www.sciencetarget.com Urban - Scale Material Flow Analysis: Malaysian Cities Case Study
Farah Ayuni Shafie 1* , Dasimah Omar 2 , Subramaniam Karuppannan 1 , and Nabilah Ismail 1 1 Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia 2 Faculty of Architecture, Surveying and Planning, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah
International Journal of Alam, Malaysia Environment and Sustainability [IJ ES ] Abstract. Urban metabolism studies h ighlight the consumption of input ISSN 1927 - 9566 resources, the process within the system together from the source, use phase Vol. 5 No. 2 , pp. 45 - 5 3 and recycling of wastes. The aim of this study was to assess urban metabolism in (2016) three cities in Malaysia; Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya and Selayang by using Material Flow Analysis (MFA). The data that was analysed included electricity inputs, water inputs, food (rice, eggs and sugar) inputs, carbon dioxide outputs, wastewater outputs and solid waste outputs. The national data were down - scaled to prov ide regional data where deemed necessary. The electricity consump tion of 0.188 koe/cap/day in Klang Valley contributed to carbon dioxide of 0.455 kg/cap/day, while 95.32% of water consumption became wastewater. Consumption of 0.38 kg/cap/day of ‘rice, egg s and sugar’ contributed in the production of 4.5 kg/cap/day of solid wastes. The urban metabolism approach provides information on urban management at city level such as material cycling, energy efficiency and waste management and may also assist in decis ion making for future urban development planning as well as providing an informed and rapid assessment on the environmental performance of urban area. Keywords . Urban metabolism, urban - scale material flow analysis, city manage - ment * Correspondence: [email protected]
1. Background The study of urban metabolism was first of an u rban metabolism in an urban system is introduced by Abel Wolman who identified that shown in Figure 1. a city is comparable to an ecosystem (Wolman, Environmental impacts emerge as Greater 1965). Materials and energy flowed into the Kuala Lumpur expands in terms of economic system is similar with consumption o f resources growth and becomes a global liveable metro - by organisms in an ecosystem. As a result of the polis. Since Greater Kuala Lumpur is one of the intake of resources, wastes and products are main economic zones in Mal aysia, the authori - created within the system. The urban metabo - ties take the initiative to control and mitigate lism study quantifies the inputs such as water, the environmental impacts. The rapid trans - food and fuel and the outputs such as sewage, formation of Kuala Lumpur into a wide urban solid refuse and air pollutants by tracking their area during the last decade of the twenty eth respective transformations and flows. Through century has contributed to many of the environ - the study of urban metabolism, researchers are mental i ssues (Abdullah et al., 2012; Zhang, able to understand a variety of systems occur - 2013) . The authorities as well as the public ring in cities, regions and neighbourhoods should work together to uphold the sustainable world wide (Pincetl et al., 2012) . The overview development of the cities in Greater Kuala Lumpur. In light of the idea to achieve the goal
46 © Shafie, Omar, Karuppannan, and Ismail 201 6 | Urban - Scale Material Flow Analysis
as well as to introduce a more sustainable city 2.2 Study Location and Variable s policy, the study of urban metabolism of Greater Three thriving cities in the Greater Kuala Kuala Lumpur is deemed essential. Lumpur masterplan were selected: Ampang Jaya, Selayang and the heart of Kuala Lumpur itself within the authority of their respective local governments ( Figure 2). The Greater Kuala Lumpur comprises the area unde r the admini - stration of ten local governments. The indepen - dent variables in this study were residential activities in the area of Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya and Selayang. The dependent variables against the independent variables are energy (electricity) i nputs, water inputs, food (rice, eggs and sugar) inputs, gas (carbon dioxide) out puts, wastewater outputs and solid waste outputs.
Figure 1: Urban M etabolism Concept in an Urban System( Minx et al. , 2011 )
2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Methodology Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is a rapid repre - sen tation of the interrelation between the eco - nomy, a subsystem of the environment with the environment and the livin g things that rely on a continuous process of materials and energy (Hinterberger et al., 2003; Kestemont & Ker - khove, 2010; Kennedy et al., 2011) . MFA can be the initial step towards a broader Figure 2: Map of Study Areas (Official Website study of social, economic and environmental of Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley, 2014) aspects of local su pply chains (Courtonne et al., 2015), as the material flow that can be exam - ined includes energy inputs, water inputs, food 2.3 Data Collection and Analy sis and drink inputs, gas outputs, wastewater Data of materials input and output were outputs and solid waste outputs. obtained from utilities providers as well as from In order to understand more about material the local government of the cities. The national consumption a nd sustainability levels, trends figures were divided with population of need to be observed for a period of several Malaysia and number of days in a year to obtain years. Proper comparisons can be made by consumption and productio n per capita per day. undertaking studies using the same method - The national data were downscaled to city ology in other developing cities (Zhang, 2009; levels in instances where the available data was Hoekman, 2015). not available. Table 1 summarized the mater - ials, their respective units and source of data from desktop literature.
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Table 1 input and output according to localities and in comparison with Aveiro, Portugal. The follow - Sources of seconda ry information ing sections discuss the respective material Material Unit Source & Year flows in Table 2 and Table 3 with supporting Electricity ktoe Energy Commission (2011) explanation. Water million National Water Services litres/day Commission (2011) 3.1 Energy Input Rice, eggs tonnes Food and Agriculture Energy inputs are expressed in kilogram of oil and sugars Organization of the United equivalent. The highest electricity input was in Nations (FAOSTAT) (2014) Kuala Lump ur for the year 2010 with 298 685 Carbon billion kg Ahmad (2004) dioxide koe/day. The second highest input of electricity Wastewater litres/day Kling (2007) is Selayang with 101 972.89 koe/day, followed Solid Waste kg/cap/day Sakawi (2011) by Ampang Jaya with 88 164.67 koe/day. The total electricity consumption was 488 822.56 koe/day and agrees with the number of 3. Results and Discussion p opulation in the three cities. From the data collection and analysis, an The consumption of electricity depends on the overview of the material flow resources and development and population in the cities. Kuala output was established ( Fig ure 3). The overall Lumpur is one of the most urbanised states in material balance reveals that the system is in a Malaysia, hence, massive economic activities as near steady state where the total input almost well as other residential and commerc ial equals total output. This section presents the activities are undertaken to meet the demands results and discussion of the material flows in of the country and its inhabitants. Although the three cities with a total population of 2 .6 Selayang is less developed compared to Ampang million people. Table 2 presents the outline for Jaya, the high electrical consumption was the average individual consumption for all the mostly because of in dividual use in the popu - input and output for the three localities. Table 3 lation. demonstrates the total consumption of each
Note: 1 tonne is equal to 1,000 kg, 1 liter is equal to 1 kg, 1 ktoe is equal to 1,000,000 koe and 1 koe is equal to 1 kg. Figure 3: Schematic outline of Material Flow Analysis for Greater Kuala Lumpur
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Table 2 sump tion of electricity in Aveiro according to Lemos (2011) is higher, which is 0.347 koe/ Input Output outline for Kuala Lumpur, Ampang cap/day. Meanwhile, the individual consump - Jaya and Sel ayang tion in Klang Valley is 0.188 koe/cap/day. Avei - Input / Output Unit Average Individual ro has winter months in which the population Consumption/Productio may consume more electricity to warm their n i n a Day habitation. Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya a nd Selangor 3.2 Water Input INPUT The total inputs of water was 613 773 926.7 Energy koe/cap/day 0.19 m 3 /day for the year 2010 in K uala Lumpur is Water kg/cap/day 236.06 375 033 970 m 3 /day (61.1%), 110 701 057.82 Foods kg/cap/day 0.38 m 3 /day (18%) in Ampang Jaya and 128 038 Rice 0.24 3 Eggs 0.06 898.90 m /day (20.9%) in Selayang. The major Sugar 0.08 differences were due to the variations in population density. A high population will lead OUTPUT to higher demand of wat er consumption inputs. Gas (CO 2 ) kg/cap/day 0.46 Wastewater kg/cap/day 225 The water input in Kuala Lumpur was the Solid Waste kg/cap/day 4.5 highest (61.1%) compared to the other two cities combined (38.9%).
The individual consumption in Aveiro in a day When the total consumption of electricity of according to Lemos (2011) is 112.60 kg/cap/ each city in a day is compared with the city of day, which is lower than the indivi dual con - Aveiro in Portugal where this methodology was sump tion in Klang Valley in a day (236.056 adopted, the consumption of the three cit ies kg/cap/day). It is seen that individuals in Klang was higher. One of the reasons is due to the high Valley tend to use more water compared to population density. However, when compared individuals in Aveiro. with crude individual consumption, the con -
Table 3 Schematic comparison between Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya, Selayang and Aveiro Input / Unit Total Consumption / Production i n a Day Output Ampang Jaya Kuala Lumpur Selayang Aveiro Portugal Population: Population : Population : Populatio n : 468 961 1 588 750 542 409 73 335
INPUT Energy koe/day 88 164 298 685 101 9 72 25 447 (Electricity) Water m 3 /day 110 701 057 375 033 970 128 038 898 8 257 521 Foods kg/day 178 205 603 725 206 115 38 134 Rice 112 550 381 300 130 178 30 067 Eggs 28 137 95 325 32 544 1 467 Sugar 37 516 127 100 43 392 6 600
OUTPUT Gas (CO 2 ) kg/day 213 37 7 722 881 246 796 233 205 Wastewater m 3 /day 105 516 225 357 468 750 122 042 025 6 995 426 Solid Waste kg/day 2 110 324 7 149 375 1 440 840 113 669
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The higher consumption of water in Klang In the city of Aveiro, the total production in a Valley (part of Greater Kuala Lumpur master - day is 233 205.3 kg/day. The individual plan) may be due to the weather and com mer - production of CO 2 in Aveiro is 3.18 kg/cap/day cial activities. In Aveiro, there are winter as reported by Lemos (2011), which is higher months, while in Malaysia the weather is hot than individual pr oduction in Klang Valley, and humid. Water consumption from drinking which is only 0.455 kg/cap/day. The higher and cleaning are more frequent to accommo - production in Aveiro was due to higher con - date to the sanitary requirements along with sumption of electricity and other anthropo genic physiolog ical needs and comfort. Restrooms activities that cause the emission of CO 2 . This and toilets in Malaysia are mostly equipped could be due to the weather patterns and with faucets and bidets to meet the religious commer cial activities conducted there. and cultural needs of the population who clean Emission of gases due to the natural and themselves with water after relieving them - anthropogenic activities will lead to greenhouse selves (Gilli, 2004; Jurattanasan & Jaroen wi san, effects and cause the global temperature to 2014 ). increase. In Kuala Lumpur, about 100,000 large - 3.3 Food Input cover trees will be planted as one of the measures by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall to As for the food inputs rice, eggs and sugar, make it into a more sustainable city by 2020. Kuala Lumpur has the highest total input, which This measure can directly help to reduce the was 603 725 kg/day due to the large popu - amount of CO emissions into the atmosphere, lation. Selayang had the second highest input at 2 which may also decrease the amount of CO in 206 115.42 kg/day followed by Ampang Jaya 2 the area of GKL/KV (Holmes & Pinc etl, 2012; with 178 205.18 kg/day. Economic Transformation Programme, 2013). The total consumption of rice, eggs and sugar in 3.5 Wastewater Outputs Aveiro was only 38 134.2 kg/day. The indi - vidual consumption was at 0.52 kg/cap/day in For wastewater outputs, the total (585 027 000 Aveiro according to Lemos (2011), and when m 3 /day) in a day for Kuala Lumpur, Ampang compared to the Klang Valley area, it was 0.38 Jaya and Selayang are 357 468 750m 3 /day kg/ca p/day. The consumption of rice in Aveiro (61.1%), 105 516 225 m 3 /day (18%) and 122 is higher than in the Klang Valley since rice is 042 025 m 3 /day ((20.9%). Kuala Lumpur one of the staple foods for the Portuguese, produced the highest amount of wastewater in which is similar to Malaysia. The sugar input for a day due to the high number in population Aveiro is 0.01 kg higher, and as for the eggs compared to the other two cities. input, the population in M alaysia tends to eat In Aveiro, the total production of wastewater is more. 6 995 425.65 m 3 /day. As reported by Lemos 3.4 Gas (CO 2 ) Output 2011, the in dividual production of wastewater in Aveiro is 95.39 kg/cap/day, and it is 225 The total emission of CO was 1,183 054.61 2 kg/cap/day for the individual production in kg/day. It was 722 881.25 kg/day (61.1%), 213 Klang Valley. The high production of waste - 377.26 kg/day (18%) and 246 796.10 kg/day water in Klang Valley is due to high con sump - (20.9%) for Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya and tion of water. Selayang, respectively. The high d ifference be - tween Kuala Lumpur, Ampang Jaya and Nowadays, the technology in treating the waste - Selayang could be due to a lack of carbon sinks, water has developed. The technologies are which are the green trees, and due to diverse more efficient and reliable in treating the waste - activities taking place in the city, such as water. Hence, it is hoped that with advanced respiration, transportation, building construc - technology, it can ensure the sustain ability of tion, electrical con sumption and commercial environment during the treatment works. In activities ( Moore et al., 2013). order to reduce the amount of green house gas emissions, technical advancements of the high -
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class treatment should be accompanied by tech - lowed by expanding the waste treatment no logical substitution. As for the output of capacity. The design for urban planning and wastewater treatment, when dewatered sludge waste management should be inte grated to is incinerated rather than landfille d, both the motivate positive attitudes towards sustain - CO 2 - equivalent emissions and landfill volume ability ( Shafie et al, 2013) . Besides, the decreases (Lin, 2009). management of soli d waste and public cleaning services will be upgraded and new techno - 3.6 Solid Wastes Outputs logical improvements such as auto matic waste Total solid wastes output for the area of Kuala collection and its potential will be evaluated. Lumpur, Ampang Jaya and Selayang in a day are These measures will lead to a more sustainable 7, 149 375 kg/day, 2, 110 324.5 kg/day and 2, urban solid waste management system of 440 840.5 kg/day, respectively. The high differ - Greater Kuala Lumpur, which includes the area ence between the city of Kuala Lumpur com - of Ampang Jaya and Selayang, and most impor - pared to Ampang Jaya and Selayang is due to tantly, Kuala Lumpur, since it occupies about the diverse human activities. The economic and 5.14 % of Malaysia’s population com pared to commercial activities in the area contribute to Ampang Jaya and Selayang, which is only 1.66 the high production of solid wastes, and the % and 1.92 % respectively, thus contr ibuting to high generation in Kuala Lumpur is due to the more solid wastes. urban development (Chandrappa & Das, 2012).
When compared with the total production of solid wastes in a day in Aveiro, which is 113 4. Conclusion 669.25 kg/day, it is significantly lower than the Sustainability is a state of total balance in the three cities. Indi vidual production in Aveiro is 1.55 kg/cap/day. The high production of wastes intake of energy and other consumptions while emitting waste in a balanced manner. The in Klang Valley may be due to a lack of aware - electri city consumption of 0.19 koe/cap/day in ness on Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3R) measures. Klang Valley contributes t o CO of 0.46 kg/cap/ Enforcing the segregation of household waste at 2 day; 95.32 % of water consumption will be the the source has been implemented by the Solid share of wastewater production in the area of Waste Management and Public Cleansing Cor - Klang Valley, and the consumption of 0.38 kg/ po ration since September 2015 (SWCorp cap/day of rice, eggs and sugar in Klang Valley Malaysia, 2016), and the outcome is yet to be will contribute to the production of 4.5 kg/cap/ assessed. The corporation was established to day of solid wastes ( Figure 4). complement and ensure the successful imple - mentation of the National Solid Wa ste Manage - The difference between the total inputs and ment Policy. Municipal solid waste generation outputs of each areas being studied were due to in Malaysia has increased significantly in recent the difference in the population. The difference years, ranging between 0.5 - 2.5 kg/cap/day (or of the total inputs and outputs in Klang Valley is a total of 25000 - 30000 tons per day) (Johari 6.67 kg/cap/day and this is bec ause some of the et.al, 2014; Badgie et al., 2012; Fauziah & balancing items, such as other types of foods Agamuthu, 2012). and products that contribute to waste gener - ations are not taken into account due to some According to the official website of the Eco - limitations. Between the three cities, Kuala nomic Transformation Programme (2013), one Lumpur has the highest total consumption of of the transformation plans is to come out with inputs and pro duction of outputs due to high an orderly and well - planned solid waste man - density population. age ment system. The first measure is to inspire the implementation of the 3R pro gramme, fol -
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Figure 4: Schematic representation of Input and Output Flow for Greater Kuala Lumpur
In order to cope with the consumption of also assist in the goal of sustainable develop - electricity in Malaysia, information and edu - ment for the acc ounted inputs and outputs. It cation on energy - efficiency as well as creating would appear that the material flow analysis public awareness on energy - saving methods will further improve the practicality in and energy conservation can be undertaken. managing urban system and is economically Industrial ecology approaches, such as rain - feasible for urban managers. water harvesting and green technology, may
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