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Assessing the Ecological Processes in Abandoned Tea Plantations and Its Implication for Ecological Restoration in the Western Ghats, India

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Assessing the Ecological Processes in Abandoned Tea Plantations and Its Implication for Ecological Restoration in the Western Ghats, India Assessing the ecological processes in abandoned tea plantations and its implication for Ecological Restoration in the Western Ghats, India Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Thesis Submitted By Chetana, H.C Reg No: 080900012 Thesis Submitted to Manipal University Manipal, 576104 Research carried out at The Academy for Conservation Science and Sustainability Studies Bengaluru 2012 Table of contents Chapter Title Page No. Acknowledgements i Executive summary iv 1 Plantation abandonment: Implications for ecological restoration 1 Seed bank composition and frugivore assemblage in abandoned 2 26 tea plantations Floristic composition and regeneration of native species in 3 65 abandoned tea plantations Social perceptions and Ecological interventions in native species 4 107 restoration 5 Synthesis 141 Appendices Published papers List of Tables Sl. No. Table No. Page No. 2.1 Species richness, density, diversity, and evenness of seeds recorded in LSB and SSB in the abandoned plantations of CHM and NTK at 38 different distances from the forests. 2.2 Comparisons of differences in cumulative species richness between various distance intervals at 95% confidence level using ‘ rich’ (R 41 package). The values indicate differences in species. * p < 0 05, ** p < 0 001, ns – not significant. 2.3 Mean species richness and seed density ( x ̄ ± se) across different dispersal modes encountered in the litter (m -2) in forests and 42 plantations. (Pa #: from soil seed bank in cm -3). 2.4 Mean species richness and seed density (x ̄ ± se) across different life-forms encountered in the litter (m -2) of forests and plantations. 45 (herbs #: from soil seed bank in cm -3). 2.5 Mean species richness and seed density (x ̄ ± se) across different seed size encountered in the litter (m -2) of forests and plantations. 48 (Micro #: from soil seed bank in cm -3). 2.6 Species richness, abundance, diversity, and evenness of birds in 50 forests and plantations at CHM and NTK. 2.7 Species richness (m -2) and seed density (m -2) within managed and 59 abandoned tea plantation and adjacent forests. 3.1 Standard procedures and instruments used for soil analysis. 69 3.2 Mean species richness, stem density, diversity and evenness of 74 vegetation in the plantations and forests at CHM and NTK. 3.3 Mean species richness, stem density, diversity and evenness of woody plants and seedlings in plantations at various distances from the forest. 76 Sl. No. Table No. Page No. 3.4 Comparisons of differences in cumulative species richness between various distance intervals at 95% confidence level using ‘ rich’ (R package). The values indicate differences in species, * p <0 05, ** p < 0 001, ns – not significance, FI – forest interior, FE – forest 76 edge, T25 = 25 m inside the plantation from the forest, T60 = 60 m inside plantation from the forest and T95 = 95 m inside plantation from the forest. 3.5 Physical parameters measured in the plantations and forests during six seasonal samples. ( t-Test: two-sampled, assuming unequal 84 variances); p* <0.05; ** p <0.0001. 3.6 Chemical parameters of soil at CHM and NTK and its surrounding forests ( t-Test: Two-sampled assuming unequal variances; ( * p < 85 0.05, ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001). 3.7 The best three multiple linear regression models for species richness and stem-density of woody plants at CHM and NTK, based on AICc and model weightages. The models indicated in 87 bold letters are the best models. K = Potassium, P= Phosphorous, N = Nitrogen. 3.8 The best three multiple linear regression models for species richness and stem-density of woody seedlings at CHM and NTK, 87 based on AICc and model weightages. The models indicated in bold letters are the best models. K = Potassium, P= Phosphorous. 3.9 Comparison of species richness and density across litter seed bank, 95 woody seedlings and woody plants in tea plantations and forests. 4.1 Summary of stakeholders’ responses to survey questions. 115 4.2 Logistic regression analysis with dependent variable ‘willingness to move out’ ( Yes ‘1’ and No ‘0’) and other independent variables. 122 Bold variables are significant predictors. 4.3 Native species selection based on the successional groups and microsite suitability for ecological restoration. (Note – Ranks are based on higher density within the 17-year old abandoned tea plantations; Successional groups – fast growing, medium-growing, 128 slow-growing; heliophilic nature (i.e., Light tolerance level) open- shade, medium-shade, dark-shade). Bold species are the top 3 in each plantation. List of Figures Sl. No. Figure No. Page No. 1.1 Map of the Agasthyamalai region. Dark shaded areas represent tea 15 plantations within and outside the protected areas. 2.1 Map showing the abandoned tea plantations (shaded areas) Chinnamanjolai and Netterikal where ecological studies were done 29 within the KMTR. 2.2 Schematic diagram of sampling design showing plantations (dotted ) and surrounding forests ( hatched ) (a); plots (10 × 10-m) 30 along linear transect at fixed distance intervals (b); and 1 × 1-m subplot at each corner of the plot (c). 2.3 Dendrogram of the two plantations sampled, using LSB – litter seed bank in Forest (F) and Tea (T). Cluster distances were calculated with the Bray–Curtis similarity index (grouped average 39 link) for the species and density, CHM = Chinnamanjolai, NTK = Netterikal. 2.4 Mean species richness and seed density (± se) at varying distances from the forest. FI = forest interior, FE = Forest–tea-edge, T25 = 40 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. 2.5 Estimated species richness by Coleman’s individual-based rarefaction for CHM = Chinnamanjolai and NTK = Netterikal. F = 41 forest (mean of FI and FE), T25 = 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. 2.6 Mean species richness (a) and seed density (x̄ ± se) (b); in different dispersal modes at various distances, from forests to plantations at CHM and NTK. Dispersal modes data is from LSB and only Pa 44 from SSB. FI: forest interior, FE: Forest–tea-edge; T25 = 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. 2.7 Mean species richness (a) and seed density (b); in different life - forms at various distances (x ̄ ± se), from forests to plantations at CHM and NTK. Life-form data is from LSB and herb # from SSB. 47 FI: forest interior, FE: Forest–tea-edge; T25 = 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. Sl. No Figure No. Page No. 2.8 Mean species richness (a), and seed density (b) in different seed size classes (length) across various distances from forests to plantations (x ̄ ± se) at CHM and NTK. Micro # = ≤ 0.1 cm (from 49 SSB) ; S = small (> 0.1 to 0.5 cm); M = Medium (>0.5 to 1.5 cm) and L = large (>1.5 cm). 2.9 Cumulative species richness and mean abundance across (±se) CHM, NTK and surrounding forests: C = Canopy; M = Midstorey 51 and U = Understorey. 2.10 Relative abundance of avian frugivores in the forests and tea plantations at CHM and NTK. Red whiskered bulbul (RBUL) ; Black bulbul (BBUL) ; Yellow browed bulbul (YBUL); Indian Scimitar babbler (ISCH); Mountain imperial pigeon (MIMP); Oriental white eye (OWTE); Kerala Laughing thrush (KLTH); 52 Eurasian blackbird (EBLA); White-cheeked barbet (WBAR); Nilgiri flycatcher (NFLY); Rosefinch (RFIN); Wynaad laughing thrush (WLTH); Red-vented bulbul (RVBU) and Fairy-bluebird (FBLU). 2.11 Dendrogram of the frugivore composition in the two plantations. Cluster distances were calculated with the Bray–Curtis similarity index (grouped average link) for the species and seed density. 53 CHM = Chinnamanjolai, NTK = Netterikal, F = Forest and T = Tea. 2.12 Camera capture rate (hr –1) of frugivorous non-volant taxa across 54 CHM and NTK plantations. 3.1 Dendrogram of woody plants and seedlings at NTK and CHM. Cluster distances were calculated using the Bray–Curtis similarity index (grouped average link) for the species composition. Woody 77 plants (DBH > 1 cm) and Woody seedlings (girth ≤ 1 cm); F – forest; T – Tea plantation. 3.2 Dendrogram of woody plants and seedlings in Chinnamanjolai (a) and Netterikal(b) at different distances from the forest. Cluster distances were calculated with the Bray–Curtis similarity index (grouped average link) for species and stem-density. F = Forest (FI 79 and FE), T25 = 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. Sl. No. Figure No. Page No. Mean stem density (± se) at various distances from the forest to the 3.3 plantations. CHM = Chinnamanjolai; NTK = Netterikal; FI = forest 80 interior and FE = Forest–tea-edge, T25 = 25 m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. 3.4 Mean stem density (±se) of invasive and non-invasive species at various distances from the forest to the plantations. CHM = Chinnamanjolai; NTK = Netterikal; FI = forest interior and FE = 81 Forest–tea-edge, T25 = 25m, T60 = 60 m and T95 = 95 m are distances from forest edge. 3.5 (a) Relationship between exotic and native species at CHM, (Species richness = -0.341 (exotic density) + 15.948 ; and Stem- density = -0.8658 (exotic density) + 34.081); and NTK (Species 82 richness = –0.0028 (exotic density) + 5.9764; and Stem density = –0.0571 (exotic density) + 25.812). 3.6 (a) Relationship between exotic (adult) and native species seedlings at CHM. (Species richness = –0.4671 (exotic density) + 118.04; and Seedling stem-density = 0.6631 (exotic density) + 189.83) and 83 NTK (woody seedling species richness = -0.2974 (exotic density) + 115.39; and stem-density = –1.0323 (exotic density) + 279.61). 3.7 Biplots of woody plants at CHM based on redundancy analysis (RDA).
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