[page left intentionally blank] Nature’s Bounty Carrion-flower, Smilax herbacea L. Nature’s Bounty: Four Centuries of Plant Exploration in New Brunswick C. Mary Young UNB Libraries University of New Brunswick Fredericton, NB C. Mary Young: Note on the Author Copyright © 2015 C. Mary Young All rights reserved. The use of any part of this publication reproduced, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system, without prior written consent of the copyright holder is an infringement of copyright law and the rights of the rights holder. First published 2015 by UNB Libraries University of New Brunswick Fredericton, NB Canada The electronic version of this text has been made freely available for non-commercial use. ISBN: 978-0-9811126-1-9 (Electronic Version) Young, C. Mary. Nature’s Bounty: Four Centuries of Plant Exploration in New Brunswick http://naturesbounty.lib.unb.ca Plant Illustrations and Maps by C. Mary Young Cover design by Monica Fitzpatrick Abstract Four centuries ago, European explorers intent on reaching the riches of the Far East sailed westward, encountering North America. Arriving on “Canadian” shores, they were appalled by the dismal and forbidding forests. They knew nothing of the local plants; which ones were useful as a food source or had medicinal value and which were poisonous? While native people willingly shared their knowledge, the Maliseet and Mi’kmaq names were difficult for European tongues. They then sent plant samples to European plant enthusiasts who identified them according to European botanical ideas and systems of plant naming. These early explorers and settlers were followed by entrepreneurs and traders who exploited the natural resources and stripped the forests of the white pine to provide spars and masts for the Royal Navy. This study of plant exploration in New Brunswick from 1604 to 2000 is placed firmly within a regional framework. It encompasses short biographical sketches and tells the stories of naturalists and botanists in the light of the times in which they lived. The account illustrates the development of the science of botany and shows how, as museums and learning centres were established in the new land, North Americans became masters in their own house, taking over the botanical enquiry that had previously been the prerogative of Europeans. It examines early ecological studies and curious anomalies of plant distribution, as well as the modern-day emphasis on plant diversity and the need for conservation. Furthermore, it embodies implicit lessons that speak to our present-day concerns with climate change and the environment. v [page left intentionally blank] Contents Note on Plant Names List of Plant Illustrations Note on Plant Illustrations List of Maps Abbreviations Acknowledgements Note on the Author Foreword Prologue Chapter 1 Acadia and the Flowering of French Botany Chapter 2 The Botanical Network Chapter 3 The Rape of the Forests Chapter 4 Surveyors, Plant Hunters, and Botanists Chapter 5 River Journeys Chapter 6 Ice, Migration, and Isolation Chapter 7 The Rise of the Natural History Societies Chapter 8 From Inventory to Ecology Chapter 9 Relicts and Refugia Chapter 10 The Lure of Islands Chapter 11 The Geological Survey and the National Museum Chapter 12 Agricultural Imperatives Chapter 13 Towards Conservation Chapter 14 The Fruits of Their Labours Appendices: Maps of New Brunswick Bibliography vii Note on Plant Names In this book, I have used the common or vernacular name followed by the Latin name of a plant. Latin names are the “stock in trade” of botanists and are universally recognized by them. There is a good reason for using Latin names. There may be many vernacular names for a single plant and this can only lead to confusion. Also a plant known by a common name in one place may be known by a totally different name elsewhere; for instance, the “Mayflower” of eastern North America is an entirely different plant from the “Mayflower” of Britain. The French common name for dandelion, Pissenlit, is not translated and used as a common name in English (apart from in Newfoundland) because it was too vulgar for prudish British and American minds. A Latin name is binomial; it has two parts, the generic name followed by the specific name. The generic name recognizes the genus, or group of plants, which have certain features in common, inherited from a common ancestor. The specific name or epithet usually recognizes some special feature of the plant characteristic of that particular species. The two names together provide a readily identifiable name for only one species of plant. To be strictly correct, the binomial names should be followed by the authority (i.e. the abbreviated name of the person who named the plant). I have omitted the authority to make the account more readable, but I have followed the nomenclature in H. R. Hinds's The Flora of New Brunswick (2nd edition), except in a few cases where newer but widely accepted names are used. Latin names follow the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. These rules are developed and agreed upon at International Botanical Congresses held every six years. Changes in names, perhaps because of a re-interpretation of a plant’s relationships (or for some other reason), are accepted or rejected by the International Committee of Botanical Nomenclature. viii List of Plant Illustrations Figure 1. Seabeach Groundsel, Senecio pseudoarnica Less. Figure 2. Nova Scotia False Foxglove, Agalinus neoscotica (Greene) Fern. Figure 3. Riverine Grape, Vitis riparia Michx. Figure 4. Groundnut, Apios americana Medik. Figure 5. Turtlehead, Chelone glabra L. Figure 6. White Pine, Pinus strobus L. Figure 7. Indian Cucumber-root, Medeola virginiana L. Figure 8. Pitcher-plant, Sarracenia purpurea L. Figure 9. Labrador Tea, Rhododendron groenlandicum (Oeder) Kron and Judd Figure 10. Fringed Polygala, Polygala paucifolia Wild. Figure 11. Northern Painted-cup, Castilleja septentrionalis Lindl. Figure 12. St. John River Oxytropis, Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. var. johannensis Fern. Figure 13. Butterwort, Pinguicula vulgaris L. Figure 14. Glasswort, Samphire, Salicornia depressa Standl. Figure 15. Sea-milkwort, Lysimachia maritima (L.) Galasso, Banfi & Soldan Figure 16. Sea-lavender, Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. Figure 17. Chaffy Sedge, Carex paleacea Schreiber ex Wahl. Figure 18. Parker’s Pipewort, Eriocaulon parkeri B. L. Robins. Figure 19. Small-flowered Anemone, Anemone parviflora Michx. Figure 20. Saltmarsh Aster, Symphyotrichum subulatum (Michx.) G. L. Nesom var. subulatum Figure 21. Livelong Saxifrage, Saxifraga paniculata P. Miller ix Figure 22. Broad-fruited Burreed, Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Figure 23. Marsh Felwort, Lomatogonium rotatum (L.) Fries Figure 24. Wild Ginger, Asarum canadense L. Figure 25. Carrion-flower, Smilax herbacea L. Figure 26. Bur Oak, Quercus macrocarpa Michx. Figure 27. Beachhead Iris, Iris setosa Pallax ex Link. Figure 28. Himalayan Balsam, Impatiens glandulifera Royle Figure 29. Cardinal-flower, Lobelia cardinalis L. Figure 30. Myrtle-leaved Willow, Salix myrtillifolia Anderss. Figure 31. Alpine Bilberry, Vaccinium uliginosum L. Figure 32. Pine-drops, Pterospora andromedea Nutt. Figure 33. Hair-like Sedge, Carex capillaris L. Figure 34. Mountain Avens, Dryas integrifolia Vahl. Note on Plant Illustrations In a few illustrations, plants are shown with complete root systems. These drawings were made by reference to herbarium specimens, most of which were collected well over one hundred years ago and long before conservation became an issue. In no case was a plant taken up by the roots in order to make a drawing. x List of Maps Map 1. Rivers and Towns of New Brunswick Map 2. Routes of Expeditions of James Robb, Loring Woart Bailey, and James Alexander Map 3. Routes of Expeditions of George Upham Hay Map 4. Marshes of the Upper Bay of Fundy Map 5. The Grand Manan Archipelago Map 6. Position of New Brunswick Ice Caps Abbreviations DCB Dictionary of Canadian Biography GSC Geological Survey of Canada HSTC Scientia Canadensis: Journal of the History of Canadian Science, Technology and Medicine NB Naturalis New Brunswick Naturalist NHSNB Natural History Society of New Brunswick NBM New Brunswick Museum PANS Nova Scotia Archives and Records Management RSC Royal Society of Canada xi Acknowledgements It is with sadness that I record my indebtedness to Harold R. Hinds, “Curator” of the Connell Memorial Herbarium, University of New Brunswick, with whom I had many long conversations on plant distribution in the province. Up to the time of his death in 2000, he encouraged me to investigate the historical aspects of plant exploration. It proved not only to be a subject of human interest and plant diversity, but also to have wider implications in the realm of changing ideas and the development of the science of botany. My thanks are due also to the University of New Brunswick, Department of Biology, for allowing me access to the herbarium. In 2001, Beverley Benedict, formerly Collections Manager, Connell Memorial Herbarium, gave me access to specimens and records of the herbarium without which it would have been difficult to finish this work. Libraries have played an important part in my understanding of the background for this book. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Director of UNB Libraries, John Teskey, the founding Director of the Electronic Text Centre, Alan Burk, and the retired archivists, Mary Flagg and Patricia Belier, for their support and encouragement towards the publication of this book. The librarians and archivists of the Harriet Irving Library and the Science Library, University of New Brunswick, have been ever helpful and courteous. Readers of the manuscript, Dr. Steven Turner, Professor Emeritus of History, University of New Brunswick, and a specialist in the history of science, Dr. Stephen R. Clayden, Curator of Botany at the New Brunswick Museum, and the historian Dr. Margaret Conrad, Professor Emeritus, University of New Brunswick, have my special thanks.