolithic activities over time in the core region Grave-Cuyk.

Neolithic. The (semi) permanent settlements are, however, appear to occur. Although bell beaker settlements, too, still on the largest river dune complexes, but within the zone that lie in the varied, northern part of the region, it is remarkable might geographically be referred to as varied. Only in the that in this phase sites occur in the south, on the river Late Neolithic important changes in the choice of location terraces and coversands as well.

199 notes 24 Verhart & Wansleeben 1995. Pers. comm. drs. J.-W. Hogestijn. 25 Pers. comm. drs. H. Koot. 1 Wansleeben in prep. 26 Touissaint & Becker 1992. 2 Van Haaren & Modderman 1973. 27 Louwe Kooijmans 1983. 3 Louwe Kooijmans 1983. 28 Modderman 1964. 4 Lüning 1969. By now it has become clear that MK I and MK II can no longer be chronologically separate. 29 Louwe Kooijmans 1976.

5 Lüning 1967. 30 Louwe Kooijmans 1983.

6 Constantin 1985; Vanmontfort, Casseyas & Vermeersch 1997.. 31 This point of view is at odds with De Grooth (1994). As far as we know, macrolites are absent in a WSV-context. They do not 7 In Germany this period is referred to as ‘Jung Neolithikum 1’. occur in the Stein vault, nor in a number of waste pits containing WSV-material in the Groesbeek area (pers. comm. S. Mooren and 8 Brounen 1995. H. Verscharen). Mining activities in Rijckholt therefore appear to have come to an end in this phase. 9 Schreurs 1998. 32 Van Regteren Altena et al. 1963; Louwe Kooijmans 1985; 10 Louwe Kooijmans in prep.; Schreurs 1995. Prummel 1987; Zeiler 1991, 1997.

11 Bakels 1981, 1986; Clason & Brinkhuizen 1978; Koot 1994; 33 Clason 1989, 1990; Groenman-van Waateringe et al. 1968; Pals Louwe Kooijmans 1985; Raemaekers 1994; Raemaekers, Bakels, & Clason 1989. Beerenhout, van Gijn, Hänninen, Molenaar, Paalman, Verbruggen & Vermeeren 1997, Raemaekers 1999; Zeiler 1986, 1991, 1997. 34 Bakels 1986, 1988.

12 Sites from this phase on the dry sands have not yielded any 35 Bakels 1997. botanical remnants. But these have been found in the löss. On a site like Maastricht-Klinkers it has been demonstrated, apart 36 Kalis 1988. from botanical remnants, also from research into traces of use on flint, that the processing of vegetable material played an 37 Teunissen 1988, 1990. important part (Schreurs 1995). In the coversand area research into traces of use shows this was less prevalent here (pers. comm. 38 Glasbergen, Groenman-van Waateringe & Hardenberg-Mulder J. Schreurs). 1967; Groenman-van Waateringe, Voorrips & van Wijngaarden- Bakker 1968; Verhart 1992. 13 Bakels 1989, 1997. 39 Hekelingen: Louwe Kooijmans 1985a; Vlaardingen: Van Beek 14 Arts 1986; Polman 1996. 1990.

15 Crombé 1995. 40 Modderman 1964.

16 Vermeersch & Walter 1978, 1980. 41 Wansleeben & Verhart 1990, 1995.

17 Marolle 1989, 1990. 42 See chapter 2.

18 Aldenhovener Platte XI (Bonner Jahrbücher 1981). 43 Van der Beek & Isarin 1991.

19 Louwe Kooijmans & Verhart 1990. The excavation St. 44 Hoek & Schorn 1990; Pons 1957; Schelling 1951. Odiliënberg-Neliske (chapter 5) once again demonstrates that the attribution of post holes to a particular culture is not easy. The 45 Pons 1954. question therefore remains which of the Linden traces may be attributed to the MK. 46 Pons 1957.

20 Verhart 1989. 47 Kleinsma, Groot Obbink & Zegers 1972.

21 Verhart & Louwe Kooijmans 1989. 48 8830 ± 55 BP (GrN 17778).

22 Schreurs 1992. 49 Buijks 1984; Van Diepen 1954.

23 Thanos 1994. 50 Brounen 1990; Brounen & de Jong 1988; Fokkens & Smits

200 1989; Louwe Kooijmans & Verhart 1990; Verhart & Louwe (Asmussen & Moree 1987; Clason 1989; 1990). More sites are Kooijmans 1989; Verwers 1986, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1992; known from the west of the Netherlands (Louwe Kooijmans 1985a; Verwers & Beex 1978. Zeiler 1987).

51 De Wit, Stolzenbach & Somers 1994. 69 GrN-14402 (Teunissen 1990, 91)

52 Louwe Kooijmans & Verhart 1990. 70 Mans 1990.

53 Hazendonk 2 should not be considered a ‘culture’ here. These 71 Bakels 1981, 1986, 1988, 1989. are material remains of groups using pottery akin to Swifterbant, in combination with influences from Michelsberg groups from the 72 Asmussen & Moree 1987; Clason 1989, 1990; Janssen 1989. Rhineland in Germany (see also: Louwe Kooijmans 1993a, 1993b, in prep.; Raemaekers 1999). 73 Examples a.o. Hekelingen, (Louwe Kooijmans & van de Velde 1980) and Assendelft (Van der Leeuw 1987). 54 Verhart & Louwe Kooijmans 1989. 74 The drill study spanned two years. The first year we drilled to a 55 Verhart 1989. depth of 1.50 metre. Due to scant results from these deeper parts and the high expense, the depth was reduced to 1 metre in the 56 Louwe Kooijmans 1976, in prep.; Raemaekers 1999. following year.

57 Organic temper occurs at Hazendonk and Brandwijk in the 75 For detailed data we refer to the investigation reports (Verhart Hazendonk 2-phase as well. Organically tempered pottery might & Wansleeben 1990, 1992). therefore also be from this phase. This option was not selected due to the fact that Hazendonk 2-material from the eastern river district 76 We wish to express our gratitude to the Smals company, in (Wijchen-Het Vormer (Louwe Kooijmans 1980), Linden- particular Mr. R. Meijnen, for their cooperation in this Kraaienberg, Grave-Pater Berthierstraat) is characterized precisely investigation. by the absence of organic temper. 77 Regarding the property boundary only the cut posts have been 58 Louwe Kooijmans 1976, in prep.; Verhart 1989; Verhart & included. If the uncut posts had been included, the total number of Louwe Kooijmans 1990. recent traces would stand at 47.

59 Louwe Kooijmans 1976, in prep.; Verhart & Louwe Kooijmans 78 UtC-4922. 1989. 79 This investigation was conducted by Stefan Molenaar (Molenaar 60 Louwe Kooijmans 1983, in prep. 1996).

61 Hogestijn 1988, Louwe Kooijmans 1976, Van Regteren Altena, 80 Van den Broeke 1987. Bakker, Clason, Glasbergen, Groenman-van Waateringe & Pons 1962/63. 81 Verwers 1972.

62 Louwe Kooijmans & Verhart 1990, 53-54. 82 Verwers 1975.

63 Pers. comm. drs. E. Drenth. 83 Louwe Kooijmans 1980.

64 Wansleeben & Verhart 1990, 1995. 84 Schreurs 1992; Teunissen 1990.

65 Verhart & Wansleeben 1990, 1992; Wansleeben & Verhart 85 Brounen 1994; 1995. 1992. 86 Kok, 1993. An extensive analysis is in progress (Wansleeben & 66 Teunissen 1988, 1990. Verhart in prep.). A short summary of preliminary results is provided here. 67 Mans 1990. 87 Louwe Kooijmans 1986; De Wit, Stolzenbach & Somers 68 The sole sizeable bone spectrum from the river district dates 1994. from the late Neolithic (Vlaardingen-culture) and comes from Ewijk

201