Evolution and Human Behavior 24 (2003) 376–390 Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development Robert J. Quinlan* Department of Anthropology, Ball State University, 2000 West University Avenue, Muncie, IN 47306-0435, USA Received 10 February 2003; received in revised form 19 June 2003 Abstract This study examines female reproductive development from an evolutionary life history perspective. Retrospective data are for 10,847 U.S. women. Results indicate that timing of parental separation is associated with reproductive development and is not confounded with socioeconomic variables or phenotypic correlations with mothers’ reproductive behavior. Divorce/separation between birth and 5 years predicted early menarche, first sexual intercourse, first pregnancy, and shorter duration of first marriage. Separation in adolescence was the strongest predictor of number of sex partners. Multiple changes in childhood caretaking environment were associated with early menarche, first sex, first pregnancy, greater number of sex partners, and shorter duration of marriage. Living with either the father or mother after separation had similar effect on reproductive develop- ment. Living with a stepfather showed a weak, but significant, association with reproductive development, however, duration of stepfather exposure was not a significant predictor of devel- opment. Difference in amount and quality of direct parental care (vs. indirect parental investment) in two- and single-parent households may be the primary factor linking family environment to reproductive development. D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Child development; Conjugal stability; Demography; Evolutionary ecology; Family environ- ment; Father absence; Life history; Menarche; Parental investment; Puberty; Reproductive strategies; Sexual behavior * Tel.: +1-765-285-8199. E-mail address:
[email protected] (R.J.