GHT S6 03(M) Exam Code : HTM 6C

History of Ancient

SEMESTER VI

HISTORY

BLOCK 1

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY Subject Experts

1. Dr. Sunil Pravan Baruah, Retd. Principal, B.Barooah College, Guwahati 2. Dr. Gajendra Adhikari, Principal, D.K.Girls’ College, Mirza 3. Dr. Maushumi Dutta Pathak, HOD, History, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati

Course Coordinator : Dr. Sukmaya Lama, Asst. Prof. (KKHSOU) SLM Preparation Team

UNITS CONTRIBUTORS

1,2 Muktar Rahman Saikia, St. John College Dimapur, Nagaland 3,4,5 Dr. Mridutpal Goswami, Dudhnoi College 6 & 7 Sanghamitra Sarma, R/S GU & Mitali Kalita, D.K. College, Mirza

Editorial Team Content (English Version) : Dr Gargee Sharmah, Pragjyotish College Language (English Version) : Dr. Sukmaya Lama, KKHSOU

Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Sukmaya Lama, KKHSOU

December, 2019

ISBN: 978-93-89559-91-0 © Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State University is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License (International) : http.//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0

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Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati- 781006; Web: www.kkhsou.org BACHELOR OF ARTS HISTORY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS DETAILED SYLLABUS BLOCK - 1

CONTENTS Pages

UNIT 1 : Mesopotamian 5-15 The Sumerian Civilization- Origin; Sumerian Cities and Cultural Life,

Sumerian Writing; The Old Babylonian Period: Babylonian Law,

Code of Hammurabi, Babylonian Literature,

UNIT 2 : Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy 16-28 Society: Kinship, Customs; Economy: Pottery Making, Metal Making, Mortuary Practices, , Art and Architecture

UNIT 3 : Greek Civilization 29-35 Origin and its Political Foundation, Hellenic Greece, City States, Democracy

UNIT 4 : Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece 36-42 Social, Sports Activities, Greek and , Economy and Trade

UNIT 5 : Greek Art and Philosophy 43-52 Sculpture, Architecture and Painting, Ethics, Philosophy: Plato, Aristotle; Literature: Poetry, Tragedy

UNIT 6 : Roman Civilization 53-63 Origin, Establishment of the Empire, Archaic Society and Economy

UNIT 7 : Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire 64-78 Rise of the Republic, Political Structure, Women and the Republic, Society, Art, Religion and Literature under the Republic, Sports and Culture during the Republic COURSE INTRODUCTION

This Course is meant for the Sixth semester learners of History of BA programme under the revised semester system of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. The course is titled History of An- cient Civilizations. This course discusses the history of Ancient Civilizations in detail. There are fifteen units in this course.

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

This is the first block of the course and it consists of seven Units. The Block will highlight the history of ancient , Greece and Rome in detail. The first Unit is the Mesopotamian Civilization. The unit discusses the origin of the Mesopotamian CIvilization and the development under the different cultures- Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian. The second Unit Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy discusses the society, culture and economy under Ancient Mesopotamia. The third Unit Greek Civilization discusses the origin of Hellenic Greece and the rise of city states and democracy. The fourth unit Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece throws light on the society, religious condition and the economy under the Greek Civilization. The fifth unit Greek Art and Philosophy. The unit discusess the art and literary scenario in Ancient Greece and the development of philosophical concepts by Plato, Aristotle. The sixth unit titled Roman Civilization. The unit discusses the origin and the archaic socio- economic details of Ancient Rome. The seventh unit Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire. The unit deals with the conditions in Ancient Rome during the time of transition of Rome from Republic to an Empire.

While going through this paper, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again, you may find some boxes marked with: “LET US KNOW”. These boxes will provide you with some additional interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with “ACTIVITY” will help you in making your learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be better if you solve the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the units and then match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end of each unit. Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1

UNIT 1 : MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION

UNIT STRUCTURE 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 The Sumerian Civilization– Origin

 Sumerian Cities and Cultural Life

 Sumerian Writing 1.4 The Old Babylonian Period

 Babylonian Law- Code of Hammurabi

 Babylonian Literature 1.5 Assyria 1.6 Let Us Sum Up 1.7 Further Reading 1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress 1.9 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the origin of the Sumerian civilization

 explain the socio-political life that prevailed in ancient Mesopotamia

 describe the society, culture, religion and literature that developed in ancient Mesopotamia

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This is the first Unit of the Paper “History of Ancient Civilizations”. In this Unit we will be discussing about the Mesopotamian Civilization. Home to the earliest civilization, the Mesopotamian civilization has been the land where the first cities of the world were developed and early empires flourished. The people of Mesopotamia were among the first to record events on clay tablets. During the Hellenistic period, the Seleucids used the term Mesopotamia to indicate a wide geographical area. History of Ancient Civilizations 5 Unit 1 Mesopotamian Civilization

1.3 THE SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION-ORIGIN

Being a riverine civilization, the area between the and rivers forms the cradle of this civilization. Geographically, the valley was situated in between Syrian and Arabian Desert on one side and the other boundary was formed by the . The Valley was productive as the soil was alluvial and fertile. Due to its productivity and fertility, it was known as “” or “The Fertile Crescent”. Unlike the early Egyptian civilization, which remained isolated for a long time, the is a story of struggle from its earliest history. The river, Tigris Euphrates witnessed the influx of various nomadic tribes. The Zagros mountains were home to tough raids by these tribes and hence there were constant invasions. The civilization is known to have witnessed the rise of ancient states and cities like , , Nineveh and such others with complex social structures. The Mesopotamian civilization consisted of three main civilizations- the Sumerian civilization, the Babylonian civilization and Assyrian civilization. A few important historical rulers of Mesopotamia were as follows- - (the king of Ur), Sargon (founder of Akkadian kingdom), Hammurabi (founder of the Old Babylonian state), Tiglath-Pileser I (founder of the Assyrian Empire) and Tigranes the Great, who established the Armenian Empire. It is believed that the ancient Mesopotamian civilization developed in about 4th millennium B.C. till the rise of the Achaemenids in the 6th century BC. The period can be divided into the following-

 Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf cultures (Late Neoloithic period)

(ca 5900-4000BC)

(4000-3100 BC)

(3100-2900 BC)

 Early Dynastic city states (2900-2350 BC)

(ca 2350-2193 BC)

 Neo-Sumerian Period (ca 2119-2204 BC)

 Early Assyrian kingdom (20th to 18th century)

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 First Babylonian dynasty (18th to 17th century)

 Kassite Dynasty, Middle Assyrian period (16th to 12th century)

 Dark Age (12th to 10th century)

 Neo Assyrian Empire ((10th to 7th century)

 Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th century) was the heartland of the Mesopotamian civilization. However, in later period the centre of power shifted from Sumer to and farther north to Assyria. So we are going to discuss separately these three civilizations in our course of study.

THE SUMERIANS

The Sumerians were the earliest settlers in the Valley as referred to in several accounts. In fact, it is very difficult to say as to how and when these settlements started. The Summerians were neither Mediterranean nor Alpine in their physical features. They had an oval face, high straight nose and their stature was stocky. From the available materials, it can be said that small states developed and flourished in this civilization. The small states were ruled by several political dynasties of which a few are mentioned below.  From the excavations, it is found that the Uruk dynasty, which ruled in Northern region from 2800 B.C. to 2360 B.C., was the first kingdom of Sumer.  The Uruk dynasty was replaced by Ur dynasty and it is known that the Urs had a well established government. Some tombs belonging to the kings of the Ur dynasty have been discovered. The tombs, made of bricks and stones, also contained the personal belongings of the dead person.  The dynasty succeeded the Uruk dynasty. Ur- was the founder of Lagash dynasty and constructed many temples and canals. Eantum, of the Lagash dynasty, conquered the cities of Umma, Kish and Mavi.  Ur Kazina, the last ruler of Lagash dynasty was defeated by Lugdzagesi, the governor of Umma, who founded the

History of Ancient Civilizations 7 Unit 1 Mesopotamian Civilization

Lugalzeshi dynasty. His kingdom covered the whole of Sumerian from the lower sea i.e. the Gulf of Persia to the upper sea i.e. Mediterranean sea. The conquest of Akkad led to the spread of the Sumerian culture. Even though the Akkadians were Semitic, they accepted the Sumerian culture. Although the Sumerian culture was rich, their lack of unity proved to be a fatal weakness. The Akkadians developed a great kingdom which fell into the hands of the Barbarians but was later restored by the Ur rulers. Later in 2200 BC, the Babylonians took over the whole territory and built a new capital city and called it Babylon, and this marked the beginning of the Babylonian period.

 Sumerian Cities and Cultural Life

The cities were ruled by kings, assisted by the nobles and priests. In Sumerian times, the kings were mere figureheads. The Kings and Queens were believed to be descendants of and not God in person, as the Egyptians. The most common name for the kings were “shepherd” referring to the role of the king as the guardian of the general people. The Sumerians had an orderly society. The king or “patesti” (in Sumerian tongue) was considered the tenant farmer of the god, whose lease was renewed every year during a festival held annually. The king had several duties which included collecting offerings, supervising farming and workshops, legalizing all business transaction and defending the city. Warfare was common because of rivalry for land and water. Many a time the change of the course of the river led to hostilities and even the repeated invasions from the neighbouring nomadic tribes necessitated the need for military alertness. Solar and Lunar eclipse were observed and their occurrence was noted according to the year, month and day. Texts containing botanical and chemical terms that are still used by scientists in these fields have been found, dating from the 2nd millennium BC.

8 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1

 Sumerian Writing Sumerian was the earliest written language and according to scholars, besides Sumerian there were other spoken languages in early Mesopotamia. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets with a reed, making some symbols or lines- a system that is referred to as . The Summerians did not learn paper making, but they continued to record their history on clay. They rolled out a lump of soft clay, made their wedge-shaped marks on it, and then allowed the tablet to dry until it was hard. It served the purpose of counting of sheep for the sake of taxation to religious practice, and legends.

The latin word for ‘wedge’ is cuneus and forma meaning “shape”, hence the name cuneiform (Kyoo-Nee-uh-form) writing. There were about 600 cuneiform signs.

LET US KNOW Cuneiform- It is the oldest writing system. The puzzle of cuneiform writing was solved in much the same way as the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Sumerians took their idea of writing from cylinder seals and used symbols which were later employed to identify religious and economic terminologies. Designs or signs, each representing people, animals, plants, temples, gods, and cities and finally graphs were associated with specific words and component syllables. Centuries after the high point of Sumerian culture, a ruler of Persia named Darius the Great suppressed a rebellion led by nine chiefs. He ordered the story to be carved in both pictures and writing on a limestone cliff which is now placed in western Iran. The writing is in tree languages, all written in cuneiform. The Sumerians also devised a calendar with 12 divisions adding a year whenever necessary to bring the year in harmony with the seasons. Each year was named after some significant event like a storm, death of someone important etc.

History of Ancient Civilizations 9 Unit 1 Mesopotamian Civilization

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Fill in the blanks : Q 1: Mesopotamian Civilization owes its origin to ______and ______River. Q 2: ______was the first kingdom of the Sumerian Civilization. Q 3: ______was the last ruler of thee Lagash Dynasty.

1.4 THE OLD BABYLONIAN PERIOD

The Babylonian people followed the Semitic culture and they gained control of Mesopotamia after their supremacy over the Akkadians. The term Babylonian includes the mixed culture of Semites, Sumerians and other diverse elements. When one of their chief, Summu-Abbu, became the ruler of a town Bab-Ilu, this small town later became the centre of power and was named as Babylon. Summu–Abu is said to have founded the first kingdom of Babylon. Hammurabi, the fourth descendent of Summmu-Abbu was a popular and powerful ruler. He conquered Isin, Eshnunna, Mari city states and extended his empire to the Mediterranean Sea. He played a major role in uniting the greater Mesopotamia and established a centralized government. He governed with an iron hand, his authority being based upon divine origin and thus he enjoyed absolute power. He worked for the welfare of his subjects and during his rule several canals were built to provide facilities to his subjects. His period was rightfully a glorious period in the Babylonian history. The descendents of Hammurabi had to defend their empire from the invasions of the Kessites, but it was not for a long time. The conquered Babylon and established a new dynasty in about 1700 BC. During the rule of the Kassites, anarchy prevailed everywhere resulting in the degradation of culture and civilization. During the time of Hammurabi, a small state like Babylon became a major city and later it was called

10 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1

Babylonia meaning “the gateway of the gods”. However, Babylonia regained its lost glory and honour under the rule of the able king

 Babylonian Law- Code of Hammurabi

However, Hammurabi is best known by his code of laws. Hammurabi’s laws controlled all the aspects of Babylonian life. Some laws were related to commerce and industry, and included provisions regarding wages, powers and conditions of work. There were laws which dealt with property rights, bankruptcy while others dealt with marriage and divorce. The judges were bound to enforce the laws and under the strict supervision of the king’s advisers and officials. In Hammurabi’s code, adultery in legal terms was limited to the infidelities of the wife. There were severe penalties for any attempt to bribe a judge or a witness. Carved upon a diorite stone shaft about 8 feet high, the code of Hammurabi has been preserved. He tried to make his subjects believe that the laws were divine and given by the God. Although his laws offered justice - the idea of punishment was ruthless, basically –‘an eye for an eye’. The Babylonians believed that the king was an agent of and any ruler who was legitimate should be crowned. The Babylonians had a centralized government where the king held all power. The king exerted all control and the fate of the state and that of the common people was decided by him. His power was based on the concept of divine origin and hence it was absolute.

 Babylonian Literature

That learning was prized among the Babylonians is known from the popular proverbs like, “Ye who excel in tablet writing shall shine like the sun”. They adopted the Sumerian cuneiform writing, and developed it further. The towns and temples housed libraries. Men and women alike learned to read and write. Most of the Babylonian literature was translated from the original Sumerian texts and the language

History of Ancient Civilizations 11 Unit 1 Mesopotamian Civilization

continued to remain Sumerian. Mythology and epics appeared to be popular and the most popular epic was that of the Great Epic of . He was a legendary ruler and the epic portrays the challenges faced by mankind through their life and after death. The epic contains many Babylonian myths. Through the epics, attempts were made to explore the relation of man with the universe and their very existence in this world. Another form of Babylonian literature consisted of Temple Literatures, which included psalms, hymns and . Fables were written in great numbers and were termed as “ Literature” because every story had a moral within it. Epigrams were equally popular for its words of wisdom and philosophy. The study of the sciences like astronomy and astrology held a special place in the society of the Babylonians. Reports from the Observatories were sent to the king. The Babylonians developed the lunar calendar and were able to predict the movement of the planets.

1.5 ASSYRIA

The Assyrians were first settled along the Tigris River, north-west of Babylonian and built a city state, Asur, named after their chief god. Tiglath-Pileser I is regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian Empire. He assumed the title of “King of Sumer and Akkad”. During the rule of Adad-nirari II who ascended the throne in 911 BC the Assyrian empire extended as far as the Khabur. Following a policy of massive expansion by terrorizing people, Ashurnasirpal II turned the Assyrian capital of Kalhu () into an armed state. The Assyrians were warriors and during the rule of the Sargonid dynasty, the Assyrian Empire extended from the to the Egyptian border. Assyrians were specialised in warfare. They used cavalry on mounted horsemen and made extensive use of iron weapons. Shalmanesar III (858-824 B.C.) was a powerful ruler of this dynasty who conquered Syria and Palestine and annexed them to his empire. Pilesan III was another powerful ruler who conquered Babylon and annexed it to

12 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1 his empire. Ashur Banipal was another mighty ruler of Assyrian dynasty. He attacked Egypt and defeated both the kingdoms of Thebes and Memphis and brought invaluable wealth. He also defeated Ethiopia and thus extended the Mesopotamian civilization. In case of Assyria, the kingdom was well organized and the king also functioned as the as in the case of the Greek. When Assyria grew into a power, the entire Empire was divided into certain provinces named after the main cities. The provinces were ruled by the governors, who were responsible to enforce law and order. The districts or provinces were compelled to pay fixed tributes and also to provide a military contingent to the king. However, there was marked change in the government which is often termed as the beginning of “the Second Assyrian Empire”. In this period, the government acquired a militaristic nature. Political and military organisations were the chief component of the Assyrian government. The army was the state and it was well equipped with soldiers using iron weapons, war chariots etc. The government was more centralized with the king acting as a general. The governors and messengers were appointed personally by the king, which enabled him to keep a check on the administration of his state. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, there was no attempt at restoring the government due to its cruelties and inhumanities inflicted on the people.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following : Q 4: What changes were brought in the government at beginning of “the Second Assyrian Empire”? ...... Q 5: ______believed that the king was an agent of Marduk.

History of Ancient Civilizations 13 Unit 1 Mesopotamian Civilization

1.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

 The origin of the Mesopotamian civilization amidst the rise and fall of different dynasties.

 The socio-cultural life and political structure under the various dynastic rulers of ancient Mesopotamia.

 The development of the art of writing in ancient Mesopotamia.

1.7 FURTHER READING

1) Adler, Philip J. & Pouwells, Randall L. (2006). World Civilizations, 4th edition, Thomson Wadsworth, USA

2) Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundation, Cornell University Press, UK.

3) Sharma, H.C. and Singh, Dharam (2008). World Civilizations: A Brief Study, Alfa Publications, New Delhi

4) Swain, James E. (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: The Tigris-Euphrates. Ans to Q No 2: The Uruk dynasty. Ans to Q No 3: Ur-Kazina. Ans to Q No 4: The kingdom became a militarized state. Ans to Q No 5: The Babylonians.

14 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Civilization Unit 1

1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: “The Fertile Crescent” refers to which valley? Q 2: What do you mean by “Temple Literatures”? Q 3: Who were the Akkadians?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: Write short notes on- a) Babylonian literature b) The Kassites c) Hammurabi’s code of law

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Describe the political structure of ancient Mesopotamia. Q 2: Discuss the rise of the Mesopotamian Civilization.

** ***** **

History of Ancient Civilizations 15 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

UNIT 2 : MESOPOTAMIAN SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY

UNIT STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Society – Kinship, Customs

2.4 Economy- Pottery Making, Metal Making

2.5 Religion- Mortuary Practices

2.6 Art and Architecture

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.8 Further Reading

2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.10 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the social customs and religious practices in ancient Mesopotamia,

 explain the economic activities in ancient Mesopotamia and

 discuss the nature of art and architecture that developed in the Mesopotamian civilization.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the origin of the Mesopotamian Civilization and the political structure under the different cultures-Sumerian, Babylonian and the Assyrian. In this Unit, we will discuss the non-political aspect of the Mesopotamian civilization. We will discuss about the society, economy, religion and arts that developed in ancient Mesopotamia.

16 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

2.3 SOCIETY– KINSHIP, CUSTOMS

In villages social equality was rarely challenged and a leveling interdependency was taken for granted. Distinction among persons was expected to be displayed in many ways in the urban areas. The Sumerian society was divided into three classes-  The upper class where there were army officers, high government officers and the feudal lords.  The middle class of the society which consisted of traders, craftsmen and government officials and  The lower class comprised the farmers, labourers and slaves, The lower classes and even the slaves were protected by the law of the state. Slaves could also own property, marry and make a will of their possessions to their children. Freedom from bondage was easily obtained for the slaves, and only those slaves were branded who attempted to flee or run away. Slaves were often given responsible positions in ancient Mesopotamia. The slaves did not enjoy political rights unlike the freemen. Hereditary slaves were a rarity. Maltreatment of slaves took place in such workplaces as the mines, fields or to those who had committed crime. The middle class enjoyed a better status than the people who belonged to the lowest strata of society. The punishments for offences were more severe for the people belonging to the middle class as they were more responsible to the state. Death penalties were common during the early Mesopotamian period. The people believed in and a few were engaged in foretelling and astrology. The people paid taxes. In Assyria, all free men were compelled to serve the army for some period of time. They also had many political rights. Historians agree that in the earlier stage of civilization women shared equal social prestige and power with men. This phase of equal social power was undermined by the advent of militarized society (armies), use of heavy agricultural tools and the establishment of a large scale trade over long distance. In the earliest contracts and rulings, it is referred

History of Ancient Civilizations 17 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

that women enjoyed extensive rights but by 1200 B.C. they were treated as a mere object and ruled over by men. Marriage was considered a legal bondage. Polygamy was also prevalent in the society but women occupied comparatively a high position in the ancient Mesopotamian civilization. They could own property, have equal rights in matters of divorce, and bring lawsuits. They could engage in business or any commercial pursuits and become professional scribes. Justice to widows and orphans was guaranteed in the early society. But, a woman rarely operated any enterprise in complete independence. However, the Assyrian law code was repressive towards women in general. Adultery was considered the worst offence and wifely adultery resulted in death penalty both for her and her lover. In Hammurabi’s code, adultery in legal terms was limited to the infidelities of the wife. The husband’s sexual acts were taken for granted and not considered offensive. The tablets of ancient Mesopotamia attest that divorce and lawsuits were frequent. The king regarded himself as the representative of God and ruled his kingdom in the name of God. The elite class led luxurious lives in huge palaces. Education was elitist as it was only the sons of the royals and the noble persons who went to school. As for the others, the boys learnt the skills of trade and business from their fathers and the young girls learnt the art of housekeeping and cooking from their mothers and also to look after their younger siblings. In the Assyrian Society there were two classes- the independent citizens and the slaves. The independent class of citizens consisted of nobles, artisans and commoners. The nobles led a luxurious life and enjoyed special rights and privileges. The freemen in the society were compelled to serve the army for a stipulated time and this system was named the ilku service The commoners led a life of mediocrity. The life of the slaves was very miserable and unhappy. The Assyrians enslaved the person captured during the wars. The Assyrians were, no doubt, a cruel and fierce people. So the warriors occupied an honourable position in the society. Music was a part and parcel of the life of the people in

18 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

Mesopotamia, royals and commons alike. The songs were sometimes written for the gods or to describe an important event. Among the musical instruments, the Oud has been preserved in the British Museum and it dates back 5000 years ago, to the Uruk period. Hunting was a royal game which was equally popular as the sport of boxing, wrestling and polo (with man sitting not on the horses but on the shoulders of another man), and was found commonly depicted in the works of art. Houses and other structures were built with dried bricks due to the absence of building stone and hence they remained temporary. And we have no knowledge about their architectural developments.

2.4 ECONOMY-POTTERY MAKING, METAL MAKING

The Sumerians economy was an agro based economy. The soil of their region was fertile as it had been continuously built by the mud brought by the two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates. Because of these rivers water was available in large quantity in Mesopotamia. The unpredictable nature of the weather was, however, a cause of worry among the people. The potter’s wheel was an important contribution of the Sumerians and also the wheeled vehicle. The farmers made dykes, canals and trenches and other irrigation works to irrigate their land in dry season. They cultivated wheat, barley, pulses and vegetables etc. They were also among the first to make wine and beer. The peasants did not depend on slaves due to the fear of mutiny or even escape. Domestication of animals was another important occupation of the Sumerian. They domesticated cows, goats, sheep and donkeys etc and used them for productive purpose. The oxen ploughed the fields, while the asses were used as beasts of burden. They were also skilled craftsmen who crafted beautiful things in gold, silver, copper, ivory and wood etc. They were equally well-versed in the art of weaving cotton and woolen clothes. They also built palaces, tanks and temples of bricks. The credit for the invention of wheel goes to the Sumerians. History of Ancient Civilizations 19 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

The emergence of towns like Mari, Ur, Uruk prove the growth of urban economy. Apart from food production urban economy comprises of services like trade, manufacturers etc. In most cases the city people were dependent on the products or services of the village people. One of the most important characteristics of urban economy in ancient Mesopotamia was the division of labour. The Sumerians were good traders who carried on their trade far and wide. Some of the coins discovered from the Indus Valley reveal that the Sumerian had commercial relations with India also. In exchange for their articles such as crops, wool, fruits and clothing they brought back gold, silver, ivory, copper and fine cedar wood from other lands. In the beginning, trade was carried on by the barter system but later on they also began to use gold and silver coins. They also issued bills and receipts for commercial transaction. The Assyrians too engaged in long distance trade with the Anatolian cities and Babylon. They traded textiles for precious metals. They established colonies of the merchants called “karum” (port in Akkadian) which clearly indicates that they had a long tradition of trading. Innovative technologies were developed in ancient Mesopotamia related to textile weaving, flood control, water storage, irrigation, metalworking and glassmaking. Metals like copper, bronze, and later iron were used for decorating the palaces and to make weapons like swords, daggers and others.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Fill in the blanks : Q 1: The emergence of towns like ______and ______prove the growth of urban economy. Q 2: Hunting was a ______game. Q 3: In the Assyrian Society there were two classes ______and ______.

20 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

2.5 RELIGION- MORTUARY PRACTICES

Among the oldest religion, the Mesopotamian religion is counted as one. The Mesopotamians were polytheistic in their beliefs in gods and . Despite this there were regional varieties. The Sumerians believed in (the God of Air and the son of An and ) as the superior god. Anwas the God of Sky and his wife was the Ki. , , Zababa, Ennugi were a few of his children. was the Sumerian god of war and heroes and his wife Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of love and war. For the Babylonians, Marduk was their principal god, while was the Mesopotamian god of writing. The other principal deities were- Gula, the sun god, Ishtar was the goddess of love and fertility. Iskur (Adad) was the god of storm. Nature was the main element in the Sumerian religion. They interpreted any natural event as an and the concept of after life was a thought which was not welcomed among the Sumerians. The priest practised astrology. Offerings were made to the gods to obtain benefits such as sufficient rainfalls or prevention of flood. In the religious life one finds that they worshipped nature and nature gods. Deities were represented in natural objects. Like the Egyptians, they too had many gods and in fact each city had its own gods. There were many temples in which heavy offerings were made to please gods. Each temple had a priest to look after its working. The priest lived a very comfortable life. They also believed in the theory of life after death and there was a practice of burying maids, courtiers and attendants along with the king and the queen. In order to win the pleasure of gods, animal had come to stay. One of their beautiful temples is in the city of Nippier for the dwelling of their God Enlil. On the other hand Babylonians worshipped their chief god Madruk. Love as a factor for worshiping was absent and it was fear that gained an importance in their religion. They excused themselves of their sins due to their that they were mortals and hence were unable to do it all right.

History of Ancient Civilizations 21 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

But, in addition to this, there were thousand gods which were worshipped. Shanush and Ishtar were their important gods. All taxes which were paid to the king were only payments to the gods. Each temple had a priest. These priests got heavy amounts in offerings. One of the sources of offerings was by playing the part of an unknown stranger to a virgin lady who would sell herself to him for an hour in order to bear children in the temple of Ishtar. The Babylonians had built many temples for their gods. Throughout the history of ancient Mesopotamia, the temples acted as the centres of education where the priests worked as teachers. The Babylonian temples were known as ‘’ which later on these temples became the centre for the study of art, science and commerce. They had also in omens as well as in astrology. They sowed and cut crops at auspicious occasions. The astrologers used to foretell the future with the help of the mysterious sign found on the liver of the sacrificed sheep and such other . They believed that this power of foretelling was blessed on a selected few. The study of and skies as undertaken by the astronomers of Babylon was prevalent as people believed it to be associated with religion and omens. According to H.A. Davies “The art of foretelling future by using sheep’s livers reached Rome from Babylon.” The Babylonians had no interest in after life, which they considered dismal and they believed in improving their life on this very earth. Like the Sumerians, Babylonians, and the Assyrians had also their own gods. Marduk was considered by the Babylonians as supreme among other deities. Sacrificial rituals were conducted in the temples to please the gods. The excavation of graves in certain parts of Mesopotamia sheds some light on the burial rituals of its people. In Ur, the people were buried under their house, while the children were put in big jars and were taken to the family chapel. The common people had simple graves and a few were wrapped in mats and carpets. The graves did contain goods and items belonging to the dead and those of the royals, carried precious items.

22 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

2.6 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Mesopotamian civilization made progress in the fields of art such as architecture, sculpture, painting and industrial art. This is evident from the pictures of buildings, texts on building practices and archaeological artifacts. Among the monumental structures referred to in the texts are the temples, palaces, city walls and gates. Residential architecture is also referred to albeit occasionally. Among the textual sources on building constructions and associated rituals, ’s cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable; equally worthy are the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age. Sumerian artists excelled in metal work, gem carving and sculpture. They produced some remarkable specimen of art on their weapons, pots and jewelry, which showed their skill and imagination. Their art was not confined to religion alone but an artist was free to follow his own impulses. Sumerian art consists mainly of seals cut in stone and metalwork. The architectural remains are absent due to their use of sun dried bricks. The temples served as homes of the deities and not as burial places for the common man. The houses were unattractive except for those meant for the priests; however they could never match the Egyptian grandeur. Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. The houses were prepared from the resources available locally, like mud brick, mud plaster, reed and others. The inhabitants built their own houses, as suggested by the materials used by them and the variation in the sizes of the houses. The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were massive complexes with grand decorations. Reference in this context can be made to the palaces in the Diyala River Valley sites such as Khafajah and Asmar. These palaces served multiple functions both as a residential place and a socio-economic institution. It housed craftsmen workshops, store house for food, ceremonial courtyards, and shrines. An

History of Ancient Civilizations 23 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

example can be made to the “giparu” (Gig Par Ku in Sumerian) at the Ur which was the residence of the priestess of the Moon God. This palace had multiple courtyards, burial chambers, ceremonial hall, many sanctuaries and other features. Such a complex was excavated in Syria (Mari) belonging to the Old Babylonian Period. Assyrian palaces had walls engraved with pictorial and narrative programs and carved in stone slabs, known as orthostats. The pictorial programs narrate the cultic scenes or the royal accomplishments, civil or military. Massive sculptures of mythological figures adorned the gates and important passageways. The king’s throne-room opened to a large courtyard used possibly for the purpose of conducting the state affairs. Among the works of art were the ivory furniture pieces found in the Assyrian palaces. It was during the reign of Nebuchadnezer II, that the beautiful tower of Babel was constructed with 288 feet wide base. A beautiful palace in the vicinity of this great tower was also constructed under his supervision. The earliest architectural remains from the times of early Mesopotamia belong to the 4th millennium BC. Basically the remains are temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River Valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the remains of the at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of ), Middle Bronze Age remains are found at Syrian Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age Palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), urartian (Tushpa/ Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). In the field of architecture much information is not available. The shortage in the supply of Pince stone resulted in the building of houses with baked bricks, which disappeared with the passage of time. It however appears that rich class of the society had palatial homes to live in designed with arches, columns and vaults.

24 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

The Sumerians seem to have invented several architectural elements. One was the arch, a curved structure over an opening and one of the strongest forms in building. By combining several arches, they could also build rounded roofs in the shape of domes or vaults. They also built sewers beneath their buildings and roofed them with arches of brick. The architecture of Babylonians disappeared completely because of various foreign invasions and partly because of the nature of the buildings which were made of wood and bricks instead of stone. Babylonian literature is the only source of knowledge about the Babylonian temples and palaces. The Babylonian kings built places and ‘Ziggurats’ which had many storeys like a tower. The tower of Babel, 288 feet high is the best example of such pyramid structure. The royal palaces were spacious and useful in their own way but they tacked massiveness and ornamentation of the Egyptian buildings. The Babylonians did, however, make true archers, constructed with wedge shaped blocks. Ziggurats (Akkadian ziqquratu) were massive stepped cult platforms found in certain Mesopotamian sanctuaries. The Temple dedicated to Ea at (Tell Abu Shahrain), the “White” Temple dedicated to at Uruk in the late Uruk period is a fine example of Ziggurats. Ur- Nammu’s is considered to be one of the earliest of all planned ziggurats. Originally built as a three stage construction, only two of it survived the ravages of time. Built out of mud-brick structure, each of the baked bricks was stamped with the name of the king. In the later period, the Kassites, Elamites (Late Bronze Age) and the Assyrians and Babylonians (Iron Age) erected artificial ziggurats. A few of such structures were found in Dur Kurigalzu, Dur Untash, Kalhu, Dur Sharrukin and Babylon among others. The sculpture of the Mesopotamian civilization were inferior to those of the Egyptians and less numerous. Men and animals were carved with the idea of representing actions as seen at different times. The finished product would often give a weird effect, but the artist could convey the idea with the use of only a few figures.

History of Ancient Civilizations 25 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

The development of seals was the greatest artistic accomplishment of the Babylonians. From the commoner to the king, everyone had his personal seals. These are an important source of information regarding the Babylonian civilization. The Babylonians were also skillful in the art of smithy and could make very beautiful ornaments of gold and silver. The ‘Hanging Gardens’ remains a noteworthy contribution of the Babylonians.

Assyrian sculptures were more realistic and had a life-like effect than those of the Babylonians. Much of the subject matter was taken from military life. Animal-sculptures portrayed the force of action and feelings. Base-relief was developed to a great perfection. A winged-bull painted in an Assyrian palace is one of the masterpieces of Assyrian sculpture. The hunting and war scenes engraved on stone are very much life like. In short, we have to say that greatest achievement of the Mesopotamian people was in the field of architecture and sculpture.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q 4: What is orthostats? ...... Q 5: Name the earliest of all planned ziggurats? ...... Q 6: The architectural remains of the Sumerians are marked by its absence. Why? ...... Q 7: Locate the Middle Bronze Age remains in the early Mesopotamian civilization? ......

2.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt-

 The socio-religious life of the Mesopotamians and the economic condition prevalent at that period of time.

26 History of Ancient Civilizations Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy Unit 2

 The art and architectural works as reflected through the remains in ancient Mesopotamia.

2.8 FURTHER READING

1) Adler, Philip J. & Pouwells, Randall L. (2006). World Civilizations. (4th edition). Thomson Wadsworth, USA

2) Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundation. Cornell University Press, UK.

3) Sharma, H.C. and Singh, Dharam (2008). World Civilizations: A Brief Study. Alfa Publications, New Delhi

4) Swain, James E. (1983). A History of World Civilization. Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York

5) Woods, Michael and Woods, Mary B (2011). Ancient Construction Technology: From Pyramids to Fortresses. Lerner Publishing Group Inc., USA

2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Mari/Ur/Uruk

Ans to Q No 2: Royal

Ans to Q No 3: The independent citizens and the slaves

Ans to Q No 4: Pictorial and narrative programs carved in stone slabs.

Ans to Q No 5: Ur-Nammu’s ziggurat.

Ans to Q No 6: Due to their use of sun dried bricks.

Ans to Q No 7: Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi.

History of Ancient Civilizations 27 Unit 2 Mesopotamian Society, Culture and Economy

2.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: What do you mean by “karum”? Q 2: What is the system of “ilku”? Q 3: Who were the Akkadians?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: Write short notes on- a) Ziggurats b) Status of Women in ancient Mesopotamia c) in ancient Mesopotamia d) Slaves

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Explain the economic condition in ancient Mesopotamian and its impact on the society. Q 2: Explain the architectural development in ancient Mesopotamia as compared to the Egyptian civilization? Q 3: Discuss the religious beliefs in ancient Mesopotamia.

*** ***** ***

28 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Civilization Unit 3

UNIT 3 : GREEK CIVILIZATION

UNIT STRUCTURE 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Hellenic Greece – Origin and its Political Foundation

 City States

 Democracy 3.4 Let us Sum Up 3.5 Further Reading 3.6 Answers to Check Your Progress 3.7 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to –

 explain the origin of the Greek civilization

 describe the political structure under the ancient civilization of Greece and

 discuss the rise of City states and democracy in Ancient Greece

3.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the society, economy and culture of the Mesopotamian civilization. In this Unit, we will deliberate on the Greek Civilization and in particular the political developments. Among the earliest civilizations of the world is the Greek Civilization. The richness of this civilization can be ascertained from the fact that the ideas from ancient Greece have made an impact on the whole European continent. Greece is called Hellas by the early Greeks. So, the Greek civilization is also known as Hellenic civilization. We are going to study in this unit in detail this great civilization of

History of Ancient Civilizations 29 Unit 3 Greek Civilization

ancient Greece. In the following sections, we will deal with the emergence of the Hellenic (Greek) Civilization, its nature of polity.

3.3 HELLENIC GREECE– ORIGIN AND ITS POLITICAL FOUNDATION

Greece is a peninsula that extends from the mainland of Europe to the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks came to the region of Aegean Sea from the north, probably from the Danube river valley. They spoke an Indo- European language. Every group that came into the Aegean region had its own name -Achaeans, Ionians, and Dorians. Soon, all began to call themselves Hellenes, which means Greeks. Like the Aryans in India, the early Greeks lived in tribes. Each tribe was composed of a number of families living in villages under a leader. A group of tribes had a king. Centering round the city states there grew and developed the Greek Civilization. The expedition of Greek conqueror Alexander ‘the Great’ for world domination resulted in the spreading of the Greek civilization outside greatly enriching the world civilization. The Roman Empire in the 2nd century B.C started expanding eastward. Between 146 and 30 B.C., as a result of the Roman attacks, almost the entire territory of the Greeks became a part of the Roman Empire. The nature of polity refers to the form of government. Originally all the city states in ancient Greece used to have a monarchical form of government. Each monarch used to govern his city state with the assistance of a council consisting of nobles. But gradually the monarchy lost its popularity as a form of government and the wealthy landowners took over political power and abolished the monarchy. Gradually there was increase of population in the city states. Commerce and industry too expanded and a rich middle class developed in the cities. This class joined with the poor farmers to lessen the power of the landowners. This conflict resulted in the rise of dictators, or tyrants as the Greeks called them. In course of time, the dictatorships also were overthrown and most of the city states established either a kind of democracy, or an oligarchy (rule by a few rich men). 30 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Civilization Unit 3

Picture Courtesy: J.E. Swain (The History of World Civilization)

 City States

Around 8th century B.C., groups of Greek villages started joining into larger units to form city states. At the highest point in a city state, an acropolis or citadel was built for defence and the city spread out around the acropolis. Many such cities grew up all over Greece and on a number of islands like- Sparts, Athens, Macedonia, Corinth, Thebes and others. The city states had many common features, but each had its own character. Topographical features of the country and the tribal characteristics of the people greatly contributed to the development of the city states. There were clashes amongst them but, due to difficulties of travel and communication, they could not be unified in a single state. The two most important city states on the mainland were Sparts and Athens. Sparta and Athens, as stated earlier, were the two most prominent city states of ancient Greece. Sparta turned into a military state. The Spartan Government came to be ruled by a few nobles. Two of these nobles became kings. But in contrast to Sparta, in a gradual manner, democracy was introduced in Athens. Athenians were fond of trying

History of Ancient Civilizations 31 Unit 3 Greek Civilization

political experiments. Monarchy and oligarchy were not suited to their temperament, so they formed the Council of Elder (also termed as Gerousia) which consisted of two kings and 28 Elders. Five "ephors" or overseers took care of the administrative machineries. Unlike Athens that boasted of a democratic strcuture, Sparta gave importance to military skills and hence none could beat her in military discipline and order. Spartans did not engage in trade and commerce. Meanwhile Athens was democratic though not in the mdoern sense. However it did develop a strong central government. The Council of Five Hundred took control of the state administration. All citizens were allowed the right to hold office except labours without property. The offic- ers were chosen by the majority. Under Pericles, Athens reached the height of success. The government was formed by the citizen body who controlled the legislative, judicial and administrative. The judiciary was controlled by the citizen body. Citizen jury decided the case by casting secret vote. Citizen- ship was however not open to all Athenians. As the two city states flourished and made progress jealousy crept in leading to the Peloponnesian Wars. The first Peloponnesian War (459- 446 BC) fought between Sparta and Athens resulted in heavy losses on both sides and brought exhaustion. The peace that ensued was tempo- rary as the second Peloponnesian War broke out in 431 BC. Athens lost all her allies and fought all alone. With plague all around, a bankrupt government, rising prices and selfish rulers, a fallinf army, Athens was forced to seek peace. However, in the third Peloponnesian War, Athens was betrayed and Persians joined Sparta and in the battle of Aegospotami (405 BC) Athens was defeated. However, the success of Sparta was not long lasting. Tyranny ruled everywhere because reckless military officers were made the rulers. Encouraged by their success in Greece, the Spartans decided to conquer Asia Minor. In their absence, Thebes, Athens, Corinth and Argos 32 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Civilization Unit 3 stepped up unitedly against Sparta. However, in due course, the war turned to be strife between Thebes and Sparta. Thebes succeeded to take over the mastery over the city states in the battle of Leuctra (371 BC). However, it proved short lived and the fight for the supremacy over the city states continued finally leading to a helpless situation that resulted in an invasion.

 Democracy

Democracy was introduced in Athens. Athenians were fond of trying political experiments. Monarchy and oligarchy were not suited to their temperament, so they discarded them. Democracy in Athens was the outcome of the labour of three wise law-givers namely, Draco, Solon, and Cleisthenes. Regarding the forms of political structure, Plato was of the opinion that political institutions were never permanent. According to the Greek way of thinking, state and political system must be all inclusive. According to Plato, democracy emerges as a reaction against oligarchy but tends to face obstacles due to the inability ofthe citizens to select the best ruler owing to their lack of education. Socrates, teacher to Plato, died in a democratic Athens.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- Q.1. When did the Second Peloponnesian War break out? ...... Q.2. Name the teacher of Plato...... Q.3. What is "Gerousia"? ...... Q.4. What was the role of the "Ephors"? ......

History of Ancient Civilizations 33 Unit 3 Greek Civilization

3.5 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

 The Greek civilization is a culmination of different cultures

 The rise of city states and democracy was a political achievement of Ancient Greek civilization.

3.6 FURTHER READING

1) Chaudhuri, K. C. (2001). History of Greece. New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.

2) Majumdar, R. K. & Srivastva, A.N. (2006). History of World Civilization. Surjeet Book Depot, New Delhi

3) Swain, J. E. (1983). A History of World Civilization. The McGraw Hill Book Company Inc., New York.

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1: 431 BC

Ans to Q. No. 2: Socrates

Ans to Q. No. 3: Council of Old Men

Ans to Q. No. 4: The "Ephors" looked after the State administration.

3.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: Who introduced "ostracism"?. Q 2: Who are the Citizens?

34 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Civilization Unit 3

(B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: What led to the formation of city states?

Q 2: What was the nature of polity in ancient Greece after the decline of monarchy?

(C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Write a note on the emergence of the Hellenic Civilization and its nature of Polity.

Q 2: Discuss the origin of the Greek civilization.

*** ***** ***

History of Ancient Civilizations 35 Unit 4 Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece

UNIT 4 : SOCIETY, RELIGION AND ECONOMY OF ANCIENT GREECE

UNIT STRUCTURE 4.1 Learning Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Social Condition 4.4 Sports Activities 4.5 Greek Gods and Goddesses 4.6 Economy and Trade 4.7 Let us Sum Up 4.8 Further Reading 4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 4.10 Model Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to –

 explain the social scenario of Ancient Greece,

 explain the leisurely activities that Greeks indulged in,

 describe the religious affiliation of the Greek people and the of Greek Gods and Goddesses and

 discuss the economy of Ancient Greece and the various trade activities.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit we discussed the political development in Ancient Greece. We discussed the political foundation of the Greek civilization, the rise of city states and democracy. In this Unit, we will discuss the socio-economic condition that prevailed in Ancient Greece. The Unit will also deliberate on the topic of religion and sports activities of that period.

36 History of Ancient Civilizations Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece Unit 4

4.3 SOCIAL CONDITION

The society in ancient Greece was basically divided into two sections, namely, Free People and Slaves. The slaves were owned by the free people who used them as servants and labourers. The slaves were the prisoners of war or criminals or brought form foreign slave traders. They never got any rights or privileges. Majority of the slaves were non- Greeks and only a very few were Greeks. They had to pay a ransom amount to buy their freedom and get themselves free. Still, many slaves lived closely with their owners, some of them were skilled craftsman, and a few of them were even paid. Again, the free people in the Greek city states were divided as Citizens- the Upper Class; Metics-the Middle Class; and Freedmen-the Lower Class. The Citizens were the top most class in the ancient Greek social hierarchy. The people of this class possessed the top most power and position in the society. They used to handle all the government work, philosophy, literature, and war. They used to have the services of the slaves for their materialistic work so as to save their precious time for important work. The Metics were the middle class people possessing very little rights in comparison to the upper class people. They were majority involved in the trading and manufacturing related jobs. Next in the social hierarchy were the Freedmen who were once slaves but were somehow freed by their owner by any mode. They possessed least amount of privileges. These social stratifications were applicable only for the men as women took their social and legal status from their husband or other male relative. In the ancient Greek society, the women were sub-ordinate to men. They always remained under the control of husbands, brothers, father, or nearest male relative. Most of the girls were married at the age of 13 or 14. Men could divorce women, but they had to go through an official ceremony for it. The status of women increased when she gave birth to a boy. Most of the girl babies were abandoned or given little food to eat.

History of Ancient Civilizations 37 Unit 4 Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece

4.4 SPORTS ACTIVITIES

The Greeks were very much interested in sports. They used to play in the honour of their Gods. The important sports played were foot races, jumping, wrestling, boxing, discus and javelin throws. For promoting sports, the first Olympic Games were played in 776 B.C. and from that time onwards were played regularly with great excitement at the interval of 4 years. The winners were very highly honoured. Poems and verses were recited in their praise and even their statues were made. The Olympic Games were organised for five days. For providing smooth passage to the outsiders to witness or to participate in the games, even truce was declared in case of any war in progress. For the winners of different sports event in the Olympic Games, the traders from outside also used to bring presents. Sports secured a place of importance amongst the Greeks as it satisfied their religious sentiments and provided the people an opportunity to come nearer and closer to each other.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- Q. 1. Name the class of people who were able to buy their freedom? ...... Q. 2. Who were the Metics? ...... Q. 3. When was the first Olympic Games played? ......

4.5 GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES

The religious beliefs of the early Greeks were very simple. They had many Gods and Goddesses whom they imagined to be like human beings, though more powerful and immortal. Zeus was the god of the sky who caused thunder. Poseidon, god of the sea, raised storms that sank

38 History of Ancient Civilizations Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece Unit 4 ships. Apollo, the sun God could reveal the future. Athena was the Goddess of victory and patroness of wisdom and all the arts. Dionysus was the God of wine. There were many other Gods and Goddess in ancient Greece. The Greeks thought that their Gods and Goddesses lived on Mt. Olympus, a mountain in northern Greece. They wanted to please their Gods and Goddesses in order to gain such benefits as good harvests or success in their undertakings. The concept of and was not there in their religious beliefs. Their Gods and Goddesses had nothing to do with good deeds or sins. The Greeks had no priests and the head of the family performed the . It is interesting to note here that the King also used to perform the sacrifices for the entire community. There were festivals and holidays to honour Gods and Goddesses. The world still celebrates one of them, namely the Olympic Games. This event was held in every four years to honour the God Zeus. Spectators and participants came from all over Greece and enjoyed open air theatre, poetry reading and conversation as well as athletic competitions. Different plays were actually staged at the theatres in the honour of God Dionysus.

4.6 ECONOMY AND TRADE

The economy of ancient Greece centred on agriculture, industry, trade and commerce. The Greek soil was not much suitable for agriculture as its quality was poor and was impoverished by scanty rainfall, erosion by winter floods, deforestation and aridness. Agriculture was hence very labour intensive and it employed only up to 80% of the Greek population. The agricultural works were seasonal. Olives were harvested and grapevines were trimmed at the beginning of autumn and the end of winter. Fallow lands were set aside in the spring. Cereals were harvested in the summer. Cutting of wood, sowing of seeds, and harvesting of grapes were done in the autumn. The industries in ancient Greece were none other than the different crafts. Much of the craftsmanship of ancient Greece was part of the domestic sphere. The situation gradually changed between the 8th and 4th

History of Ancient Civilizations 39 Unit 4 Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece

centuries B.C., with the increased commercialization of the Greek economy. Working with metal, leather, wood or clay was for a long time looked down upon by most of the Greeks as a degraded profession. However, Greek soil was rich in minerals like silver, lead, marble, iron, and zinc. Mining was done with the help of slaves as they were available in large number. The mines were silver mines at Laurion or Laurium, Cyprus, and Sifnos; Gold at Sifnos and Thasos; Iron at Euboea and Rhodes; and Copper at Chalcis, Euboea and Cyprus. Metallurgy developed with the progress of the mining industry. Some other industries were also there like wagon making, ship building, shoe and saddle manufacturing, harness making, pottery, textile, etc. Alexandria was the centre of industrial activities in ancient Greece. Surplus in production necessitated trade and commerce. As the quality of soil was poor, there was also need to import the foodstuff to meet the need of her people along with other necessary commodities. Greece was bordered by large peninsula and hence the Greeks became good navigators. But, still for developing trade and commerce, problems were there as the transport system was difficult with poor road conditions and the sea being infested with pirates. The main exports of ancient Greece were olive oil, wine, pottery, metal work, etc. They imported cheese, perfumes, glass, barley, wheat, rugs, ivory, etc. Taxation in ancient Greece was both direct and indirect. Direct taxation was not well-developed. The eisphora was a tax on the wealth of the very rich, but it was levied only when needed, usually in times of war. On the other hand, indirect taxes were in the form of taxes levied on houses, slaves, herds and flocks, wines, and hay, among others. Coins played several roles in the ancient Greek economy. Coinage probably began in Lydia around 600 B.C. Foreigners had to change their money into the local currency at an exchange rate favourable to the city states. The coins also served as a mobile form of metal resources. Around 550 B.C., the technique of minting coins arrived in mainland Greece. It started in the coastal trading cities like Aegina and Athens. The minting of coins was considered a mark of prestige by the Greek city states.

40 History of Ancient Civilizations Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece Unit 4

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- Q. 4. Name a few ancient Greek Gods and Goddesses? ...... Q. 5. What was Eisphora? ...... Q. 6. When did the technique of minting coins arrive in Greece? ......

4.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learned about-

 the social conditions in Ancient Greece

 the religious traditions and leisurely activities in Ancient Greece

 the economy and trade activities of Ancient Greece

4.8 FURTHER READING

1) Chaudhuri, K. C. (2001). History of Greece. New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.

2) Majumdar, R. K. & Srivastva, A.N. (2006). History of World Civilization. Surjeet Book Depot, New Delhi

3) Swain, J. E. (1983). A History of World Civilization. The McGraw Hill Book Company Inc., New York.

History of Ancient Civilizations 41 Unit 4 Society, Religion and Economy of Ancient Greece

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q No. 1: Slaves

Answer to Q No. 2: The Middle Class

Answer to Q No. 3: 776 BC

Answer to Q No. 4: Poseidon, Zeus, Apollo and Athena.

Answer to Q No. 5: A form of tax

Answer to Q No. 6: 550 BC

4.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: Name the God of wine.

Q 2: In the honour of which God was the Olympics held?

(B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: What was the position of women in ancient Greece?

Q 2: What type of industries existed in ancient Greece?

(C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the society and economy in ancient Greece?

Q 2: Explain the religious conditions in ancient Greece?

*** ***** ***

42 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Art and Philosophy Unit 5

UNIT 5: GREEK ART AND PHILOSOPHY

UNIT STRUCTURE 5.1 Learning Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Sculpture and Architecture 5.4 Painting 5.5 Ethics and Philosophy- Plato, Aristotle 5.6 Literature- Poetry, Tragedy 5.7 Let Us Sum Up 5.8 Further Reading 5.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 5.10 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to-

 explain the development of sculpture and architecture in Ancient Greece

 explain the development of fine arts like Painting in Ancient Greece

 discuss the contribution of Greek Civilization in the field of Philosophy and Ethics

 discuss the development of Poetry and Tragic Literature in Ancient Greece

5.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the socio-economic scenario of ancient Greece along with the religious condition and the sports culture. In this Unit we will discuss the development in the field of arts like painting, architecture, sculpture etc. in ancient Greece. The Unit will also look into the advancement made by the Greeks in the field of Ethics, Philosophy and Literature.

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5.3 SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

The Greeks left a mark of reputation in the field of art and architecture. As the social life of the Greeks developed centering round the temple, the excellence of their architectural skills was implemented in constructing the temples. The temples were magnificent in structures. The Greek temple was considered as the home of the Gods and Goddesses. Initially wood was used to construct the temples, which later shifted to sun- dried bricks and then stones began to be used. Most famous of the Greek temples was the Parthenon temple of Goddess Athena constructed at the Acropolis. It was built between 447-438 BC. This temple was built with stones and a huge area with large pillars surrounding the temple which depicts the large size of the temple. There were two chambers in the Parthenon temple where in one chamber the statue of Goddess Athena was erected and in the other chamber, there was the treasury of the Athens city state. The frieze of the temple was designed with figures by Phidias, a Greek sculptor. The Parthenon is an example of Greek Doric style of architecture. Besides Doric style, architectures were also built in Ionic style. The columns in this style have an ornate base and stands on an individual base. The Erechtheum is the best example of Ionic style structure. Built on two levels, the upper level facing the shrine of Athena (Acropolis) is an Ionic porch and the lower level facing the north are the Ionic columns (six in number) which supports a roof. Another style of architecture is the Corinthian style and the best example of it is the monument of Lysicrates built in 330 BC. During the Hellenistic period, the focus was more on secular architectures like gymnasiums, libraries, lighthouses, museums etc. Cities were built with great care and the example of it can be found in Pergamum, Priene and Alexandria. Corinthian columns were much popular among the architects. In the field of sculpture, there was remarkable progress. The Greek sculptors made different types of statues and erected them at the temples

44 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Art and Philosophy Unit 5 and at different areas in the city. The number of statues erected in the city was so large that Plutarch once commented that the number of statues in Athens was more in number than people living there. Most of these statues got destroyed in due course of nature and at the hands of miscreants over the years. Still, some of these statues survived and are preserved in the museum. These statues were made of clay or stone or bronze. The beauty of the statues can still be ascertained which testifies the high quality of craftsmanship of Greek sculptors. The sculptures expressed the values they admired in human beings like beauty and courage. They portrayed the well-built, noble, and muscular bodies to portray the beauty of man. Myron, Phidias, and Praxiteles were the best known sculptors of ancient Greece. Myron became famous for his statue of the discus thrower; Phidias became famous for his statue of Goddess Athena in Parthenon and the statue of Hermes holding the infant Dionysus; and Praxiteles became famous for his statue of Homer at Olympia. Even Phidias was appointed by Pericles to supervise the construction of Acropolis in Athens.

5.4 PAINTING

Paintings in Greece were mostly done in vases and such painters were not considered as artists. But the painters did leave behind their creations and one such was Duris. In his painting he portrays the strife between Ajax and Odysseus over Achilles armour. Painting reached new heights in 5th century BC. Along with the statues, the remains of clay vessels, plates, flower vase, etc were also found which shows that these items too were made in ancient Greece. These items had an artistic beauty being painted with a mixture of different colours. The artists used to draw scenes from the story of Iliad and Odyssey, the daily life of the people, athletes, nature, etc in those items for its beautification. Polygnotus of Thrace painted group pictures and he took much pain while painting the individual figures. His “transparent wind-blown

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drapery” style of representation was imitated by many contemporary artists of that time. Another artist was Apolodorus of the 4th century BC who drew on wood blocks and introduced the art of shading. His most popular work is the “Priest in the Act of Devotion”. Paintings during the Hellenistic period were highly embellished. The court painter of Alexander the Great, Apelles of Colophon, founded a school of painting. The focus of the painting was mostly on the different forms and appearances and it was achieved through shading, using line, colour etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- Q. 1. Who introduced shading? ...... Q. 2. Who was Phidias? ...... Q. 3. Who became famous for the statue of the discus thrower? ...... Q. 4. Give the best example of Ionic style structure...... Q. 5. Name the court painter of Alexander the Great......

5.5 ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY- PLATO AND ARISTOTLE

Many schools of philosophy developed in ancient Greece. One of these schools rejected the myths and superstitions about the nature of the physical world and attempted to give a rational explanation of it. Another school of philosophers believed that all matter was composed of atoms and that the differences in arrangement of these atoms resulted in different forms of life. The greatest philosopher of this school was Democritus who denied the existence of a spiritual world or the .

46 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Art and Philosophy Unit 5

Then there were Stoicism and Epicureanism school of philosophy. The Stoic school taught that man should accept his fate, since he cannot change it. Philosopher Zeno was an advocate of Stoicism. According to the Stoics, serenity of mind is the goal all men should strive to attain. They preached indifference to pleasure or pain, good or evil, but believed in the brotherhood of all men. Epicureans believed that the highest good for man is pleasure, but they aimed at tranquility of mind rather than indulgence in pleasures. They believed that the Gods had nothing to do with the affairs of men. They taught people to lead simple, virtuous, and fearless lives in order to be happy.

LET US KNOW

According to the concept of communism of wives and property, the ruling class and philosophers should not either have family or own private property as that was bound to make them selfish.

The great philosophers produced by the Greeks were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. They wanted every Greek citizen to deeply study the philosophy of life. They gave the idea of the philosopher king. The ideals set by them for the philosopher king are even today considered most suitable for the rulers of modern times. Plato and Aristotle also provided the concept of communism of wives and property which are even today accepted as ideals to be achieved. Socrates believed that knowledge leads to right conduct and , while ignorance breeds evil. He wanted to go beyond the known. He wanted to find truth and rationale of everything, instead of taking everything for granted. He devoted his whole life in search of wisdom and in finding the principle of truth and justice. He encouraged the youths of Athens to question everything. He criticized the popular beliefs of the Athenians. After the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War, Socrates was condemned to die on the charge of corrupting the youths and was forced to drink poison.

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The most distinguished student and follower of Socrates was Plato. After the execution of his master, he developed a sort of hatred against the then existing institutions and with those who had held power and authority. He used to put a question and try to give all sorts of possible answers to find out the best one near the truth. In his famous book ‘The Republic’, Plato proposed a society which would be divided into three classes- the lowest class consisting of farmers, artisans, and merchants; the second class of soldiers; and the highest class of intellectuals who would have all the political power. He believed that the state should have maximum control over the life of the people and regulate that. Aristotle was a student of Plato. He was both a philosopher and a scientist and wrote on many subjects. He stated that every argument should be tested on reason before that was accepted. He studied all the known sciences of his time and made important contributions to medicine, biology, and astronomy. He believed in the principle of ‘Golden Mean’ that is, neither extreme luxury nor self-denial. He advocated the same principle in his political philosophy and wanted government to be based at some point between rule by the upper class and democracy. He framed a set of rules for the rulers and the state officers. Along with the philosophers, there were also the Sophists meaning ‘those who are wise’. Sophists were like modern day teachers providing education to youths on various subjects. They also used to discuss and analyse the political and social issues, thereby attempting to bring change in Greece. Sophists believed that there was no absolute truth, but looked at every so called truth in relation to its effect on human beings. They said that ‘man is the measure of all things’. Their contribution to the growth of philosophy was great. In the words of a great Roman thinker, they ‘brought philosophy down from heaven to the dwellings of men’.

5.6 LITERATURE- POETRY, TRAGEDY

The Greeks loved literature and patronized all those having the potential of promoting literary activities. In the field of literature, the gifts

48 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Art and Philosophy Unit 5 from Greece include epics, poetry, drama, and history. The Iliad and the Odyssey composed by Homer are among the best epics of the world. The Iliad is the story of the siege and destruction of the city of Troy on the western coast of Asia Minor. The Odyssey describes the adventures and return home from Troy, of a Greek hero Odysseus. The two epics provided a great deal of information about the life and institutions of the early Greeks. These epics were considered by the Greeks as their common property which even used to help them in binding together by feeling of oneness. The shorter Greek poems were called lyrics because they were sung to the music of the lyre. These were composed to express the emotions of man. Sappho, the great women poet, sang of the beauty of love and nature. Pindar, one of the greatest of the lyric poets, wrote poems to honour victorious athletes.

LET US KNOW

Equal greatness was shown by the Greeks in the staging of drama. Different plays were actually staged as a part of the festivals held in the honour of God Dionysus. The tragic plays were staged during the day time and the comic plays were staged at the evening. For staging of the plays, open air theatres where thousands of people can together watch the plays.

It was in drama- both tragedies and comedies- that the Greek literary achievement was supreme. The founder of Greek tragedy was Aeschylus, author of Prometheus Bound. Sophocles is considered the greatest of the Greek tragedians. He wrote Oedipus Rex, Antigone, and Electra, plays which are admired all over the world even today. Euripides, another great master of tragedy condemned war and sympathized with slaves and common people. One of his best known plays is the Trojan Women. Aristophanes, the master of Greek comedy ridiculed leading citizens in front of fun loving audiences. Greece produced some of the earliest great histories of the world.

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Knowledge of the past was popularised there through myths, legends, and . But its authenticity was questionable. Herodotus raised the status of history for which he is now regarded as the ‘father of history’. He provided an interesting account of the Persian Wars and of his travels to the near east. Then Thucydides gave the world the first scientific history. His most important work was on the Peloponnesian War which was fought between Athens and Sparta. Later on, Plutarch was known for his famous biographies, Lives of Illustrious Men.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- Q. 6. Who was Sapho? ...... Q. 7. Name the founder of Greek tragedy? ...... Q. 8. Name the author of Lives of Illustrious Men...... Q. 9. Who was the advocate of Stoicism? ......

5.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, we have learned that-

 Different types of statues were erected at the temples and at different areas in the city.

 Many schools of philosophy developed in ancient Greece. The three great philosophers were, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

 In the field of literature, epics, poetry, drama, and history development in ancient Greece.

50 History of Ancient Civilizations Greek Art and Philosophy Unit 5

5.8 FURTHER READING

1) Chaudhuri, K. C., (2001). History of Greece, New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.

2) Majumdar, R. K. & Srivastva, A.N., (2006). History of World Civilization, Surjeet Book Depot, New Delhi.

3) Swain, J. E. (1983). A History of World Civilization, The McGraw Hill Book Company Inc., New York.

5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer to Q.No.1: Apolodorus

Answer to Q.No.2: Sculptor

Answer to Q.No.3: Myron

Answer to Q.No.4: Erechtheum

Answer to Q.No.5: Apelles

Answer to Q.No.6: Poet (female)

Answer to Q.No.7: Aeschylus

Answer to Q.No.8: Plutarch

Answer to Q.No.9: Philosopher Zeno

5.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 50 words)

Q 1: Which Greek philosopher was forced to drink poison? Q 2: Name the author of Oedipus Rex. Q 3: Who was Archimedes?

History of Ancient Civilizations 51 Unit 5 Greek Art and Philosophy

(B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 150 words)

Q 1: What kinds of ideas were preached by the Greek philosophers? Q 2: Write a short note on Plato.

(C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in 300-500 words)

Q 1: Explain the developments made in the field of philosophy in ancient Greece? Q 2: Discuss the development of literature in Ancient Greece?

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52 History of Ancient Civilizations Roman Civilization Unit 6

UNIT 6: ROMAN CIVILIZATION

UNIT STRUCTURE 6.1 Learning Objectives 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Origin 6.4 Establishment of the Empire 6.5 Archaic Society and Economy 6.6 Let Us Sum Up 6.7 Further Reading 6.8 Answer the Check your Progress 6.9 Model Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the origin of the Roman Empire,

 discuss the establishment of the Roman Empire and

 discuss the society and economy under the Roman Empire.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the development of art and architecture under the Greek civilization. The Unit also discussed the Greek philosophers who made a significant contribution to the world. Significant among them were Plato, Aristotle. In this unit we will focus on yet another ancient civilization, the Roman Civilization. Considered as one of the important ancient civilizations of the Western world it had its base in the ancient city of Rome in Italy in Southern Europe.

6.3 ORIGIN

According to a , the ancient city of Rome was founded by Romulus in 753 BCE. Romulus was probably not a historical personage. History of Ancient Civilizations 53 Unit 6 Roman Civilization

Historical remains found in a few excavations, however, prove that human habitation started in the Palatine hills, which had the origins of the city of Rome, in the eighth century BCE. Ancient Rome was a city-state. The city-state underwent expansion from the sixth century BCE. A part of the Roman Empire, known as the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire remained powerful and lasted till 1453 CE. It had immense contribution to the areas of art, architecture, literature, religion and trade.

LET US KNOW

In 1453 CE the Ottoman Turks captured the Eastern Roman or the Byzantine Empire, due to which the scholars of Europe fled to Italy, especially to Rome and thus began the famous social and intellectual movement called the Renaissance.

The city of Rome was situated on the river Tiber and at a distance of twenty-five kilometres from the Tyrrhenian Sea (also known as the Etruscan Sea). Easy access from the sea routes to most of the areas of Italy made it a centre of trade and commerce on the one hand and vulnerable to foreign invasions on the other. Continuous foreign attacks made the Italian people experts in war affairs. The city was given natural protection by the surrounding hills and mountains. The Alps Mountains in the north protected Italy to a great extent from foreign invasions through land routes. The plain area of Italy was very fertile for the growth of agricultural activities.

6.4 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE

The Roman Empire attained its height in the early second century CE. During this period, the Empire had its largest expanse. Then it spread to Southern and Western Europe, Middle-East Asia and North Africa. European countries like Spain, Britain, France, Greece, and Sardinia, the Asian regions like Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor and the African

54 History of Ancient Civilizations Roman Civilization Unit 6 countries like Libya and Namibia- were included in the Roman Empire of that time.

Historical writing in the Roman territory began only in the third century BCE. Therefore, proper documentations of early Rome and of early Italy were not made possible. Scholars have reconstructed the history of early Rome and of early Italy on the basis of myths and later histories. There is evidence that Palaeolithic people lived in Italy nearly 200,000 years ago. The tribes that inhabited Italy during 1200-900 BCE were, however, migrants. These tribes migrated probably from Switzerland, a country situated in the north of Italy. They settled in Northern and Central Italy and reared cattle and cultivated crops. The earliest inhabitants of the city of Rome comprised mostly Latin people. They spoke Latin, which is a language of the Indo-European language-family. These tribes were joined by several migrated groups of people in the pre-Roman period (i.e., in the period prior to the establishment of Rome). The most important of these groups were the Etruscans and the

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Greeks who migrated to Italy probably from Asia Minor and settled on the bank of the Po. They had advanced knowledge of warfare. They gave the Latins, armaments when the latter had to fight with the Sabines, another tribe of the pre-Roman times. In course of time, trade and commerce developed between the Latins and the Etruscans. This resulted in the birth of the city of Rome, named after its founder Romulus. The Etruscans established twelve city-states in Italy. Rome was one of them. The Etruscans had developed a script of their own which is yet to be deciphered. The Etruscans used metals like copper and iron. The famous Gladiatorial Combat was introduced in the Roman kingdom by the Etruscans.

LET US KNOW

The Gladiatorial Combat was a popular entertaining sport, in which one or two or more armed combatant(s) fought with similar combatant(s) or criminal(s) or animal(s) during the hey-days of the Roman Civilization.

The Greeks migrated to Italy through the Mediterranean Sea and established city-states like Tarentum, Syracuse and Naples in Italy.The Greeks had a script of their own. Roman script is a development from a form of the Greek script. Several tribes migrated to Italy even after the establishment of the Roman kingdom in 753 BCE (along with the establishment of the city of Rome). The Gauls, a Celtic-Aryan tribe of Western Europe, invaded the Roman Republic and defeated the Roman people in battle in 390 BCE. However, finally the Roman people could send the Gauls back. A small number of Gaul people, however, did not return. They established themselves in northern Italy. In the third and second centuries BCE, the Roman Republic had wars with the Carthaginians (The Punic Wars) which helped the Romans to begin overseas conquests.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions: Q 1: Who were the earliest inhabitants of the city of Rome? ...... Q 2: Who were the Gauls? ...... Q 3: The city of Rome was situated on the bank of which river? ......

6.5 ARCHAIC SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

 Society The conflict between the aristocratic class (the Patricians) and the general citizens (the Plebeians) was the most significant among the internal problems of the Roman Republic. The wealthy people having ownership of vast pieces of land were the members of Council. The high posts of the government like the Magistrates were under the control of the aristocratic class. The general people or the Plebeians were left to cultivation, craftsmanship and small trade. They were forced to pay heavy taxes. Moreover, they were forced to join the army. As a result, the general people were dissatisfied with the oligarchic rule (rule of a few powerful men) in the Republic, a rule which deprived them from their rights and privileges. The general people started the struggle to gain equal right as that of the aristocratic class in the social, political and religious matters. The Roman society was divided into four classes and this class division was very important to the Romans. The four classes were Patricians, Equestrians, Plebeians and the Slaves. Again, the family was the lowest unit of the society. The father was the head of the family. According to the ancient Roman law, the father had complete control over his wife and children. The adult sons were also under the control of the father. But later on the laws governing the family life were greatly relaxed. Among the four classes, the Patricians were the highest class of the

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Roman society. They were the nobles of Rome and were very rich. They were the real masters of the state and all the real power of the Empire was enjoyed by this class. Economically, politically and socially these Patricians were the dominant group in the Roman society. They enjoyed a very high status in the society. Apart from that they also had extensive control over the Roman religion. The Patricians used to monopolize the Senate, which was the main organ of the Roman Republic. Only Patrician males could be members of the Senate and therefore all the laws were passed by the Senate in favour of the Patrician class. Thus, in a single word it can be said that the Roman Republic was ruled by a group of hereditary Patrician aristocrats. The second highest class in the Roman society was the Equestrians. They were sometimes called as the ‘Knights’. Originally they were the people who worked in the Roman Army and had their own horses (equus). To become an equestrian one had to be very rich. Later on they became a ‘middle class’ between the senators and the rest of the Roman citizen. The next class in the Roman society was the Plebeians. They were free common people and were poor and could not hold any state office. In the Roman society there was the law of debt by which any family could be enslaved for the non-payment of debts. It is very important that as the economic condition of the Plebeians was not very good, therefore they were always in debt under the Patricians. As a result of this the latter could enslave the former at any time. Later on the Plebeians put forward some demands in front of the Patricians. Though the latter was not in a mood to grant any concessions to the Plebeians in the beginning, but later on were compelled to grant some concessions to them. Therefore the then existing Roman laws were modified and new laws were codified in 12 bronze tablets and were placed at all important market places of Rome. These are known as the ‘Laws of Twelve Tablets’ and these can be considered the Magna Carta of the Plebeians, because they got some valuable concessions through these laws. Through these laws they also got a share in the running of the state administration.

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The lowest class of the Roman society was the slaves. They had no right at all and were owned by the other rich classes of the society.  Economy The Roman economy was based primarily on agriculture. The Roman society was originated as a society of small farmers. The farmers used to cultivate grains, vines, olives etc. and these had great demands in Rome. The Roman wealthy class used to maintain huge estates which were run and cultivated by the large number of slaves. In addition to these the Romans also used to tame animals like sheep, goat and cattle etc. The Romans adopted different types of occupations for their livelihood. Among them traders, fishermen, salt merchants, olive oil traders, goldsmiths, stonecutters, carpenters, cobblers, leather workers, bronze workers etc deserve special mention. Craft association existed in ancient Rome. “Collegia” was made up of men working at the same trade. It was organized at around 200 BC. In ancient Rome, Poll tax and land tax were the primary source of direct revenue of the state. Usually land revenue was collected on the basis of the productive capacity of the land. Customs duty on the import and export of commodities among various provinces of the Roman Empire formed a major source of the indirect revenue of the state. Special taxes were levied on the slave trade. The taxes were collected both in cash and in kind. A vital part of the Roman economy was the Roman trade. The Roman citizens greatly depended upon the large volume of trade throughout the Roman Empire. In Rome, huge amount of grains were imported to feed the vast number of citizens and soldiers who lived throughout the Empire. Grains were imported from Egypt, Sicily, Tunisia and other areas around the Mediterranean Sea. Although food items dominated the Roman trade, yet there was a vast importation of other luxury goods to Rome from all parts of Europe, Africa and Asia. The Romans traded with Britain for silver with which they used to make jewellery and coins. Wool was also imported from Britain for making

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clothes. From the south-eastern parts of their Empire, the Romans imported dyes to colure their clothes. Spices were also imported from these areas to add flavor to the Roman foods. From the Far East, especially China, the Romans used to import silk to make fine clothes. For the same purpose, the Romans imported cotton from Egypt. Exotic wild animals for gladiator fights, Ostrich products and ivory came from Africa to Rome by the sea route. Cotton and spices were also imported from India to Rome. Slaves were imported from Germany. The Roman Empire had many trade routes and trade was basically carried on by the land and the sea routes. The Roman sea routes basically covered the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. These sea routes were used for both Roman trade and army mobility. Ostia was the most important port and the nearest major one to Rome. It was situated at the mouth of the river Tiber and was only fifteen miles from Rome. Many trading ships travelled between Ostia and Carthage, thereby facilitating the Roman trade. Ships also arrived from Spain and France at Ostia. To make the sea journey safe, the Roman navy protected the Mediterranean Sea from the pirates. Lighthouses were also built for the same purpose. Importing goods by land routes was slow and expensive. Trade through land was only possible if goods were transported to a short distance or if the cargo was small, expensive and luxury ones. As waterway provided cheap and easy access to all ports of the Mediterranean, most of the heavy goods and larger goods were shipped by water. The Roman trade system was a simple one. There was a single currency in Rome which facilitated the expansion of the Roman trade. It used Latin as the lingua-franca in trade affairs within its territory. Many traders used the barter system for trading purposes, while some others used the silver coins minted by the Roman Emperors. As the Roman trade network was very vast the Roman silver coins were found even in far distant countries of the world. By importing various luxury commodities from various parts of the world, the wealthy class of the Roman society lived a very luxurious life. The large scale of commercial activities strengthened the economic

60 History of Ancient Civilizations Roman Civilization Unit 6 condition of Rome and facilitated the further expansion of the Roman Empire. Roman economy depended largely on trade. After the Punic Wars, the economic equality of the Roman citizens was lost. Rome became home for traders. The nearby port of Ostia at the mouth of the river Tiber became the most important port with connections to overseas colonies. Innumerable land-routes through nicely constructed roads connected Rome to and from foreign countries. Rome had almost one million population at the height of the Roman Empire. Bringing food and other essential things for them from the foreign countries needed extra care, though Rome practically gave nothing to the Empire. Spain, France, the Middle East and North Africa were the major trade partners of the Roman Empire. Roman traders imported raw-materials mainly from the countries on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Marble and papyrus were imported from Egypt, glass from Palestine, iron from Spain. Again, lead, wool and tin were imported from Britain. Rome exported gold, silver, wine, olive oil, pottery, fermented fish sauce and many other things to several countries. The Romans traded in India, though not exhaustively. Alexander came to India crossing the river Indus, but the Roman traders came to India probably through the Asia Minor and the Middle East or through the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. They traded in the coastal areas of Southern India, especially under those places which were ruled by the South Indian dynasties of the Pandyans, the Cholas and the Cheras. Silver coins of Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE) and Tiberius (14-37 CE) have been found in a such places. There are references to Indo-Roman trade relations in the writings of Pliny and Periplus. The items imported by the Romans from India included spice, silk, ivory, pepper, pearls and other valuable things. On the contrary, the Indians imported mainly gold from the Roman Empire. Lots of Roman gold coins were discovered in India.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following : Q 4: Who were the members of the highest class in the Roman society? ...... Q 5: The ‘Laws of Twelve Tablets’ can be considered the Magna Carta of the Plebeians. Why? ...... Q 6: What item did India import from Rome? ......

6.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt -

 The origin of the Roman civilization and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

 The society under the Roman Empire and the various divisions within the social structure .

 The economic structure and the trade and commercial activities under the Roman regime.

6.7 FURTHER READING

1. Laistner, M.L.W. (1929). A Survey of Ancient History to the Death of Constantine. Boston. 2. Allcroft, A.H. & Masom, W.F. (1958). The Tutorial History of Rome (to A.D. 69). University Tutorial Press. London.

3. Swain, J. E. (1983). A History of World Civilization. The McGraw Hill Book Company Inc. New York.

62 History of Ancient Civilizations Roman Civilization Unit 6

6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Latin people.

Ans to Q No 2: Celtic Aryan tribe.

Ans to Q No 3: Tiber.

Ans to Q No 4: Patricians.

Ans to Q No. 5: The Plebeians got concessions and a share in the state administration through these laws.

Ans to Q No 6: Gold.

6.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)-

Q 1: Who founded Rome and when? Q 2: Name the primary source of direct revenue of the state?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)-

Q 1: What was the condition of the slaves in the Roman Republic? Q 2: What were the reasons behind the decline of the Roman Empire?

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)-

Q 1: Write a note on the Archaic scoiety in the Roman civilization. Q 2: Discuss the establishment of the Roman Empire.

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History of Ancient Civilizations 63 Unit 7 Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire

UNIT 7: TRANSITIONAL PHASE: FROM THE REPUBLIC TO AN EMPIRE

UNIT STRUCTURE 7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction

7.3 Rise of the Republic- Political Structure

7.4 Women and the Republic

7.5 Society, Art, Religion and Literature under the Republic

7.6 Sports and Culture during the Republic

7.7 Let Us Sum Up

7.8 Further Reading

7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.10 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to-

• explain the phase of political transition in Rome,

• explain the Republican structure of the Roman Government and its various political organs

• describe the status of women in the Roman society

• describe the development of art and literature during this period

• discuss the scenario of sports, religion and culture during the transition of phase in Rome

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the origin of the Roman Empire and the socio-economic structure. In this Unit, we will discuss the transition of Rome from Republic to

64 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7

Empire. The Romans had the Monarchical system of government from 753 BCE to 509 BCE and the Republican system of government from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. The Roman Empire was established in 27 BCE and it lasted till 476 CE. The Republican form of government was introduced in Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 BCE. The Roman Republic was, however, not yet a nation but a network of towns and provinces. The Republic lasted from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. It was overthrown by the establishment of the Roman Empire by Octavian Caesar (who was given the name Augustus by the Council) in 27 BCE.

7.3 RISE OF THE REPUBLIC- POLITICAL STRUCTURE

The Roman Republic expanded due to the continuous wars with foreign countries, which constituted the major problems in the foreign affairs of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic accepted the policy of expansion by establishing colonies in the neighbouring countries to handle the problem of food scarcity owing to the increase of population. It established fifteen colonies from 500 BCE to 400 BCE. The Roman Republic of this time became powerful enough even to establish their control in the Greek city states like Torentum. The period witnessed the Republic expanding its territory to the Adriatic Sea. The Roman colonies were under the Roman and Latin Law. They were under constant observation of the Roman troops. Rather, they gave them Roman citizenship. Therefore, the colonized states remained satisfied. The Romans annexed Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city state on the African coast of the Western Mediterranean, but only after a long series of three big wars. These are collectively called the Punic Wars (264-146 BCE). These wars allowed the Roman Republic to have complete control over the Southern and Western Mediterranean.

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LET US KNOW

The word “Punic” has its origin in the Latin word “Punicus” (or “Poenicus”), which means “Carthaginian” by referring to the origin of the Carthaginians in the Phoenician Civilization centred around modern Lebanon in Western Asia.

The defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars compelled the Carthaginian province of Spain to become a Roman province and pay tribute for fifty years to the Roman Republic. During the times of the Punic wars, the Roman Republic engaged itself in wars also with some other kingdoms. Macedon and Syria were significant among them. The Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon in a battle fought in 197 BCE. Sparta and Athens were allies of the Romans in this battle. After that the Romans defeated Antiochus, the king of Syria, in 190 BCE. The latter half of the first century BCE was a turbulent period in Roman history. After a number of wars worsened the political, social and economic condition of the Roman Republic, Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed the Dictator of the Roman Republic in 46 BCE. He was initially appointed for ten years but later he was made the lifelong Dictator of the Roman Republic. He introduced several reforms, such as land and administrative reforms. He also took measures for control of population. He introduced the Julian Calendar on January 01, 45 BCE. This calendar is almost identical to the Western calendar presently in vogue. Caesar’s growing power scared a few Senators of the Roman Republic. Instigated by Gaius Cassius Longinus and led by Caesar’s close associate Marcus Junius Brutus, they assassinated him in 44 BCE. Caesar’s death was followed by a three-man dictatorship, known as the “Second Triumvirate”, from 44-33 BCE. Caesar’s close associates Marcus Antony and Marcus Lepidus and Caesar’s grandnephew-turned-adopted son Octavian Caesar were the Triumvirs. Jealousy between the Triumvirs led to a civil war in 27 BCE, with

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Octavian ending the Roman Republic and declaring Rome as an Empire while proclaiming to be the Emperor with the name of Augustus.  Political Structure under The Republic- After the establishment of the Republic in Rome, in practice the Government was run and monopolized by the Senate. It became the main organ of the Roman Republic. The Senate was the most powerful institution of the Roman Republic. Only the Patrician aristocrats could be members of the Senate. Usually the male above the age of 28 years from the aristocratic Patrician class were nominated to the Senate. The Senate was a permanent body and its members were selected for life. The Senate enjoyed a variety of powers which were not formally defined. It advised in the matters of administration and assigned military commands to the generals. It also appointed the Chief Judicial officers of the Roman Republic called Praetors. The Senate also controlled public finance and conducted the foreign affairs of Rome. They could rule the state after the death of the ruler. They became owners of a vast area of land, leaders in foreign policy, and controllers of finance, state expenditure and state treasury. The Council or the Senate, formed by the heads of the families (which might be only the Roman families) in Rome, advised the king in the administration. But the king had the power to disobey the Council. Gradually the power of the Council increased. The Assembly was another important institution of the Roman Republic. The Assembly, the third component of the government, included every youth capable to join the army. It was compulsory for these youths to join the army. Consent of the members of the Assembly was essential in the selection of an heir to the throne. Both Patricians and Plebeians could become members of the Assembly. But in reality the Patricians dominated the Assembly for all practical purposes. Comitia Curiata was the first type of Assembly which functioned during the time of kingship but under the Republic this Roman Assembly more or less ceased to function. After that came the Roman Assembly called Comitia Centuriata which was probably found around 450 BC. Throughout the whole

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Roman Republican period this was the main Assembly of all Roman citizens and the Patricians and Plebeians were members of this Assembly. In this Assembly citizens were grouped into ‘centuries’ which was the smallest unit of the Roman army. In general, each ‘century’ consisted of one hundred men. The right of declaring war and making peace was the supreme privileges of this Assembly. Though all the citizens of Rome were members of this Assembly, yet, in reality, the procedure and functioning of this Assembly were strictly regulated by the Patricians. There was another Roman Assembly called Concilium Plebis, which consisted of Plebeians only. This Assembly discussed the issues which were concerned around the Plebeians. The Roman Republic had kings or monarchs, but their power was very limited. The administration of the Roman Republic was headed by two Consuls, who were elected annually by the Assembly with the consent of the Council. The king might or might not be elected as a Consul. Junius Brutus and Valerius Poplicola were the first Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Consuls were the chief administrative officers in the Roman Republic. They were elected for a period of one year only, but were eligible for re-election without any restrictions. For the smooth running of the administration the Consuls could seek the advice of the Senate. They presided over the Senate and performed executive, judicial and military functions. Apart from the above mentioned organs and officials, the Roman Republic had several other elected magistrates who used to look after the various aspects of the administration. There were two elected magistrates called Censors, who were very powerful and were elected once in every five years. In the beginning only Patricians (mainly former Consuls) could be Censors. But later on Plebeians were also eligible for the Censorship. The Censors had to carry out the census of Rome which was confined to the Roman citizens only. The Censors recorded the names of the citizens and the amount of property possessed by each citizen. Depending upon the value of the property held by a person, the Censors determined the eligibility of a Roman citizen to appoint various elective officers of the Roman state. The Censors also used to control the public morality and they had

68 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 the full right to take strict action against any citizen who violated the norms of public morality. Leasing out public lands, granting state contracts were some additional functions of the Censors. The post of Praetor was created in 367BC. The Praetors were the judicial officers and they had the right to pursue the civil cases of the Roman Republic. Initially there were two Praetors, one was called Praetor Urbenus and the other was called Praetor Perigrinus. Later on with the expansion of the Roma, these Praetors were asked to look after the administration of the province. In addition to this, there were numerous other elected junior magistrates in the Roman Republic. Among them Aediles and Quaestors deserved special mention. The Quaestors were in-charge of the revenue department.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions: Q 1: When was Caesar assasinated? ...... Q 2: Who was Marcus Lepidus? ...... Q 3: Who were the Praetors? ...... Q 4: Name the Assembly which functioned during the time of kingship? ......

7.4 WOMEN AND THE REPUBLIC

The chastity and modesty of woman were much valued under the Republic. The men enjoyed unquestioned authority. However the women were considered as citizens of the state. The women of ancient Rome as like those in ancient Greece did not enjoy any legal freedom. Women in Rome had important role to play in the religious rituals

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and celebrations. Women from all social standings took part in these festivities. The visibility of women in religious rituals was very high. Even though a female was worshipped by the male priests, the public appearances of women were not restricted. Dowries were part of the social practice and on the annulment of the marriage it was restored back to the bride’s family. A wife who came without any dowry was assumed to have a status of a concubine than someone who came with large amount of dowry. Women and young girls were taken as slaves and they had to face much hardship due to the physical and sexual abuse. However they did have a chance for freedom but they were obliged to their former owners financially and socially. Women’s lives were as fragile as the males due to the political upheaval that ancient Rome witnessed.

7.5 SOCIETY, ART, RELIGION AND LITERATURE

 Society: The expansion of the Roman Republic changed the Roman society and economy to a great extent. The colonies brought much wealth to the Republic. Sudden increase in wealth brought social differences among the Romans. Lives of the Consuls and the members of the Council became luxurious, while the condition of the common people became deplorable. The expansion of the Roman Republic introduced the system of slavery there. Slaves were brought to Rome from the defeated countries. The condition of the slaves in the Roman Republic was deplorable. They revolted thrice against the Roman Republic in protest against their exploitation by their owners. These are known as the Servile Wars. The first two were fought in Sicily, while the third took place in mainland Italy. The Third Servile War is also known as the “Gladiator War” or the “War of Spartacus”. The Romans suppressed the slaves with an iron hand. Under the Republic, the landed aristocracy assumed much power. Wealth became the prime factor for social recognition. The rich lived in

70 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 luxury and kept themselves away from any responsibilities related to the public. Extravagant games were held for their amusement. The poor were deprived from all sides- with no proper shelter or employment, no police protection and enough food, they lived in utter misery. The charity measures taken up by the Government couldn’t mitigate the problems of the poor.

 Art

The Roman art was influenced by the Greeks and despite this fact it cannot be denied that the Roman art had its own distinct originality. The Romans did not emphasise much on ornamentation except as a touch up towards the end. Religion also influenced the art forms in ancient Rome example- the Basilica, St. Peter’s Church. The originality of the Roman art can be found in the sculptures and the bas- reliefs. The “Unknown Roman” of the Republic era is the best specimen of Roman sculpture. In case of paintings, most of the paintings are lost. Pliny mentions it as a dying art. We will discuss more about art in the next Unit.

 Religion

In early time, family deities and spirits were part of ancient Roman religion and there was no external influence. With the development of city states, worshipping of images of gods, building temples became the normal routine. Obeisance to State gods was a formal civic affair and many new gods were introduced during this period like Minerva, Diana etc. Many other forms of religious practices also developed like-, etc.

LET US KNOW

Gnosticism- This religious practice was a mix of religious, astrological and philosophical concepts. The basic belief of Gnosticism was- Knowledge is the only way through which salvation can be gained

We will discuss in details about Religion in the next Unit.

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 Literature

The Roman literature was written in the Latin language. The development of literature began in the late third century BCE, when Livius Andronicus, a former Greek slave in Sicily and then a war-prisoner in Rome, did an adaptation of a Greek play in Latin and then translated Homer’s epic Odyssey from Greek into Latin. The first phase of the literature (230-80 BCE), also known as the period of early and old Latin literature, included the first poem on a Roman theme by Gnaeus Naevius, the first chronological and epical account of the Roman by Quintus Ennius, the first scientific histories by Polybius, comedies by Plautus and Terrence, the first Roman satires by Gaius Lucilius and political prose pieces by Cato the Elder. The second phase of the literature (80 BCE-180 CE) was also known as the period of Classical Latin Literature. It had two parts, viz., the Golden Age (80 BCE-17 CE) and the Silver Age (17-180 CE). The Golden Age existed between the first speech by Cicero and Ovid’s death and included poetry by Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil, Horace and Ovid, prose by Julius Caesar, Cicero, Varro and Vitruvius, and histories by Plutarch, Nepos, Sallust and Titus Livius or Livy. One of the famous writers of ancient Rome was Horace. His writings were classified into 4 parts- Satires (comedy), Epodes (poem-songs), Epistles (letters) and Odes (long poems). Among all these, he was specially known for his Odes. Love, friendship, village life, patriotism, peace etc amongst others were the main subject matter of his Odes. These Odes had greatly influenced the 18th, 19th century British poets. The shining of ancient Roman literature was Publius Vergilius Maro, who was popularly known as Virgil. Virgil’s Aeneid became the national epic of the Roman Empire. The Silver Age in the second phase of the literature started after Ovid’s death and ended with the death of the philosopher-Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It had less brilliance than the Golden Age. It included poetry by Lucanus, Martialis and Statius, prose by Petronius, Pliny the Elder, Quintilian, Pliny

72 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 the Younger, Platonicus and Marcus Aurelius, revenge tragedies by Seneca, satires by Persius and Juvenal and historical writings by Tacitus and Suetonius. The third and final phase of the literature (180-476 CE) was also known as the period of Late Latin literature. It was a decadent phase. It is marked by the rise of Christian Latin literature. It includes poetry by the last major Roman Classical poet Claudian, Ausonius, Prudentius and Paulinus of Nola (Last two were Christian poets) and prose by Symmachus and St. Augustine (Both were Christian writers). Roman literature was sometimes directly linked with the socio-political situations in the territory. The best example in this context is the Law of the Twelve Tables, which was written in the context of the Patrician-Plebeian conflict and had aspects like minimization of power of the Patricians and prohibition on selling land to foreigners. As the Roman territory expanded for a long time, many literatures of different places got added to the body of the literature of the Roman civilization. Most of these literatures were written in languages other than Latin, but they failed to constitute a significant body.

7.6 SPORTS AND CULTURE DURING THE REPUBLIC

Annual games were held very early in the ancient Roman history however there was no specific time period. With the passing of time, new games were added and days were extended and by the end of the Republic, it was recorded that 76 days a year were spent on holding the Games and a huge sum of state resources were also used for organising the Games. The Games held in ancient Rome were a mostly a spectacular treat for the eyes. Chariot racing, gladiatorial combats, mock sea battles, display of wild beasts became a rage among the spectators. We will be discussing the sports culture in details in the next chapter.

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After transitioning back to an Empire, Rome had to go through rough phases. The fall of the Roman Empire took place officially in 476 CE, when the Germanic King Odoacer overthrew Romulus Augustulus as the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire, the stronger part of the Roman Empire, continued to exist as the Byzantine Empire till 1453. It, however, did not have the spirit of the Roman Empire. Vastness of the empire, weakening of solidarity and economy of the Empire due to the bipartite division of the Empire, increase in corruption, high taxes, political instability caused by civil uprisings, and barbaric invasions by the Vandals, the Goths, and the Huns may be cited as a few of the reasons behind the decline of the Roman Empire

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- 5. Where did the Third Serville War take place? ...... 6. State the best example of Roman sculpture...... 7. Name the author or Aeneid...... 8. When did the Roman Empire fall? ......

7.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

 Lucius Junius Brutus introduced Republic in Rome in 509 BCE. However the Republic couldn’t last long and it was declared an Empire under a dictator.

 Under the Republic, the king had limited powers. The Senate became the most powerful institution. Besides the Senate, there were the Consuls, the Assembly etc.

74 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7

 The societal traditions and laws did not allow women much freedom even though they were visible in the public spaces.

 Despite the influence of Hellenistic world, the Roman art flourished.

 Religion played an important role and its influence was felt in the Annual Games.

7.8 FURTHER READINGS

1) Allcroft, A.H. & Masom, W.F. (1958). The Tutorial History of Rome (to A.D. 69). University Tutorial Press: London

2) Weiand, Helen E. (1917). The Position of Women in the Late Roman Republic: Part I. The Classical Journal. 12 (6). pp. 378-392

3) Poynton, J. B. (1938). The Public Games of the Romans. Greece & Rome. 7 (20). pp. 76-85

4) Culham, Phyllis. (2014). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Republic (2nd edition). Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/ core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-roman-republic/women- in-the-roman-republic/ED42DDD4C5B9428A7019760DB6324658/ core-reader

7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No.1: 44 BCE Ans to Q. No.2: Caesar's close associate Ans to Q. No.3: Judicial Officers under the Roman Republic Ans to Q. No.4: Comitia Curiata Ans to Q. No.5: Italy Ans to Q. No.6: The “Unknown Roman” sculpture Ans to Q. No.7: Virgil Ans to Q. No.8: 476 CE

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7.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)-

Q 1: How many Serville Wars were fought? Q 2: What was the function of Comitia Centuriata?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)-

Q 1: Define Gnosticism. Q 2: Write a short note on- • Status of women in ancient Rome • Ancient Roman society

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)-

Q 1: Discuss the state of art and literature during the Roman Republic. Q 2: Describe the political structure under the Republic.

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REFERENCE

 Adler, Philip J. & Pouwells, Randall L. (2006) World Civilizations, 4th edition, , Thomson Wadsworth, USA.  Allcroft, A.H. & Masom, W.F. (1958). The Tutorial History of Rome (to A.D. 69), University Tutorial Press, London.  Chaudhuri, K. C., (2001), History of Greece, New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.  Gadalla, Moustafa (2007). The Ancient Egyptian Culture Revealed, Tehuti Research Foundation, USA.  Hundley, Michael B. (2013). Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East, The Society of Biblical Literature, USA.  Jacques, Gernet. (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization, (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press, U.K.  Laistner, M.L.W. (1929). A Survey of Ancient History to the Death of Constantine, 1929, Boston.  Llyod, Alan B (2010). A Companion to ancient Egypt: Volume 1, Wiley Blackwell Publication, UK.  Majumdar, R. K. & Srivastva, A.N., (2006). History of World Civilization, Surjeet Book Depot, New Delhi.  Patricia Buckley, Ebrey (edited) (1993). Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, (2nd ed.), the Free Press, New York.  Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundation, Cornell University Press, UK.  Jha, D.N. (1977). Ancient India- An Introductory Outline. Peoples Publisihing House. New Delhi: India  Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced History of India. Macmillan India Ltd. New Delhi India  Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India. University of Calcutta. Calcutta: India

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 Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Motilala Banrsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi: India  Sharma, H.C. and Singh, Dharam (2008). World Civilizations: A Brief Study, Alfa Publications, New Delhi.  Swain, James Edgar (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York.  Thompson, Jason (2008). A History of Egypt: From Early times to the Present, American University Press, NY.  Woods, Michael and Woods, Mary B (2011). Ancient Construction Technology: From Pyramids to Fortresses, Lerner Publishing Group Inc., USA. Image Courtesy:  Swain, James Edgar (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York.  Woods, Michael and Woods, Mary B (2011). Ancient Construction Technology: From Pyramids to Fortresses, Lerner Publishing Group Inc., USA.

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