Transformacje (Transformations)

TRANSFORMACJE (TRANSFORMATIONS)

Transformacje (Transformations) is an interdisciplinary refereed, reviewed journal, published since 1992.

The journal is devoted to i.a.:  civilizational and cultural transformations,  information (knowledge) societies,  global problematique,  sustainable development,  political philosophy and values,  future studies.

The journal's quasi-paradigm is TRANSFORMATION - as a present stage and form of development of technology, society, culture, civilization, values, mind- sets etc. Impacts and potentialities of change and transition need new methodological tools, new visions and innovation for theoretical and practical capacity- building. The journal aims to promote inter-, multi- and transdisciplinary approach, future orientation and strategic and global thinking.

Transformacje (Transformations) are internationally available – since 2012 we have a licence agreement with the global database: EBSCO Publishing (Ipswich, MA, USA)

We are listed by INDEX COPERNICUS since 2013

I TRANSFORMACJE(TRANSFORMATIONS) 3-4 (86-87) 2015

ISSN 1230-0292 Reviewed journal Published twice a year (double issues) in Polish and English (separate papers)

Editorial Staff:

Prof. Lech W. ZACHER, Center of Impact Assessment Studies and Forecasting, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Dora MARINOVA, Sustainability Policy Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Aus- tralia ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Tadeusz MICZKA, Institute of Cultural and Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland ([email protected]) – Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Dr Małgorzata SKÓRZEWSKA-AMBERG, School of Law, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Poland ([email protected]) – Coordinator

Dr Alina BETLEJ, Institute of Sociology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland

Dr Mirosław GEISE, Institute of Political Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Byd- goszcz, Poland (also statistical editor)

Prof. Gavin RAE, Department of Social Sciences, Kozminski University, Warsaw, Po- land (also English language editor)

Dr Magdalena RZADKOWOLSKA, Chair of Library and Information Science, Uni- versity of Lodz, Łódź, Poland

Prof. Sangeeta SHARMA, Dept. of Public Administration, University of Rajasthan, Jai- pur, India

Prof. Ryszard ZIĘBA, The Institute of International Relations, University of Warsaw, Poland

Prof. Urszula ŻYDEK-BEDNARCZUK, Faculty of Philology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland (also Polish language editor)

II Publisher :

Educational Foundation "Transformations" Al. Jana Pawła II 80-80, 00-175 Warsaw, Poland Tel./fax. +48 22 4038411, e-mail: [email protected] and Kozminski University, Center of Impact Assessment Studies and Forecasting, e-mail: [email protected] WWW: www.transformacje.kozminski.edu.pl www.ciasf.kozminski.edu.pl Attention: Kindly send the papers to: [email protected]

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III INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL

Dr Clement Bezold Prof. Witold T. Bielecki Prof. Czesław Cempel Institute for Alternative Futures, Kozminski University Poznan University of Technology Alexandria, VA, USA Warsaw, Poland Poznan, Poland

Dr Vary T. Coates Prof. Andrzej Chodubski Joseph F. Coates The Kanawha Institute University of Gdańsk, Futurist in Residence for the Study of the Future, Gdańsk, Poland Washington, D.C.,USA Washington, D.C., USA

Prof. Meinolf Dierkes Prof. Nikolai Genov Prof. Günter Getzinger Science Center (WZB), School of Advanced Social Studies, Alpen-Adria Universität Berlin, Germany Nova Gorica, Slovenia Klagenfurt, Austria

Prof. Larisa A. Gromova Prof. Tomasz Goban-Klas Prof. Janusz Golinowski Herzen State Jagiellonian University Kazimierz Wielki University, Pedagogical University Cracow, Poland Bydgoszcz, Poland St. Petersburg, Russia

Prof. Armin Grunwald Prof. Andrzej Herman Prof. Jerzy Kisielnicki Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Warsaw School of Economics, University of Warsaw Karlsruhe, Germany Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, Poland

Prof. Witold Kieżun Prof. Andrzej K. Koźmiński Prof. Wojciech Lamentowicz Kozminski University Kozminski University University of Business and Admin- Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, Poland istration, Gdynia, Poland

Prince Prof. Rudolf zur Lippe Prof. Andrzej Lubbe Dr Michael Maccoby Oldenburg Universität Kozminski University The Maccoby Group PC, Oldenburg, Germany Warsaw, Poland Washington, D.C., USA

Prof. Prof. Mauro Magatti Prof. Ali A. Mazrui Jerzy Mikułowski Pomorski Catholic University, State University of New York, Cracow University of Economics, Milan, Italy Binghamton, N.Y., USA Cracow, Poland

Prof. Witold Morawski Prof. Andrzej Papuziński Prof. Sławomir Partycki Kozminski University Kazimierz Wielki University, John Paul II Warsaw, Poland Bydgoszcz, Poland Catholic University of Lublin, Poland

Prof. Lucjan Pawłowski Prof. Karol L. Pelc Prof. Marek Pietraś Lublin University of Technology Michigan Technological University Maria Curie-Skłodowska Lublin, Poland Houghton, Ml, USA University, Lublin, Poland

Prof. Alan R. Porter Prof. Bazyli Poskrobko Prof. Harry Rothman Georgia Institute of Technology, University of Białystok, University of Manchester Atlanta, GA, USA Białystok, Poland Manchester, UK

Col. Prof. Piotr Sienkiewicz Prof. Marek S. Szczepański Prof. Agnieszka Szewczyk National Defence University, University of Silesia University of Szczecin, Warsaw, Poland Katowice, Poland Szczecin, Poland

Prof. Albert H. Teich Prof. Czesław Szmidt Prof. Andrew S. Targowski American Association for the Kozminski University Western Michigan University Advancement of Science, Warsaw Kalamazoo, Ml, USA Washington, D.C., USA

Prof. Andrzej A. Wierzbicki Prof. Katarzyna Żukrowska National Institute of Telcommunica- Warsaw School of Economics tions, Warsaw, Poland Warsaw, Poland

IV TRANSFORMACJE (TRANSFORMATIONS) 3-4 (86-87) 2015

Contents

I. Civilization Changes and Technology

Wiesław SZTUMSKI: Does the Western Civilization Tend to a Global Wilder- ness?...... 2

Andrew S. TARGOWSKI: From Information Wave to Virtual Civilization ...24

Tadeusz MICZKA: Conception of the Integral Person Faced with the Prospect of Technopoly ...... 50

II. Info – Communication Technologies and Innovations – Some Cases

Karol I. PELC: Adaptation of innovation in interactive communication networks of Central Europe ...... 78

Adriana ŁUKASZEWICZ: Impact of social networks on migration processes in EU ...... 91

Prahalad Kumar MEENA: E- Applicability of Rajasthan Delivery of Public Services Act 2011 – An Empirical Study ...... 106

III. Indian Problems and Transformations

Shivika SAXENA: Global climate change and Indian subcontinent: causes and consequences ...... 126

Sabyasachi NAYAK: Food Security:India ...... 143

IV. Restructuring Public Space Governance

Olga MELNYCHUK: Cities in the Structure of Public Space: Methodology, Theory and Practice ...... 158

V. Social Issues – Some Examples

Włodzimierz CHOJNACKI: Reproduction of Educational Inequities ...... 184

Krystyna BŁESZYŃSKA, Yehudi WEBSTER: Attitudes of Polish Immigrants

V towards People of Other Races in the United Kingdom ...... 203

Instructions to Authors ...... 213

VI CIVILIZATION CHANGES I. AND TECHNOLOGY

Wiesław SZTUMSKI

DOES THE WESTERN CIVILIZATION TEND TO A GLOBAL WILDNESS?

ABSTRACT

At a certain time, Western civilization has dominated the world mainly due to the progress of knowledge and technology. It was more favorable to social development in modern and contemporary times than other civilizations. It was better, because it had an ar- senal of "six secret weapons": democracy, the progress of science, medical progress, work ethic and competition. Western empires do everything in order to this civilization became the only one global civilization in the future. This fully corresponds to their economic and political interests. However, it might not go. Theese weapon becomes less and less effective. The progress of science and medicine, democracy, and work ethos are in crisis and rapidly degraded. This causes the dehumanisation, new-slavery and a new-barbarism. Due to fierce competition, the social relations increasingly are characterized by hostility and hatred, despite appeals for charity and mercy. People and their behaviors become wild. There is a fashion for wildness in various forms and aspects. It seems that Western civilization will lead to a return to the system of wildness, but in worse form.

Keywords: civilization, progress, wildness, barbarism, new-slavery, democracy, competition, dehumanization.

THERE IS NOT ONLY ONE DIRECTION OF THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION.

The European civilization develops constantly according to the unilinear model based on Aristotelian and on teleological way of thinking as well as on monochronic concept of time. However, this model is only one among the other, maybe, not the best one. There are other models based on the polychronic or circular concept of time characteristic for non-European people, and cultures. One of them is the circular model (from east to west - from the Far East to the Middle East, from Middle East, to Europe, from Europe to America and maybe from

here back to Asia) that allows the possibility of repetitions. The second is the spiral model without repetitions. The third is multilinear model based on the bi- furcation concept of evolution. Unfortunately, the unilinear model dominates in Europe and some countries in the western world due to the Christianization of them. According to it the civilization rises constantly to higher and higher levels at an accelerating pace. And each next stages of its development are becoming ever shorter due to the scientific discoveries and technological inventions that are milestones on the path of social progress and civilization. According to this model the development of civilization is an irreversible process: it occurs only in one direction defined by the so-called objective laws of social evolution or by some ultimate goals. However, this is an ideal model which is much simpli- fied. It facilitates the conceptualization of social development and explanation of its mechanism, but deviates far from the reality. In fact, the objectivity of the laws of society and its history, as opposed to natural laws, is fiction, if it is understood as independence from the knowing subject, which is a man. As in the social reality nothing can happen without human participation. There is also no “ultimate goals” of social evolution in the sense of teleological determinism; they are only short-term goals which change relatively quickly depending on the historical context. Indeed, civilization develops rather according to the multilinear and bifurcations model in many directions with the possibility of returns. For this reason, the attempts to force the further development of our civilization in a single direction marked by the western world are meaningless and bound to fail. Modern civilization, the beginning of which is determined by the textbooks on the fifteenth century (the invention of printing by Johannes Gu- tenberg), developed in principle growingly, although there were some returns to the barbarism accompanied the colonization of the Americas and Africa, and the industrial revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe. And starting from the second half of the last century, there are yet more barbaric actions caused by ethnic cleansings, racism, fundamentalism, terrorism, local wars with the use of napalm, bacteriological and chemical weapons and uncom- promising competitive struggle for economic, financial, political, etc. reasons. In spite of this, our civilization developed ever more (with some short-lived deviations from the main direction) under the influence of unilinear thinking, characteristic for Aristotelian logic and Christianity, until the threats of its de-

velopment were insignificant, not much and local. Now the situation has radically changed: it appears more and more threats, they are getting greater, they accumulate at one time, and are global.1 The development of our civilization is disrupted by frequent crises of increasing strength and wider dimension. And more and more difficult is to overcome them. Crises have always happened in the history of mankind and in the development of civilization. Nearly each great crisis initiated a change of the direction of the civilization evolution. Crises are nothing new. Through the millennia, it many times have occur epidemics, wars or different natural disasters. But they could never seriously endanger the existence of Western civilization and its development. Always have been found a way out of these crisis and they were effectively overcome. Six hundreds years ago, no one would get the idea that Europeans would once rule the world. The Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the Ming Dynasty in China was highly developed civilizations, as in Europe war, pestilence and misery prevailed. And nevertheless European civilization has dominated the world and nowadays has become the leading. Niall Ferguson puts forward six items that the West against the rest of the world superiority procured: science, democracy, medicine, consumerism, work ethics, and competition.2 He named them „six secret weapons". Western civilization does not endanger the external enemies. It has a sufficiently powerful weapon to defeat them. More threatens it the inner disintegration. The actions of above-mentioned items, which have ensured survival and domination of western civilization in the world, are weakening very quickly. And apart from them this civilization disintegrates due to other reasons.

INEFFECTIVENESS OF „SIX SECRET WEAPONS" OF THE WESTERN CIVI- LIZATION: THE SCIENCE, DEMOCRACY, MEDICINE, WORK ETHOS, AND COMPETITION.

Science

Positive stereotype of science and image of the scientist have formed during

1 See Hans-Joachim Hahn, Lutz Simon, Höllensturz und Hoffnung: Warum unsere Zivilisation zusammenbricht und wie sie sich erneuern kann. Olzog, München 2013. 2 See N. Ferguson, Civilization. The West and the Rest, Allen Lane, London 2012.

enturies. Science is seen as an impeccably research area or incorruptible institution, and its representatives as moral standards. On the basis of this stereotype one believe in the objectivity of scientific research and the truthfulness what is scientifically confirmed as well as in the honesty and fairness of what constitutes the content of expressed opinions and statements of scientists. Especially one believes in the natural scientists and mathematicians, because their research objects belong to the sensory world, and test methods which give best verifiable results. In the case of representatives of humanities and social sciences it is not so, because their researche subjects and statements contain more subjectivity. More or less since the World War II it progresses the deformation of the established by tradition image of scientist and stereotype of science in the popular consciousness. There are different causes of this:  Using science to genocide and production of weapons of mass destruction  Indirect impact of science on the degradation of the environment  Depriving science of its areola of mystery as a result of mass higher education  The coupling science with ideology and world outlook  Using science for the purpose of propaganda and advertising  Commercialization of science  Dependency research funding from lobbyists  Pauperization of scientists in many countries  Too easy succumbing of scientists to the pressure of criminal circles or having a bad reputation  Decreasing concern for about maintaining the old ethos of science and authority of a scientist  Ordinary debasement of some researchers to make a career by binding with the world of business and politics.

Many of these causes occurred as a result of the progress of civilization, in conditions of defined political and economic systems, and inspired by ruling ideo- logies. Certainly, totalitarian regimes, arms race, and growing competition played a huge role.

Science functions in a certain social environment and must be considered in a

wide context of many conditions. With its progress increases its penetration into other areas: economy, manufacturing, policy, etc. As a result, it progresses their scientification. Therefore, science becomes as if „depressurized” and it thus it is more and more susceptible to the interference of external factors. One cannot prevent these objective causes. However, in some cases, the scientists themselves and their organizations are guilty of this, because they do not oppose, and often not even express the will of the opposition to the progressive devaluation of science. They allow themselves to be declassed, pushed to the lower levels of the social hierarchy and be treated like garbage by the often uneducated rulers. One have to be extremely resistant mentally and morally to in the easy way does not want to make a career or get rich. The weakening of the authority and the good image of science grows with the reduction of objectivity and fairness of research and with progressive relativism of science. Increasingly, scientists reduce their authority when acting as experts they intentionally falsify their research results and expert opinions or present their fraudulent interpretations on request of businessmen, politicians and ideologues. Fortunately, this phenomenon is not widespread, but already sufficiently noticeable. To a decline the authority also contribute plagiarist, the number of which increases with access to the Internet. The decline of the authority of science is progressing also due to the progressive devaluation of scientific titles and degrees. The criteria for granting them are still mild. Today, it suffices to write some work on a mushy theme, even with stylistic and spelling errors, to get a degree, if one has a good promoter connected woth an coterie. No matter what is written, but who is the promoter. In many cases, doctoral dissertations represent a lower level than earlier average master’s dissertations. And to obtain the title of professor, it needs to have even more connections and to be religious, ideological and political correct. Consequently, "average, but faithful” individuals become the titled sientists. Under their direction they appear new banal and pseudo-scintific dis- sertatons writen by even wors scientists. So, the spiral of devaluation of science arises.

Science serves more practical purpose than the theoretical and cognitive. This results from its commercialization in the free market economy and due to the American pragmatism and ideology of consumerism, characteristic for Western culture and civilization. Applied sciences develop much more intensely than the

basic ones. More financial means is allocated to to them, because it is better to sell their products. Developing capitalism turns everything on goods. Now, scientific degrees, titles and scientific truth have become commodities. They are ruled by market mechanisms and therefore, one can freely huckster with them. This creates the premise for the prostitution of science. This statement may shock, but it expresses an objective fact. We are aware of this and indignant, but we cannot change anything. It seems that we have to get used to it, like to many other amoral consequences of increasingly brutal capitalism and to the negative phenomena accompanying the civilization of evil. Thanks to the progress of science we live according to the principle of acceleration: we want to have more and faster at the same time. For this we need to have sufficient financial resources. Hence, the insane pursuit of wealth in which the scientists participate. Therefore they sell for more and more money all that they have: intellect, knowledge, truth and image. In this way, they prostitute themselves. Not all scientists act so, only those who are attracted to lobbyists, ideologues and advertising. This practice will continue as long as capitalism will grow. The market offers the possibility of obtaining good earnings gthanks to the unethical behavior. That is why many scientific expertises are made for the so-called sponsors who pay much money to get the desired results or opinions. Com- monly are well known scandals related to corruption expertise for marketing purposes on request of the pharmaceutical, military, cosmetic and food industry. And the best thing is that corrupt teams of experts call themselves "independent" to mislead the public opinion. Wickedness and dishonesty of a number of scientists charged the whole science, if one understands it as a social institution. Ethos of employees significantly impacts on the ethos of institution.

Democracy

Democratic countries (mainly the Western countries) more frequently are expe- riencing various crises, primarily due to degeneration of democracy under ne- oliberalism and the global competitive struggle at the current stage of social evolution.

“Forty years ago, we believed that freedom triumphed and began an orgy of consumption. People no longer believe in the democratic system, because they do not keep promises. It is a crisis of democracy.” And "Progress is a myth,

because people do not believe that in the futureit will be better than in the past" 3 It is generally believed that although democracy is not a perfect political system, but best of all possible. It's not true. Even if it is the best political system, it is not among the possible, only from the known so far. Democracy has to be realized through the government by the people. This follows from the transla- tion of the Greek word δῆμος. Only the "demos" has many meanings: citizens, people, community of free citizens, adult men, permanent residents having the political right to vote, societies of rightful citizens (included in the lists of residents of municipalities). Despite this generally "demos" is understood as "com- monality". If such "people" is supposed to rule in a democracy, it may well rule the crowd or the plebs, but then democracy evolve into a ὀχλοκρατία (ochloc- racy). This case does not threaten us, although there are certain symptoms and the tendency to do so. Worse is the fact that more and more often "people" represent “fools” or “bandits”, or they both at once. Should such people really rule the society? The contemporary democracy is far distant from its classic pattern - of Athenian democracy, when good, moral and cleverest, i.e. “rightful” citizens ruled.

Democracy works well when it is direct or in the case of small communities (families, organizations, countries), were the ratio between representatives of the government (ruling people) to other members of the community (ruled people) is high. Its sense erodes peoprtopnally to the growing number of social organizations and of the people in the state. And this is inevitable in today's world, where the population exceeded seven billion and continues to grow. In this case millions of people are ruled by a handful of people. They shall hold authority so indirectly that it is difficult for them to keep in touch with the social masses, and the influence of society on the rulers decisions is so insignificant that in fact illusory. Then also the rulers extrapolate the legitimacy of their reign in an unjustified manner: if only 30% of voters chose them - and that is the average voter turnout in the parliamentary and self-government elections - they thought they were elected by the whole of society and they feel fully authorized to represent all as well as to independent decision-making "on behalf of the whole society." Hence, arrogance of power and disregard the majority of the population. The essence of democracy "Power in the hands of the people" is

3 Ricardo de Querol, Zygmunt Bauman: Social media are a trap, El País, 25.01.2016.

transformed gradually into its opposite "People in the hands of power." The foundation of democracy is to respect and protect the fundamental values that are important individual rights: freedom, justice, equality and order. Mean- while, they are getting less implemented. They become more and more slogans or propaganda spells which function not in the sensory, but in the imaginary or conceived reality.

Slavery is instead freedom. The gradual, but a quick enslaving of people progresses proportionally to the technical inventions and to the development of Western civilization. Paradoxically, neo-slavery appeared at the time of neolib- eralism. It differs from the ancient slavery. Neo-slavery is not limited to one- dimensional legal enslavement that is to the division into masters and slaves. It has more dimensions, levels and forms. Nowhere, it is the official social system or structure sanctioned by law. Certainly, in a democratic world formally all persons are free or at least they think they are free. And nonetheless neoliberal- ism restitutes slavery. It enslaves people informally, outside of law and secretly, but effectively and makes them real slaves in our "free world". The enslavement increases in nearly all spheres of social life on global scale. People are so enslaved that they did not notice when they were in captivity. One uses sophisticated scientific methods and techniques of enslavement. Now, there are no free and enslaved people, because in reality everyone is in both enslaved and free to some extent and aspect. We have become slaves of technology (due by every day making use of growing number of devices and by excessive entrusting in modern security systems ), of ways of behavior (imposed by the codes of ethics, fashion, canons of Public Relatons and snobbish imitating), of vulgarity and rudeness (widespread using an obscene language and inappropriate behaviors in public space), of lies (mass avoiding or concealing the truth by propagandists, politicians, etc.), of advertising (deception of marketer), of inactivity (an increasing inactivity and boredom as a result of shortening the time of paid job), of wealth (in result of the ideology of consumerism), of ugly (due to the lack of respect for traditional canons of aesthetics in the areas of art and fashion, shock- ing extravagance), of clock time (due by monochronic culture and the continuous acceleration of the pace of work and life), of social space (littering and thickening), of noise (screaming behavior and excessive publicizing), and of social layouts (subordinating of people to various pressure groups, lobbists,

gangs, corporations and institutions or organizations working unofficially and informally). It is also violated the freedom of speech and religion (the ruling churches and fundamentalists impose their religions and fight, even physically, their competitors, religious disseneters, non-believers, agnostics and atheists). And the personal freedom and privacy of people which are subjecting to increasing surveillance is increasingly limited due to the growing wave of terrorism (really, undeclared creeping World War). Civil liberties and human rights are respected less and less and only to a few of pople. It increases centralization and standardization. The processes of concentration of capital and power with globalization leads to the introduction of informal dictatorship in the democratic and liberal regimes. It is manifested by in dictating the canons of fashion, styles of thinking, standards of consumption, personal patterns, etc. by means of the mass media and clever techniques of social manipulation. In the liberal-democratic system, people are faced with a dilemma: "The greatest freedom or the maximum safety?". They try to resolve it on the principle of the golden mean: so far limited freedom, as is required by safety. But to what level of threat can lead the development of liberal democracy and to what extent can we limit the freedom that the democracy does not transform into totalitarianism.

Instead of justice is injustice. It is widely felt unjust law and its ineffectiveness. More and more often court judgments are sometimes biased, dictated by political party, ideology or world view. Prosecuted are poor citizens and petty criminals, while the rich and the great swindlers are intouchables and unpunished, according to the principle: "When yuo gonna steal penny, you are a thief, and when you gonna steal millions, you are clever and highly respected business- man" - and as a "bandit" you have a big chance to get to the authorities.

Instead of equality are deepening inequalities. The slogan "equality before the law" works more in the wishful area than in realistic. Apparently the constitu- tions and laws of democratic countries guarantee the equality of all citizens, but in reality the functioning of institutions guaranteeing the constitution and the law are limited. As a consequence, citizens are dived in "equal and more equal than others." Inequality also occurs in the access to information (in spite of the idea of the information society), to education (contrary to the idea of the knowledge society) and goods (contrary to the idea of consumer society). Peo- ple are very diverse because of the inequality the distribution of goods. The

differences of financial status are deepening: the poor get poorer and the rich are richer. And it's getting faster, so on a local scale, in individual countries and in the global population of the world. On average, the proportion of the rich to the poor in each country and in the world is 1:5. So much wealth has the richest 1% of Earthlings as 99% of the other, and in 2010-2014 their wealth increased to 44 percent.

Instead of order and security are chaos and many serious threats. Democracy should ensure social order and security to all citizens. This is considered as one of the advantages of this system. Meanwhile, as a result of rampant ethical relativism and excessive liberalization of the standards of behawior, the social order leaves much to be desired despite the huge number of ethical codes and legal regulations. The erosion of the social order favors the reducing the degree of safety. More often and on a larger scale have place criminal activities and terrorist acts, which are increasingly better prepared. Individual and local crim- inality turns into a collective and organized on an international scale (this is one of the negative effects of globalization) which can not cope the law enforcement agencies. There are ever more acts of terrorism, against which the state apparatus of individual countries, international preventive actions and the actions of anti-terrorist brigades are completely powerless. A common and easy access to weapons contributes significantly to the increase in killings and to a sense of the big real threats. Criminals and terrorists are sometimes not only the people from the criminal circles, but even so called decent people, which nobody would suspect for this - educated people, men, women, underages and children. They become killers against their will. They are forced to this by means of threats or drugs, or are subjected to "brainwashing" by various political organizations, even religious - fundamentalist monotheistic. Surveillance of citizens and penetration of suspected communities in order to detect potential terrorists is ineffective and does not make sense. It gives only the appearance of the safety. It came already to the fact that no one is safe anywhere, either in their own home or outside. On good cause, as in France, it should introduce the martial law in any country, and especially in Western countries. Only, what willi it give? To the threats from various criminals are added the environmental threats. Not only from the degradation of the natural environment, but also social and spiritual. The natural environment is increasingly better protected and one tries to revalue

them, as far as possible. But in principle is nothing done in the case of protection the social and spiritual environments. Rather, to the contrary, degradation of social and spiritual environments progresses with impunity and on increasingly larger scale. One ignores it as if it has a smaller impact on the worsening of the human condition. The erosion of the social order creates uncertainty and chaos, which obtain a global dimension.

It is believed that the advantages of democracy are the common good and tolerance. Is it right? The common good of the whole society or of the great majority of peple is practically impossible under the conditions of the capitalist system and neo-liberal democracy. Small groups of beneficiaries of this system and such regime - financiers and politicians - take care only of their "common good". They do not care for the rest of society. This favors the fast growth of egoistic attitudes that accompanies the advancing competitive struggle, not only in the sphere of economics. Also the attitude of tolerance disappears for various reasons. Some politicians, ideologues and representatives of churches call for intolerance of subjective reasons. And an objective cause of the increasing intolerance is the threat arising from mass migration, which takes place now. The natives are afraid of losing their jobs, worsening their living standards, the disappearance of their culture, religion and traditions - in a word of losing their ethnic and cultural identities. The-se fears are not entirely unfounded, though sometimes exaggerated. And from the lack of tolerance is only one step to xenophobia and aggression. To the advantages of democracy also belong: growth of social activity, the impact of nation on the authority, co-decision, the impact on policy and the ability to remove bad rulers or change them when they not fulfill the expectations. Seemingly, it is so. In fact, people can do it in a very narrow range or not at all. Governing parties, especially when they have a parliamentary majority, do not allow this, and if "from grace" (what a kind of dem- ocrats they are which respect oppositional minorities) they introduce the views of the minorities on the agenda of Parliament (although in reality these minorities represent the majority of the nation, which for various reasons did not participate in the elections, but now participates in mass demonstrations), then they know in advance what will be the result of the vote. Does it happen in our democratic country that a loser senator, deputy or councilor was canceled? Many of them are even in the European Parliament (where in addition they do not know

foreign languages and their own laguage and speak with difficulty or speak non- sense). Who was democratically elected to authorities, even by an insignificant number of votes (several thousand voters), works on the rights of "sacred cows", which is protected by immunities, "layouts", and the party dudes. No one and nothing is able to remove it. In the best case he will get a warning or reprimand, what is of little importance. And he will continue his "work", spoil the country's image in the eyes of citizens and in the international arena. It is true that the activity of the society is growing, but the negative one, when it feels threatened by its authorities. However, from this activity, practically nothing does result; authorities usually ignore it, because being impunity they can afford it. Im- portant for authority is peace so that it can survive until the next election. How- ever, the positive activity of society aimed at improving the authority and the situation in the country is negligible. Maybe that's why nobody listens to the voice of the nation. The authority every day is busy with them self (the exercise of authority, the struggle for egotistic interests or imitating the work), and only during the electoral campaigns, it met with the nation and pretends that it listens to its ills, advice and suggestions. Anyway, today about the fate of states, nations and the world decide "supranational governments" – the croupiers of history.

Thus, the advantages of democracy are illusory and are part of an illusory image of democracy - a kind of opium for the people, who seems, it governs. Modern democracy is pathological. Its ancient ideal form is replaced by the real distorted forms of it, such as illusory democracy (real mechanisms of power hide behind a cloak of democratic institutions), pseudo-democracy (majority of people take decisions, but it is dependent on a charismatic leader, which controls it) and facade democracy (democratic institutions are the screen for informal centers of power). One could have serious doubts whether the system which is called "democracy" has yet something to do with a genuine democracy.

Medicine

Technological progress, especially in the field of nanotechnology, materials science and electronics, supports the development of therapeutics and pharmacology in a way unimaginable even a decade ago. Few bodies cannot be transplan- ted. The surgeons perform miraculous and extremely precise operations, about

which earlier anyone did not dream. One produces and employs impossibly perfect prosthesis from more durable and flexible materials, artificial tissues and organs, which almost fully replace damaged organs, become similar to them and allow crippled people to function normally. Great is also developing the prenatal surgery. By using the latest generation of medicines that work quickly and effectively, though cause harmful side effects one can be long-term maintain the body within the parameters typical for a healthy person. As we hear about new developments of medicine, our heart grow up, of course (and fortunately) only metaphorically. However, do we have really be enjoyed from this? The progress in the medical field is becoming more expensive. Production of all modern prostheses, implants and medicines requires increasing financial out- lays. A huge part of the cost absorbs scientific studies that precede inventions, prototypes and mass production. They require still more expensive materials, chemical reagents, apparatus, and programs and engage the cooperation of numerous multi-disciplinary, highly educated research teams as subcontractors. The more subcontractors, the higher production costs. Therefore, the sales price of new medicines, prostheses, etc. must grow. The more that the intermediaries between pharmaceutical factories and patients, that is, the owners of pharmacy chains, preying on people sick, determine horrendous margins on medicines, because they know that the patient is in a situation no way out - he must buy medicine and pay not know how much to get well, to be efficient, or to stay alive. The pharmaceutical market is extremely lucrative and at the same time absolutely immune to economic crises and therefore it guarantees great profits. About its profitability proved the fact that pharmaceutical companies organize for free great events and exotic trips for doctors in order to encourage them to prescribe their patients appropriate medications. Certainly, such a way to win customers is profitable. The value of the global pharmaceutical market was in 2015 near 9550 billion USD and in 2025 it will reached 18,000 billion USD.4 No wonder that there are more and more pharmacies and manufacturers of medicines and pseudo-medicines5 called to deceive patients 'dietary supple-ments' which are

4 https://www.google.pl/search?q=global+pharmaceutical+market+2014&newwindow=1&biw=1067&bi h=503&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj42NCOw-rKAhUCApoKHY0KDnkQ sAQIHQ#imgdii=MWj7dB5tFrDDwM%3A%3BMWj7dB5tFrDDwM%3A%3BkvSSc-gpGhnztM%3° &imgrc=MWj7dB5tFrDDwM%3°. 5 This is an example of many terms invented by the producers and marketers in order to fool the people.

medicines pro psyche, not pro corpore. As a result it grows rapidly the supply of pharmaceutical products and their many varieties, which differ not so much because of their composition and effectivenessthat,but because of the name, packaging and ...price. On a side note, the packaging are also ever-more sophisticated and more decorative, to better cast in the eye and attract customers and are therefore more expensive; This also contributes to increased the prices of medicines. In the end, the buyer pays for everything, even for organizing the "hunt" on him! The rapid growth of new specifics is accompanied by withdraw- ing from the production and sale the old ones which are not always worse, but more proven and maybe less harmful. For example the antibiotics have to be withdrawn because it does not work on the new mutants of bacteria, but as for the other one may have doubts. Consequently, cheap medicines are little and will be less. Whereas the expensive medicines are plentiful and there will be more and more. But what is newer and more expensive must be not always better and more effective. So, who will afford treatment? In contrast to the dramatically rising prices of medicines, the real earnings of people only marginally increased. According to the Gaussian curve this applies only to a small group of society. Earnings of statistical majority either did not change or fall due to an official or hidden inflation. The World Bank estimates the number of poor people in the world on more than half, i.e. about 4 billion people. Hence the rather pessimistic conclusion: fewer and fewer people will be able to treat themselves and enjoy the latest achievements of medicine. Medical services, mainly complicated surgical operations and transplantatons, are too expensive for an ordinary mortal, and their cost will increase. Less and less people can afford to buy expensive medicines, prostheses and other things and medical services (CT, MRI, etc.). Already, many poor patients, especially pensioners and the unemployed, not realizes prescriptions even for reimbursed medicines, because they have no money. As the state tolerates robbery on the pharmaceutical market they are simply excluded from the benefits of universal health care which the democratic state should provide them. Such excluded people will be more and more proportionally to the progress of medicine and the mismanagement of health issues. There is a strange situation: on the one hand, imposing achievements in medicine, pharmacology and technology, so that one can heal people, to keep them alive and provide them a relatively good functionning in the society, and on the other hand, growing obstacles, especially financial, that people

make impossible the use of these achievements. Great medicine development is progressing with increased morbidity and mortality among those who can not use it. For various reasons, competition in the pharmaceutical market and the market of medical services does not result in price reduction, as is the case in other markets. First of all, because the consumer needs - the need for medicines and medical services - are not and probably never will be, at some point fully satisfied. On the contrary, they continue to grow proportionally to the civilizational progress. And they are growing for the simple reason, because an undesirable result of this progress is increase of civilizational diseases caused by pollution of the natural environment, by degradation of the social environment, by accelerated pace of work and life, by increasing stress by inappropriate nutrition, etc. With the civilizational progress it will grow the multi-morbidities not only among old people, as before. The result of the achievements of medicine is also a huge increase of the number of sickly people, who, from birth, and even from early embryonic life, over many years, are artificially kept alive, as if against the nature. The world population will consist of more and more sick and lame individuals - the potential consumers of pharmaceuticals and medical services. Firstly, in the degenerated environment it will be born more sick children - proportional to deterioration of the life milieu. Secondly, each weak generation give to the world weaker children; keeping them alive will require increasing amounts of money.

Have anyone heard about the sale of medical services and pharmaceuticals at a reduced price or of their sale-season? Here govern quite different laws of marketing and business – the laws based on preying on human misery and suffering. For nothing are noble ideas of religious or secular humanism, canons of moral behavior and codes of ethics for doctors and pharmacists. For nothing are beautiful slogans about the respect for the dignity of every human being and about the protection of his life, about empathy for sick people and about the need to help them

The biological principle of natural selection, "Only ihealthiest and strongest ndividuals survive” does not work, because thanks to the medical progress even the weakest and sickest can survive, if they can afford the treatment. Therefore, now it is replaced by the economic principle of selection: "Only richest individuals survive, which have money for the treatment.” Let the rest of the population

dies in delight of the achievements of modern medicine and in the majesty of the great ideals of humanism, promoted by Western civilization.

Work ethos

The work is a multidimensional and dynamic concept; there are so many dimensions of work as its aspects and areas of human activity; it changes with the technical progress. Despite this, in the consciousness of the masses is rooted the old understanding of the work that increasingly stands out from what work really is today. It originates from the times when humans were using primitive tools, simple technological devices and mainly the endospmatic energy of their muscles. Now, we use highly complicated tools, computerized equipment and exosomatic energy. The work is identified with paid activity that cause tired- ness, ensures survival, causes wealth and allows achive various life goals. Therefore, the concept of work has been reduced only to the two dimensions: physical (energy consumption) and economic (earning). The work environment includes following components: substantive elements of workplace (equipment, infrastructure), staff (group of employees, work teams, brigades), horizontal and vertical relationship between employees (employer- employee and employee-supervisors), physical and social work conditions, management and organization of work, work climate, evaluation of work, and work consciousness. Recently, the work brings to people and their environment per saldo more damage than benefits due to the ideology of the consumerism and of the implementation of the economy focused on the maximization of the profit per fas et nefas. Thus, the work is transformed from the constructive factor in the evolution of the mankind in a destructive one. 6 Two opposing processes are running in the evolution of the work: humanizing and dehumanizing the work. The aim of humanization of work is to create more and better work conditons, a friendly work climate and good treatment of employees as a result of respecting the recommendations of psychology, labor law, and code of professional ethics, safety and ergonomics rules. Significantly improves the working environment, especially its material components. Under its

6 See W. Sztumski, Praca - czynnik degenerujący, Sprawy Nauki, No 11/2009.

influence continuously decreases the corporeal effort and improves the aesthetics of the interior, internal communication, management and organization of work. However, the humanisation of work is not dictated by an authentic concern for the welfare of the employee or from moral and altruistic motives. Under capitalism there is nothing for free. Employers have learned on the basis of work psychologists that one working more efficiently, when one feels more care and has better work conditions. Therefore, humanization of work is camouflaged instrument of exploitation of employees. We are convinced more and more that a man is not created to work, and the concept of homo faber is a work of culture, not nature. So far, one has not detected a „work gene” in the human genome. That is why to the work we refer as something imposed from outside, which enslaves us - with distance, aversion and even hostility. Thus, in the consciousness of the masses it has formed a negative attitude to work and indirectly the pejorative referring to employers. On the one hand, a lot of people are stressed and sick even by the think about work. On the other hand, economic factors have contributed to the phenomenon of workaholism - many people are „sick for labor. The paid work generates more of harmful than beneficial effects for human in the individual, social, global, and specific dimension and the progress of knowledge and technology made them more human and free. However, over time the role of work changes from constructive to destructive. Earlier, work perfected humans in respect of body and intellect. Now, people are degenerated by the work which makes them less and less human and more enslaved. There are few negative effects of work:  The work objectifies people and dehumanizes them in consequence of the progressive alienation of work and of mechanomorphization of people.  Increasingly efficient work causes physical and mental wear and premature professional burnout proportional to the intensity of work and its pace.  The work instead enrich employees, contributes to the increasing pauperi- sation them.  Acceleration of the pace of work implies the acceleration of activities in non-productive spheres of life and creates an acceleration psychosis.  Formal and informal extension of work time limits the free time more and

more.  Increase of labor productivity leads to excessive growth of demand and consequently to the prodigality.  The work creates unemployment and becomes a luxury good.  The work environment becomes increasingly stressful and working climate amd it generates neuroses.

For this reason among the people grows feeling of senselessness of work, which does not give satisfaction or guarantee of survival. The work is now perceived not as a pleasure, as a „key to heaven”, to the prosperity, but as an economic necessity. It is not a need resulting from human nature, but a product of culture, which is somthing alien to the human nature. Therefore, work ethic disappears quickly. It disappears too in consequence of objectiv cause - with the changes of traditional forms of work.7 Nowadays, the work is not something valuable. On the contrary, one can observe the phenomenon of bragging of the skill of non-working. .

Competition

Competition grows proportionally to the development of capitalism and liberalism. It sharpens itself in proportion as it includes various spheres of social life, and as it becomes a condition for success and survival. From the beginning it was something useful, because it forced people to work more efficiently and to improve strategies of actions that should lead to the victory. So, it was a driving force for the development of individuals and for the economy. Recently almost everyone with everyone competes and everything that has some value for someone becomes the subject of the competitive struggle. Competitive struggle is increasingly less fair. One uses the methods and means non permitted morally. Even the legal provisions guaranteeing fair competition in the sphere of economics are not respected. In other areas there are no legal regulations for the competition. Common and fiering competitive struggle led to the fact that the slogan "Man to Man is Wolf ' became a symptom of modern civilization. It seems that the competitive struggle has already reached a critical point and further spiral of competiton is for many reasons pointless and senseless. It does not

7 See Maja S, Maier, Thomas Vogel, Ubergang in eine neue Arbeitswelt ?, Springer Vrl. 2013.

contribute significantly to the growth of labor productivity, to the improvement of people or to improve the economic situation. And growth of competition in global politics, economy and military sphere lead to negative events such as social revolutions and wars. Therefore, only recently the competition gives place to cooperation. It is better than the competition, because it gives the same or higher profits as competition, does not create antagonistic social contradictions, and contributes to sustainable development and to the development of harmonious social relations on a global scale. The process of transformation of competition into cooperation occurs not intentionally due by individuals (the leaders), but rather spontaneously, as if objectively.

The competition proves to be not good especially on the labor market, in commerce and production. The labor market shrinks in proportion to progress of knowledge, technology, and work organization and production management. The result of automation, computerization and robotics are reduction of working time and drastic elimination of jobs. Always less people have to be employed to produce the quantity of goods required by society. Less and less people must be employed in production, although the number of produced goods increases rapidly due to the artificially created and excessive demand in the consumer society. Therefore, it grows rapidly structural, conjunctural and functional unemployment. At present, it is a mass phenomenon, which is a social plague. For now, in countries with a high level of technology, but in the near perspective in other countries, which being underdeveloped quickly makes up their technological backwardness. Currently, even in developed countries, unemployment is on average 12%, and among young people about 20%. In 2013, about 203 million people in the world were out of work and people under 24 up 74.2 million. In 2017, such people there will be probably 210 million. The rise of unemployment will be mainly in the rich countries. In the EU the average unemployment rate is about 12.5%, and in Poland about 10%. The highest unemployment rate are Namibia (51%) and Rwanda (30%). In the US the unemployment rate is 9.2% and in the United Kingdom 8.9%. The phenomenon of lower demand for labor occurs too in the sphere of services related to the material conditions of life. Here for now is quite a high demand for various types of intermediaries, mainly in trade and banking - the agents, salesmen, etc. In Po- land, according to the forecasts for the nearest years, the jobs will be for trans-

lators and language experts, software testers, specialists in e-marketing, care- givers of the elderly, mobile application programmers, facility manager, lean manager, psychotherapists, professionals engineers, doctors-specialists, financial analysts, programmers of databases (Big data), web designers (Webmas- ters), and specialists in life science (biology, biotechnology, genomics, pharmaceuticals and biomedicine). However, it is doubtful whether in the future the services market will be able to absorb the surplus of production workers. This seems very unprobably, because one day there also will be reached the satura- tion of the labor force. All the time, unemployment show a tending to increase. One estimates it around 50%. It is relatively high, and certainly it will continuously grow, though non-monotonously. Once it will decline, once it will increase. Therefore, here and there may happen temporary falls of the unemployment rate. The threat of unemployment generates fear of loss of means of livelihood and of social exclusion. People fight fiercely to win the jobs and to keep them. It generates jealousy, aggression, class disintegration and wilderness of customs. As in this „rat race” all the means and ways, even unethical, are allowed.

Also, in spite of appearances, the competition in the trade is harmful. On one hand, it should contribute to the improvement of trade services and price reductions. But, on the other hand, it causes opposed effects and other undesirable phenomena. The life shows that prices did not decrease, but steadily increases. Price fluctuations in plus or in minus are temporary and local. They oscillate around a line that constantly ascends. This is due to various factors influencing the price increase, for example, the cost of advertising and of more and more sophisticated packagings. Their impact on the price increase is much greater than the impact of competition on the price reduction. Negative effect of competition is a rapidly progressing liquidation of small shops. Their places take big hypermarkets with global reach, which act like monopolists - they subordi- nate global trade and dictate the conditions of buying and selling.

Competition in the sphere of production also generates negative effects. In a consumer society the production of commodities is focused on accelerating growth. This leads to overproduction, i.e. above the normal needs. Surplus goods which cannot be selled should be destroyed (recycling applies only a part of them); it changes in the garbage. For their production more and more energy

and raw materials must be consumed needlessly. Both results in prodigality: the consumer society is a typical “society of wasters”. Millions tons waste and food are thrown in the garbage cans; the most in the richest countries.

SHORT CONLUSION

The social system formed by capitalism and neo-liberalism undoubtedly contributes to the progressive wildness of people at present. This system not only tolerates savagery of society, but promotes it and encourages to it. However, the wildness does not follow automatically from the social system. It is not a fruit of system. Nothing happens automatically in the social reality, but from the fault of the people. Fortunately, not all become wild, only the individuals exceptionally degenerate, irresponsible, stupid and disrespectful legal and moral standards and such which, as in the case suicide-terrorists, are influenced so far by fundamentalist religion, ideology or culture of death, that they lose their survival instinct, which is inherent to all living beings. For now, these social degenerates are few, although the consequences of their doings are significant and disproportional to their numbers. However, it is not known how long they will be the minority and whether their number will grow with the development of our Western civilization and the lack of a strong response from a healthy society. If people do not become aware of dangers on time and do not take radical countermeasures adequate to the degree of savagery, our civilization will decay. And it's only due to our fault and our sin of negligence, not because of any "objective" laws of social development or supernatural forces. On the other hand, one does not know whether to defend this civilization rer- ceived as the "civilization of evil", or it will be better to destroy it as soon as possible and to begin to build some better civilization on the basis of other social system. However, we do not have yet any vision of a better social system. Therefore, the civilization of wildness will develop swiftly within the contemporary social system. Carroll Quigley8 distinguishes following phases of the development of civilization: birth, energetic expansion (increase in the size and

8 Carroll Quigley (1910 –1977) was American historian and theorist of the evolution of civilizations. He taught at Princeton University, and at Harvard, and then from 1941 to 1976 at the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University.

power), progressive crises (even if they pass, they weaken its energy and mo- rale), the stagnation, the golden age of peace and prosperity, re-crises (their effect is the moral and physical weakening and inability to defend against external forces of destruction, so-called external enemies), and finally submerging into another civilization or the complete disappearance. After analyzing the birth and fall of different civilizations he came to the conclusion that the cause of disintegration and collapse of Western civilization is a gradual transformation of social organizations in inhuman institutions. Democracy degenerates under progressing neo-liberalism, and the authorities become alienated increasingly behaving arrogantly in relation to social masses and to ignore their real needs. Together with this, the organizations, functioning earlier in order to fulfill real social needs, transformed themselves into organizations functioning for their own goals and independently of social needs. Interpersonal relationships become inhuman and wild in consequence of competitive battle, neo slavery, dehumanization of institutions and social organizations, and the collapse of democracy. All this contributes to a serious crisis of Western civilization. Accord- ing to Ferguson, if the West would lose its monopoly over six "secret weapons", we should experience in a short time the end of the domination of Western civilization in the world.

REFERENCES:

1. Ferguson Niall, Civilization. The West and the Rest, Allen Lane, London 2012 2. Hahn Hans-Joachim, Simon Lutz, Höllensturz und Hoffnung: Warum unsere Zivi- lisation zusammenbricht und wie sie sich erneuern kann. Olzog, München 2013 3. Maier Maja S, Vogel Thomas, Ubergang in eine neue Arbeitswelt ?, Springer Vrl. 2013 4. Querol Ricardo de, Zygmunt Bauman: Social media are a trap, El País, 25.01.2016 5. Sztumski Wiesław, Praca - czynnik degenerujący, Sprawy Nauki, No 11/2009

Dr hab. Wiesław Sztumski – Silesian University, Katowice, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

Andrew S. TARGOWSKI

FROM INFORMATION WAVE TO VIRTUAL CIVILIZATION

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this investigation is to define the central contents and issues of the rise and development of Virtual Civilization. The methodology is based on an interdisciplinary big-picture view of the Virtual Civilization’s elements of development and their interdependency. Among the findings are: Virtual Civilization has infrastructural characteristics, a world-wide unlimited, socially constructed work and leisure space in cyberspace, and it can last centuries/millennia - as long as info-communication technology is operational. Practical implications: The mission of Virtual Civilization is to control the public policy of real civilizations in order to secure the common good in real societies. Social implication: The quest for the common good by virtual society may limit or even replace representative democracy by direct democracy, while positively solving some problems, may eventually trigger permanent political chaos in real civilizations. Originality: This investigation, by providing an interdisciplinary and civilizational approach at the big-picture level defined several crucial repercussions of Virtual Civiliza- tion, which is evolving in our times and offers a golden opportunity for the well-being of humankind.

Keywords: virtual civilization, info-communication technology, virtual society

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this investigation is to evaluate the development of civilization since its beginnings 6,000 years ago (4,000 BC) in order to define the rise of the Virtual Civilization in the 21st century.

The English historian Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) published his greatest work in the twelve-volume A Study of History [(1934-61) (1995)], where he compared the history of twenty six different civilizations and argued that each follows a similar pattern of evolution through a cyclical pattern of growth, ma-

turity, and decay. He believed that societies thrive best in response to challenges and that a society’s most important task is to create a religion. He stressed religious and philosophical factors as guiding civilizations.

There is only one world civilization, yet there are about 26 main autonomous civilizations that have developed in the last 6,000 years. Perhaps, if one included satellite civilizations (cultures), this number could possibly reach about 100 or even more. However, for the clarity of this synthesis we would like to limit the scope to the foremost 26 autonomous civilizations.

The world civilization as a continuum never dies—it only evolves from one stage to another. This evolution takes place through the life cycle of autonomous civilizations. At the very beginning of human civilization, there were several successful formations of living processes that could be considered autonomous civilizations. They took place in different parts of the world and, and there were about eight cases. The first autonomous civilization was the Meso- potamian Civilization (including Sumerian), which emerged in the valley of the Euphrates-Tigris rivers in the Middle East, about 4,000 B.C. In the Far-East, the first autonomous civilizations rose inland: Indus (Harrappan) about 2,500 B.C. and Sinic about 1,500. In Africa the initial civilization was the Berberic- Carthagean Civilization 600 B.C. and, in South America early autonomous civilizations included the Andean Civilization that emerged about 1500 B.C.. In Central America the first autonomous civilization was the Meso-American Civ- ilization which rose 1000 BC. Both civilizations fell about 1600 AD.

Autonomous civilizations rose in response to physical challenges of nature (ecosystem). Humans began to organize themselves into a society, which provided exchangeable and specialized services, such as food hunting, food production, house building, road construction, transportation, health care, entertainment, and so forth. These services and growing human communication led towards the formation of cities. These types of autonomous civilizations we will call societal civilizations.

In addition to the environmental challenges, the societal civilization as a whole has been threatened by its own internal structure involving power, wealth creation, beliefs enforcement, family formation, leadership, and so forth. As societal civilizations evolved into more complex entities, they were managed by cultural

manipulation. These types of autonomous civilizations we will refer to as cultural civilizations. By culture, we understand a value-driven patterned behavior of a human entity.

Ever since religion was transformed from beliefs in magic to beliefs in poly- gods and then to a mono-god, cultural civilization has applied religion as the main tool of cultural control. Religious and military forces were the foundations of the power apparatus that maintained the society as a governed entity. These forces civilized society and moved it into higher levels of organization. Among cultural civilizations one can recognize about 16 cases, such as the Egyptian Civilization 3100 B.C., the Minoan 2700 B.C., the Mycean Civilization 1500 B.C., the Sinic Civilization 1500 B.C., the Hellenic Civilization 750 B.C., the Canaanite Civilization 1100 B.C., the Hindu Civilization 600 B.C., the Roman Civilization 31 B.C., the Eastern Civilization 350 A.D., the Hellenistic Civili- zation 323 B.C., the Buddhist Civilization 600 A.D., the Ethiopian Civilization 400 A.D., the Sub-Saharan Civilization 800 A.D., the Western Civilization 800 A.D., the Islamic Civilization 1300 A.D. and the Maghrebian Civilization 1000 A.D. Cultural civilization evolves into a civilization with challenges generated by intra and inter-civilizational issues of war and peace. These types of issues have been managed by technological means of domination. Such civilizations we will call infrastructural civilizations.

Infrastructural civilization’s purpose is to expand spheres of influence with the means of technology. Technology drives the development of infrastructural civilizations. The prime target of technological applications has been the military which supports the main values of a given civilization. By-products of milita- ristic applications of technology affect the civilian part of its infrastructure. Among eight infrastructural civilizations one can recognize the Sinic Civiliza- tion 1500 B.C., the Hindu Civilization 600 B.C., the Japanese Civilization 650 A.D., the Western Civilization 800 A.D., the Eastern Civilization 350 A.D., the Buddhist Civilization 600 A.D., the Islamic Civilization 1300 A.D., and the Af- rican Civilization 1847 A.D (after the Berlin Treaty).

By the end of the 2nd Millennium, infrastructural civilizations had become civilizations responsible for world hemisphere influence and domination. Hence, Western Civilization dominates the Western Hemisphere, Eastern and Hindu

rule the Eastern Hemisphere, the Islamic Civilization rules the Near and Middle East Hemisphere and some parts of the Far East Hemisphere, the Japanese Civ- ilization governs some parts of the Far East Hemisphere, the Chinese Civiliza- tion influences the majority of the Far East Hemisphere, and the Buddhist civilization influences a small part of the Far East Hemisphere.

The process of evolving civilizations at the end of the 20th century is depicted in Figure 1. according to the kinds of challenges they face and their responses.

Figure 1. The Process of Evolving Civilizations at the End of the 20th Century.

According to a composite definition of a civilization (Targowski 2009b), it is characterized by the following important attributes: 1. Large society a. Specializing in labor b. Self-differentiating c. Sharing the same knowledge system 2. Space and Time a. Autonomous fuzzy reification b. Distinguished and extended area or period of time c. Reification not a part of a larger entity 3. Cultural system, values and symbol-driven a. Communication driven (e.g.: literate and electronic media) b. Religion, wealth and power driven

4. Infrastructural system, technology-driven by first at least one of the following: a. Urban infrastructure b. Agricultural Infrastructure c. Other infrastructures (Industrial, Information and so forth) 5. Cycle-driven a. Rising, growing, declining, and falling over time

Based on these attributes, the composite definition of civilization is as follows:

Civilization is a large society living in an autonomous, fuzzy reification (invisible-visible) which is not a part of larger one and exists over an extended period of time. It specializes in labor and differentiates from other civilizations by developing its own advanced cultural system driven by communication, religion, wealth, power, and sharing the same knowledge/wisdom system within complex urban, agricultural infrastructures, and others such as industrial and information ones. It also progresses in a cycle or cycles of rising, growing, declining and falling.

A graphic model of civilization is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. A Model of Civilization

A short definition of a civilization can be as follows:

A civilization is a complex of compatibly interactive entities of society, culture(s) and infrastructure in a large frame of territory and time, usually em- bracing several nations and centuries/millennia.

Civilizations are dynamic and rise, grow, decline and disappear or transform into other ones. Usually the developmental process of civilization can be divided in states (feudal systems, state systems, and imperial systems) (Melko 1969). However, in the study of the history of political or technological developments, the time categories are usually considered as “ages,” “eras,” and “waves.”

By an “ages” one can understand a dominant technology or political system applied in practice at a certain time, although a given technology/political system is sooner or later replaced by the next “age” of progressive or regressive solutions. An “era” is a synonym for “age” but implies a long “age.” Also an “era” can be replaced by the next “era” of a progressive or regressive solution.

A “wave” is associated with the production, processing, or trade of a kind of food, good, or information related to a new technology or new rules. . It has a very strong impact upon the modus operandi of a society. It is not replaceable, but is impacted by the next wave of technology.

AGES, ERAS, AND WAVES OF CIVILIZATION

Man has survived longer than stronger animals because he has had an important advantage: a brain driven by information-communication. With a brain, mankind has been able to learn, communicate, and develop a structure of consciousness. At first, the nose was the most important organ for the archaic, nomadic hunters. Then, about 200,000 years ago, the human information system began “upgrading” human consciousness through emotions and rituals, and the ear became the most important organ for those hunters. Their ears developed an appreciation for music and dance. That was the first advanced pattern of human cultural behavior. About 10,000 years ago, consciousness became mythical and 2-dimensional, with some appreciation for the natural tempo of events.

Mankind started farming, dreaming of a better social order for its members, and creating myths through symbolic imagination and language-driven communication. At this time, then, the mouth became the most important organ. Around 5000 BC, the Egyptian calendar, regulated by the Sun and Moon in 360 days (12 months of 30 days each), became the first organized information system

(IS) device that supported man’s survival and development. About 1000 years later, the Sumerians developed writing and organizational patterns for “civilized” cities. About 2,500 BC, the structure of consciousness became mental and 3-dimensional, with a sense of abstract time, cultural curiosity for science and art, dogma, rules, and laws. The first knowledge centers appeared in Egypt, where written literature lamented about the meaning of life using papyrus and collecting them in the first World’s Library in Alexandria. The manufacturing of objects and the production of food (bread, beer) took place. Thus, the eye became the most important organ for the awakened man with volition and reflection about himself and the world (Simpson 1992).

For extended periods of time, the evolution of the Earth was understood as being regulated by a relationship between nature’s internal forces such as gravity, atomic dynamics, time, and space dynamics. Today, the problem of life on Earth has become a puzzle based upon relationships (info-communication) among people and their level of cognition, and communicating this through information-knowledge systems.

The tool in achieving this role is knowledge, disseminated first by books and now by computers and their networks. Mediated communication has a long story. The invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in 1454 boosted the spread of knowledge. This has become the most significant invention to separate written print from the spoken world. Printing soon became a means of disseminating and intensifying intellectual endeavors. Before Gutenberg, each volume was handwritten, often by monks. In the 15th century, a book was as costly and as rare as jewels.

Before the printing press, scientists would take long trips merely to familiarize themselves with the content of a certain book. The enlightened ruler Carl IV of Luxembourg collected 114 volumes, while the French king Carl V, amassed as many as 900. Then, printing houses began to print hundreds of books (Figure 3). By the year 1500, within 50 years of the invention of the German press1, 30,000 reasonably priced books were in circulation. The satire of Erasmus of Rotterdam appeared during his lifetime in 27 editions. Print was steering

1 One must mention that woodblock printing of written characters was known in China by A.D. 350. Ce- ramic movable type was in use in China about A.D. 1040. The Koreans invented print in the 5th century; however, it was not applied widely and became unknown for others outside of Korea.

thoughts and ideas in millions of people, inspiring them to speed, simplify and strengthen the work of the mind.

Figure 3. The Gutenberg Press modernized civilization for the next 500+ years. (Photo: Library of Congress, www.loc.gov)

The printed alphabet in book form, which was the first “computer terminal,” became an absorber and transformer of civilization. New media such as letters and printed books altered the ration between our senses and changed the mental (information processing) process. Print made a split between the head and heart which has become a trauma, affecting Western Civilization up to the present (McLuhan 1962). It created government regulations, but it also inspired indi- vidualism and opposition to ideology, science, and art. Science and technology began to develop at an accelerated pace. Airplanes, cars, telegraphs, telephones, typewriters, phonographs, movies, radios, televisions, weapons, computers, automation, and telecommunications modernized human life and its story. Human consciousness has become integral and 4-dimentional (free from space and time), allowing us to enjoy learning, loving, wholeness, and wisdom for the community and ourselves. The nervous system has now become the most crucial organ, developing a “meta-sense.” We are better at understanding rather than explaining the purpose and rules of our existence through education and research.

American physicist John Wheeler has formulated the Theory of the Participa- tory Universe. In this theory, observers are central to the nature of physical reality and matter is ultimately relegated to the mind. Wheeler sees the Universe as a gigantic “information processing” system with a yet-undermined output, and he has coined the phrase “IT from BIT,” meaning every “thing” – a particle, a field of force, or even space-time itself - all is ultimately manifested to us

through “bits” of information.

The curriculum of the Human Story driven by science, technology and info- communication is illustrated in Figure 4. This model tries to establish some relationships between the Political, Labor, and Intellectual Perspectives in the modern history of civilization. This period began in the Renaissance with a re- birth of learning following the darkness of the medieval period. The modern times started in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. Many scholars who fled from the Byzantine Empire were fleeing westward for safety – (some are still fleeing). Their learning spread rapidly with the development of printing in Europe (1454). This boosted the questioning of established ideas regarding religion (Reformation), art, and science. When scholarship began to develop independently of the church, the human rather than divine in life and art was emphasized; the well rounded, informed individual (for example, Leo- nardo da Vinci) become the ideal. Certain (only major) “ages,” and “eras” and “waves” (not exclusive) which influence the role of information (and vice- versa) will be characterized as follows: 1. The Modernity Era (1454-1814) – transition from the Middle Ages to early modernity. 2. The Science Age (1500-1800) – the rise of theoretical sciences and modern technology (maritime). 3. The Revolution Age (1685-1917) – The English, American, French, and Bolshevik Revolutions. 4. The Modern Era (1814-1914) – the Industrial Revolution (the engine, electricity, and the factory system). 5. The Control Revolution (since 19th century) – telegraphs, punched cards, typewriters, Transatlantic cable, telephones, cash registers, adding machines, motion pictures, wireless telegraphs and radios. 6. The Modernity Era (1914-1990s)-technological innovations of the 19th century were applied on a large scale during peace and war times. 7. The Electronic Age (1940s--) – computers and transistors were invented. 8. The Computer Age (1950s-1980s) – main-frames, minis, personals, and computer networks. 9. The Information Age (1980s--) – application systems such as management information systems (MIS) and e-commerce.

10. The Telecommunication Age (1960s--) – Satellites, break-down of AT&T. 11. The Communication Age (1983--) – the Internet, e-mail, mobile communication and smartphones. 12. The Next Globalization Wave (1990s---) – world-wide-web and global economy. 13. The Virtualization Age (2000s--) – virtual organizations and social networks. 14. The Internet of Things (2010s--) – info-communication among devises-sen- sor controlled. 15. Post-Modernization Era (1990s--) – from economic growth towards sustainability and from materialism towards subjective well-being as the leading ideas, but not applied on a large scale in the world societies.

Figure 4. A Set of Civilization Ages, Eras, and Waves in the last 500+ Years

Civilization began about 4000 BCE, meaning it is 6000 years old. However, modern civilization is about 500 years old, as it is characterized by 15 ages, eras, and waves. To establish more synthesized periods of civilization development, one must see them in terms of waves.

Most of the writing on waves of civilization was done by Alvin Toffler (1980) who recognized three waves: First Wave (Agriculture Wave), Second Wave

(Industrial Wave) and the Third Wave (Information Wave). However, one can note additional waves in the development of humankind, which number at least seven in total: 0. Settlers Wave (9,000 BCE - 7,000 BCE) I. Agriculture Wave (7,000 BCE+) II. Industrial Wave (1800+) III. Information Wave (1980+) IV. Globalization Wave (1990+) V. Virtualization Waves (2000+) VI. Communicating Things Wave (2010+)

The Zero Wave – Settlers Wave – This wave transformed hunters and farmers into settlers, who organized the first villages in the Middle East and stabilized their lives around animal domestication and food production, which after 5,000 years of wealth accumulation led to the rise of the first civilization in 4,000 BCE. It is interesting to notice that after 9,000 years (7,000 BCE-2,000) mankind is moving again and has become a “global hunter” for profit and jobs, while the Fourth Wave, Globalization, took off in the 1990s through the global infrastructures of info-communication and transportation networks.

The First Wave – the Agriculture Wave – began in 7,000 BCE and will remain active as long as food is needed, which means that it will be active as long as humankind is alive. The Second Wave – the rise of the Industrial Wave – is about 200 years old. It minimized human’s physical effort through mechanization and freed up time for education, which led to the Scientific Revolution and invention of aircrafts and computers. The latter has led to the Third Wave, the Information Wave, and its magic tool, the Internet. The airplane and Internet have increased human global mobility, which has triggered the Fourth Wave – The Globalization Wave.

The waves of civilization are shown in Figure 5. Each wave has its own set of civilization tools, which primarily support control processes by elites over their clients. The main control solutions for each wave are shown in this figure. It is important to notice that none of these waves replace the wave that precedes it. For example, information cannot replace food, steel or plastic; it can only improve their creation and utilization.

mu- Com ing - icat tuali n Vir hings ali- ion T Glob zat ave or- n ve W Inf zatio W a 00+ n + 20 strial atio ave 000 Indu m W 2 e ave 90+ l Wav W 19 ltura 80+ gricu 800+ 19 A e 1 Wav -7000 I O N Z A T ty I ocie I L S C I V

ure Cult

e ion e tur gnit Wav truc Co lers fras rol & Sett 7000 In Cont -- - ) 000 onal -9 izati civil (pre 0 -400

Figure 5. Civilization Waves

Each civilization wave is not disappearing (with the exception to a certain degree being the Settlers Wave, which is a de facto pre-civilization wave). Perhaps each new wave takes the place of leadership in civilization development and selects the best talent to work for it. Furthermore, each wave perpetuates other waves, as is shown in Figure 5.. Current job trends, which focus on outsourcing computing to India, contradict earlier assessments that the millennial American workforce would be heavily focused in computing. In the twenty-first century it is even possible to outsource computer programming to India, thousands miles away from headquarters, similarly to how manufactured goods are outsourced to China.

THE RISE OF THE INFROMATION WAVE

As the Industrial Wave declines and the Control Revolution rises, the Infor- mation Wave rises also. The theory of post-industrialism advanced by Daniel Bell (1986) provides much of the conceptual background behind the Infor- mation Wave as the Information Society. ). Bell’s concept of postindustrial society has five dimensions: 1. There is a shift from a goods-producing economy to a service-producing one. 2. There is an increase in size and influence of the classes of professional workers.

3. The post-industrial society is organized around theoretical knowledge. 4. A critical aim is the management of technological growth. 5. There is an emphasis on the development of methods of intellectual technology.

Intelligent technology under the form of global computer networks dramatically expands the power of the brain into hyper-intelligence. With appropriate control programming, a network becomes a sensitive devise, not only as a physical devise, but also as an economic, social, and political one.

The spending on info-communication technology (ICT, the core of “intellectual technology) in the US reached $3.6 trillion in 2012 (The New York Times, July 9, 2012), which is about 22 % of GDP, which is 20% more what was spent on health care that year in the U.S.!

The 19th century eliminated wilderness through railroads. The 20th century developed science and technology that improved the well-being of many and pushed the planet to its limits resources-wise. The 21st century perhaps will implement the Information Wave across all civilizations to improve knowledge- based, critical decisions about social life under the conditions of limited resources.

The mission of the Information Wave is: To wisely control development and operations of the Agricultural Wave, Industrial Wave, Global Wave, and the other waves as well.

The goals of the Information Wave are: 1. To optimize development and operations of the Agricultural Wave, Indus- trial Wave, Global Wave, and the other ones in order to minimize the use of resources and ecology and to increase a citizen’s choices and quality of life. 2. To sustain the development of human cognition in order to make conscious and wise decisions about: the sense of human possibility, life, education, health, politics, defense, business, entertainment and leisure time.

The strategy of the Information Wave is: To develop and apply info-communication technology in control systems in a rational and human manner.

The role of the Information Wave in supporting other waves is shown in Figure 6. Additive Processes Increasing Civilization Complexity

1990s + INFORMATION WAVE

Digital Culture Information Infrastructure automation-informatization-communication- C Netcitizen ad-hoc-cracy o (Info Society, Intensified g t n C

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knowledge-freedom) & i o t o n

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c p l c t i i i u -6,000 + AGRICULTURAL WAVE z v s a S i a t t y i o B Agriculture n Culture Agricultural Infrastructure Farmer Superstition & settlements, improvements-administration (landlords- religion wealth)

CIVILIZATION

Fig. 6. The Role of the Information Wave in Supporting other Civilization Waves

These aims should be applied at all levels of civilization, including: national and local governments, schools & colleges, business and other organizations, homes, and individuals. The Information Wave is composed of the following metaphoric elements (Figure 7):  Info-factories, which generate information and seek new information; among them are the following: online enterprises, online schools and colleges, online communities, online governments, e-Republic, other.  Info-malls, which provide the following services: e-mail, e-learning, e- banking, e-trading, e-job recruitment, e-information services, e-research, e- publishing, e-entertainment, e-calling, other.

Cyberspace Infohighway

Info- Infomalls factories Cybernauts n o i t a z

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i n

t o

a i t

i a z

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GLOBAL WAVE

Figure 7. The Architecture of the Information Wave (2000) (Virtual and Communicating Things Waves Are Not Shown)

 Infohighways, which transmit information content through info-communication services, such as: Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) , Wide Area Networks (WAN), Global Area Networks (GAN), Value Area Networks (VAN), the Internet, TV, radio broadcasting, and others.  Cyberspace is a digital information-based dark space: that is, a dispersed, infinite constellation of digital files, databases, home pages, bulletin boards, directories, menus, and others, where humans with a password interactively navigate in order to create, update, exchange, and retrieve information.  Cybernauts (netcitizens), who are informed tele-computer users with a password to access billions of information tidbits and do everything on-line from shopping and learning to working and resting. Cybernauts can be “electronic immigrants” who can telecommute to work over great distances.

The Information Wave is not just a matter of technology and economics. It involves morality, culture and ideas as well as institutions and political structures. It implies, in short, a true transformation of human affairs (Tofflers, 1994).

On the other hand, the unwise application of the Information Wave may be harmful for humans. Let’s pose the following questions for civilization decision-makers:  Is it wise to design automation, robotization, and informatization in such a way that their operators only watch the screens of many instruments but have little to say in the development control of a product? Sooner or later society will be divided into two groups of people: “thinking” designers and “thoughtless” users of such systems. It may lead to more productive solutions, but it may also degrade people and create a bifurcated society.  Whether the world should unwisely apply automation, robotization, and informatization to reduce employment, when population growth and the de- mands of workers have interests often directly in contrast to strategies of efficiency?  Whether the business and public administration should imprudently apply automation, robotization, and informatization to promote end- less economic growth, while the reserves of strategic resources are depleting and sooner or later civilization as we know it will literally run out of gas?

There are plenty of such questions which face civilization now. Most of the time they are neglected, sometimes with catastrophic results. The potential of the Information Wave is in optimization of economic performance as well as to an even greater extent the wise control of civilization.

THE RISE OF THE VIRTUAL WAVE

When virtual was first introduced in information technology, it applied to memory simulated by the computer; that is, memory not actually built into the processor. Over time, though, the adjective has been applied to entities such as things, organizations, processes, and people that really exist and are simulated by means of information technology. For example, virtual conversations are conversations that take place over computer networks, and virtual communities are genuine social groups that assemble around the use of e-mail, webpages,

and other networked resources. The adjectives virtual and digital and the pre- fixes e- and cyber- are all used in various ways to denote information, things, activities, and organizations that are realized or carried out chiefly in an electronic medium. Virtual tends to be used in reference to entities that mimic their "real" parallels. Thus a digital library would simply be a library that applies information technology, whether a brick-and-mortar library equipped with networked computers or a library that exists exclusively in electronic form, whereas a virtual library could only be the latter of these (The American Herit- age® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition).2

Virtual worlds have exploded out of online game culture and now capture the attention of millions of ordinary people: students, husbands, wives, fathers, mothers, workers, and retirees. Devoting dozens of hours each week to massive multiplayer virtual reality environments – such as Civilization, World of Warcraft or Second Life – these millions are the start of an exodus to the refuge of the virtual, where they experience life under a new social, political, and economic order built around fun (Castronova 2007).

The development of the Global Economy in the 2010s is well established. The integrated information infrastructure has led to a boom in the development of social networks. In the past several years, some networks have thrived, some have vanished, and hundreds of new ones have appeared. It has become a huge area to follow, and nowadays one estimate is that about 500 large social networking sites offer services for about 1.242 billion users, as Table 1 illustrates the richness of this kind of info-communication-driven socialization.

Table 1. The Ranking of the Largest Nations by its Citizenships/Memberships in 2012

RANKING NATION POPULATION GLOBAL VIRTUAL SOCIETY 1 China 1.360 M 2 India 1.234 M 3 Facebook 1,100 M 1,100 M

2 The prefix e- is generally preferred when speaking of the commercial applications of the Web, as in e- commerce, e-cash, and e-business, whereas cyber- tends to be used when speaking of the computer or of networks from a broader cultural point of view, as in cybersex, cyber-church, and cyberspace. But like everything else in this field, such usages are evolving rapidly, and it would be rash to try to predict how these expressions will be used in the future (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Lan- guage, Fourth Edition).

4 United States 317 M 5 MySpace 35 M 35 M 6 Indonesia 238 M 7 Brazil 201 M 8 Pakistan 184 M 9 Russia 144 M 10 Bangladesh 153 M 11 Nigeria 174 M 12 Japan 127 M 13 Twitter 124 M 200 M 14 Mexico 118 M 15 Vietnam 89 M 15 Other Social Networks Estimation 300 M TOTAL 1.635 B

These 1,635,000,000 users of global social networks today create the Global Virtual Society (GVS), which is mostly composed of young and middle aged people (a new emerging global information elite). They exchange information about facts, events, feelings, situations, activities, pictures, videos, and opinions faster and more frequently than they could in the real environment [117 million users visited Facebook every month in March 2010 (Time, May 31, 2010, p.37)]. These facts are very encouraging, since the world in the 2010s is not in good shape. Some civilizations such as Western, Eastern, and Islamic are in conflicts and wars. The global economy economically flattens the world at the cost of Western Civilization, which economically declines, because it is outsourcing its industry to less developed civilizations, where the cost of labor is low. The world needs new ideas and political will to improve its well-being. To do so, the hope is in the young generation which populated and even created the GVS (complex of social networks). In the spring 2010, just after being elected, Britain’s Prime Minister David Cameron wanted a few tips from somebody who could tell him how it felt to be responsible for, and accountable to, many millions of people who expected things from him, even though in most cases he would never shake their hands. Prime-Minister Cameron turned not to a fellow of government but to Mark Zuckerberg, the founder and head of Facebook, the largest social network.

These two men talked about ways for networks to help governments, for example how to generate ideas on cutting public spending. They talked as masters of two great nations (The Economist, p.59, 7-24, 2010). Facebook is the fastest growing social network in the 2010s, which within a few years should reach 1.5 billion users. It will be a social network with the potential to become the first example of the Global Virtual Nation (GVN) in civilization. To become such a nation, Facebook must transform itself into a service not for profit and form a government, agencies and acquire citizens. This transformation should take some time in the near future, and it will require some strong societal and organizational will as well as initial capital. The emerging social networks lead to the birth of collective “mindspheres” of intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom at global and national levels. Figure 8 illustrates the architecture of these new collective mindspheres. Along with practice, these mindspheres can multiply at all levels of the nation, for example at the level of the village, town, township, county, city, and state. It will take time before such mindspheres can become organized. This certainly will not take place everywhere, but it will where there is social will and organizational might. These mindspheres working in universal cyberspace should facilitate the collection and exchanges of ideas and solutions which may liberate us from social and political hierarchies that stay in the way of mankind’s advancement (Lέvy 1997). Pierre Lέvy says that perhaps “it is a utopia but is an achievable utopia.” Furthermore, he thinks that “we cannot only exchange information but think together, share our memories and our plans to produce a cooperative brain.” This collective brain, or rather mind, can multiply our social and cognitive potential. With such a powerful tool, mankind’s consciousness can become broader, deeper, and more sophisticated, and perhaps be able to solve what are currently unsolvable problems. Will we be ready with such a collective mind to stop the depletion of strategic resources of our civilization, which will deplete completely within 50-200 years if we do not find good solutions? Of course this “rosy” picture is full of unexpected motives and actions triggered by computer hackers, criminals, and anti-social agents. Since the new virtual world has the same or even more intensified crimes as the physical world, it is, therefore, not yet a paradise or utopia!

Rather it is a hope for a wiser and better civilization which would like to last as long as possible.

Fig. 8. The Architecture of Emerging Collective Mindspheres at the Global and National Levels in the 21st Century

THE RISE OF VIRTUAL CIVILIZATION

How good and how much money must one possess to be elected president of the Global Virtual Nation? What would be the nature of the virtual election? Can it be made more available for more candidates? Can it be free from the pressure of groups? Can it be free of fraud? Today it is too soon to answer these questions. The coming operational practice of the GVN certainly will elaborate procedures of the political processes and systems. It will be fascinating since it will also be the birth of a new civilization, which can be called Virtual Civili- zation. It will be the next layer upon the existing civilizations. For example, in the 2010s Western Civilization is being transformed into Global Civilization and also is transforming into Virtual Civilization. An American or Portuguese citizen functions in these three civilizations concurrently! It is a big challenge to be successful in such an environment. It will also be interesting to see whether the Global Virtual Nation, created by

Western Civilization, will be pro-Western, against it or universal, which would be the most desirable position. Perhaps Virtual Civilization will be conducive for the development of Orwellianism; then again, it might just as well be against the Big Brother polity. Today it is too soon to state which way the new civilization will evolve. In contrast to participative-representative democracy, practiced in Western Civ- ilization today, the GVN will apply populist-direct democracy where to pass a bill, every citizen may vote electronically. Supposedly, every virtual citizen will belong to the information elite, which is well informed and aware of what is good or bad in a proposal being voted upon. The GVN will be dangerous for nations with authoritarian, dictatorial, and theocratic governments which ne- glect the public opinion. Today, China, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and other coun- ties block Facebook operations and censor the Internet. In 1970s, totalitarian Poland did not tolerate the INFOSTRADA project, which allowed bypassing governmental communication channels in delivering public information (Tar- gowski 2009:193). The impact of the GVN upon real global organizations (ex.: the U.N., IMF, TWO, and other stateless corporations) and national governments can be big and decisive. If virtual citizens of the GVN agree on an issue and strategy, they may enforce directions in the real world, since those virtual citizens are also real citizens in particular countries where real governments rule. Today, most people feel that they have little to say about what the government does; an over- whelming majority say that the government is run by a few big, selfish interests. Therefore, the GVN provides the opportunity to organize those unsatisfied people and pursue their (not the particular interests) issues and solutions. There is a question whether the GVN will take over civilization and govern real national governments. A somewhat similar case took place when the unempow- ered society in totalitarian Poland beat the dictatorship in 1989. This happened when the underground press exceeded the volume and truthful content of the official press. It was the victory of a well informed and motivated solidarity movement which overcame a powerful, militarized government. Later the whole Soviet Empire collapsed, mostly due to info-communication oriented policy of glasnost and pierostroyka implemented by M. Gorbachev.

The generalized model of the dynamics of Virtual Civilization is provided in Figure 9.

Figure 9. The Dynamics of the Virtual Civilization in the 21st Century

One can expect that the GVN will create subunits under the form of virtual nations (VN). A virtual nation will organize a National Virtual Government (NVG) and National Virtual Citizens (NVC) around the important issues and solutions within the boundaries of a real nation. Lawrence Grossman (1995) already perceived the emergence of the electronic republic, where electronic voting and opinion-registering technologies will go from the bottom to the top (lawmakers). But as the practice shows, the lawmakers listen to the lobbyists rather than to their constituencies. It is true that the citizens’ views are known in media and the political circles, but the citizens are rather passive and unable to implement their solutions through the official political parties, which are concerned with maintaining their own “jobs.” It is a fact that the real citizens are unorganized and dispersed. An example of a certain kind of self-organization of unsatisfied citizens in America is the Tea Party in the 2010s. Why is the Virtual Wave considered to have become Virtual Civilization in the 21st century? Most outstanding, the latter satisfies all the criteria of a civilization

as it is defined in Table 2 and has created its own independent, virtual society, parallel to the real one.

Table 2. The Classifying Criteria of the Virtual Civilization

CRITERIA ATTRIBUTES World-wide unlimited, socially constructed work and leisure space in cyber- Space space. It is an extraterritorial space with a post-national culture and in some boundaries circumstances even post-nations. Centuries/millennia - as long as info-communication technology is opera- Time span tional. Unlimited freedom, cyberspace, and progress supported by collective intelli- Religion gence - to secure common good in an alternative virtual world, since the (ideology) “real” one is going in the wrong direction in the 21st century. Virtual global, local and between communities, including the Virtual Global Society Society and Virtual Global Nation (possibly) living in spacial dispersion of social, political, and material processes. Virtual techno-culture (Robins & Webster 1999) is the culture that has emerged, or is emerging, from the use of computer networks for communication, entertainment and business (Horn 1998). E-values: connected, expected feedback, rhythm, productivity, velocity, impatience, techno-centrism, cyber- ethics, informed, optimization, big-picture vs small-picture, global awareness, self-conciseness. E-behavior: net-centric, anytime, anywhere, “death” Culture of distance, no-middleman, curiosity, discovery, digital & virtual divide, information wealth, poverty of attention (Targowski 2009:306). It is also the study of various social phenomena associated with the Internet and other new forms of network communication, such as online communities, online multiplayer gaming, and text messaging (Jones 1997). In the 1990’s information took a sharp turn away from the concrete and tangible to the abstract and intangible (Rheingold 1993). Computer networks and storage (online cyberspace as a repository for collec- Infrastructure tive cultural memory, whose narrative is created by its virtual society)

Virtual Civilization (of the infrastructural character) is to a certain degree a parallel entity to real Global Civilization in space and time. However, the former’s goal is to control the latter for securing the common good. Virtual Civilization’s main infrastructure is collective intelligence ((Lévy 1997), which develops and shares a strong ability for solving problems among virtual members and is based on a word-wide retrieval of knowledge and wisdom kept in digital format.

Virtual Civilization penetrates horizontally all other autonomous civilizations

as well as the Global Civilization, as it is depicted in Figure 10.

Fig. 10. Virtual Civilization among other Civilizations in the 21st Century

CONCLUSION

1. Virtual Civilization has transformed from the Virtual Wave into Virtual Civilization due to advancements in info-communication technology in the 21st century, exemplified by the ability of the Internet to secure operations of virtual organizations and social networks. Therefore, one can characterize Virtual Civilization as having infrastructural character. 2. The mission of Virtual Civilization is to control public policy of other real civilizations to secure the common good in the real societies. At least such a mission is exemplified in the practice of some virtual communities at the dawn of the 21st century. 3. Today it is too soon to judge the impact of Virtual Civilization upon the real ones. However, despite the positive aspects, like the quest for the common good, one can notice negative ones as well in the young generation, exem-

plified by a shortened span of attention and the desire for constant (electronic in fact) fun, playing computer games for long hours and engaging in “empty talk” in virtual mediums. For example students 18-24 years old learn less, since on average they send and answer about 100 text messages every day (Smith 2011). This is about 5 times more than a faculty is reading and answering e-messages every day. Some eager students send twice as many messages per day (200). 4. The quest for the common good by virtual society may limit or even replace representative democracy by direct democracy which although it eventually may create a few positive policies, it may also trigger permanent political chaos in real civilizations. 5. The many e-communications among people from different parts of the world is diminishing local interrelations and is intensifying connectivity among international or/and distant, parochial cultures, which eventually will separate, isolate and alienate individuals in their real living places. 6. At this time it is very improbable that virtual society can be regulated by real society. This means that Virtual Civilization, on one hand, can be positive, but on the other hand it can be harmful for humanity which is living in a declining civilization due to overpopulation, superconsumerism, depletion of strategic resources and environment degradation.

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1. Castronova, E. (2007). Exodus to the virtual world. New York: Palgrave MacMil- lan. 2. Doheny-Farina, S. (1996). The wired neighborhood. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- versity Press. 3. Elmer-Dewitt, P. (1993). Here come the cyberpunks! Time, pp. 58-65. 4. Fernback, J. (1998). The individual within the collective: virtual ideology and the realization of collective principles. In Jones, St. G. (Ed.). (1998). Virtual culture, identity & communication in cybersociety. London: SAGE Publications. 5. Grossman, L. (1995). Electronic republic. Nw York: Viking. 6. Horn, S. 1998: Cyberville: clicks, culture, and the creation of an online town. New York: Warner Books. 7. Jones, S., (ed.). (1997). Virtual culture: identity & communication in cybersociety. London: Sage Publications.

8. Lέvy, P. (1997). Collective intelligence, mankind’s emerging world in cyberspace. New York & London: PLENUM TRADE. 9. McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 10. Melko, M. (1969). The nature of civilization. Boston: Porter Sargent Publisher. 11. Rheingold, H. (1993). “A slice of life in my virtual community.” In Harasim, L. M. (ed.) Global networks: computers and international communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 57-80. 12. Robin, K. and F. Webster. (1999). Times of the technoculture. London and New York: Routledge. 13. Simpson, G. (1991). Montreux MetaResort brochure. Reno, NV: Wellness Devel- opment Ltd. 14. Smith, A. (2011). Americans and text messaging. PewResearch Center. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Cell-Phone-Texting-2011.aspx 15. Targowski, A. (2009). Information technology and societal development. Hershey & New York: IGI Global. 16. Targowski, A. (2009b). Towards a composite definition and classification of civilization. Comparative Civilizations Review. No. 60, Spring, 2009. 17. Toffler, A. & Toffler, H. (1994). Creating a new civilization. Atlanta, GA: Turner Publishing. 18. Toynbe, A. (1995). A study of history. New York: Barnes & Noble.

Andrew S. Targowski - Western Michigan University, USA President Emeritus of the International Society For the Com- parative Study of Civilizations (2007-2013) e-mail: [email protected]

Tadeusz MICZKA

CONCEPTION OF THE INTEGRAL PERSON FACED WITH THE PROSPECT OF TECHNOPOLY

ABSTRACT

The aim of the article is to consider functionality of the model of integral man in the theory and in practice of information society. It is assumed that this model-like conception of man can be still an inspiration and act as a role model for multimedia users and for modern education, despite the fact that the contemporary world is dominated by the phenomena which encourage disintegration. This assumption is illustrated with interpenetration of two models of culture. This interpenetration results in promulgation of the idea of pluralism; it also opens and deepens the sense of indefiniteness, liquidity, indecisiveness and undecidability .This dynamic of changes in human thinking and acting is treated as a characteristic quality of technopoly. It is understood as technological everyday reality which creates possibilities for their further positive development. The dissertation focuses mainly on interpersonal communication processes which are dominated by technology, the processes which result from internauts’ behaviour. Models of contemporary man’s identity are based on the following elements: characteristics of new communication competences of multimedia users and such phenomena as infofreedom and infoactivism and presentation of megatrends as directions of the development of technological everyday reality. The supremacy of models of weak identity over strong identity allows us to form a conclusion that technological man outruns ethical man; it also justifies the postulate that members of information society should be shaped first of all educationally according to the conception of integral person, which exposes the sense of internal and external balance.

Key words: model of culture, technological everyday reality, disintegration, integral person

INTRODUCTION

Integral person also called integral man is an ideal being which has appeared in

numerous philosophical conceptions as a specific ideal of man. Integral person is or should be a man who tries to give sense to their life and to understand other people and their surroundings. Integration is a specific balance and it is shown in man through values which decide about the fact that their words and deed are coherent. Integrity is simple only as a thinking scheme, in reality it is practically an unachievable utopia.

The history if integral person is very long and since its beginning certain split was included as a philosophical problem (in so called philosophy of man). The split firstly had its source in connection of soul and body and then in other opposite components of humanity and nature. In contemporary conceptions of man psychophysical split is underlined, split into nature and culture, objectivity and subjectivity, existence and essence. It is difficult to get out of it. New approaches towards the problems are proposed, they look for inspiration for example in acting practice, theatrical activities, martial arts and philosophy of the East. It is not the aim of the article to analyse this reflection, the assumption is that the pressure that man is exposed to, both internal one and the pressure evoked by external factors, is not entirely removable; what is more it tends to get faster, more dynamic and less balanced in particular situations. It can be exemplified by the common reshaping of general model of culture, the situation we dealt with at the turn of the 70s and the 80s of the 20th century. It is the time when computer became more and more common good, one of the greatest achievements of high technology and a symbol of technology, called by some “insane metaphor of contemporary times”.

The phrase big break has been overused so far while characterizing changes that take place in our life, but the process that high technology started in the second half of the 20th century and which has been going on since then to get even stronger today, actually is a radical change. It cannot be compared to anything that had happed before, maybe with the invention of print. The big break means that new media have opened new huge cognitive perspective for people and created for them completely new possibilities of development, but on the other hand they become real danger for the existing understanding of humanity and for choices of life signposts by individuals and by societies.

This interdisciplinary-oriented consideration focuses on recent culture phenom-

ena and interpersonal communication processes. The processes are dominating in the period following the big break and they are closely connected with culture phenomena. The characteristics of culture models, new communication competences of contemporary man, their attitude towards freedom and their forms of communication activity are faced with the contemporary megatrends. All these elements together with the characteristics of the transformation of their identity are supposed to prove that the more the phenomena which support the feeling of disintegration dominate the more important the idea of integral person is. It refers both to everyday thinking and acting and to pedagogical practice which has a special role in the time of radical changes. The education postulate is based on the argumentation from the theory of communication, anthropology of culture and philosophy of media.

MODELS OF CULTURE

Communication tools that we used before were just individual media, sometimes they cooperated but generally each medium functioned separately; they were basis for different forms of information exchange and artistic ex-pression. They allowed us to create rich repertoire of human images and forms of interpersonal communication, but it all happened within the definite culture matrixes because all models of culture were based on similar foundations and construction standards. It is precisely illustrated by a geometric figure called triangle based on one of its sides with acute angle pointed upwards which always symbolizes power with authority among people/subordinates. Sometimes the authority was fully deserved but usually it was imposed by its superior position. Power (every power) always used various forms of oppression towards the governed ones; no matter whether the structure of power was transparent or dispersed it used the existing media for this purpose. Among others character and content of the media were influenced.

Cultures symbolized by a triangle (or by a pyramid as the model is described by some sociologists and culture experts) had and still has many advantages both for those who govern and for those who are governed. First of all they function in precisely defined limits, they can be divided into centres and su- burbs, they function according to hierarchical rules and they have various codes

and systems of values. They offer or rather impose their participants: values, social roles, decision strategies and first of all quite coherent images of reality. In other words the most important communication processes work in one direction from top to bottom. Political power on the top passes its decisions to citizens; church hierarchies govern their communities form the top position; scientists on the top share their knowledge with various social strata; schools and parents in their top position introduce into life principles of particular pedagog- ies and educational doctrines etc.

In the previous century, which was the century of technical inventions and the century of numerous announced and cancelled “ends” and big breaks, this traditional model of culture, which appears in many different variants, constantly evolved. But in the second half of the century, as it was already mentioned, this model took a radical form. As a result of changes which took place, almost all cultures described by the triangle (pyramid) model became unstable; all those models in which organization of social life was determined by the top-bottom relation. The dominating model is replaced by cultures based on the model of network. In some cultural spaces it is replaced gradually, in some not, but it is ‘always and everywhere’ modified.

“The notion of network should be treated as the main metaphor of postmodern realty, which organizes rules of new technology and society; it is possible because they are able to describe all types of connections, relations, dependencies of social and economic character. Network is a synonym of every communication and it functions according to its own specific logic. In the literature concerning the subject we can find many methods to analyze network categories, referring to evolutionary development of network theories in physics and mathematics, but also referring to social and economic changes which form new faces of complicated social networks. [...] generally every definition uses the same concept apparatus. Everybody writes about knots and connections”1. My article will concentrate only on two most important qualities, which rapidly extend existing communication paradigm of culture. The first one was mentioned by Michael Lovaglia, who treats network as “the pattern of potential exchanging relations between positions” in the situation when “every position is connected

1 Betlej, A.: Metafora sieci a nauki społeczne – w kierunku zmiany paradygmatu struktur. In: Transforma- cje. Pismo interdyscyplinarne, 2007-2008, No 51-57, p. 100-101.

through exchange relation at least with one different position”2. The other one was mentioned by Marshall McLuhan’s disciple and follower - Derrick de Kerckhove. In his book about creating of network society he many times repeats that “Network is extremely decentralizing power”3.

Multidirectional communication in computer network (it is worth remembering that the Internet is often described as the Network of networks), which is based on such exchanges and decentralizations transforms existing cultural competences of internauts and creates them possibilities to acquire new communication skills and to construct indefinite series of “images of themselves”, “images of the other man” and “images of the world”.

It means that pluralism is a key word in thinking about network phenomena and forms. Its meaning includes both the idea of multiplicity (for example media function as multimedia), the idea of various and diverse coexistence (for example postmodern intertextual game) and the idea of infinity (for example constant deconstruction, totally border-like character and culture of open sources) and not hierarchical character (acceptance of hierarchy, panarchy or even anarchy). It also confirms the information society members’ conviction concerning living in liquid modernity (Zygmunt Bauman’s vision)4. In this modernity there are more and more indecidables (Jacques Derrida’s notion) 5 and undecidability (Jean Baudrillard’s notion)6 makes choosing decision strategies very difficult.

It can be said that contemporary man thinks and acts under the influence of two interpenetrating culture models: top-bottom model, which always has identity character, and network model, which does not have identity character and is global. My assumption is that none of the models will win. Dynamics of tensions between those two models (scheme no. 1) decides about conception of man, which does not allow to focus and to create their integrity, on the contrary it causes and exposes its fragmentarity and dispersion.

2 Lovaglia, M. J.: Sieciowa teoria wymiany. In: JASIŃSKA-KANIA, A. i in. (eds.): Współczesne teorie socjologiczne. Warszawa: Scholar, 2006. T. I, p. 111. 3 Kerckhove, D. de: Connected Intelligence. The Arrival of the Web Society. Toronto: Somerville House Publ., 1997, p. 81. 4 Bauman, Z.: Płynna Nowoczesność. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 2006, passim. 5 Derrida, J.: Pozycje. Rozmowy Z Henri Ronsem, Julią Kristevą Oraz Jean-Louis Houdebinem I Guy Scar- pettą. Katowice: Fa-Art, 2007, p. 42-43. 6 Baudrillard, J.: Selected Writings. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 187.

Technology and its cutting edge form are vital in the process, especially soft technology concerning miniaturized appliances, which are easy to use, are more personal and omnipresent. That is why we can assume that man’s disintegration is mainly influenced by their protechnological attitude towards reality. In other words man is fascinated with technology especially satellite and cable TV, computers and video games and the Internet and its various offers. Very often all those element are given the status of fetish.

TECHNOLOGICAL EVERYDAY REALITY

In the recent decades protechnological attitude results from sudden development of computer technology. Some culture researchers even treat computers as metamedium (Fausto Colombo)7 because computers are able to contaminate various technologies, to “extend” human nervous system (human senses) and to collect and process enormous amount of information. As a result computers create communication strategies which strongly change people’s attitude to themselves, to others and to the world. Currently the process is made faster by so called technologies of self-record and self-show (its result is for example the epidemic if selfies) and an avalanche of applications, applications for everything, which make all forms of communication more subjective.

In my opinion, protechnological attitude towards themselves and towards the

7 Colombo, F.: La comunicazione sintetica, p. 256-297. In: Bettetini, G., Colombo, F. (ed.): Le nuove tecnologie della comunicazione. Milano: Bompiani, 1993, p. 265-267.

world should not be identified with acceptance of technopoly as it was perceived by Neil Postman. He treated this subsequent phase of social development, following industrial phase, as a contagious disease. He wrote: “Tech- nopoly as a kind of culture AIDS, here the abbreviation stand for Anti-Infor- mation Deficiency Syndrome”8. His predictions may come true and in accordance with the title of my article it would mean that man will become completely disintegrated. Still, it is not happening now and it does not have to happen.

My approach is closer to the opinion that all members of information society are exposed to the pressure of everyday routine which is based on omnipresent technology. This direction of the development of human civilization seems to be sustainable because multidimensional character of connections, influences and results constantly multiplies. This multidimensionality is connected with dependencies between technologies and various social phenomena. Piotr Ża- bicki precisely described three technological worlds which are crucial in everyday life of individuals and social groups and he strongly connected the way they function with pedagogical issues. Those three worlds are: reality of the most common electronic communication (the Internet), the sphere of financial operations (banking) and activity of the most popular mass medium (television). In conclusion he asked and postulated: “in general aspect shouldn’t we talk about technological everyday reality instead of technology of everyday reality, or shouldn’t we almost automatically define everyday reality in connection with technologies”9 and “demand to draw special attention (of users, broadcasting services, decision makers) to using technology, communication education, availability and help in cognition, in other words to all those elements which help us to understand present and first of all future ourselves”10. Life in technological everyday reality is our human fate and in this place (phenomenon) we should search for factors and possibilities to integrate our identity, our personality and our humanity.

On the basis of the research concerning techno everyday reality it is difficult to answer the question whether the development of technologies has made them closer to man so far? Another question is whether this development leads to the

8 Postman, N.: Technopol, triumf techniki nad kulturą. Trans. by Tanalska-Dulęba, A., Warszawa: PIW, 1995, p. 78. 9 Żabicki, P.: Technologiczna codzienność. Internet – Bank – Telewizja. Warszawa: Trio, 2007, p. 214. 10 Ibidem.

state when technology is adjusted to man or man will have to adjust to technology? Without any doubts thanks to this “technological revolution” the quality of life of many people constantly improves, but on the other hand it provokes numerous individual and social crises. Some thinkers announced it in their works a long time ago, for example: Jean Baudrillard11 (culture of domination of technical code based on the rules of naturalization and indifference), Neil Postman12 (aforementioned culture of technopoly which changes people into slaves of technology), Paul Virilio13 (culture based on the philosophy of speed which makes people’s life similar to “life of a machine”) or Zygmunt Bauman14 (“ambiguity” which dismantles everything). Nowadays even the strongest supporters of technology admit that techno everyday reality leads to radical disintegration of existing social rules. The process has been much faster since culture became more network-like and human life became more “wired” (Jonscher15).

To answer the question whether the conception of integral person is still valid we have to take closer look at basic forms and consequences of expansion of high technology. To reduce arguments concerning the subject and to make the reflection more scheme-like my approach focuses on new cognitive and social competences. They are first of all communication competences which precisely illustrate the changes taking place in man and their surroundings. In my opinion there are 5 so called communication shifts (scheme no. 2)16:

11 Baudrillard, J.: Selected Writings. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 187. 12 Postman, N.: Technopol, triumf techniki nad kulturą. Trans. by Tanalska-Dulęba, A., Warszawa: PIW, 1995, passim. 13 Virilio, P.: Vitesse et Politique. Paris: Galilée, 1977, passim. 14 Bauman, Z.: Wieloznaczność nowoczesna, nowoczesność wieloznaczna. Warszawa: PWN, passim. 15 Jonscher, CH.: Życie okablowane. Kim jesteśmy w epoce przekazu cyfrowego? Warszawa: Muza SA, 2001, passim. 16 Miczka, T.: O zmianie zachowań komunikacyjnych. Konsumenci w nowych sytuacjach audiowizualnych. Katowice: Księgarnia św. Jacka, 2002, p. 115-130.

1 existing ability to organize knowledge on the basis of dispersed information changes into ability to organize signs and products which first of all provide pleasure; 2 existing language of literary type always based on language analysis changes into synesthetic perception which sometimes is called audiovisual oral- ysis or secondary orality; 3 existing reading changes into navigating or surfing in digital spaces; 4 existing information transmission (from one person to another, form one place to another) changes into interactivity which is mutual interaction of people and technical appliances or even between appliances only; 5 existing perception which was always based on the sense of distance to perceived objects and people is replaced by virtualization of two kinds, such as in Second Life when we are simultaneously in physical reality and in digital realty, and image inclusion which is an attempt of deeper and deeper immersion in digitally generated reality.

All traditional communication competences which were based on logics, cause- effect connections, poetics of necessity, collections of rules, hierarchies of values and axioms imposed by authorities, in other words all the elements which encouraged integrity, now are replaced by strategies of thinking and acting which prefer paralogy, randomness, non-obviousness, change of rules, non hierarchical and first of all multidirectional character (essential quality of hypertext and politext). Without any doubts the whole complex communication process encourages disintegration of human culture experience. This kind of disintegration can be illustrated with two communication phenomena called by me infofreedom17 and infoactivism18. Infofreedom is of course freedom of members of information society19 which is a dominating type of society in post-industrial epoch and infoactivism refers to the ways they think and act.

17 Miczka, T.: Education to info-freedom. Introduction to the issue. In: Beder Journal of Educational Sci- ences, 2014, Vol. 5, No 1, p. 335-346. 18 Miczka, T.: Infoactivism as the Basis of Communicational Reversal. In: Petsche, H.-J.; Erdmann, J.; Zapf, A. (Hg.): Virtualisierung und Mediatisierung kultureller Räume. Berlin: Trafo, 2015, p. 115-124. 19 In post-industrial society description its following qualities are usually mentioned: 1. the dominating role of information and knowledge in all the fields of functioning of man, society and economy; 2. common using of computers, IT programs and various means of communication; 3. constantly increasing meaning of the Internet, multimedia and media; 4. increasing compression of time and space; 5. increasing amount of information and increasing speed of its circulation; 6. multiplying of virtualisation of mental life and social and economic relations; 7. passing of new technologies to all the fields of life and increasing addiction to computers; 8. individual and social meaning of the phenomenon of digital exclusion, connected with various competences and possibilities of access to information.

FORMS OF DESINTEGRATION: INFOFREEDOM

Freedom is one of the most important philosophical problems. Almost all philosophers devoted much attention to this subject, some defined freedom negatively “as the lack of restrictions” and some positively “as the state of someone who can do whatever they want”. They often identified it with the health of organism, spontaneous meeting one’s needs, reasonably justified desires, possibilities of choice and agreement with free will. They treated freedom as a result of using rational rules, ways of acting, active attitudes or implementing own personalities in the context of social life. In the broad sense philosophers associated freedom with welfare of man and in the narrow sense with necessity of finding agreement between personal freedom and social law. The history of this philosophical problem has been and still is extremely interesting but the questions about freedom have gradually lost its specific philosophical character. For centuries they have been in correlation with questions concerning the nature of power and forms of its acting, and for more than a century they have been strongly connected with questions about the role and the place of technology in life of individuals and societies.

One of the initiators of the decisive turn in philosophical reflection over freedom was Martin Heidegger who took into account the achievements of mass culture and knowledge about ideology of consumption. In the middle of the 20th century he said: “Man does not ‘possess’ freedom [...] but [...] on the contrary freedom [...] possesses man”20. In other words freedom itself is unlimited but freedom of man is nothing but creating limits, making borders, describing mar- ginality, all those elements which allow them to take responsibility for themselves and for other people.

Chaos connected with freedom achieved its peak when culture based on analog data storage devices started to change into digital culture and mass culture started to transform. Mass culture revealed various possibilities of demassing, in other words personalizing of communication processes. Existing consumers changed into or were replaced by prosumers, so they became technology users (receivers) who enriched their competences with knowledge and skills which

20 Heidegger, M.: Vom Wesen der Wahrheit. Zu Platons Höhlengleichnis und Theätet. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1997, p. 89.

used to belong to producers (broadcasting services).

Until the middle of the 90s of the previous century the Internet had not been used in commercial activities. It offered its users paid services but they could not make any purchases. The most important forms of internauts’ activity at that time were: mail communication and participation in chat rooms, newsgroups and games, so called MUDs. Karol Piekarski reminds: “the Internet used to be perceived as the place where all the rules governing the real world are not binding. Network communication provided anonymity and social relations were constructed according to informal system of norms based on common values. It was an ideal space and its organization and rules were supposed to be a challenge for natural reality dominated by oppressive countries and corporations”21. Users and researchers, who shared the opinion and those who made such a vision of network communication common, created a social movement and research field which are often called cyberlibertarianism.

Julian Dibbell described in 1993 so called emancipation potential of cyberspace and proved that thanks to the Internet an access to information and knowledge which guarantees almost total freedom and radical progress of human civilization is possible. In his opinion in the new completely independent virtual world man liberates from supervision of the country and limits of physical world and can freely shape their identity”22. John Perry Barlow compared the Internet to the Wild West and suggested protecting it from potential colonization that in his opinion contemporary countries want to carry out. Barlow started a movement called Electronic Frontier Foundation which was supposed to prevent conflicts on the border of reality and virtual reality. He also published Cyberspace Declaration of Independence23 and called multimedia users to build and protect the world which will be better and more honest than all ever existing democracies.

At the end of the first decade of the 21st century this ‘wishful’ thinking of cyberlibertarians is supported by the latest scientific reports based on wide-scale in-

21 Piekarski, K.: Google: wolność i kontrola w społeczeństwie informacyjnym. Katowice: Śląsk, 2016 [in print]. 22 Dibbell, J.: Rape in Cyberspace, 1993 [online].[2015-12-12]. Available at: . 23 Barlow, J. P.: A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace [online]. [2016-01-06]. Available at .

terdisciplinary research concerning contemporary technology especially communication technology. One of the reports is Jacques Attali’s book A Brief His- tory of the Future in which he characterizes four megatrends shaping our everyday life (scheme no. 3)24.

He named the first megatrend Things that Think and he referred to the expansion of artificial environment (in other words nomadic and intrusive character and deeply-rooted position of the media) in man’s surroundings. Media move together with their users and they can be located everywhere, as Kazimierz Krzysztofek predicts while commenting the report: “They will locate us providing commercial, cultural and any other information. They will be also more and more ‘synesthetic’, sympathetic (sentient technologies), learning the user, thinking about user’s needs and choosing for them the best option. Everything is supposed to be smart: houses, cars, dishwashers, toilet flushes etc. All those appliances are supposed to be ‘rich in media’ [...] Hypertext and interface are two mantras which mark parameters of human condition in digital epoch. Nu- meralization of our survival extends. [...] We become encoded hyperactive society”25. So called “Internet of people and objects” creates new techno-human dispositive. Nowadays for many people the state of “having coverage” of digital world becomes very important because it creates new ways of participation in social life, educational processes, in processes of promulgating culture and sometimes it is even a proof of economic success.

24 Attali, J.: Krótka historia przyszłości. Warszawa: Prószyński i S-ka, 2008, p. 220-248. 25 Krzysztofek, K.: Hiperkapitalizm jako „najwyższe stadium”. In: „Transformacje. Pismo interdyscyplinarne, 2007-2008, No 51-57, p. 10-11.

Attali indicates imperative ‘search’ as the second megatrend. John Battelle writes about it: “in the near future searching will leave its cradle - WWW network and will spread freely in every kind of device [...] Searching will be embedded in all existing digital appliances. Telephone, car, TV set, stereo, every tiny object with embedded chip and with online option will allow us to search information in network”26. This megatrend is not observed in less developed countries yet but even today among 3 billions of internauts there is an increasing group which starts making business decisions, making contacts and dating with logging in internet portals. “Searching for everything by everybody” on mass scale visibly changes everyday life of individual multimedia users and whole societies, first of all it broadens their range of openness in thinking and acting and the range of individual and collective freedom.

The third mentioned megatrend is connected with the development of visionics, omnipresence of so called “vision machines” which can be treated as techniques which do not only widen and correct human sight but can even replace it. For the time being we deal mainly with smart cameras which more and more visu- alise in macro and micro scale everything that surrounds us and everything we can imagine. Things that are not monitored and “screened” are treated as unknown. Their expansion slowly but systematically creates in culture a specific inversion; it is easier to notice technologies than man who uses them.

Attali calls the last megatrend “communitation” (communication + commuta- tion) and he means the end of communication in the present understanding of this phenomenon. He refers to the reshaping of the process of transfer which leads to bioelectronic hybridization of man and to the situation when medium is not a message anymore because massage will absorb messenger. This megatrend is in its initial phase but even today it evokes enormous fascination among supporter of promoting liberation ideas.

In spite of numerous new arguments provided by cyberlibertarians also a cyber- paternalists school, which stays in opposition to them, became more active. They postulate creating “cyberlaw” as a separate field of activity, because the Internet generates completely new social phenomena and new challenges for

26 Battelle, J.: Szukaj. Jak Google i konkurencja wywołali rewolucję biznesową i kulturową. Transl. by Ba- ranowski, M., Warszawa: PWN, 2006, p. 187.

the binding law. For example according to Lawrence Lessig cyberlibertarians’ admiration for infofreedom, understood as “network arbitrariness”, is based on false assumption concerning, among others, anonymity in network and independence of multimedia from the country27. The Internet does not have one constant “nature” but access to it depends on many various middlemen. What is more, concretizations of the idea of pluralism in cyberspace are strongly connected with thorough hiding of the controlling mechanisms. It results in break- ing or even destroying “the myth of independence of cyberspace”.

Majority of multimedia users do not realize that when they use mobile phones, credit cards and the Internet they are controlled even more than before. It is proven by numerous experts for example L. Lessig, Yochai Benkler, Cass Sun- stein or Jonathan Zittrain, but this control in not immediately noticed. This situation can be illustrated with the following words: the bigger amount of visible freedom the bigger amount of invisible control. They also realize that intellectual property still exists, copyrights are still binding and the new economy of production of information cannot be dominated by anarchy, and that it is high time to start hard work over new rules describing individual and social rights of internauts.

The researchers who concentrate on Google search engine and the phenomenon called Web 2.0 provide new knowledge concerning unstable character of the next “myth of independence”. They also signalize further problems with infofreedom connected with the appearance of Web 3.0 which processes data in three dimensions and whose website will know internauts’ intentions on the basis of contexts of transferred data. Research concerning “googling” proves without any doubts that search engines are not independent and objective devices, they do not provide access to all the information because there are always some commercial factors which influence conditions in which the network functions.

Zygmunt Bauman’s words, which conclude his description of contemporary ambiguity, prove to be true: “Freedom is crippled like in the past but today not the same organs are amputated. In postmodern practice freedom is mainly reduced to consumption choice”28. Manuel Castells opinions also seem to be pro-

27 Lessig, L.: Wolna kultura. Warszawa: WSiP, 2005. 28 Bauman, Z.: Wieloznaczność nowoczesna, nowoczesność wieloznaczna. Warszawa: PWN, 1995, p. 315.

phetic: “the Internet is not a tool of freedom or a weapon which guarantees domination to one of the sides. [...] Actually freedom is not given. Freedom is constant struggle. It is an ability to define limits of one’s independence and to use democratic methods in every technological and social context. [...] That is why the problem of social control of the Internet is probably the most fundamental political issue of the era of information”29.

Infofreedom becomes a problem which will be solved for a long time in a heated atmosphere. Apart from many new and changeable factors which will have to be taken into account the most important question still is “whether freedom is the lack of strong influences of the governing power in public space, or quite the opposite, thanks to active participation of governing power in the space of social and political life every individual’s freedom is protected?”30 Classical philosophers and philosophers of culture who concentrated their attention on mass culture could not answer the question. The next chance to find a more satisfying answer belongs to the researchers of the culture which is called participatory culture. The culture which generates participation called by me infoactivism.

FORMS OF DESINTEGRATION: INFOACTIVISM

Infoactivism is the result of living in the state of constant connection to multimedia and it is characteristic for homo interneticus who “defecates continuously, publicly, without any inhibitions”, if we quote a little crude Rafał Stec’s words31.

Henry Jenkins writes that “people take the media into their own hands” and thanks to this process “participatory culture” is created. He emphasizes the fact that the existing communication homogeneity and hierarchization of culture participation is about to end, but it is the beginning of personalized communication which more and more often allows to personalize transfer of infor-

29 Castells, M.: Galaktyka Internetu: refleksje nad Internetem, biznesem i społeczeństwem. Poznań: Rebis, 2003, p. 186-187. 30 Mysona Byrska, J.: Wstęp. In: ZUZIAK, W.; MYSONA BYRSKA, J. (ed.): Wolność i władza w życiu publicznym. Kraków: PAT, 2008, p. 6. 31 Stec, R.: Jądro cyberciemności. In: Gazeta Wyborcza. Magazyn, 2012-12-01/02, p. 23.

mation32. Instead of the former way of communication characterized with the phrase “everybody reads” we deal with communication described with the phrase “everybody participates”; they have no choice, “everybody has to participate” to avoid civilization exclusion.

Every typical flaneur who has been “strolling” for over 100 years on the surface of various spaces of mass culture and today mainly on information Superhigh- ways; a typical newbie, an inexperienced internaut lost in the avalanche of technological novelties offered by high technology; a typical lurker (90% of multimedia users) who does not participate in an active way in internet groups; a typical lamer or luser (Polish equivalent użyszkodnik – user + parasite) imma- ture in many aspects in social communication; ladmin, an incompetent information system administrator and a typical troll who disturbs other users of discussion forums and other places in the Internet, all of them can change thanks to “participatory culture” into a real creator, activist, supporter of some idea, a man really involved in concretization of various ideas. Still many internauts become simply media maniacs, people who are overactive mainly thanks to multitasking (simultaneous using of many media).

It is a consumption phenomenon (multitasking). It means possibility and ability of “consuming” many goods at the same time simultaneously and intensifying experienced pleasures with accumulation, simultaneity, acceleration and ex- tending time. Ofcom research shows that young people are able to spend 9.5 hours of media consumption in 6.5 hours of real time33. More than a half of British population over 55 years old installed broadband Internet mainly because of multitasking. Simultaneous watching TV and using a laptop or a smartphone (probably an iPAd as well) becomes a habit common for all age ranges.

As Bauman proves multitasking definitely undermines a popular belief that digital technology guarantees common access to knowledge. In the conditions of constant acceleration and intensification of consumption successful transformation of information into knowledge is almost impossible. What is more, du- rability, which used to be a feature of learning, was replaced with evanescence.

32 Jenkins, H.: Convergence Culture, Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: NYU Press, 2008, p. 222. 33 After Bauman, Z.: Wielozadaniowi. In: Gazeta Wyborcza. Magazyn, 2012-12-01/02, p. 21.

Bauman characterizes this aspect of infoactivism with the following words: “In the hierarchy of the most useful abilities the art of exploring the matters was replaced with the art of surfing. [...] Multitasking is even more welcome when we are exposed to some appliances which flood us with information not to provide us any knowledge [...] but to make the content offered to us at the very moment more pleasant and entertaining”34. Homo interneticus’ activity transforms more and more often into so called clicktivism or in so called couch activity, in other words into forms of fake activity called by sociologists slack- tivism (slacker + activism).

Furthermore infoactivism evokes attention (concentration) crisis which provokes a whole sequence of problems, which are very difficult to solve, and conflicts, which are almost impossible to settle. Active individual participation, as it seems, should help to improve knowledge about oneself and to realize one’s own development potential. Very often it is the other way round. Multimedia users mainly consume other people’s thoughts, projections, ideas and dreams; they indefinitely digest other people’s content. Someone else’s quantity re- places my and your quality.

Spending free time with smartphones and tablets decreases the need to fantasize and to use imagination. Researchers say that it is very difficult to stimulate man’s imagination when his world is built of ready to use applications.

Infoactivism evoked high hopes concerning development of individual abilities and expressions. It is denied by the results of the existing research. Nancy Colier proves that when we decrease direct contacts with people because of the multimedia we lose the sense of stable identity and personal distinctiveness35. The research, which was carried out in 2010 by Kyung Hee Kim’ group in the Col- lege of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, comes up with a sad conclusion: “It turns out that unlike intelligence quotient (IQ), which increases in every successive generation about 10 points on average, creativity quotient (CQ) systematically decreases. It has been going on since 1990”36. IQ increase is caused by the fact that people who live in richer and more diversified envi-

34 Ibidem. 35 Colier, N.: Inviting a Monkey to Tea: Befriending Your Mind and Discovering Lasting Contentment. Chino Valley: Hohm Press, 2012, passim. 36 Kim, K. H.: The Creativity Crisis: The Decrease in Creative Thinking Scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. In: Creativity Research Journal, 2011, 23 (4), p. 285-295.

ronments become more and more intelligent. Scientists connect the fall of creativity with the appearance and increasing popularity of personal computers. And it was supposed to be completely different.

TRANSFORMATION OF IDENTITY OF MAN

The existing consideration suggests that culture disintegration becomes a dominating element in the context of technological revolution, and to a large extend it decides about the direction of social development. That is why almost every single category of the philosophy of man needs redefining. One of the main victims of communication disintegration is man’s identity, in other words relatively durable collection of ideas and opinions, which allows to answer in a convincing way such questions as: who am I (are we), who can I be (can we be) and who am I allowed to be (are we allowed to be)?37. Representatives of contemporary sociology and anthropology of culture mention its various models and constantly quarrel about their numbers38. As the examples of weak identities usually “homogenic global identity” and “empathic global identity” are mentioned. The first one refers to the figure of universal expert simultaneously negotiator and researcher, well equipped with knowledge and qualifications, who speaks foreign languages and freely moves to other places. His characteristic quality is easy penetration from one culture to another because he is a complete stranger to empathy and sensitivity to culture differences. Man equipped with this kind of identity does not penetrate deeply reality, first of all they feel globalisation but they do not feel glocalization and they are completely deprived of sensitivity to localisation. Basically they are blind to all cultural aspects and live in some kind of hyperreality. Empathic identity refers to man who is also richly equipped but who is pathologically oversensitive to culture differences. In life this identity is manifested in constant travelling and transforming, absorbing differences and developing abilities to be anyone according to the place.

Another often mentioned model of weak identity is “supermarket” or “hyper-

37 Miczka, T.: Od sobości do tożsamości medialnej i wirtualnej. In: SOKOŁOWSKI, M. (ed.): (Kon)teksty kultury medialnej. Analizy i interpretacje. Olsztyn: Algraf, 2007, p. 141-156. 38 Melosik, Z.; Szkudlarek, T.: Kultura, tożsamość i edukacja. Migotanie znaczeń. Kraków: Impuls, 1998, p. 59-67.

market” identity. It is typical for people who have total sense of freedom and are convinced that they can construct their selfness endlessly with elements of various cultures. Looking for attractions they constantly join various identities; they try to be everyone to some extend or, what is even better, to be everyone simultaneously, but of course it never comes true.

The next popular model of new identity is “fake identity” which is entirely consumption and media identity. It is the kind of identification in which everything is treated in the same way because man feels that there is nothing authentic about them. Trends and fashion which change very quickly become the sense of their life. Under their influence man constantly changes opinion about themselves what can evoke the feeling of absurd of existence.

Many researchers mention another type of weak identity which is called “Amer- icanized identity”. Of course it is connected with copying American lifestyle and enthusiastic attitude towards McDonaldization and Disneyfication. Accord- ing to people who promote such a model or dream about it America symbolizes total freedom, diversity and the place where everybody can feel at home.

Usually only one type of strong identity is mentioned, it is probably caused by the fact that all its different versions appear because of the same reasons: nega- tion of postmodernity, opposition to globalisation and neo-culture and tempta- tion of fundamentalism. “Razor” identities reject all disintegration processes, celebrate essentialism and differences and confine themselves in definite contents and forms, eliminate non-transparency of reality and the lack of culture certainty. There are mild or “aggressive” “razors” depending on the way they expose different types of race, religious or political mythologization and conviction concerning local cultures uniqueness.

All the aforementioned models of identity appear mainly in the media but they also efficiently move to reality. In both places they overlap and intersect, they can function in one man simultaneously, which proves high degree of transformation of contemporary man’s identity. It is important that they effectively un- dermine all forms and characters of traditional identities and consequently lead to creation of a multivariate new model of identity which Wolfgang Welsch called transversal identity. According to Welsch,: “integrity of a person depends on their ability to move from one construction of their identity to another. This

ability is absolutely essential to guarantee the fact that internal pluralism does not lead to polyphreny. [...] we can say that connection between particular identities is horizontal through overlapping, references and passages taking place among various identities. Their mutual relation has fundamentally transversal structure”39. In other words different versions and constructions of identity go across personality and their identification means man’s ability and competence to deal with them; the more penetrable they are the more coherent and expres- sive identity is. This game of different versions of identity is illustrated by the scheme no 4.

TECHNICAL MEN AND ETHICAL MEN

Contemporary world does not encourage integrity of human being; it disturbs integration processes with increasing separation of technical progress and moral progress. Contemporary man, even if they are not particularly talented or educated, quite easy takes advantage of technical inventions even when they do not understand how they work. They give them high efficiency and they help them to achieve various aims of their activity. At the same time it is more and more difficult to retain hierarchy of values and consequently to value their thinking and acting. Without any doubts technical man outruns ethical man, it is visible not only for humanists and social sciences representatives. For example physic-

39 Quoted after Zeidler-Janiszewska, A. (ed.): Problemy ponowoczesnej pluralizacji kultury. Wokół koncepcji Wolfganga Welscha. Cz. I. Poznań: Humaniora, 1998, p. 31-32.

cist Krzysztof Meissner, creator of the theory of elementary particles and influences, expresses quite explicit opinion: “civilization crisis, which we can see around us, is caused in my opinion first of all by the rejection of transcendence. Secondly we rejected consideration, improving ourselves. We left improving the world to science and technology. Science gives us certainty and technology gives us objects which are faster, bigger, better adjusted. It is supposed to be better by definition. But is this world really better when we are surrounded by faster planes and faster computers?”40.

The aforementioned discrepancy is ignored by some researchers especially techno-enthusiasts and treated as a prize which we are supposed to pay to extend our own freedom and to cross existing borders of human cognition. They think that real experiences of everyday life through immersion in computer games, in society of blogs, in internet groups of fans and other virtual places re-evaluate existing knowledge and deepen technology users’ experiences. For example according to Jenkins participation in network societies is a specific trial for democracy, citizenship attitude and assemblies because it allows” to play” politics and elections, it teaches co-operation and mechanisms which rule virtual communities. It allows us to become a creative and innovative man41. Still we can find many examples which illustrate moral regress of people who use new technologies. That is why, not only in casual discussions, the phrase “a person in the network” not always refers to modernity and civilization progress, it is often a culture metaphor referring to existential trap.

Naturally contemporary philosophers in their work focus on the phenomenon of disintegrated human being. Majority of them suggest that we should start the process of shaping an integrated person with connecting their identity very tightly with moral issues. For example Charles Taylor in his fundamental work devoted to sources and character of human subjectivity proves that in the epoch of computer there is necessity of treating identity as a moral horizon of a person, which allows them to identify what is important for them and for their group42.

40 Meissner, K.: Człowiek nie jest mokrym komputerem. In: Duży Format, 2015, No 52/1163, p. 26. 41 Jenkins, H.: Convergence Culture, Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: NYU Press, 2008, p. 221-227 & idem: Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers. Exploring Participatory Culture. New York: NYU Press, 2006, passim. 42 Taylor, CH.: Źródła współczesnej tożsamości, p. 9-21. In: Michalski, K. (ed.): Tożsamość w czasach zmiany. Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. Kraków: Znak, 1995, p. 10.

Other philosophers indicate important moments necessary to build an integrated person such as making distinction between discovering values and creating them, preserving areas where values and community of beliefs can be stored, shaping of conscience and including the media in the process of shaping the receivers who are able to form moral judgements and use freedom in a mature way. Form philosophical perspective an integral person as the subject of pedagogy of the 21st century seems to be: “someone who not only is able to acquire achievements of scientific and technological civilization but also understands them in a broader context of something that can be called human welfare. They can do it because their knowledge about the good and the evil in moral sense comes beyond the field of scientific cognition, instrumental cognition in the relation to human environment. The knowledge about the good and the evil is manifested in conscience, which was shaped in a specific dialog of generations. In this dialog rules of behaviour were passed and then confirmed in behaviour43.

An obvious reference to today’s education is widely understood ecological attitude. It includes everything relating to environment and its connections and interactions with man and society. Questions about the essence and character of humanity, about ontic status of a man, the essence of being a man, their future and their further progress are asked. Evaluative attitude towards natural environment becomes a necessity; it also refers to technology and its environmental impact (so called axiologization of natural environment), discussing the issue of man’s attitude towards environment in the category of what is morally good and bad, duty and responsibility, it also refers to changing the traditional paradigm of thinking and economic activity. In other words today every kind of education should be ecologically-oriented and the starting point of its program should be findings of technological culture researchers. Manuel Castells characterizes relations between two opposite poles of human existence: nature and culture. He mentioned three eras: the first one when nature dominated over culture, the second one when the domination of culture over nature started, and the third one when autonomy of culture in the relation to nature (material base of our existence) established44. In his opinion education cannot stay indifferent to-

43 Kłos, J.: W kierunku integralnej osoby, p. 351-359. In: Sokołowski, M. (ed.): U progu wielkiej zmiany? Media w kulturze XXI wieku. Nurty – kategorie – idee. Olsztyn: Kastalia, 2005, p. 355. 44 Castells, M.: Społeczeństwo sieci. Warszawa: PWN, 2007, p. 36-37.

wards authority and social organization. They allow us to live in cultures because simultaneously they erode nature to the point when environment, as an ideal form of culture, is artificially recreated (protected, transformed and recon- structed).

CONCLUSION

The phenomenon of critical tension between nature and culture obviously has an enormous significance in shaping of integral human being. Ecological attitude of pedagogy, in other words attempts to understand active coexistence of man and nature in global and local scale and attempts to respect more and more environment-centric hierarchy of values should not be based on creating theoretical visions of the world. They should be based on practical methodologies which combine needs of protection and shaping environment and protection of man. This task is very difficult to program and especially to perform; it requires immediate shaping of moral dimension of the whole public sphere.

Michael Novak takes it into account and postulates creating the field of knowledge which he calls moral ecology45. It would be the sum of ideas, narra- tions, institutions, associations, systems of symbols, dominating opinions and practices. In pluralistic societies it would be a specific source of moral influences. Novak thinks that such an arrangement of public sphere encourages man to take morally correct actions. It is also positive for development of civil society. For an individual who should be an integrated person, who has technological knowledge and who is able to judge morally, and for community so called self-government is very important. It is manifested in mature attitude towards individual freedom, which simply means imposing reasonable limits.

In other words moral ecology would not be just an attempt of individual and collected arrangement of pluralistic experiences. It would be also an attempt to activate passive and often thoughtless soft technology users and an attempt of collected establishment of morally right law. Of course it is a utopian conception but still it is worth trying to create positive attitude towards moral ecology

45 Novak, M.: The Universal Hunger for Liberty: Why the Clash of Civilizations is Not Inevitable. New York: Basic Books, 2004, p. 31.

in the context of common, general pedagogy, binding law and various public discussions. First of all we should work on positive approach to self-imposed limitations and coping with experienced disintegration.

Jerzy Mikułowski-Pomorski writes “the processes of defragmentation burst modern society which comes near the end of the history. It is painful because the world which we perceived as safe falls into pieces and their separate existence seems to be doubtful. These fragments create entities which are “weird” and difficult to understand [...]. Still human sense of order connects them in the whole and gives them a new character. It is not seen everywhere and it is not experienced by everyone. Still observed phenomena let us assume that the world which connected in past, now is getting divided to get connected again in future but in a different configuration”46. A person in network experiences many new things which evoke their disintegration but one can always stay integrated or become an integrated person again.

It is very interesting that probably for the first time in history of humanity education which tries to achieve this difficult and ambitious aim of creating a new conception of integral person and “putting it into life” can propagate “information hygiene” in other words an idea of internauts’ self-imposed limitations. It can also propagate “approval of slowness”47 and “art of being lazy”. Ulrich Schnabel treats being lazy as an ability “to separate useful and useless information, something that allows [...] us to stick to the point and not waste time. It allows us to avoid [...] the situation when overwhelmed by stress and over- loaded with excess information we lose ability to make decisions and to find difference between important matters and rubbish” 48.

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Translated by Bogdan Moczko

Prof. dr hab. Tadeusz Miczka – Institute of Cultural and Interdisciplinary Studies, Univeristy of Silesia, Katowice, Poland E-mail: [email protected]

INFO – COMMUNICATION II. TECHNOLOGIES AND INNOVATIONS – SOME CASES

Karol I. PELC

ADOPTION OF INNOVATION IN INTERACTIVE COMMU- NICATION NETWORKS OF CENTRAL EUROPE

ABSTRACT

A model of innovation adoption process in interactive communication systems is presented. It combines classical approach to innovation diffusion (Rogers, 1962) with new elements of adoption analysis specific for social media and interactive communication technologies. Three models of adoption process are compared. Innovation adoption is viewed as a learning process consisting of multiple phases. Importance of the following two dimensions is emphasized: penetration rate and interactivity level. They are applied as indicators of adoption of novelties in the interactive networking environment. Inter- active networks are defined as a category broader than social networks by including internet-based mobile messaging systems. Empirical data used for illustration of the adoption processes are derived from statistics of eight Central European countries, personal interviews, and selected comparative data at a global scale. Review of operational characteristics of networking mechanisms is focused on empirical material that illustrates two cases of interactive networking i.e. social networking, represented by Face- book, and mobile interactive messaging systems, represented by WhatsApp. Selection of statistical data and direct observations of user behavior allowed formulation of three hypotheses on causes of recent changes in interactive communication networks. Eco- nomic wealth of society i.e. level of national income (measured by GDP per capita) is not the only factor influencing adoption of innovation in interactive networks. In some cases it may even be not the most important one.

Keywords: innovation, innovation diffusion, social media, interactive communication technologies

INTRODUCTION

Dynamics of technological innovation and its practical consequences depend on two types of processes: (a) creation of innovation i.e. converting an idea/con-

cept into practical implementation of new solution and (b) diffusion of innovation from a source to population of users. This is in line with definition of innovation by Joseph Schumpeter (1942, 1975). Adoption is a part of diffusion that determines extent of economic, social, and other benefits to the population of users. A general framework for modeling of innovation processes is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. General framework for innovation process analysis

Several models of innovation diffusion include adoption as an integral part of the process and do not emphasize its special features. As shown in Fig. 1, adoption is the final part of innovation diffusion. It should bring the final benefits that a user may derive from innovation. Most commonly, the advancement of adoption process is assessed by measuring the penetration of population i.e. percentage of population that uses innovation. However this measure doesn’t reflect the depth of adoption i.e. to what extent the user is familiar and capable to benefit of different features of an innovative product, process or system. A comparison of three selected models of adoption is presented in the next section of this paper. To assess progress of innovation adoption in interactive communication networks an additional measure is proposed. It is the interactivity level indicating in which phase of adoption a given technology is at a given time. Some earlier studies by the Forrester Research company (2014) and by this author (Pelc, 2014) suggested that adoption of new social networking technology takes place with different speed in each country. For instance, the same studies indicated that dynamics of adoption was much higher in South Korea than in Germany or Japan. However empirical data or statistics were not available for countries of Central Europe other than Germany. As a consequence, analysis of adoption dynamics for all countries in that region is based on penetration data only. The region has been defined, on basis of the CIA World Factbook (2009),

as consisting of eight countries: Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. Adoption of innovation has been assessed for two interactive networking systems: social network of Facebook and mobile messenger system of WhatsApp. Comparative data are presented in the following sections of the paper. Those data are also shown in the context of global trends in interactive networking. In certain groups of countries the penetration rate is correlated with economic status. However the wealth of society i.e. level of national income (measured by GDP per capita) is not the only factor influencing adoption of innovation in interactive networks.

MODELS OF ADOPTION PROCESS

Three selected models of innovation adoption are compared in Table 1. They correspond to experiences in hardware and software innovation each consisting of different set of phases or specific decisions made by users (organizations or individuals).

Table 1. Selected models of innovation adoption: Main stages

Diffusion of innovations – Adoption of intellectual Adoption of innovations in in- general model (Rogers, technologies model (Wil- teractive networking – 1962). demuth, 1992). a model (Pelc, 2014). Hardware and/or organiza- Hardware and software Software oriented tion oriented oriented DECISION TO ADOPT 1. Agenda setting 1. Resource acquisition 1. Initial learning 2. Field exploration and fo- 2. Matching 2. Application development cused observation DECISION TO ADOPT DECISION TO ADOPT 3. Selection and classification 3. Redefining/restructuring 3. Adoption/renewal 4. Routinization/ 4. Clarifying 4. Evaluation enhancement 5. Routinizing 5. External adoption 5. Design and implementation

The classical model of Rogers (1962) assumes that decision of adoption is preceded by certain steps that identify, assess need for, and match the innovation project with an existing system (technological, organizational etc). It is called an initiation stage that includes “agenda setting” and “matching” phases. Those phases are oriented to preparation of decision of adoption which is followed by implementation stage that corresponds to adoption process in other models.

This stage consists of three phases: “redefining/restructuring,” “clarifying” and “routinizing.” The first two phases in this stage are aimed at definition of sys- temic changes due to innovation, while the third leads to full incorporation of novelty into the existing system, process or activity. This approach is applicable to and illustrated by innovations in hardware (implementation of new tools or machines, structural composition of process or system setup) or in organization of activities (operations, organizational processes). A different model has been published by Wildemuth (1992) with emphasis on adoption of computer-based information systems (hardware and software innovation) that are characterized as “intellectual technologies.” In this model a decision to adopt is preceded by two initial stages of the process, starting with “resource acquisition” (both human and technical resources), followed by “application development.” In the latter stage, the adopter develops procedures for performing specific functions supported by the innovation. The next three stages include phases of innovation adoption by different groups of users either within an organization or outside. Third model, developed on basis of an earlier publication by Pelc (2014), is focused on software innovation for applications in social networking. This model assumes that decision to adopt is triggering the whole adoption process consisting of five stages. They constitute a learning process taking place during adoption of innovation in interactive communication. It is characterized by changing scope and character of adoption phases. Those phases are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Adoption model for interactive networking: Phases and tasks

Adoption of innovation in interactive net- Interactivity tasks working 1.Initial learning - Learning about existence of social/interac- General acquaintance tive networks 2. Field exploration and focused observa- Passive tasks: Reading presentations, blogs, tion customer reviews, watching videos, visiting - Acquaintance with features and commu- sites, nication potential of interactive media Formulating and maintaining own profile on - Testing own capability to use interactive a site networks and experimenting 3. Selection and classification of media Applying tags for classification of webpages, - Classifying different forms of interactive photos, texts etc media

- Limited use of selected media (semi-ac- Online voting for websites and using stand- tive) ard formats of opinions (symbols, phrases, graphs) 4. Evaluation of and experimentation with Posting comments on blogs and publications interactive networking by other authors - Experimenting with interactive network Rating products and services communication through selected media Contributing editorial remarks on posts of - Contributing to user contents created by others other authors , including critique and comments 5. Design and implementation Webpage design and publication - Interactive communication with other us- Blogs design and publication with network ers links - creating and posting own contents in Photo/video/music posts creation and shar- multiple networking sites or media ing

This model applies to a broad range of interactive networks including social networking sites, such a Facebook, and mobile internet messengers, such as WhatsApp . The networking environment of interactive communication is presented in Fig 2. Its six elements operating within the same paradigm of interactivity, as defined by Kiousis (2002), are involved in arranging flows of information and exchange or sharing of messages. Two of them, mentioned here i.e. social networking sites and mobile internet messengers achieved the highest popularity and attracted the largest amounts of users. Our data on adoption of innovation in Central Europe as well as some broader international comparisons are focused on those two elements.

Fig. 2. Interactive communication networks environment

INTERNATIONAL DATA ON ADOPTION OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES (FACEBOOK) AND MOBILE INTERNET MESSENGERS (WHATSAPP) IN CENTRAL EUROPE

Illustrative data and statistics have been collected for Facebook penetration in eight countries constituting region defined in the literature as Central Europe (CIA World Factbook, 2009). Similar definition is used in articles published by the Encyclopedia Britannica. A different definition of Central Europe has been presented by L. Johnson (Johnson, 1996). His list of countries consists also of eight countries and seems to be justified by history of XIX century (Habsburg Empire). It includes Croatia but at the same time it excludes Switzerland. Lo- cation of the region defined by the CIA is more geographically (and geometri- cally) concentrated. It is described as being the territory between Western and Eastern Europe as well as between Northern and Southern Europe. Map is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Map of Central Europe based on CIA World Factbook 2009 (adopted from Wikipedia, 2015). Eight countries marked by numbers 1 – 8 in alphabetical order

It includes both large countries, such as Germany, and small ones, such as Slo- venia. Those countries have different economic, demographic and political characteristics. Historically, the region may be viewed as one with clear affinity to Western Europe that has been strongly influenced by the Roman Empire and Christian religion. At the same time, cultural roots and linguistic origins of individual countries are diversified ranging from Slavic to Romance, Germanic and Uralic (Hungarian). Diversity of economic, political, social and cultural

structures would require a separate study. All these factors seem to have impact on innovativeness and openness that in turn may affect learning capability of respective societies. The Facebook penetration is presented in Table 3 together with basic economic and demographic information on each country.

Table 3. Facebook penetration rates in Central Europe and economic/demographic data of selected countries in 2015.

Internet/ Facebook/ Facebook/ GDP/capita population population Internet Country Population estimate penetration penetration users PPP $ % % % Austria 8,584,926 47,500 83.1 40.8 49.1 Czech Republic 10,538,275 31,500 79.7 42.7 53.6 Germany 81,174,000 47,400 88.4 35.7 40.4 Hungary 9,894,000 26,000 76.1 51.5 67.7 Poland 38,005,614 26,400 67.5 36.8 54.5 Slovakia 5,421,349 29,500 83.1 42.4 51.0 Slovenia 2,062,874 30,900 72.8 41.2 56.6 Switzerland 8,236,573 59,300 87.2 42.5 48.7 SUMMARY DATA Average level 20,490,000 37,312 79.7 41.7 52.7 2,062,874 26,000 67.5 35.7 40.4 Minimum Slovenia Hungary Poland Germany Germany 81,174,00 59,300 88.4 51.5 67.7 Maximum Germany Switzerland Germany Hungary Hungary REFERENCE DATA United States 321,368,284 56,300 87.9 59.7 67.9 507,970,816 37,800 79.3 46.5 58.6 European Union (total) (avg) (avg) (avg) (avg) Austria 8,584,926 47,500 83.1 40.8 49.1

Data sources: Facebook (2015), “Potential reach estimates” https://www.facebook. com/ ads/create/; Internet Statistics 2015, “European Union Internet Users 2015” http://www. internetworldstats.com/stats9.htm (retrieved 02/28/2016), "The World Factbook: Field listing – Location". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Re- trieved 12/10/2015, and www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ rankorder/rawdata_2004.txt. Retrieved 04/03/2016

It is possible to make the following observations on data presented in Table 3:  Average penetration of population by Facebook in Central Europe (41.7%) is not much different from that of average in the European Union (46.5%) but both are distinctly lower than in the U. S. (59.7%).  There is a very clear contrast between the Facebook penetration in Germany (35.7%) and Hungary (51.5%). The latter being closest to the level of the U.S. among countries of Central Europe.

 Amount of Facebook users among all Internet users, expressed in %, is relatively lower in countries of high GDP/capita (above $46,000), such as Ger- many, Switzerland and Austria, all below 50%, than that same proportion in countries with relatively lower GDP/capita such as Hungary, Slovakia and Poland (all below $30,000) at the levels between 51% and 67%.

These observations suggest that there is no direct correlation between the level of wealth of society, measured by GDP per capita, and the Facebook penetration within the group of Central European countries.

At the same time, it is known that at the global scale there are visible differences in Facebook penetration between reach and poor countries. They are illustrated by data in Tables 4 and 5 showing the highest rate of penetration existing in countries with very high GDP/capita (Table 4) and the lowest rate of penetration in countries with very low GDP/capita (Table 5). Corresponding extremes in adoption of Facebook, as innovation in interactive communication, support the general opinion on existence of the global “digital divide,” which leads to economic divide and global disconnect due to income inequality. It is easy to notice this effect by comparing the Facebook penetration rate of 77.4% in Qatar (with $145,000 of GDP/capita) and 1.1% in Central African Republic (with $600 of GDP/capita). Hence we are witnessing the phenomenon of “global interactivity disconnect” in the context of broader “global economic divide.” The first is responsible for difficulties in communication, education and intellectual barriers between respective societies, and the other is a cause of economic, political and social tensions and conflicts.

Table 4. Facebook penetration rate in selected countries of high GDP per capita (over $60,000) in 2015.

GDP per capita estimate Facebook /population pene- Country PPP $ 2015 tration % 2015 Qatar 145,000 77.4 Singapore 85,700 63.4 Brunei 79,700 62.8 Monaco 78,700 75.3 Kuwait 72,200 68.1 Norway 68,400 61.9 United Arab Emirates 67,000 66.7

Data sources the same as for Table 3

Table 5. Facebook penetration rate in selected countries of low GDP per capita (below $1,400) in 2015.

GDP per capita estimate Facebook /population pe- Country PPP $ 2015 netration % 2015 Guinea 1,300 6.5 (2.8 in 2014) Malawi 1,200 3.9 (2.1 in 2014) Niger 1,100 1.3 (0.9 in 2014) Liberia 900 6.2 (no data 2014) Congo, Democratic Repub- 800 2.3 (no data 2014) lic of the Central African Republic 600 1.1 (no data 2014) Somalia 400 4.7 (1.9 in 2014)

Data sources the same as for Table 3

Diffusion of mobile internet messengers at a global scale has become one of the most dynamic phenomena in interactive networking systems during the second decade of the 21st century. This process is illustrated by data on WhatsApp messenger, which achieved total number of users close to one billion during the first 4 years of existence. Table 6 presents that growth at a global scale. It should be mentioned that since 2014 the company WhatsApp, Inc. has been acquired by Facebook for almost $20 billion, which is an impressive market value as for company existing just a few years and employing less than 60 people (2016). International comparisons of penetration rate indicate that there is almost no correlation between the level of national wealth (e.g. GDP/capita) and penetration of those messengers among the users of mobile internet. Data for such WhatsApp penetration in selected countries are presented in Table 7.

Table 6. Mobile internet messenger WhatsApp users – worldwide growth 2013 – 2016

Month Number of users in millions April 2013 200 January 2014 430 April 2014 600 January 2015 700 April 2015 800 January 2016 990

Data source: Statista 2016

Table 7. Share of mobile Internet users who are active WhatsApp users in selected European countries and the U.S.A. in 4th quarter of 2014

Country GDP per capitaPPP $ (2015) WhatsApp Share % 1. Spain 35,200 70 2. Italy 35,800 62 3. Netherlands 49,300 61 4. Germany 47,400 57 5. Turkey 19,500 49 6. U. K. 41,200 34 7. Russia 23,700 14 8. Sweden 48,000 10 9. France 41,400 6 10. Poland 26,400 4 Ref. U.S.A. 56,300 8

Data source: Statista 2016

Without any deeper statistical insight in data of Table 7, it is easy to recognize that adoption of WhatsApp among mobile Internet users does not correspond to pattern of national income in respective countries. For example, the penetration rate within this population in Spain (70%) is more than twice higher than in the U. K. (34%) and it is more than six times higher in Turkey (49%) than in the U.S. (8%). Even with a limited access to data on penetration of WhatsUp in Ce- ntral Europe, it is possible to find that the rate in Germany is much higher (57%) than in Poland (4%). The latter pattern seems to suggest a higher penetration in a country of high GDP/capita than in a country of a relatively low GDP/capita. Hence it is just reverse to proportions in countries mentioned earlier.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF ADOPTION: HYPOTHESES

Analysis of data on both Facebook and WhatsApp penetrations in countries of Central Europe leads to conclusion that the wealth of society i.e. level of national income (measured by GDP per capita) is not the only factor influencing adoption of innovation in interactive networks. In some cases it may even be not the most important one. For example, as discussed in the preceding part of this paper, there are visible discrepancies in cases of Hungary, Poland and Ger- many where amounts of interactive networking adopters do not correspond to levels of GDP in respective countries. This analysis leads to a hypothesis that

there exist other than economic factors of essential importance shaping the patterns of innovation adoption in the domain of interactive communication. Those may include cultural, social and technological dimensions affecting attitudes and involvement into innovation adoption process. Analysis of those non-economic factors is suggested as topic of further research. The following hypotheses could be subject of verification: Hypothesis A: National culture has impact on innovation adoption that is comparable to or stronger than that of the level of national income. Cultural aspects of innovation diffusion process have been analyzed by Desmarchelier and Fang (2016) through simulation of two Hof- stede’s dimensions of national culture (Hofstede, 2001) i.e. individu- alism/collectivism (IDV) index and uncertainty avoidance (UAI) index. It might be interesting and useful to extend the scope of that study to innovation adoption in interactive communication networks. Hypothesis B: Age distribution of potential users’ population (in a given country) is correlated with penetration of innovation i.e. the younger is the population, the higher is innovation penetration rate. Hypothesis C: Accessibility of advanced technological infrastructure in a given country, e.g. broadband transmission systems, is correlated with penetration of innovation i.e. the larger part of users population has access to advanced communication systems and tools, the higher is innovation penetration rate. Those hypotheses require more precise definition of terms and measures related to cultural, demographic and technological factors of innovation penetration before a quantitative analysis could be conducted in a methodologically consistent way. It may require a substantial reformulation of hypotheses and selection of quantitative measures for individual factors.

FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSION

In addition to suggested scope of research related to hypotheses listed in the previous section, it is necessary to mention that almost all data presented in this paper do not include respective time series i.e. dynamic properties and changes

of international patterns of innovation penetration with time. A real time statistics of interactive communication networks might reveal a number of interesting properties of the innovation adoption processes. For instance, the penetration rate of innovation in each networking system is probably changing relatively faster in the less developed countries than in countries of higher national income. Those socio-economic and technological factors require modeling of evolutionary processes that influence both the objectively measurable factors of innovation adoption and the subjective aspects of adoption related to behavioral and cultural changes.

In conclusion, the results of analysis presented in this paper contribute to formulation of general problem of measurement of innovation adoption in interactive communication networks. Even though factual observations and research hypotheses have been derived from empirical/statistical data focused on a relatively small group of countries of Central Europe they are relevant to identification of problem at the global scale.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

1. This research has been partly sponsored by the IMC University of Applied Sci- ences, Krems, Austria, the Fulbright Scholarship Program, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and the Austrian-American Educational Commission, Vienna, Austria. Discussions and interviews with graduate students during the Fulbright Visiting Professorship at IMC University of Applied Sciences, Krems, Austria, inspired the author and contributed to this project. 2. An earlier version of this paper has been presented at the 22nd International Con- ference on Industry, Engineering, and Management Systems, Cocoa Beach, FL, March 14 – 16, 2016.

REFERENCES

1. Desmarchelier, B., Fang, E. S. (2016), National culture and innovation diffusion. Exploratory insights from agent-based modeling, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 105, 121-128. 2. Facebook (2015), “Potential reach estimates” https://www.facebook.com/ads/create/; Retrieved 02/28/2016. 3. Forrester Research Report, (2014) “What's The Social Technographics Profile Of Your Customers?” http://empowered.forrester.com/tool_consumer.html. Retrieved

02/17/ 2016. 4. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA . 5. Internet Statistics 2015, “European Union Internet Users 2015” http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats9.htm Retrieved 02/28/2016. 6. Johnson, L. R. (1996). Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford Uni- versity Press, Oxford and New York. 7. Kaplan, A. M., Haenlein, M., (2010). Users of the world unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media, Business Horizons, 53, 59-68. 8. Kiousis, S. (2002). “Interactivity: a concept explication,” New Media & Society, 4, 3, 355-383. 9. Pelc, K. I.,(2014). Adoption process and complexity of innovation in social networking, The Journal of Management and Engineering Integration, 7, 1, 92-99 10. Pelc, K. I. (2016). Innovation adoption in interactive networks: Case of Central European Countries, Paper presented at the 22nd International Conference on In- dustry, Engineering, and Management Systems, Cocoa Beach, FL, March 14 – 16, 2016. Summary published in the Conference Program, p. 23. 11. Rogers, E. M.,(1962). Diffusion of Innovations, Fifth edition, Free Press, N. Y. 1962, 1983, 2003. p.420, Fig.10.3. 12. Schumpeter, J. A. (1975). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Harper & Row Publishers, 13. New York. (First edition: 1942). 14. Statista Database 2015 and 2016, www.statista.com, retrieved 01/22/2016 15. "The World Factbook: Field listing – Location". CIA Central Intelligence Agency. 2009. Retrieved 12/10/2015. 16. “The World Factbook: Country Comparison: GDP per capita” CIA Central Intel- ligence Agency 2015, 17. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.htm 18. Retrieved 04/04/2016. 19. Wildemuth, B. M., (1992) An empirically grounded model of the adoption of intellectual technologies, Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986 -1998), 43, 3, 210 – 224.

Dr. Karol I. Pelc - Professor Emeritus, Michigan Technological University, USA e-mail: [email protected]

Adriana ŁUKASZEWICZ

IMPACT OF SOCIAL NETWORKS ON MIGRATION PRO- CESSES IN EU

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the results of the research, undertaken within DELab, University of Warsaw on migration in the era of digital technology. The purpose of this research was to characterize and analyze the possible impact of social network and smartphones on migration processes.

Keywords: migration, migration processes, social network, smartphone

INTRODUCTION

The European continent since the 70’s of the XXth century has been a desirable destination for people living in poor countries of the South (Bonifazi, Okolski, Schoorl, Simon, 2008). Migration tendencies have been additionally stimulated by stories told amongst citizens of poor countries about easy access to welfare and social security in the West, respect for civil rights, job opportunities and in general a decent life. Europe was perceived as a promised land for people living in areas of eternal war, famine, widespread crime and lawlessness. Since the beginning of the XXI century the number of refugees each year arriving in the EU, fluctuated between 150-250 thousand people. The second decade of the new century brought Europe a rapid growth of migration from Africa, Middle East and Asia. According to estimated data, in the year 2015 EU has received over 1.3 million illegal immigrants1. As per data provided by Frontex in the first two months of 2016, regardless bad weather conditions due to winter, nearly

1 It is symptomatic that, no solid data regarding the size of the migration wave to the EU is available. According to UNHCR in 2015 921 713 migrants/refugees have arrived in the EU by sea; According to EUROSTAT 1 321 000 individuals have applied for asylum; According to FRONTEX 1 800 000 individuals have crossed the EU boarders. According to IOM in 2015 1 011 700 individuals have arrived in Europe by sea and 34 900 by land

140 thousand people have arrived at EU boarders (which is almost an equivalent of the annual inflow in previous years).

There are several reasons for the rapid increase of migration. They are a consequence such factors as - war (Syria), terror of the Islamic state (ISIS) and the al-Qaeda (Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan), the tragic living conditions in refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey (Syria, Iraq), or the lack of future pro- spects and last but not least the desire to escape military service (Guild, 2013).

It seems, however, that decisions concerning migration have become easier to take also thanks to the revolutionary changes in quick access to information. This of course is due to common access to Internet by means of mobile technologies (smartphones, tablets etc.)

These popular mobile technologies (in the first place smartphones- SP’s) have become a fundamental tool for migrants. Portable computer technology with permanent access to numerous web sites and applications, allow planning and supporting much safer escape.

LITERATURE/ THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This paper presents the results of the research, undertaken within DELab, Uni- versity of Warsaw on migration in the era of digital technology. The purpose of this research was to characterize and analyze the possible impact of social network and smartphones on migration processes.

The starting point for our research were semi-structured interviews conducted among immigrants from Syria and Afghanistan, selected on snowballing sampling procedure as well as open and close ended questions. We have analyzed a number of facebook profiles of migrant’s from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan. We tried to identify the most popular social media and applications among migrants and recognize the reason of the popularity of particular application. We have also used some applications to initiate contact with migrants as well. In some cases the above-mentioned interviews were done with the use of Skype, Viber and Messenger. Due to the limitation of the number of interviewers, we collected data from official reports of international institutions and organiza-

tions, such as: Eurostat, Frontex, IOM, UNHCR, humanitarian NGOs. We verified our hypothesis by confronting them with different sources of information. Some of them, like vlogs and blogs, were an alternative source of information. We have analyzed press releases as well.

We have made a distinction between mobile phones and smartphones. Smartphones enable permanent access to the internet and applications, while mobiles play more a role of a phone. Smartphones play especially important role during the migration (travelling), while mobile phones at this stage of the migration are unusefull. We have noticed a huge change in forms of communication, related to the development of information technology and its impact on the migration process. Especially the shift from Web 1.0 model to Web 2.0 model - symbolized by social networks, bi-directional communication, significant diversity in content types (O’Reilly, 2007; Andersen, 2007). It is worth mentioning that Web 2.0 is strictly connected with smartphones revolution. Web 2.0, together with smartphones allow creation and exchange of user-generated content and access to internet on-line (Reynolds, 2008) . The Web 2.0 model created new participants of internet, called “netizens”. The term “netizens” proposed by marriage M.F. Hauben and R. Hauben in mid 90. to describe people who contributes to the net and takes action to make the net a vibrant community and resource. (Hauben M.F., Hauben R., 1997 and 1998)

In this research we focus firstly on reviewing the literature on developing of digital technology in migration countries (Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan); expanding of social media and its popularity among Syrians, Iraqi and Afghani, as well as the scale of migration. We have learned that relatively few researchers focused on the influence of digital technology and smartphones on the migration process. Most of the literature analyzes the impact of the internet on migrants’ life in hosting countries (Watkins, 2012; Geissler, Pottker, 2009, Greschke, 2012, Collier,2015) , benefits and costs of migration, or impact of digital technology on migrant’s life (Emerson, 1992). However, some authors did analyze the relation between digital technology and the migration process. Among them Bret- tell (2008), Dekker and Engbergsen (2015) or Aichner and Jackob (2015) can be quoted.

The aim of this paper is to answer the following research questions:

 How do smartphones and internet applications influence the migration pattern and stimulate the migration process?  Which types of applications are the most popular among migrants?  How do social media facilitate migration by simplifying contacts with smugglers?  How are social media used by smugglers for smuggling process?  How is the national security influenced by social media in migration context?  How to modify European migration policy in digital era?

It is too early to propose a systematic interpretation of the impact of digital technology on the migration process. However, we have noticed an important role played by social media in stimulating migration. Although it is one among a number of important factors.

Social Network (SN) is the creation and maintenance of personal and business relationships especially online. With social networking, there needs be a mix of both talking and listening.

Social Network consists of a dedicated website or other application which enables users to communicate with each other by posting information, comments, messages, images, etc. SN enables deep, informative conversations with other people (5 Biggest…, 2015). SN’s are different from local groups or communities in the sense that they do not have closed boundaries. They are, in principle, open configurations of relationships that can encompass groups and communities, among other social formations (Migrant Social…, 2011).

Information Technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other physical devices, infrastructure and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic data (Information technology…, n.a.) .

Migrants use Social Network and Information Technology for exchanging information (formal and informal) about migration to and life in destination countries, enabling connecting to previously unknown others. The information is often exchanged in semi-public or public spaces, based on common interest. It facilitates to control process of migration and to reduce the personal risk within

the migration. From the other side the genuine population is often excluded from sharing the information. Social Network provide as well a channel for sending and receiving direct and indirect informational feedback on issues, relevant for migration and bring social learning effects to migrants (Dekker, Eng- bersen, Faber , 2015).

In our research we have recognized several applications used by migrants during the migration process; among them : Facebook, Messenger, Skype, Viber, WhatsUp, Snapchat, Instagram, Google maps, Google translator, weather reports websites, official websites of the country of destination.

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another. Migration happens for economic, social, political or environmental reasons. Migration is driven by push and pull factors. A refugee, according to the 1951 Convention, is „someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin ow- ing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion” (Con- vention…, n.a.).

For the purposes of this paper, the expressions - migration and refugees will be used interchangeably to describe the whole process of migration to the EU in the last few years. The reason for such a wide (and not entirely consistent with the methodology of the social sciences) categorization is the lack of hard data dividing the influx of people to Europe due to the migration motives.

MIGRATION AND THE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)

The decision to migrate is considered to be one of the most difficult decisions taken by individuals. It leads to huge stress caused by the loss of contact with their families. It happens that migrants have to leave their children, who were raised in a single-parent home. They are also taken away from their natural environment, contact with their culture and their language. They are subject to depreciation of their social status.

Migration carries along a number of mental burdens related to relocation, among them: being treated as a second category member of the society in the

host country what in turn leads to an increased level of depression, emotional change, decreased social activity, lowered self-esteem or – last but not least- physical and mental illnesses (Ahsan Ullah , 2013).

Considering these significant socio-psychological costs, those who decide to become migrants are the strongest, most determined and often the most educated and creative members of their societies.

In the pre-internet era migrants, as the basic means of communication, have used normal spoken language or sign language. Written letters, due to the time gap when the addressee could receive them and respond, were less helpful in everyday communication. They were also addressed to a limited number of recipients (Dekker, Engbersen, Faber , 2015). This form of communication increased alienation, loneliness and acculturation among migrants. For casual communication at a distance, the primary method was via phone. But telephone conversations were limited due to high cost. Some improvement in this aspect has been achieved thanks to price reductions in international calls. However, the most significant change has come together with common introduction of the internet and mobile communication technologies and especially smart phones with their versatility of applications. As in case of different areas of life, these technologies have also revolutionized migration (Aichner, Jackob , 2015).

Internet, especially social media, influence the migration processes in 4 ways: 1) They create the ability to build strong ties with family and friends who remain in the country of origin; 2) They help to create so-called weak ties among migrating individuals. They are particularly important in preparing the migration process, and in the process of integration of migrants; 3) They help to create new net of unofficial relations; 4) They create a rich source of knowledge on migration coming from closed groups.

THE NEW USE OF SN BY IMMIGRANTS

Unprecedented migration to the EU is significantly influenced by the achievements of information technology and development of Social Networks. They

revolutionized the migration processes, significantly reducing the level of costs and risks of migration.

Migration crisis in Europe highlighted new areas of the Internet's impact on migration processes:

Some of applications and communicators were used to organize travel, in particular: Facebook, WhatsApp and Viber. We notice a very important role in contemporary migration which play a mobile phones and social network. They are used both to contact within immigrant’s diaspora in different countries (cities), as well as to contact with the smugglers. The Internet is now used to identify attractive places to stay. The information comes from the word of mouth, from migrants who have already settled down in Europe. This unofficial form of communication significantly changes the attitude towards migration, facilitates decision-making process on migration. Migrants do not feel isolated in an uncertain, hostile environment and quickly find themself in a new diaspora. It is characteristic that new migrants share their experiences with the use of web applications on dedicated pages, where most information comes from informal sources, which are beyond the control of the state.

The widespread use of mobile applications (mainly Google Maps) and the GPS during the migration prevent losing way on foreign territory. Google Maps also enable a flexible reaction to roadblocks organized by the police and the boarder guard aimed at closing new migration channels. We noticed that, thanks to the internet and new applications the migration channels have been transformed. In previous decades migrants were moving along the main roads or railroad tracks, taking information from maps. Navigation, Google Maps and GPS now allow moving across transportation channels. It is now considerably more difficult for the border guard and police to control the process of migration. These new applications designed for traveling enable a more thorough penetration of Europe by illegal immigrants, criminals and terrorists, making avoiding boarder control much easier. It limits the efficiency of the registration processes and leads to vague statistics regarding the scale of the influx. This leads to either underre- porting or overestimating the numbers of immigrants (due to multiple counting of the same individuals).

The fact that immigrants (refugees) so commonly use the most modern models

of smartphones may seem quite unexpected for most Europeans. It raises sus- picion among Europeans concerning true motives of migration and economic status of the refugees. It also limits their empathy towards the incomers. It seems that, Europeans don’t really understand that, in case of the current migration a smartphone and/or credit card (apart from cash) are the key assets, a kind of “must have”. For many people fleeing war or persecution, their smartphone is one of their most precious belongings. Smartphone, differently than the old generation of mobile phones, enables a full access to the Internet and to any application. It allows both to gather and to exchange information during traveling, helps to control expenses, is a source of information conc. potential dangers, lurking on the route or just updating routes. Smartphones give the opportunity to maintain a constant contact with the family and friends and, if needed, to call for help. The symbolic picture of nowadays migration is a migrant doing a selfie and sending his family his image, immediately after getting out of a pontoon or a boat. Making the first picture in Europe and forward- ing it to their families in the homeland play an important psychological role for all participants of the migration process.

Using the Internet to gain information, experiences, and knowledge about migration stimulates migration processes. The phenomena of imitation strengthened by internet applications has been witnessed for the first time in the Middle East during the Arab Spring. From that moment one can observe rapid expansion of mass use of internet applications in the Middle Eastern and North Afri- can societies. This easy access to information results in society organizing and common pro migration attitude of large groups within the society. This is based on commonly accepted arguments justifying migration (ultimately creating the universal message). With a high degree of probability, we can say that, thanks to new information technologies the invitation that Chancellor Merkel has addressed towards migrants has reached the most distant parts of the world within minutes. As a result, we noticed a dramatic acceleration of inflow of migrants to the EU. Many of them loudly expressed their gratitude to Ms. Merkel, for the invitation. At the same time no new admission procedures for migrants that would accelerate the admission process have been introduced. This example shows the kind of challenges that nowadays European politicians are confronted

with. In the era of fast access to information and common use of Social Net- works, public statements expressed by politicians need to be more considered and cautious than ever before.

Another advantage offered by smartphones is the limiting of geographic, economic, social and language barriers. Smartphones allow effortless communication between all migrants from Arabic countries. Arabic in its written version is fully communicative for all users of this language, whereas it’s spoken versions differ significantly. Due to this, written messages (and the web allows very quick distribution of those) are commonly understood by Arabic speakers. Moreover, smartphones are equipped with translating applications (eg. Google Translator) that provide major assistance in communicating with citizens of particular countries. It is also worth mentioning that, amongst migrants a significant number does possess English to a degree allowing them to communicate. This in turn helps them in using the internet also during their journey.

Smartphones, thanks to rooming operate in a trans boarder mode. The common use of this technology by members of the young generation leads to erosion of such qualities of media coverage as reliability and responsibility. Pieces of information obtained through smartphones are not being verified. They normally play a role of a rumor thus, a lemming-like rush that they often cause. What is typical for this kind of information transfer is, on one hand it’s low quality due to lack of verification and rapid rate of spread on the other. The low quality (reliability) is largely influenced by the fact that, information submitted is in most cases anonymous (posts are not signed by the author).

Information technologies are predominantly external to the traditional State structures. Thanks to common use of smartphones individuals gain a stronger position in confrontation with the State. Refugees equipped with smartphones are able to react beforehand to actions undertaken by representatives of host States, limiting the effectiveness of such actions. As an example of such phenomena one can consider situations when refugees have left an area prior to actions which were to be undertaken by the local police or when organizing demonstrations and acts of resistance at boarders or refugee camps.

Thanks to access to the web immigrants are less exposed to acculturation, keeping a contact with their own culture (Ye, 2005, Rui, Wang, 2015). Such person

can compose his new identity out of different components – eg. being a modern European and at the same time, thanks to social media he can participate in the life of his relatives and remain under the influence of his mother culture. Immi- gration no longer is perceived as denationalization and acquiring alien culture. Thanks to these facts the social acceptance for migration in expat exporting countries has become higher. The common access to smartphones that offer everyday contact with your own culture makes decisions related to immigration easier. Separation from your family is less painful thanks to regular real time contact. One can participate (virtually but still) in the social and political life of your mother country or region. In other words, thanks to modern information technologies the status of an immigrant has evolved. For members of his family and friend he is “our man in Europe” whereas for the local society he is perceived as “an alien, cultivating his own cultural separateness”.

THE USE OF SN BY SMUGGLERS

The main source of contact with human smugglers are dedicated web sites, in most cases closed for the open public. Initial contact is through the Facebook pages of smugglers. Some are relatively open about their purpose, although most pages are closed groups. This is a method of avoiding criminal responsibility. Some of them use applications such as Facebook, WhatsApp and Viber to discuss financial details and logistics of the smuggling operation. Smugglers also use snapchat communicators for contacting clients.

Frontex describe smuggler pages as usually ran by middlemen. The structure resembles travel agencies, with photos, information about the price of services and redeployment route as well. There are also as useful tips for the journey. They include ratings of trustworthy facilitators, best routes, countries to avoid, as well as a blacklist of smugglers. It is typical that these pages appear quickly and disappear fast, making them difficult to trace. They are mainly in Arabic. Facebook pages also offer fake documents for sale, Syrian passports, identification cards, birth certificates and residence permits (Profiting from…, 2016). Smugglers give the migrants information about the asylum processes in different EU member countries as well.

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Typical adds prepared by smugglers in most cases resemble advertisements of holiday trips:

“A trip to Italy next week in a big fast tourist yacht. Two floors, air-condi- tioned, prepared for tourists. Recommended for families.”, "With the beginning of the new season we have a range of journeys on offer. Turkey Libya Italy, $3,800. Algeria Libya Italy, $2,500. Sudan Libya Italy, $2,500… The boats are all wood… If you have questions, contact me on Viber or WhatsApp.", "Kids go free", “a discount for families”. , “100 per cent guarantee”(People Smug- glers, 2015). Smuggler- Abdul Aziz, told BBC via Skype, that between 10 and 20 people contact him through his Facebook page every day. "Until 2012 we didn't use social media at all," he said. "Now, it accounts for between 30% and 40% of my business” (The Facebook…, 2015).

Some smuggler groups, on their web sites use images typical for travel agencies. It is very difficult to differentiate sites of migrants from those of smugglers. Moreover, offers from smugglers often appear of migrant sites on Facebook or Twitter. Below a few examples of such posts on Facebook in March 2016:

“Asylum to Europe, Syrian Asylum, Immigration and Asylum, Campaign for helping asylum seekers in Europe, Asylum Europe 2.0, Girls Syria in Europe, Syrians in Europe, Syrian Expatriots in Europe, Syria: Refugees and Rebels, Syria Refugee Help, Refugees of Syria, Syria Refugee Relief, Supporting Syria) Zaatari Refugee Camp), On way to Europe, Migration Europe, Migration Syri- ans, Travel to Europe Safe and Easy, Syrian Revo, Ealsy Travel Europe, Easy Europe travel, Help Syrian Refugees, Help Syrians, Safe Journey from Turkey to Greece, Smuggling from Calais to the UK, Calais Refugees Aid, Refugee Camp Calais”.

These platforms are used both by migrants and smugglers to share information on migration routes, including law enforcement activities, changes in asylum procedures, or unfavorable conditions in countries of destination. This type of information allows other migrant smugglers to adapt to changing conditions. Migrant smugglers adopt their pricing models in response to developments such as increased border controls by charging higher prices for alternative and safer routes (Migrant smuggling…, 2015). Moreover migrants, especially from Syria, use social media to collect information about the smuggling fees. This

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allows them to negotiate lower prices for transfer to Europe.

Smugglers use Google Maps in order to avoid law enforcement patrols. They also use all other mobile applications that come handy during a journey (especially by sea) such as weather forecast sites, satellite navigation. They also use the web to stay in touch with other smugglers who are responsible for following parts of the journey. Some refugees have complained that, smugglers have taken their mobile phones from them during the journey. As an explanation they have used an argument that, in order to prevent tracking by law enforcement mobile electronic equipment must remain switched off. Within the EU, migrant smuggling networks also use social media platforms to recruit drivers.

FINAL CONCLUSIONS. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE USE OF SMARTPHONES IN NOWADAYS MIGRATION

During our research we have noticed a huge change in communication, connected with information technology and its impact on migration process.

Digital technology when used in smartphones gives full and cheap access to internet, enabling communication in a real-time. Social media can motivate migrants for actions and contribute to the massive migration wave. They can create immediate behavior effects. They are used by migrants to spread the information, publish posts, remarks, memories from their migration process, put photos, etc. Social media play a role of transmission belt as well, delivering important information. Simultaneously they bring both pluralism as well as chaos of information.

In the era of smartphones the world cannot remain passive and inert towards problems, which emerge in other parts of the globe. Migrations show that, even in highly oppressive countries with the lowest level of development people are able to communicate with each other via social media, undertake actions which are in their favor and “vote with their legs”. Problems in country “A” most un- expectedly become a problem in a distant country “B” (for example Syria and Germany). Smartphones have an accelerating impact on political and social processes all over the world and limit the space for passiveness or lack of reac-

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tion of other societies that seemingly should not be affected by a certain phenomenon.

At present smartphones are technologies that influences migration waves and their frequency. One can hypothesize that, in the world of new media there is a necessity of solving problems in a global scale and reacting to crisis situations wherever they take place. Otherwise people from territories where the crisis has emerged will “vote with their legs”. The example of migration to Europe in 2015 proves that, in nowadays both distance and boards have a limited meaning. Either a land or sea boarder does not prevent migration.

Smartphones have created a situation where the state has no longer a monopoly of information. Today, non-state sources of information operate in parallel to information generated by official sources. Migrants and refugees commonly use these informal sources. As yet, the state has played a role of a so-called gate- keeper, who was responsible for selecting pieces of information. Mobile information technologies, most commonly represented by smart phones, have eliminated the selection factor and the responsibility for content being distributed. Therefore, smartphones may also become means of manipulation and abuse, or a tool in hybrid war. At present Russia is being accused of provoking panic in Syria and triggering the latest wave of refugees.

Smartphones have also an influence on political stability in host countries. In- formation concerning migration spreads through Social Network causing threat to national policies as well as for the whole of EU.

Smartphones are also a true threat to non-democratic Muslim states (Arab Spring Dreams, 2012). They enable large groups to step out of oppressive systems and to move towards a civil society. In case of refugees we can witness a social movement free form state control. These movements require a completely new, alternative social structure and organization, ability to cooperate, communicate and to find common solutions. Migrations driven by smartphones become a quick learning curve for building a civil society. This way smartphones have become a kind of „outlet for the voiceless” for those who have no hope (Citizen…, 2016). This is due to becoming a tool that allows to get organized, communicate within the group and support members of the group and exchange valuable information.

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REFERENCES:

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18. Migrant Social Networks: Vehicles for Migration , Integration , and Development, Migration Policy Institute, 30 March 2011, http://www.migrationpolicy. org/article/migrant-social-networks-vehicles-migration-integration-and-development (10.03.2016). 19. O’Reilly T., (2007), What is Web 2.0?: Design Patterns and Business Mode;s for the Next Generation of Software, Communications and Startegies, No. 1, First Quarter 2007. 20. People smugglers using facebook to lure migrant into „Italy trips”, The Guardian, 8 May 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/08/people-smugglers- using-facebook-to-lure-migrants-into-italy-trips , (15.03.2016). 21. Profiting From Misery – How Smugglers Bring People To Europe, Frontex, 18.02.2016, http://frontex.europa.eu/pressroom/hot-topics/profiting-from-misery- how-smugglers-bring-people-to-europe-aUYY2f , (14.03.2016). 22. Reynolds F., (2008), Web 2.0- In your hand, IEEE Pervasive Computing, vol. 8, issue 1. 23. Rui J.R., Wang H. (2015), Social network sites and international students’ cross- cultural adaptation, Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 49 24. The Facebook smugglers selling the dream of Europe, 13 May 2015, BBC News, http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32707346, (15.03.2016). 25. Watkins, S.C., (2012), The young and the digital. What the migration to social- network Sites, games and anytime, anywhere media means for our future, Beacon Press, Boston. 26. Ye J., (2005), Acculturative Stress and Use of the Internet among East Asian In- ternational Students in the United States, Cyberpsychology and Behavior, No. 8(2) 27. 5 Biggest Differencies Between Scoail Media and Social Networking, Social media Today, 28 May 2015http://www.socialmediatoday.com/social-business/pete- schauer/2015-06-28/5-biggest-differences-between-social-media-and-social (10.03.2016).

Prof. Adriana Łukaszewicz - Institute of International Relations, University of War- saw e-mail: [email protected]

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Prahlad Kumar MEENA

E-APPLICABILITY OF RAJASTHAN DELIVERY OF PUBLIC SERVICES ACT – 2011 AN EMPIRICAL STUDY

ABSTRACT

The inevitability of change is to be responded with the positive frame of all stakeholders in the system of governance. This is the research article which views the e- applicability of an important legislation enacted by the government of Rajasthan to ensure the quality delivery of services. Rajasthan is amazingly fast changing state to equip itself to accom- modate the digital needs by developing infrastructure to safeguard the implementation of this prime Act. The data is collected empirically and put to analysis. The results have been summarized to indicate future trajectory.

Keywords: RGDPS Act, E-governance, Good Governance, E-mitra, Bhamashah program

INTRODUCTION:

The Government of India in its effort to facilitate accountable, efficient and citizen centric governance, has introduced various administrative reforms through legal measures such as the Right to information Act and Public Services Guarantee Acts.

Right to Public Services legislation comprises statutory laws which guarantee time bound delivery of services for various public services rendered by the Gov- ernment to citizen and provides mechanism for punishing the errant public serv- ant who is deficient in providing the service in time stipulated under the statute. Right to Service legislation is meant to reduce corruption among the government officials and to increase transparency and public accountability. Madhya Pradesh became the first state in India to enact Right to Service Act on 18 Au-

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gust, 2010. Several other states like Bihar, Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand have introduced similar legislation for effectuating the right to service to the Citizen.

The objectives and reasons for promulgating the Bill infer “the State Govern- ment is committed to ensure transparent and responsive administration and time-bound delivery of services to the citizens. It is proposed that the citizens should be provided with a statutory right to obtain specified public services within a stipulated time and if the public authorities fail to provide such services within the stipulated period, they should be made liable to pay penalty.”

Rajasthan is among the few states in the country where such a law, ensuring the delivery of certain services from government departments within a stipulated time frame, exists. A total of seventeen States had enacted Public Services Guarantee Act1.

Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Bill 2011 was passed by the State Legislative Assembly on 29 August, 2011 by a voice vote. With this, Ra- jasthan became the first Congress ruled state in the country to pass this Law. Three BJP and allies ruled states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab had passed the Act earlier.

The Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act, 2011 came into force in the State on 14 November, 2011. The act aims at the time-bound rendering of 108 services of 15 departments like: Power, Police, Transport, Health and Revenue. The act also defines a burden of officials for ensuring that services are supposing within a tangible time support and for a clearway of appeals done underneath it. Now, there are 153 services of 18 departments in ambit of the legislation.

The major facets of RGDPS Act include2,  To take step forward to Good Governance  To provide services in a stipulated time  To increase transparency  To reduce corruption

1 Retrieved on date 16.01.2016 from website https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_Public_Services_leg- islation 2 Government of Rajasthan (2011). – “Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act - 2011”

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 To sensitize government  To give right to appeal if services are not rendered within stipulated time  To make designated officials accountable  To penalize them if they destroy to yield as a service  To give public information about required documents through notice boards  To establish ICT based service delivery mechanism  To set a centralized monitoring system to monitor service delivery.

Thus While each state has a separate Public Service Guarantee Act, the basic legal provisions are common:  Notifying services covered under the Act;  Providing services within stipulated time-frames;  Fixing clear penalties for non-compliance;  Nominating an administrative authority responsible for providing each service;  Outlining provisions for revision/appeal against penalty imposition.

It will be pertinent to overview the other States to understand the position of Rajasthan.

Table 1. Comparison between various States, where Acts is promulgated

State Responsible Services Penalty Monitoring Use of ICT Authority Notified Provisions Mechanism tools Rajasthan Designated 153 Servi- INR 250 per Chief Mini- Development officers ces from day to a ster's Office Under Process (DOs) First 18 De- maximum of Appellate partments INR 5000 Officers (FAOs) in respective Departments Madhya Department 52 servi- INR 250 per Chief Minis- Online applica- Pradesh of Public ces from day up to a ter's office and tion and track- Service 16 depart- maximum of DPSM, online ing system Management ments INR 5000 tracking sys- through MIS tem Bihar Implemented 50 servi- INR 250 per Extensive Computerized under the Bi- ces from day up to a ICT- based application and har Prashasa- 10 depart- maximum of system Adhi- monitoring in nik Sudhar ments INR 5000 kaar Sama- Phase I, Phase Mission dhan and II & III will see

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State Responsible Services Penalty Monitoring Use of ICT Authority Notified Provisions Mechanism tools Jigyasa for online request monitoring at and delivery of the State, Dis- services trict and Block Levels Jammu Designated 45 servi- INR 250 per Online moni- Software for and Officers ces from 6 day up to a toring in the tracking of ap- Kashmir (DOs), First depart- maximum of pipeline plications and Appellate ments INR 5000 online monitor- Officers ing in the pipe- (FAOs) in line respective departments Delhi Department 52 servi- INR 10 per e-Service Complete ICT of Infor- ces from day up to a Level Agree- based system mation and 18 depart- maximum of ment Software for filling appli- Technology ments INR 200 Monitoring cation and System in tracking status. place Jharkhand DOs, FAOs 54 servi- INR 250 per Development Development & Second ces from day up to a under process under process Appellate 20 depart- maximum of Officers ments INR 5000 (SAOs) in respective departments Haryana DOs, FAOs 36 servi- At the mo- Frequent visits Software for & SAOs in ces from 8 ment no proof deputy com- application and respective Depart- visions to missioners to tracking devel- departments ments penalize, public dealing oped by an ex- any feed- offices, DOs ternal agency, back to be also responsi- full roll out in included in ble for moni- the pipeline annual per- toring formance annual performance reports

Source: Research Study has complied information from secondary sources3.

The execution of this Act through E-governance will have a cascading influence in terms of enhancing the potential of agencies responsible for ensuring the effective implementation which is as depicted in the figure 1. The impact translated on operability can have practical implication which may be reflected in the functioning of various provisions related to this Act.

3 Sahoo Niranjan & Kapoor Arjun (2012). – “India’s shifting governance structure: From charter of promises to service guarantee”

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E- Governance and Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act 2011

Transparency Accountability Sensitivity

Good Governance

Fig 1: Impact of e- applicability

The prerequisite of E-applicability is Good Governance the concept that has been well defined by World Bank when it introduced the normative term “Good Governance” in a report on sustainable growth in sub-Saharan Africa in 1989. The notion of good governance refers to a policy strategy in which aid distrib- utors combine New Public Management with advocacy of liberal democracy in stressing the political, administrative and economic values of legitimacy and efficiency. There is a remarkable convergence around five principles of Good Governance – accountability, effectiveness and efficiency, openness/transparency, participation, and rule of law4.

Governance as an analytical concept makes us aware of how decisions are made. Good Governance as a prescriptive concept (a list of common principals) makes us aware of the values that are considered important for political decision-making processes in developing countries.

E-governance is definitely a tool for Good Governance as it is helpful in achieving the ideal. The system, which operates and provides its services digitally, is surely more transparent than any other system. Instant access to information and transfer of information gives boost to the administration and on other hand

4 World Bank (1992) “Governance and Development,” World Bank Washington, DC.

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it can lead to effectiveness and efficiency. Interactive websites assures people’s participation in governance. In this way, we can achieve the components of Good Governance through Electronic kind of governance.

In order to realize democratic ethos in the country, it is essential that the citizen and government move towards each other. Establishing a Rights-based approach in Public Service Delivery not only empowers citizens to demand services, but offers an opportunity to enable government officials with a legal and technical framework for providing these services efficiently. The move to make public service provision legally binding on the government displays a political will to make citizens active agents within administrative processes rather than mere recipients of services.

The Public Service Guarantee Act builds on the idea of the Citizen Charter – while Citizen Charters define the quality of public services, the Public Service Guarantee Acts take it a step further by making a citizens’ right to public service within the stipulated time legally binding, failing which the concerned officials can be penalized. At present, the legislative framework for this act has been established but the actual delivery of service need to be enhanced to achieve the objectives of the Act.

There are provisions for online receipt of applications and monitoring of the Act. Chief Minister’s Office is playing important role in monitoring of the Act. But the online receipt of applications is yet to be hit. Although State Govern- ment already has an e-governance infrastructure like E-mitra, Aarakshi and many other systems, but these system haven’t been added to the service delivery mechanism under the Act. It is proposed to establish a different applications receipt system under the Act.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Government of Rajasthan (2003). – “E-governance roadmap for Rajasthan”, this is about National E-governance Plan and its vision in special reference to Rajasthan. It also discusses IT readiness status of Rajasthan, e-governance strategy and Road map for Rajasthan. Gronlund, A. & Horan Thomus A. (2004). “Introducing e-Gov: History, definations and issues”, this paper briefly sketches

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the short e-Gov history and current status. There are various definitions given in this paper which differentiate e-government and e-governance. It also highlights issues about defining e-governance. Sharma, Sangeeta (2006). – “Ecol- ogy of e-governance.” in Encyclopaedia of Digital Governance, edited by Ari- Veikko Anttirokko and Matti Malkia, it explores ecological dimensions of e- governance. Any strategy which is related to e-governance needs psychological orientation of mind-sets, social empowerment by educating people, political environment by creating ambience for the political class to willingly take decisions to implement policy of e-governance etc. Government of Rajasthan (2011). – “Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act - 2011”, this Act aims at delivery of certain services to the people of the state by public authority within stipulated time frame, failing this will be liable to penalized. Ad- ministrative Reforms and Coordination Department, Government of Rajasthan (2011). – “Service Guarantee Rules”, it comprised the provision and processes to provide services and Forms and Performa to maintain records. Sahoo, Niran- jan & Kapoor, Arjun (2012) – “India’s shifting governance structure: From charter of promises to service guarantee”, this Article discusses provisions of Acts of different states comparatively. According to authors, these Acts empower citizens and make access of public services a matter of right.

RESEARCH DESIGN

This research study is based on the empirical analysis of data collected from the target groups identified as: (a) Officers (b) Public. The entire analysis is based on quantitative analysis of Data collected by instituting questionnaire. It is a web based questionnaire. The stratified and convenience types of sampling

(Random) have been used for drawing inferences.

The fundamental research questions were related to following domains to find out: 1. The possibility of applying e-governance to make this Act more interactive. 2. The possibility of people’s mobilization through e-tools. 3. The possibility of enhancing the level of efficiency, level of transparency and level of ethics. 4. The possibility of reducing corruption with the help of e-governance.

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These basic focuses were translated into set of 15 questions for each target group (i.e. Officers and Public). Depending on the responses, which were gathered through web-survey from the aforementioned groups, the variations were registered and subjected to analysis.

THE STATUS OF E-GOVERNANCE IN RAJASTHAN

The Government of Rajasthan has identified IT and ITeS as a major thrust area for the growth and development of the state. The Government of Rajasthan enunciated an IT and ITeS policy for Rajasthan in the year 2000 for the first time and came out with IT and ITeS policy in 2006 and now revised it for the year 2015. This introduces easy access in delivery of all governmental services through Automated Unified Service Delivery and benefits transfer using e- mitra and Bhamashah program. The State Government is taking all possible measures for spreading e-governance throughout the state, covering all the sectors with a view to provide hassle free, transparent and efficient service to the common man (both in urban and rural areas)5. For achieving this goal, the government has taken a four pronged approach:  Citizen Centric Service Delivery  Back End Computerization  IT Infrastructure Creation  Human Resource Development

In line with the above approach, the following 2 specialized agencies have been established:  Department of Information Technology & Communications (DoIT & C) was established by the Government of Rajasthan in 1987 under the Plan- ning Department with the key objectives of formulating IT policies, creating IT awareness and providing technical consultancy to the state government departments in their computerization activities. Presently, it functions

5 Government of Rajasthan (2003). – “E-governance Roadmap for Rajasthan”

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as a Nodal agency in Government sector to provide well organized and project oriented approach to the computerization activity in the state Govern- ment Departments. The department is headed by the Director.  Rajasthan State Agency for Computer Services (RajCOMP) was established as consultancy and project implementation agency in 1989, to cater to the increasing scope of application of IT in the Government Sector.

The infrastructure include facilitation of Video Conferencing Network, Secre- tariat Networking (SecLAN), State Data Centre (SDC), Mobile V- SAT vans, Rajasthan State Wide Area Network, E-District, Bio – informatics Centre etc.

Recently the introduction of Digital India Program has provided the basic im- petus to develop digital inter and intra governmental connectivity to deliver qualitative services.

DISCUSSION

The public service delivery is the most identifiable aim of Public Administra- tion in Rajasthan. The core value of providing quality services to its people is based on ethical norms, which governs the administration in general. The State Government of Rajasthan has introduced the Act, which guarantees the delivery of services within the stipulated time frame. The intentions are clear but it would be interesting to see the commitment with which this Act is implemented. This is a new innovation and this research study has focused on getting the practical and real perspective.

The data was collected by instituting questionnaire electronically to the respondents i.e. web-survey and mailed responses to the two target categories viz. Government Officers and Public. Different sets of questions consisting 15 questions each was given to the Target groups to get responses from the groups. This is an empirical analysis of moderate sample consisting of 50 in Target group – A (Officers) and 100 in Target group - B (Pubic).

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Target Group - A (Officers) N - 50

100 80 60 40 20 0

Yes No Can't Say

The above analysis is indicative of the following:  The provisions of this Act are well internalized by officers. The probable reasons can be two – (a) the Act is prepared by indulging into debates, dia- logues and discussions, (b) the imposition of punishment has made them accountable. These two reasons can be facilitated through digital tools.  The officials believe that e-governance is an important instrument to develop interconnectivity with different functionaries on the one side and with citizens on the other. Once the communication channels are open, it becomes easy for different stakeholders to interact whenever they feel it to be necessary. The delivery of services can only be qualitatively outreached to people when communications are opened without inhibitions. The sharing of information is the core belief of administration.  The officers on an average agreed that through digitalization of procedures it will be easy to prioritize the need areas, which immediately requires governmental attention. Hence database facilitates the identification of those services which are important for citizens and need immediate action from government. They further agreed on that e-governance is an important tool to achieve maximum in limited time.  The online system of registering any complain by citizens is another mode of getting right perspective in focus. This kind of registration would also put the onus on governmental officers to deliver what they are supposed to. The online information would also strengthen the transparency, thus reducing corruption.

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Target Group - B (Public) N - 100

100 80 60 40 20 0

Yes No Can't Say

The above analysis is indicative of the following:  Public is slightly apprehensive of the governmental instinct to implement this Act. The responses are in favor of non-committal attitude reflected by government officers. The public is more inclined in doubting the spirit of the Act. This probably is due to the fate that different Acts have faced in Rajasthan.  The operability of this Act is also not fully understood by public. Most of the respondents even questioned the e-governance intervention. They believe that such intervention cannot improve the scenario until the bureaucracy changes its mode of functioning.  Though, mostly they agreed to the fact that this Act is appropriate in em- powering the system but at the same time, they apprehend that not much is possible due to the laxity of bureaucracy.  There is a visible trend prevalent in public that government is not there to govern, but is there to rule. The entire approach is to enforce the irrational, whimsical, and illogical interests of the politico-bureaucratic class.

The data on each category reflect a particular trend in this area, which need to be further researched out in a larger realm. The future of government depends on ascertaining the qualitative and timely delivering of services to people. In- dian administration has over the period remained tuned in conventionality with traditional mind-sets, though transformation is now getting surfaced. There are

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many possibilities to ensure the delivery mechanism to enhance the quality of life. Any change initially faces resistance but the efforts have been made to re- orient mind-sets of bureaucrats. This is further important to be realized by the government as early as possible, because public is getting aware, vocal and vibrant in their expectations.

CONCLUSION

Projective Analysis

The National Consultation on ‘Strengthening Delivery and Accountability Frameworks for Public Services’ was organized by Government of Madhya Pradesh, Department of Public Services Management – DPSM and UNDP-In- dia on December 8 and 9, 2011 in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. This, first of its kind, Consultation aimed to bring together various State governments, which have legislated and notified the guarantee of public service laws in a variety of forms, to share their implementation experiences and to learn from each other’s emerging successes and challenges.

The most prominent recommendations emerging from the consultation were as follows:  Awareness generation and sensitization about the Act among citizens and public servants alike;  Development of unified software solutions that are compliant with local languages;  Total connectivity of rural areas, both in terms of geographical and network reach; offline facilities to be provided along-side;  Provision of a single or multiple points of contact to citizens for submitting service applications, apart from the designated officer;  While keeping the provision for imposing a penalty, the Act should be more motivation-oriented than penalty-oriented.

The Indian scenario is fast transforming from conventionality to compatibility to connect digitally, henceforth some interventions are needed to respond to

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changes. Taking into account of the future plank some suggestions are suggestive like;

Designing software solutions:

There is a need for avoiding separate modules for each service as it is a resource consuming effort; instead a single generic, standardized software platform must be formed to define individual elements of the Act such as notified services, entitlements, forms and process flow, and to allow management of delivery at any level of administration in a transparent and accountable manner. The Na- tional Informatics Centre (NIC) has exhibited a prototype of similar software called ServicePlus. The making of software must be local language-compliant and ensuring compatibility with existing domain software/databases. Any technology developed for the purposes of implementing the Act should be able to display the exact status of the services not only to the government but also to the citizens and service seekers to assure transparency.

Taking into account the infrastructural limitations, in case of low/no internet connectivity, the offline version of software should be used to exchange the data; however, it has its own restrictions in terms of delay, backup, restore, vi- ruses etc. Decision on such alternative applications need to be taken in view of many other factors specific to the services. Software must be enabled for record management, archiving and analysis once the service delivery is complete as per State policy.

Human resource concerns should also be addressed. Specifically, it has been noted that software development and adoption processes in the public sector differ from the private sector. Government officers typically have low IT liter- acy, and software learning/adopting process is slowed down in cases of an official’s transfer – a valid concern in public administration. Therefore, a sustained capacity building effort using multimedia tools must be encouraged.

Efficient models for service-delivery at the grassroots:

There are certain factors as poor ICT infrastructure and remote locations that unavoidably require involvement of entrepreneurial stake holders from the pri-

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vate sector to facilitate easy access to services and provide the last mile connectivity through a single window.

To address this, an appropriate model must be designed and used depending upon ground situation keeping in mind the need to:  Ensure administrative workability  Ensure financial viability of operation  Avoid duplication of efforts  Avoid conflict of interest  Ensure timely/effective delivery of service

An adequate PPP model must take cognizance of capacity and availability of generic public ICT infrastructure created by government such as e-facilitation centres (CSCs and Atal Sewa Kendras), data centres, wide area networks, application software (ServicePlus framework) and explore the possibility to re- use or develop convergence as far as possible.

Creating citizens’ awareness and reaching out to remote areas

It is needed to build citizens’ awareness by increasing IEC activities and establish multiple contact points between government officials and citizens in order to enhance access and to provide citizens with a choice. A compendium of all application forms in standard formats (in use by frontline service providers) should be made available to citizens as well clear and standardized instructions regarding the required documentation for each service request. There is a need for mobile based solutions, so that citizens’ need not make multiple visits to designated offices for service delivery. Instead he/she should be able to track his/her application through an SMS or IVRS system.

Capacity development of service providers:

The capacity of service providers can be strengthened by assessing their work load and providing them with adequate human resources (own or outsourced), financial and infrastructural support. All stakeholders involved in processing applications at various stages should be trained involving professional trainers and training material. In the context of Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public

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Services Act – 2011, the training should focus on awareness raising and attitu- dinal change while technical and functional skill training should already be standard practice.

In order to motivate public officials, a team and/or individual incentives should be introduced. In cases where teams of frontline and back office staff are jointly responsible for service delivery, a team reward is preferred since team efficiency is crucial. For accountability, the group recommended that functioning of public officials at Block and District level should be tracked to assess progress. In addition, an annual third party evaluation should be carried in order to identify concern areas and devise appropriate solutions.

The services covered by the Act and the corresponding delivery time lines need to be reviewed periodically to allow for corrections (e.g. in case of improved systems and procedures, the required response time may reduce). A Trust Fund (e.g. Torrens compensation fund in Australia) can be created to compensate ap- plicants in case of systematic delays. The four years of experience till 2015 reveal that public servants are now becoming more responsive and techno-savvy. The digitisation of administration is an emerging trend now in India which promotes use of e- devices to deliver fast. The society, may, in times to come, will see the fruits of this Act implemented through e- interventions by becoming more coherent.

REFERENCES:

1. Retrieved on date 16.01.2016 from website https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right _to_Public_Services_legislation 2. Government of Rajasthan (2011). – “Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Ser- vices Act - 2011” 3. Sahoo Niranjan & Kapoor Arjun (2012). – “India’s shifting governance structure: From charter of promises to service guarantee” 4. World Bank (1992) “Governance and Development,” World Bank Washington, DC. 5. Government of Rajasthan (2003). – “E-governance Roadmap for Rajasthan” 6. Gronlund, A. & Horan Thomus A. (2004). “Introducing e-Gov: History, definations and issues”, Communications of the Association for Information Systems, Volume 15, pp. 713-729 7. Sharma, Sangeeta (2006) “Ecology of E-Governance”, in Encyclopedia of Digital

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Governance, edited by Ari-Veikko Anttirokko and Matti Malkia, Idea Group Ref- erence: USA, Pennesylvania.

KEYWORDS EXPLAINED:

RGDPS Act enacts different provisions to effective delivery of public services in Ra- jasthan such: Police, Power, Transport etc. The idea has been to make bureaucrats directly accountable for delivering all those services which lies within the ambit of this Act.

E-governance is the concept which is already in practice for last two decades and it is one of the necessary conditions for Good Governance.

Good Governance is a concept coined by the World Bank to emphasize the necessity of effective operationalization of government by ensuring accountability, transparency, effectiveness and economy.

E-mitra is a government portal to deliver public services through e-devices. Many ki- osks has been set up in various places which works as a plank between citizen and government.

Bhamashah program is facilitates direct benefit transfer to people in Rajasthan. This is an important intervention to curb corruption.

Annexure -I Questionnaire: Target Group – A (Officers) Q. 1 Do you know about various provisions of Rajasthan Guaranteed Delivery of Public Services Act 2011? Q. 2 Do you think that this Act will empower service delivery mechanism in Raja- sthan? Q.3 Do you have web connectivity in your office to facilitate the online receipt of applications pertaining to the services? Q.4 Do you think that it is easy to upload the provisions of Act related to your department? Q.5 Do you think that the staffs are competent in using different digital tools for respond to the queries? Q.6 Do you think that it will facilitate inter/intra departmental interaction in relation to the implementation of this Act?

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Q.7 Do you think that e-intervention will improve better delivery of services? Q.8 Do you think that present system is better than prospective digital system of service delivery? Q.9 Do you think that e-technology will help in handling common inquiries from citizens? Q.10 Do you think that e-system will help in better time management in responding to the queries, thereby reducing the possibility of capital punishment? Q.11 Do you think that “Database” regarding the services provided by your department will improve the administrative efficiency? Q.12 Do you think that e-governance will help in better work management? Q.13 Do you think that e- tools will increase the level of satisfaction amongst the citizens in regards to the services? Q.14 Do you think that digitally compiled information will help you to prepare a map of citizen’s needs? Q.15 Do you think that this mapping will help in making relevant policies pertaining to the services?

Target Group – B (Public) Q.1 Do you think that as an individual you will be empowered with implementation of this Act? Q.2 Do you think that your participation will improve the administrator’s capability to deliver better services? Q.3 Do you think that as a recipient of services you expect qualitative improvisa- tions with commencement of this Act? Q.4 Do you think that this Act will help in curbing corruption prevalent in Rajasthan civil services? Q.5 Do you think that it is a right step towards sensitizing administrators? Q.6 Do you think that the time specified in this Act is appropriate? Q.7 Do you think that the administrators will respond to the queries raised by you within the time limit through e-governance? Q.8 Do you think that computerisation will help in effective implementation of this Act? Q.9 Do you think that by uploading of the Act on website citizens in general will be benefited? Q.10 Do you think that e-intervention will support the spirit of this Act? Q.11 Do you think that the online connectivity will mobilise citizens to participate in governance? Q.12 Do you trust the technical skills of administrators?

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Q.13 Do you think that information disseminated through digital notice boards is more convenient method to know about the provisions of the Act and essential documents to get a service? Q. 14 Do you think that accessibility to information will be facilitated by e-intervention? Q.15 Do you think that continuous online exchange will put a pressure on government to deliver services?

Prahlad Kumar Meena – Ph.D. candidate, research fellow under the UGC Senior Re- search Fellowship in the Department of Public Administra- tion, University of Rajasthan e-mail: [email protected]

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INDIAN PROBLEMS III. AND TRANSFORMATIONS

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Shivika SAXENA

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIAN SUBCONTINENT: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

ABSTRACT

The topic – Global climate change and Indian subcontinent: causes and consequences appeared very pertinent to the present times and scenario around the world. Indian subcontinent and the area in vicinity is the house of about one third of the world population and claim a major chunk in the world trade market. Meaning to say that the area under analysis does significantly influence the world and world population.

The Indian subcontinent and its climatic mechanisms not only influence India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives but a significant area of China and Taiwan also. Not only has this, but the geographical features of this area played a crucial role in deciding the climate and in turn the life of the people of this area and the world. Thus, the subject of the paper potentially encompasses the life of a huge chunk of the world population (if not all of them).

Keywords: climate, climate change, climatics mechanisms

INTRODUCTION

The topic – Global climate change and Indian subcontinent: causes and consequences appeared very pertinent to the present times and scenario around the world. Indian subcontinent and the area in vicinity is the house of about one third of the world population and claim a major chunk in the world trade market. Meaning to say that the area under analysis does significantly influence the world and world population.

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a crucial role in deciding the climate and in turn the life of the people of this area and the world. Thus, the subject of the paper potentially encompasses the life of a huge chunk of the world population (if not all of them).

The structure of the paper is such that it first tries to underline the problem with its intensity and gravity and then tries to suggest possible and plausible solutions. Beginning from the very basics, I have then tried to build up the subject as comprehensively as possible. Let us now together try to understand the situation and do our bits for the betterment of the situation.

CLIMATE

As already known to the worthy readers, climate is a superset of weather. Weather, which deals with observables like temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind conditions and other similar parameters for a short period of time; forms the basis for the climate of a particular place with the study of these parameters for a considerable period of time and repeating cyclically over years. To make it more clear, weather is study of these observables for a few days whereas these parameters studied over years and their trend studied for a span of about 25 years gives us an idea about the climate of that place.

Climatic change

The most general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. In a more refined way -

A change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (UNFCC, 1992).

So, climatic change is basically a change in these observable parameters. If some parameter was being observed in some range and for some time now the observed value of the parameter is beyond the earlier observed range, it can be termed a climatic change.

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Extreme event

For the present scope of this text, I would like to define extreme event as a condition where the observables reach a value which are harmful or can be potentially harmful to humans on a continuous exposure to such conditions.

Observations and statistical data

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows the probabilistic curves of temperature and precipitation describing their probabilistic intensity of occurrence.

The probability of extreme climate as temperature extremes and precipitation extremes has been shown in the figure.

Figure 2 depicts a shift in the climate towards more extreme events with high temperatures and heavy precipitation.

It can be observed that there is a shift towards extreme with the graph shifting towards hotter temperature and higher rainfall.

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Figure 2

Figure 3 shows an increase in average temperature, global average sea level, considerable decrease in northern hemisphere snow cap

Figure 3 We can observe that in the recent times, the snow cover over the polar areas has melted giving rise to an increase in the sea level.

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Figure 4

Figure 4 shows a decrease in cold nights and increase in warm nights in the period of 1901 – 1979.

Figure 5

Figure 5 shows a considerable increase in the concentrations of carbon Di oxide and methane for the period of 1800 – 2000. The steep rise surpasses the history of previous 800 years with the concentration of Carbon Di oxide rising from about 265 – 275 – 375 ppm from 10000 years ago – 1800 – 2000.

The concentration of methane has increased from about 750 – 750 – 1750 From about 10000 years ago – 1800 – 2000

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ANALYSES AND PROJECTIONS

The above data shows clearly that the civilization is speedily heading towards extreme conditions. The alarming rate of growing concentration of green house gases and CFC’s along with other pollutants, is definitely going to prove detri- mental to human life and living . It would not only affect everyday life but also make a serious impact on the economic situations of the area. I would like to broadly highlight some of the major consequences on the environment and living in the area: 1. Climate change will make Indian monsoons unpredictable. As a result, rain- fed wheat cultivation in South Asia will suffer in a big way. Total cereal production will go down. The crop yield per hectare will be hit badly, causing food insecurity and loss of livelihood. 2. The rising levels of the sea in the coastal areas will damage nursery areas for fisheries, causing coastal erosion and flooding. 3. The Arctic regions, Sub-Saharan Africa, small islands and Asian mega del- tas, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, will be affected most. A rise of 0.5 degree Celsius in winter temperatures could cause a 0.45 tonne per hectare fall in India’s wheat production. The average per hectare production in India is 2.6 tonnes. 4. The total agricultural land will shrink and the available land may not remain suitable for the present crops for too long. Farmers have to explore options of changing crops suitable to weather. He also pointed out that climatic changes could lead to major food security issues for a country like India. 5. Huge coastal erosion is very likely due to a rise in sea levels of about 40 cm resulting from faster melting of glaciers in the Himalayan and Hindu Kush ranges. It can affect half-a-million people in India because of excessive flooding in coastal areas and also can increase the salinity of ground water in the “Sunderbans” and surface water in coastal areas. 6. Poverty, malnutrition and diseases will be increased in future.

Along with this, I would quote a few excerpts from the archives of India Re- source Centre, 23 October 2002 which provide some staggering statistics about the gravity of the problem:

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1. The concentration of Carbon in the atmosphere in the form of CO2 and other carbon compounds has increased manifolds and the rate of deposition is unprecedented for about last 4 million years. Most of the deposition is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels. 2. It is estimated that the average temperature would change in the range of 2.33 C to 4.78 C with a doubling in CO2 concentrations. 3. Estimates say that areas of Orissa and West Bengal would be deeply affected with an increase in sea level and increase in sea level by about 1 m would inundate about 1700 sq. kms. Affecting the life of about 7 million people. 4. Such conditions would invite epidemic like conditions. 5. Not only social and physical but it would also have deep economic impacts on South Asia and the world.

The statistics and observations clearly point towards more extreme events beyond the comfort levels of human beings. The results will not only affect the geography of the area but there would be an influence on many other parameters of the society. Let us try to examine a few of the factors with the help of the table given below

Phenome- Likelihood Agriculture, Water resource Human health Industries , settle- non and di- of future Forestry and ments and society rection of trend based Ecosystem trend on the projections for 21st century using SRES scenarios Over most Virtually Increased Effects on water Reduced human Reduced energy de- land areas certain yields in resources rely- mortality demand for heating, warmer colder envi- ing on snow- creased cold ex- increased demand and fewer ronments , melt, effects on posure for sooling, declin- cold days decreased some water sup- ing air quality in cit- and nights yields in plies ies, reduced disrup- warmer warmer en- tion to transport due and more vironments, to snow ice, effects frequent increased on winter tourism. hot days insects out- and nights breaks Warm Very Reduced Increased water Increased risk Reduction in quality spells heat likely yields in demand , water of heat related of life for people in waves fre- warmer re- quality prob- mortality espe- warm areas without quently gions due to lems, algal cially for the el- appropriate housing increased heat stress, blooms derly chroni- impacts on the el- over most increased cally sick very derly very young land areas danger of young and seri- and poor wild fire. ously isolated

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Heavy Very Damage to Adverse effects Increased risk Disruption of settle- precipita- likely crops, soil on quality of of death , inju- ments commerce tion erosion, in- surface and ries and infec- transport and socie- events , ability to ground water tions respiratory ties due to flooding frequently cultivate contamination and skin dis- pressures on urban increased land due to of water supply, eases and rural infrastruc- over most water lodg- water scarcity tures loss of prop- areas ing of soils. may be relieved erty. Area af- Likely Land degra- More wide- Increased risk Water shortage for fected by dation , spread water food and work settlements, indus- drought lower stress shortage ,in- try and societies, re- increases yields/crop creased risk of duced hydropower, damage and malnutrition , generation poten- failure in- increased risk of tials, potential for creased water and food population migra- livestock born diseases tion. death increased risk of wild fire Intense Likely Damage of Power outages Increased risks Disruption of tropical crops : wind causing disrup- of death , inju- flooded high winds cyclones throw(up- tion of public ries , water and withdrawal of risk activity rooting) of water supply food born dis- coverage in vulnera- increases trees , dam- eases , post trau- ble areas by private age of coral matic stress dis- industries , potential reefs orders for population migrations, loss of property Increased Likely Salination Decreased fresh Increased risk Costs of coastal pro- incidences of irrigation water availabil- of death and in- tection versus costs of extreme water, estu- ity due to salt juries by draw- of land use reloca- high sea aries and water intrusion ing in floods: tion, potential for level(ex- fresh water migration re- movements of popu- clude tsu- systems. lated health ef- lations and infra- namis) fects structure also see tropical cyclone above.

The text above must have made the reader realize the gravity of the problem. After appreciating the problem enough, let us now try to talk about the solution of this problem.

Here are a few suggestions and measures that might help in bringing up the balance in nature and avert the imminent danger facing us. Most of the measures and solutions are obvious and common sensible and even if we are a little conscious and are, we can do our bit in improving the situation. Some other suggestions require governmental intervention and public involvement.

SOME ECO FRIENDLY SOLUTIONS:

 Minimal usage of fossil fuel run automobiles and judicious use of fuel by

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driving intelligently by minimizing idling time, car pooling, proper maintenance etc.  Avoid frequent use of automobiles and private vehicles, “switch off” engines of motor vehicles on traffic red lights or when stationary.  Save water, it amounts to reducing sewage.  Save paper; it amounts to saving tree and forests. For better environment.  Use of “cotton or paper bags” in home and for shopping, it is biodegradable. Avoid using plastic bags.  Save electricity, waste of electricity means loss of previous energy resources, more pollution. More degradation of land and water recourses.  Avoid using “canned and bottled” foods, it creates more waste.  Avoid or minimize the use of cosmetics, they are also factor in destroying the life protecting ozone cover.  Create less waste in daily life; follow the golden rules of 3R’s (reduction, re-use and recycling) for the wastes.

SOME CLIMATE CHANGE POLICIES:

Climate change concerns should be integrated in all areas of public policy, particularly economic and social policies. The risk of serious climate change impacts suggests that urgent action is needed to significantly reduce GHG emissions in the coming decades. Large reductions in GHG emissions are achievable at relatively low costs, if the right policies are put in place. This includes strong use of market-based instruments world wide to develop a global price for GHG emissions, accompanied by better integration of climate change objectives in relevant policy areas such as energy, transport, building, agriculture or forestry, and other measures to speed technological innovation and diffusion. Several policy instruments can help like put a price on GHG emissions, carbon or energy taxes.  The removal of environmentally harmful subsidies, tradable permits schemes and the project-based flexibility mechanisms of the Kyoto Proto- col to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN- FCCC).

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 While all OECD countries have applied one or more of these instruments to some extent, a priority is to extend their use and to link them so as to provide a strong and consistent price signal across all GHG-emitting activities. Developing a global carbon price not only reduces the total costs of reducing GHG emissions, but also helps to level the playing field between countries, thus addressing concerns about the potential effects on competitiveness of climate change policies.  Climate change is already being observed in many parts of the world, and some further climate change is already locked-in due to past and current GHG emissions. Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into all relevant areas of public policy is a priority. It is a long-term process including awareness-raising, integration into sectoral planning and implementation of specific adaptation options.  Integrating climate change risks requires more flexible, preventive and forward-looking approaches, and will involve legal, institutional and policy changes. For example, climate change adaptation could be facilitated through greater use of market-based instruments such as efficient water pricing and water markets, and risk-based insurance for properties, floods and droughts.  Kyoto Protocol – the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Im- plementation (JI). These mechanisms allow firms in industrialised countries to earn emission credits by investing in emission reduction projects in other countries. Emission credits can use .  All OECD countries levy energy taxes to some extent, while a few countries impose carbon taxes. Such taxes can be a particularly be bought or sold in national or international carbon markets. OECD governments have often reduced their effectiveness by offering energy tax reductions or exemp- tions, typically for the most energy intensive or polluting sectors where abatement costs are particularly low.  There is also scope to reduce subsidies that may indirectly increase GHG emissions, such as those to energy or transport. Subsidies to energy producers in OECD countries are around USD 20-30 billion a year. The removal of environmentally harmful subsidies can be seen as a necessary first step towards an economically efficient and environmentally effective climate

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policy. However, taxation or emission trading will be necessary to effectively put a price on GHG emissions.  Large reductions in GHG emissions are needed in the coming decades and throughout the century. This will require greater policy attention to accelerate the up-take of existing “green” technologies and practices, for example policies to encourage greater energy efficiency. Market-based instruments provide strong incentives for innovation, but market forces alone may not be enough; firms under invest in research and development (R&D) if they fear they will not be able to earn a decent profit on resulting product development.  R&D programmes, regulations (e.g. building codes and regulations), and information instruments (e.g. eco-labelling of energy appliances) can complement market-based approaches. They can help to overcome some of the market and information failures that slow the development and diffusion of climate-friendly technologies. To ensure flexibility and encourage innovation, regulations should be based on achieving particular results, rather than specifying the methods or technologies to be used to achieve those outcomes. Care needs to be taken in choosing instruments in a policy mix, however, to ensure that they are complementary and avoid unnecessary overlap, and that they are cost-effective  Carbon or energy taxes may affect the competitiveness of energy-intensive sectors (such as aluminium, steel, or cement) if competitors in other countries are not similarly taxed. However, they are unlikely to negatively affect the economy as a whole. With the right policies, countries can even take advantage of being a “first mover” with regard to low-carbon technologies and practices.  Establishing a global price on carbon is essential for cost-effective reductions in GHG emissions. International co-operation is needed to establish the rules for carbon markets and the conditions to bring them into existence. This includes systems for monitoring emissions reductions, reporting and compliance. There is a need to extend and link existing international and national initiatives, such as emissions trading and carbon taxes. Other policies, including regulations and offset mechanisms, may be needed to extend

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GHG constraints to numerous small and diffuse emission sources, especially where market barriers limit the effectiveness of price signals.  Air and marine transport are largely exempted from fuel taxes, despite rapidly accelerating growth in the CO2 emissions from these forms of transport.  Many policies with significant climate co-benefits are found in the agriculture and waste sectors. These include landfill gas recovery, animal manure management and agriculture fertiliser management. While in most cases these measures were introduced for other reasons, they have often led to significant GHG emission reductions. Policies to reduce environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies, or at least to redirect the subsidies to support environmentally friendly forms of agricultural production, can help to further reduce GHG emissions. Similarly, economic approaches in waste reduction or recovery schemes can bring multiple benefits, including lower GHG emissions in developing countries, large amounts of total GHG emissions come from deforestation and forest degradation.

To sum up the problem, we need to work on the following points mainly  Minimizing GHG emission.  Non bio degradable waste management.  Forestation  Minimizing industrial waste emission and its proper treatment.

In normal course, this should be the end of the paper; as generally happens in most of the cases on topics like this, but I would like to go a little further.

Have we actually discussed the problem comprehensively? Is there nothing else to talk about? In most of the text, we are more concerned about the problems that might come (although I have a bit different opinion which I shall put forth a few lines later), we are ignoring the effect and impact already being made on the life physically and more importantly subtly. See, people would anyway find out ways to live, people would still somehow manage to live in a hotter climate in another landmass (Still enough landmass will remain to inhabit the whole humanity. People are living in higher temperatures and lower temperatures then

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what is being projected). Life would still go on but a bit differently. Life used to go on differently and in different conditions 10000 years ago, it is different to day, it would be different 10000 years from now. Adaptation would take place and life would go with its own problems and solutions. Life anyway goes and would go with its own problems and solutions. The problems would be new and different and the solutions would also change. We need to think deeper about life and its related issues. I would like a keen attention of the reader at this point to make my stance clear.

I believe the roots of the problem are deeper and climate change is just one stem of the tree of the problem. We can see a change in another climate apart from this outer climate, that climate is of human psyche, human thinking, human value system, priorities, understanding about life and lifestyle. Thousands of years ago, the thinking of the people was more spiritual, more religious, life had a few requirements and the goal and direction of life was different. Today we have become more hedonistic, selfish, more target and money oriented. Life was more ‘life’ and people enjoyed it more than today. Today, we are striving and working harder for joy and happiness but that comparatively much easily available joy of life, for which man did not use to work so hard, has slipped somehow in this lifestyle where style remains and life slips away. The definition of a successful life has changed. This change in the global climate is much more dangerous and has actually caused this outer physical change in climate. This has made the human so weak and fragile that even if a person knows what is right and wise, he or she might not be able to do it. Do we not know that smok- ing is dangerous both for our health and health of the nature; are we able to quit it? Do we not know that automobiles fill in a lot of carbon in the lungs of nature, how many times do we avoid an automobile ride and prefer a walk or cycling? Do we switch off our engines if we are on a traffic light for a longer time? At least, talking in the perspective of the people of Indian subcontinent, the an- swers to these questions are not very encouraging and positive. Developed nations dump so much waste in the ocean that Small Island like Kiribati are inundated and people have to buy land in Fiji for rehabilitation. At least in Indian subcontinent, industries do not care properly about waste disposal and thus lead to contamination of natural resources. These natural resources such as air and

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water when used by people make them suffer, and this suffering is not just physical but also mental. This mental turmoil makes one unbalanced and irrational which actually gets one in the vicious circle of doing wrong things and facing their results which adds to his or her mental imbalance. Just imagining the condition of a traffic policemen standing at a crowded crossing of an Indian cos- mopolitan city where the traffic is stuck for a few minutes, would give you an idea of the temperament of these people. Daily regular commuters have daily dose of smoke along with their food and you can imagine how much daily business gets generated for doctors. Today, we see so many psychosomatic patients in the doctor’s clinic. The major reason for this is this change in the inner climate of human psyche and lifestyle.

It does not mean that I am advocating that we begin living a 15 century life, but even if we regulate ourselves and avoid unnecessary wastage of natural resources and judiciously plan the use of what we have, believe me, we can avert the imminent danger by at least 20 yrs. The present rate of mining and deforestation for setting up industries and housing is catastrophic for the balance of nature and we need to have a regulatory body which checks the number of automobiles on the road and industries in an area. Also, this body should function fairly and should be powerful to influence the industrialists.

Recently, it has been observed, even in the paper published in the last edition….

Spirituality is being offered as a solution or as an important aspect of solution to most of the human problems including this one. I agree to this to a great extent for spirituality gives a direction to life and the person thinks about the purpose of life. Then he or she would turn inwards and most of the unnecessary activities would stop. A lot of squandering of resources would be stopped. Peo- ple would find satisfaction inside with a little effort and would be self contented thus avoiding so many things done today in the name of so called recreation.

There are a few last statements I would like to make. Actually, we do not need to get so much panic because things would not turn out as bad as we are talking about. Because, this has become topic of global concern, consensus would be made to formulate some economic and nature care policies to avert this problem. We have enough fossil fuel for the coming century and actually technology would be devised within the next two decades for faster locomotion through

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clean fuel. We already have vehicles running on solar, electric, organic fuel. It is just the inertia and pressure of the holders of this expensive fossil fuel, that the technology for faster and cleaner movement is not publicly available. There are places where vegetable oil is being used as a fuel and technology for deriv- ing energy from renewable sources is in its infancy (not being allowed to develop). But when it would be really necessary then these cheaper technologies would be launched at higher prices for economic gains.

To conclude I would just say that problems of global climate change or other problems are just like tips of iceberg, there actual expanse lies below the surface of outer appearance and manifestation. It lies in the waters of human thinking, value system, morals and priorities of life.

Mother Nature is very powerful and compassionate, she can respond to all the atrocities being done on it in just a few seconds, within a few minutes, she can take the status many years back ruining the structures which took years too built. But when some component would imbalance her equilibrium, she can bring back the balance once again. No doubt, with present state of affairs, things would become troublesome but human intelligence fused with God provided wisdom would go over it. Global warming, if would increase the temperature and melt the polar ice to increase the sea level, within a few years, the new coastal area which would be inundated by water, would develop a good green cover and gradually the temperature and precipitation would bring back the balance again.

In the coming times, within about 20-25 years from now, we would have a cleaner environment with less air pollution because automobiles would use cleaner technologies, but still there would be a big problem of non bio degradable and e-waste disposal. If we could develop substrates, over which electronics can be rigged up, that can be decomposed by nature then we can get away with this problem too. Otherwise this material can also be melted to the best extent possible or powdered finely to use it as a filler material for construction of roads, that is what my guess would be as a possible solution to the problem of e - waste disposal.

May God give us strength, courage, wisdom to live life and make earth a better planet to live. GOD BLESS.

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REFERENCES:

1. Aguado Edward and Burt J.E.: Weather and Climate, Printice Hall , New Jersey 2. Arnold, M., and Kreimer, A.,(eds)(2000) : Managing Disaster Risks in Emerging Economies, Disaster Management Series No.2, World Bank, Washington, D.C. 3. Barnes, P.,(2000): Approaches to community safety: risk perception and social meaning,Australian journal of Emergency Management(Autumn), pp. 15-23 4. Coppola, D.P., (2011) : Introduction to International Disaster Management , Eles- vier, Butterworth-Heinemann. 5. Das, K.,(2002): social mobilisation for rehabilitation relief work in cyclone affected Orissa , Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.37(48), pp. 4786-4788 6. Das Gupta, R.,(2007): Disaster management and Rehabilitation , Mittal Publica- tions, New Delhi, Pp. 292. 7. Emergency Management Australia (EMA), (2000): Emergency Risk Management, Application Guide, Dickson, EMA. 8. FEMA (1987): Multy -Hazard: Identification and Risk Assessment, Washington, D.C. 9. Federal Emergency Management Agency, (2013): FEMA, Retrieved May 1, 2013 from http://www.fema.gov. 10. Global commission on the Economy and Climate (2014) The New Climate Econ- omy, http://newclimateeconomy.report/ (accessed 01.11.2014). 11. Hamblin, W.Kenneth and Christiansen, E.H.: Earth Dynamic Systems, Printice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 12. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)(2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Forth Assessmnet Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Paluticof, P.J. Van Der Linden and C.E. Hanson(eds), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 13. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)(2013)Climate Change 2013: the Physical Science Basis , Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assess- ment Report of the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change , Stocker, T.F.,D.Qin, G.K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley(eds), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and new York, USA. 14. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)(2014) Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, Longer Report, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/ syr/SYR_AR5_LONGERREPORT.pdf(accessed 03.11.2014) 15. Indian Meteorological Department,(1997-2014): Disastrous Weather Events, Pune.

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16. Kale, V.S., (2003) : The Spatial- Temporal Aspects of Monsoon Floods in India : Implications of flood Hazard Management, in H.K,Gupta (ed), Disaster Manage- ment, University Press. Pp.22-23 17. Kumar, K.J.A., Walia , A. and Chaturvedi , S., (2012) India disaster report,( 2011), National Institute of Disaster management (NIDM), June, 2012. 18. National Disaster Management in India: www.ndmindia.nic.in 19. Pitzer, C.J., (1999): New thinking on disasters: the link between safety culture and risk taking. Australian journal of Emergency Management (spring). 20. Rieback, H., (2005): The Rising cost of Natural Hazards, NASA Earth Observa- tory, March 28, http://earthobservatory.nasagovt/study/risinhgcost/. 21. Singh, Savindra, (2014): Climatology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad. 22. Singh, Savindra, (2014): Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Al- lahabad. 23. Slovic , P.,and Webber, E.,(2002): perceptions of risk posed by extreme events, presented at risk Management Strategies in an Uncertain world , Palisades, New York, April 12-13. 24. United Nations Environmental Panel, (2001): Climate Change, 2001: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. 25. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), (2004): Living with risk: a global review of disaster reduction initiative. 26. World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), (1999): Comprehensive risk assessment for natural hazards, WMO/ TD No. 955, Geneva.

Dr. Shivika Saxena – Former Lecturer in S.S.Jain Subodh P.G. College, Jaipur, Raja- sthan e-mail: [email protected]

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Sabyasachi NAYAK

FOOD SECURITY: INDIA

ABSTRACT

The NFSA mandates to ensure that two-third of the population has access to an adequate quantity of food at affordable prices. A FGD conducted with select stakeholder con- ducts a SWOT Analysis and subsequently highlights the ground realties. The ecosystem for the effective implementation of NFSA is partially met and the results of the SWOT Analysis are in no way exhaustive, as certain aspect might have not been taken into account. A 3S- Simulate Strategize Synchronize principle, an outcome of the FGD that explored the nuance of the NFSA relates to a primitive stage in evolving democratization of food security. This model proposed is based on research work which may be experimented and further reinforced with field dynamics.

Keywords: food absorption, food security, NFSA, nutritional security, TPDS,

BACKGROUND

The world has arrived at a critical crossroads in the effort to promote food and nutrition security. The world continues to face serious challenges of hunger and undernutrition. The number of chronically hungry people gradually declined from almost 1 billion three decades ago to 842 million in 2013, according to recent estimates by FAO. This means that about one in eight people in the world suffers from hunger today. The problem is especially urgent in South Asia and Africa south of the Sahara, which together are to almost two-thirds of the world’s hungry people.(IFPRI, 2014) Hunger in a world of food abundance is principally a result of negligence as it lies within mankind’s capacity to put in place the policies, institutions, technologies and logistics both to prevent and eradicate hunger (FAO et al 2002) One can hardly quibble over the view that the presence of hunger on a substantial scale constitutes one of the most serious indictments of claims of economic development. In terms of mitigating hunger

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and securing food for its citizens, India has been consistently portraying one of the poorest records1 and the country’s performance in reducing the number of people afflicted by malnutrition and hunger remains pretty dismal even during the much-talked about period of rapid economic growth. If we look at some important indicators of food and nutrition security of India, there is little hope that the country would be free from the clutches of hunger and malnutrition in the near future. (Jha and Acharya, 2013) The right to food has been recognized as a human right since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, in numerous binding and nonbinding legal instruments, notably Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.(FAO,2006)

Notwithstanding India’s relatively robust economic performance since the economic reforms in early 1990’s, significant deficits in human development parameters, most notably in health and nutrition standards, remain a cause of concern. India has the largest number of under-nourished children in the world. Not only that prevalence of child under-nutrition in India (43 percent) much higher than the world average (25 percent), its performance is worse than some of the poorest economies of the world .This prevalence is even higher among some socio-economic groups and regions.( Gupta and Mishra, 2013)While the high levels of malnutrition are worrying, the fact that there has not been any significant reduction in malnutrition in the recent past despite India being the second- fastest growing economy of the world is intriguing. On the other hand, there has been concern about the deterioration in the food security situation in recent years because of a continuous spell of inflation. (ADB, 2013) One of the greatest achievements of India has been to provide food security for its people. (Chakraborty, 2005)

FOOD SECURITY

“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food, which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” (WFS (1996) Based on this definition, four food security dimensions can be identified: food availability, economic and physical access to food, food utilization and stability

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(vulnerability and shocks) over time. (FAO, IFAD and WFP. 2013) Food availability is the physical presence of food in the area of concern through all forms of domestic production, commercial imports and food aid. Food availability is determined by: a) production-food produced in the area; b) trade- food brought into the area through market mechanisms; c) stocks: food held by traders and in government reserves; d) transfers: food supplied by the government and/or aid agencies. (WFP, 2009) Food access is a measure of a household’s ability to acquire available food. It usually refers to a household’s economic means e.g. having sufficient income to buy food on the market, but it is also a measure of the strength of a household’s social networks, political status and power within a community. Food utilisation refers to a household’s use of the food to which it has access, including food storage, processing and preparation as well as its distribution within the households. It also refers to an individual’s ability to absorb and metabolize nutrients, which can be affected by disease and malnutrition.( ACF International, 2010)

It is also interesting to note that there is a hierarchical interdependency among those dimensions- availability is a necessary, yet insufficient, condition for access, which in turn is necessary, however insufficient, to reach adequate nutritional outcomes. The fourth dimension of stability emphasises the permanency and sustainability of the three dimensions over time. There are two main ways in which time enters in the analysis of food security. On the one hand, there is a valuation component: food security can be assessed by taking both an ex post and an ex ante perspective. As of yet, most measures of food security have been mainly focused on providing ex post assessments of food security levels, instead of estimating ex ante probability functions of vulnerability to food insecurity in the future. On the other hand, time also enters in the analysis of food security as duration of the food security status, which could be either chronic or transi- tory. (Aurino, E., 2014)

Among the many social protection programmes in India there are two broad categories specifically targeted for the poor and closely related to food security and nutrition. These are (i) The Public Distribution System and Supplementary Nutrition Programmes and (ii) The Rural Wage Employment Programme.(It- tyerah. 2013) India is a rapidly growing developing country, but has a larger food-insecure population than all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Given the prevalence

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of chronic malnutrition, India is engaged in a prolonged debate about increasing expenditures on its national food aid program, the Public Distribution System (PDS). India spent nearly 1 percent of its gross domestic product on the PDS in 2012, and that amount likely will increase under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) of 2013, which became law in September 2013. (Krishnamurthy and Tandon2014)).

NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY ACT - INDIA

The National Food Security Act (NFSA) promulgated in September 12, 2013 is an important effort to ensure that the majority of India’s population has access to an adequate quantity of food at affordable prices.(Mishra, 2013) It entitles around two-thirds of the population to 5 kg of subsidized grain per person. (Na- gavarapu, and Sekhri 2014.) Although the National Food Security Act is crucial for the poor, it is especially critical for the persistently excluded and the indig- enous groups of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. These groups depend heavily on casual wage labor in rural areas, and their poverty rates are high. (IFPRI,2014)While the Act envisages wide ranging measures aimed at addressing aspects of food security, entitlements under the Public Distribution System have attracted the greatest attention in the context of India’s WTO commit- ments. Under the provisions of the Act, priority households are entitled to 5 kgs of foodgrains per person per month, and Antyodaya households to 35 kgs per household per month. The combined coverage of Priority and Antyodaya households (called “eligible households”) shall extend “up to 75% of the rural population and up to 50% of the urban population”. The PDS issue prices would be Rs 3/2/1 per kg for rice/wheat/millets, subject to revision after three years. To support these entitlements the government would procure and distribute foodgrains, estimated at 63 million tonnes annually, representing around thirty percent of the foodgrain production in the country. It is useful to focus on the different components of the process by which food is delivered from farmers to consumers – food production and procurement, stocking, transport and distribution, sale to beneficiaries through ration shops.( Narayanan, 2013) The entitlement for food grains is based per head and not per household. Every person belonging to identified eligible households is entitled to receive 5 Kg of food

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grains per person per month at subsidized prices. Furthermore, the existing Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households, which constitute the poorest of the poor, will continue to receive 35 Kg of food grains per household per month. Food grains will be made available at subsidized prices of Rs 3, 2 and 1 per Kg for rice, wheat and coarse grains respectively, for a period of three years from the date of commencement of the Act. The Act provides for nutritional support to pregnant women and lactating mothers and children. Pregnant women and lactating mothers and children in the age group of 6 months to 14 years will be entitled to meals as per prescribed nutritional norms under Integrated Child De- velopment Services (ICDS) and Mid-Day Meal (MDM) schemes. Higher nutritional norms have been prescribed for malnourished children upto 6 years of age. Pregnant women and lactating mothers will also be entitled to receive maternity benefit of not less than Rs. 6,000. In case of non-supply of the entitled quantities of foodgrains or meals to entitled persons, such persons shall be entitled to receive food security allowance from the concerned State Government. There is also a provision that every State Government shall constitute a State Food Commission for the purpose of monitoring and review of implementation of the Act. An end-to-end computerization of TPDS Operations to improve the efficiency of the current system and to address various challenges such as leakages and diversion of food grains, fake and bogus ration cards, lack of transparency, weak grievance redressal mechanisms and leveraging ''aadhaar'' for unique identification with biometric information of entitled beneficiaries for proper targeting. DFPD, 2014

In India, the central and state governments together run a marketing channel (called the Public Distribution System or PDS) solely devoted to the distribution of subsidized food. At the retail level, this involves a network of Fair Price Shops (FPS) which sells subsidized grain to consumers. Subsidized grain is not accessible elsewhere. The FPS is usually run by private agents who receive a fixed percentage as commission for their efforts. The FPS is often restricted to sell only subsidized grain. The central government is responsible for procurement, storage, transportation and bulk allocation of foodgrains to different states. The state government is also responsible for transporting and distributing the grain within its boundaries through the FPS network. Grain sales occur at a fixed price called the `issue’ price that is typically lower than the market price.

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Two conditions govern the sale of subsidized grain. First, the buyer of grain must possess a `ration card’. Second, grain purchases are subject to a quota. The public distribution system is supported by a procurement operation that pro- cures and funnels supplies to the PDS. Through the FCI, the government pro- cures grain at the procurement’ price and then stores and transports it to the various consuming locations. (Ramaswami and Murugkar, 2013)

The India State Hunger Index 2008 highlights the continued overall severity of the hunger situation in India, while revealing the variation in hunger across states within India. It is indeed alarming that not a single state in India is either low or moderate in terms of its index score; most states have an “alarming” hunger problem, and one state, Madhya Pradesh, has an “extremely alarming” hunger problem. Four states—Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Assam— are in the ”serious” category and bulk of the states- Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Ra- jasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharastra, Karnataka, Odisha, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand are in the “alarming” category of hunger problem. (Menon, Deolalikar and Bhaskar, 2009).

The constraints in ensuring food security and reducing hunger are due to inappropriate policy, faulty design, the inadequacies in monitoring and evaluation, ineffective governance and a lack of political will. India has designed and implemented a very wide range of programmes to enhance food security and has also succeeded to a remarkable extent however severe challenges remain on several fronts. (Ittyerah, 2013)

India has employed three kinds of interventions: food supplementation for vul- nerable groups, particularly women and children; nutritional education and health interventions to address the physical symptoms of malnutrition, micro- nutrient deficiencies and child and maternal health. The Integrated Child De- velopment Scheme (ICDS), the Supplementary Nutrition Programme (SNP) and the Mid-day School Meal Scheme (MDMS) are the major nutrition-oriented programmes that are being implemented in the country. The MDMS provides cooked meals (or dry rations in some cases) to primary school children to incentivize enrolment and attendance whilst improving their nutritional status. (Sharma and Gulati, 2012.)

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METHODOLOGY

The study employs a descriptive analysis of information within the qualitative research framework. This study is first of its kind after the passage of the Na- tional Food Security Act, 2013, mandating provision of food supply to certain. Through convenience sampling respondents were drawn from government, NGOs, Academia and Human Right Activist. The primary source of data is based on the information elicited from a focus group discussion (FGD) with the sample respondent who has a better understanding of the ground realities. Two FGD were conducted, each represented by 10 respondents, a mix of lower and middle level professional. The dynamic exchange of ideas provided an insight into the- nature, scope, issues, concern and unraveled various aspects relating to implementing NFSA. A structured questionnaire was adhered to during the course of one hour FGD and subsequently a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportu- nities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis has been carried out for analyzing. The results of the SWOT Analysis are in no way exhaustive, as certain aspect might have not been taken into account.

DISCUSSION

This study attempts a SWOT analysis of NFSA and identifies operational issues relating to the efficacy of NFSA.

SWOT

Strength: The entitlement for food has shifted from “household” to “individuals”. Now each individual belonging to priority household is legally entitled to obtain five kilogram of food grain per month at subsidized prices. Accordingly, 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population identified as belonging to priority household are envisaged to benefit. Realizing the requirement of pregnant women, lactating mother and children there is special provision for rendering nutritional support to them. Similarly maternity benefit is being extended to pregnant women and lactating mother. On the other hand, food security allowance is mandated in case of non-provision of entitlement to

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the identified beneficiaries. A key step has been initiated to strengthened TPDS by introducing a series of reforms – application of information and communication technology, leveraging ''aadhaar'' for unique identification, with biometric information of entitled beneficiaries and transparency of records.

Weakness: The ICMR prescribes minimum subsistence of fourteen kilogram and seven kilograms for adults and children per month respectively. Therefore, the provision of five kilogram of food grains is meager and defeats the purpose of catering to the dietary needs of the beneficiaries for their healthy and active life. Moreover, categorizing the households into “priority” and “general” without universalizing entitlement is a retrograde measure. Therefore, in some States like Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh which are nearing universalization entitlement, the proposed coverage under the NFSA being less than the current coverage may encounter in implementation. Similarly, the subsidized price for disbursement of food grain is on the higher side as compared to certain States, viz Tamil Nadu provides rice free of cost. Therefore, the beneficiaries will have shell out additional cost for procuring rice. Moreover, the proper identification of beneficiary is a daunting task for the administration. There is a high degree of probability of “exclusion error” and “inclusion error” as witnessed in the implementation of other developmental programs. For making the beneficiaries available and access to food grains, the administration has to rely on the existing TPDS. The efficiency of the TPDS is under scrutiny due to excessive leakage, diversion and siphoning of food grains.

Opportunity: Nevertheless, for realizing the objectives of the NFSA the TPDS will be revamped and reformed. Aadhar enable TPDS can address issues – effective targeting, transparency, real time monitoring, tracking grievance redressal and strengthening the supply chain management. It also ensures flexibility for the beneficiary to purchase the entitltment from the choice of their fair price shop, without being dependent on a assigned fair price shop. This also provides incentive to FPS to be sustainable as per the market mechanism. Door- step delivery of food grains to FPS by State Government instead of depending on private transporter will reduce the possibility of leakages during the course of transportation, thereby ensuring that the food grain is accessed by the intended beneficiaries. As a result of real time monitoring, in the long run the procurement and supply of qualitative food grain may be more focused upon.

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On the other hand with the construction of storage facilities for food grains and their transportation is bound to improve the infrastructure of the area. In future the government can explore the expansion of the “food basket” by including provision of pulses and oils, without restricting to cereals. The revamping of the agricultural sector will be pivotal ensuring availability of food grain, thereby facilitating investment in the sector for improvement of the infrastructure.

Threat: Given the time frame, the State government might struggle with the identification of “priority” and “non- priority” household. The provision of only cereals to the beneficiaries tends to compromises on their nutritional requirement. A stipulated time frame is not mentioned for reforming the PDS. There is no reference of the provision of grievance redressal mechanism at the Gram Panchyat level. The issue of clean water and sanitation for India’s poorest regions has not been addressed in the NFSA, as ensuring the same are important in helping the poor avoid illnesses that prevent them from absorbing nutrition.

Operational Issues

At the operational level it is imperative to maintain regular supply, ensure requsite availability and timely distribution of food grains to the beneficiaries. The requisite amount of food grains needs to be timely supplied to all the FPS for ensuring disbursement of the same to the beneficiaries. Down the line the production and procurement will have to be kept in pace with the inevitable increase in population leading to more requirement of food grains.

The authentication of homeless and destitute by the administration is an area of concern. An Aadhar based TPDS requires biometric and iris recognition of individual beneficiaries’ calls for allotting unique ID. Similarly, for real time monitoring of fair shops the same has to be provided with requisite ICT facility viz installation of point of sale device.

Railways is not in a position to provide the requisite number of rakes for transportation of food grains from one point to another as per the FCI movement planning. There is further dearth in availability of rakes from November through March. Even the lack of appropriate infrastructure facilities viz, lighting, cover shed and proper platform, makes unloading and transit movement of food grains more daunting. The situation worsens during rainy season in particular. Penal

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demurrage is imposed on FCI for detention of the rakes during the course of movement of food grains at various location, over which FCI has no control.

The Northern Zone is the prime hub for procurement of food grains by the FCI thereby resulting in concentration of storage facility. Now the FCI is venturing to the non-traditional emerging procuring States to maintain buffer stock for further disbursement to the beneficiary. Due to lack of suitable institutional mechanism, inadequate infrastructure facility in terms of availability of storage facility at the State, district and block level will hamper the effective operation of FCI in terms of procurement and supply to the Government. Supply of packaging material prior to harvest marketing season.

The reforming of TPDS is inextricably linked to correct identification of beneficiary, proper functioning of FPS and effective real time monitoring. This calls for digitization of database of all the beneficiaries, enabling aadhar linkage and ICT linkage for FPS in a time bound manner.

CONCLUSION: SUGGESTIVE TRAJECTORY

As of now 11 states have started implementing the NFSA. Of that, five states have decentralised procurement system, where they procure grains themselves and hand over additional stock to Centre. The remaining 6 states have central- ised procurement where Food Corporation of India (FCI) procure the entire output on behalf of Centre. The states which have started implementing the Act are: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Chandigarh. In most of these states the prerequisite condition for NFSA has been complied with negli- gibly as reported in media.

The democratization of food security in a holistic and comprehensive approach calls for stimulating food availability, food access and food absorption. Figure 1, reflects the 3S principle – “Stimulate, Strategize and Synchronize” to realize the cherished objectives of the NFSA. In order to stimulate food availability, food access and food absorption proper strategy must be aligned with respective entity. For ensuring food availability it is fundamentally imperative to focus on food production in a sustainable approach; alignment with market mechanism

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in terms of balancing demand and supply of food items; and rendering appropriate Government assistance in provisioning of food items. The resultant implementation of the strategy will synchronize in - improved local area production, facilitate diversification of food basket and address seasonal variation. Similarly, for strategizing food access and food absorption in an effective manner the corresponding strategies and synchronization of action is reflected in figure 1.

Figure 1. 3S Principle: Stimulate Strategize Synchronize

Stimulate Strategize Synchronize Food production Improve Local Production Diversify food availability Food Address seasonal variation Availability Market Mechanism Demand for Harvested crop Market Proximity Government Assistance Buffer Stock Household production Increase in frequency of meals Diversification of diet Traditional source Increase in intake of nutritious food Exchange Food Market Purchase of adequate food Access PDS Reforms Incentivize PDS FWP Infrastructure Increase network for transportation & storage Employment Increase in disposable income Digitization of beneficiary Authenticate identification Storage Improve hygienic practices Food Preparation Introduction of fortified food Absorption Handling Access to health service

REFERENCES

1. ACF International.(2010) Food Security and Livelihoods Assessment: A Practical Guide for Field Workers. Uganda: ACF International 2. ADB (2013) ADB Economics Working Paper Series, Poverty and Food Security in India, No. 369 3. Aurino, E. (2014). Selecting a Core Set of Indicators for Monitoring Global Food Security - A Methodological Proposal . Working Paper Series ESS / 14-06, April

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2014,Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization 4. Chakraborty, D (2005) Food Security in India: Policy challenges and responses, Briefing Paper, Chatham House- Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, p-1. 5. DFPD. (2014). Department of Food and Public Distribution. 2014. Annual Report 2013-14. New Delhi: Ministry of Consumer Affairs Food & Public Distribution Government of India 6. FAO, IFAD and WFP (2002): “Reducing Poverty and Hunger: The Critical Role of Financing for Food, Agriculture and Rural Development”, paper prepared for the International Conference on Financing for Development, Monterrey, Mexico, 18-22 March 2002, Food and Agriculture Organisation, International Fund for Ag- ricultural Development and World Food Programme. 7. FAO, IFAD and WFP. (2013). The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013.The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organisation, International Fund for Agricultural Development and World Food Programme 8. FAO (2006)The Right to Food Guidelines – Information Papers and Case Studies, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 9. Gupta, A. and Mishra, K. (2013), Poverty and Caloried Deprivation Across Socio- Economic Group in Rural India: A Disaggregated Analysis, Journal of Regional Development and Planning, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2013 10. IFPRI. (2014). 2013 Global Food Policy Report. Washington DC : International Food Policy Research Institute 11. Ittyerah. A.C. (2013) Food Security in India: Issues and Suggestions for Effective- ness, Theme Paper for the 57th Members’ Annual Conference, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi 12. Jha, P. and Acharya, N (2013) Securing Food for All : Is It Really Difficult to Afford? Economic & Political Weekly, January 26, 2013 vol XLVIII No 4 13. Krishnamurthy, P., Pathania, V., and Tandon, S. (2014) The Impacts of Reforms to the Public Distribution System in India’s Chhattisgarh on Food Security, Eco- nomic Research Report No-164. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Re- search Service. 14. Menon, P. Deolalikar, A and Bhaskar, A. (2009). India State Hunger Index-Com- parison of Hunger Across States. Washington DC : International Food Policy Re- search Institute, Bonn: Welthungerhilfe, Riverside:UC Riverside 15. Mishra, P. (2013). Financial and Distributional Implications of the Food Security Law, Economic & Political Weekly SEPTEMBER 28, 2013 vol XLVIII No 39 16. Nagavarapu, S. and Sekhri, S. (2014). Plugging PDS Pilferage: A Study of an SMS- based Monitoring Project. Economic & Political Weekly, March 29, 2014 vol XlIX

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No 13 17. Narayanan, S. (2013) IN THE BALANCE The National Food Security Act vis-Ã -vis theWTO Agreement on Agriculture, WP-2013-026, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, December. 18. Ramaswami, B. and Murugkar, M. (2013) Food Policy Reforms A Rapid Tour of Possibilities, South Asia Working Paper Series, No. 18, Asian Development Bank 19. Sharma, P. and Gulati, A. 2012. Approaches to Food Security in Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, Mexico, and Nigeria: Lessons for Developing Countries. ICRIER Policy Series No-14, New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Eco- nomic Relation 20. WFP. (2009). Emergency Food Security Assessment Handbook. Second Edition. Rome: World Food Programme 21. WFS. (1996). Declaration of the World Food Summit on Food Security. Rome: World Food Summit on Food Security.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Fair Price Shop: shop which has been licesnsed to distribute essential commodities under the Essential Commodities Act 1955, to the ration card holder under the TPDS.

NFSA: National Food Security Act (FSA) that entitles around two-thirds of the population to 5 kg of subsidised grain per person.

Ration card: document issued under an order or authority of the State Government for the purchase of essential commodities from the fair price shops under the Targeted Pub- lic Distribution System.

TDPS: In the programme, entitled households have the right to purchase grain, kero- sene, and potentially other goods at below market rates from their local fair price shop. TPDS aims to provide subsidised food and fuel to the poor through a network of ration shops.

Nutrition Security: is adequate protein, energy, vitamins and minerals for all household members at all times.

Dr. Sabyasachi Nayak - Confederation of Indian Industry, India e-mail: [email protected]

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RESTRUCTURING IV. PUBLIC SPACE GOVERNANCE

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Olga MELNYCHUK

CITIES IN THE STRUCTURE OF PUBLIC SPACE: METHODOLOGY, THEORY AND PRACTICE

ABSTRACT

The article discovers the basic theoretical tenets of the theory of center-periphery relations in the context of its use as methodology of decentralization of state power and local government reform. The author proves that the real subject of decentralization should be not regions but cities that organize specific enclaves, which mobilize resources and capitals. From the standpoint of the theory of center-periphery relations, the concepts of federalization and regionalization are discussed; it is also demonstrated that the effectiveness of the state may be related to its mono-centric and poly-centric character. The necessity for the legal support of urbanization processes as a prerequisite for successful decentralization of state power is shown and highlighted.

Keywords: public space, city, center-periphery relations, decentralization of state power, local self-government

INTRODUCTION

The specifics of development of the modern law and modern state deals with greater attention to the resources and organizational efforts aimed to provide not only horizontal but also vertical division of power. For the Ukrainian state this is especially essential due to the advance of the ideas of power decentralization as one of the main directions in realization of democratic reforms. How- ever, nowadays it is not understood exactly, what the eventual variant of such decentralization should be and which methodology should be put in its basis. Actuality of this problem also increases in modern Ukrainian scientific discourse because of the fact that the regions and their territorial societies come forward as the key subjects of decentralization. At the same time, those elements of the public space, which represent the structure of resources distribution

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at a greater degree, namely cities, are left outside such consideration.

Moreover, one of the most important features of a modern city is that it has become the centre of concentration of resources, information streams, people and cultural codes. It predetermines the question: at what extend do cities influence the organization of not only legal but also public space, which means how are they involved into structuring of a state, and how do they affect the functioning of its mechanism? On the other hand, the issue of the opposite character arises: how does the state influence the cities, and what does the state management of the urbanization processes imply? Indeed, the space, in particular, as one of the grounds of a man’s self-identification, in correlation with his/her place of birth, personal progress and the further individualisation, as a base concept, opens the new verges of static and dynamic descriptions of a modern state. Modern integration processes, accompanied by the increase in the number of the states on the map of the world, which derives from sharpening of the problem of territorial and ethnic identity, economic stability, results in the necessity to consider the issues of spatial problematic.

The purpose of the article is to define the theoretic and methodological model which would allow not only to expose the role of cities in organization of the public space but which also would be practically applicable to the problems of decentralization of the Ukrainian state.

SUBSTANTIATION OF APPLICATION OF CENTRE-PERIPHERY THEORY TO THE ISSUES OF JURISPRUDENCE

For the modern states, integration associations and international communities, the concept of the centre became common and widely in-use long ago. The centres always carry out an organizing role: they set the models of conduct, create some standards, etc. In the centres, in the first turn, emerge some innovations, and new ideas are introduced. A centre has its political, economic and legal value (in particular, such concepts as «Geneva Law» and «the Hague Law» are widely used in international humanitarian law). However, not an inferior role in this system is played by the periphery, which counterbalances the centre, does not allow it to get detracted from the necessities of ordinary people. In essence,

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without a periphery a centre is not possible.

Conceptualisation of the idea of a centre in the real political and legal life is directly connected with cities. Certainly, the concept of the centre can have not only geographical but also symbolic meaning (for example, when it is talked about the central topic of that or other research). Though, in case of the organization of public space, the establishment of mechanisms of co-operation between different regions, we should use the concept of the centre particularly in economic, political and legal meanings. And in this case, cities, by and large, are the only option.

Urbanization which has been one of the dominant trends in the society progress since the second half of the 19th century convincingly testifies, that the density of economic, demographic, legal and other connections between the cities gradually turns into the original social gravitation, when the place of concentration of people, capitals and values forms a specific city agglomeration around itself. However, if not so a long ago the questions of urbanistics were of bigger interest for the economists and sociologists mostly, today more and more political scientists and lawyers turn to them rather frequently, as for the modern society cities for a long time have not simply been the large settlements. They do not only concentrate resources, capitals and people, but also become the centres of forming authoritative decisions, legal ideas and institutes.

Therefore, it should be noted that, in the sphere of policy, the city authentication of the public space for long has existed as an absolutely natural look at the political process. Thus, in particular, cities are studied as key elements of political relations’ formation at the clan level (Dnepropetrovsk political clan, Donetsk political clan). At European level cities become the identifiers of super-national and national institutes (“negotiations between Brussels and Kyiv”) and others like that. This practice is rather a typical representation as cities become the centres of political decisions’ approval, often growing into large bureaucratic centres which live according to their own laws (Brussels, Strasburg, The Hague, etc.). In this connection, the public space gets organized based on the principle of the balance between the central and peripheral areas, when cities become the areas of concentration of management, resources and authority powers, and the periphery is placed under their influence.

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In this context one of the perspective and actual directions in general theoretic jurisprudence is a study of legal and public space, which uses the methodology, based on consideration of the subject through the prism of relations “centre- periphery”. The methodological value of this approach lies in the fact that it is built on the fundamental research principle of public relations through the rev- elation of social inequality, and presents “centre-periphery” relations as a form of spatial inequality.

The well-known sociological conceptions of co-operation between the centre and periphery by I. Wallerstein, G. Friedman, Е. Shils, Sh. Eisenstadt and others; and political science research of such authors as I. B. Goptaryova, V. M. Lisovskiy, R. F. Turovskiy give the grounds for their subsequent application at the study of legal and public space in the context of general theoretic jurisprudence.

With the reference to the works by the well-known sociologist Е. Shils, it should be noted that his basic idea is the absolute influence of the centre on periphery, strong or weak “impregnation” of peripheral areas with the central settings. The different types of relations between the centre and periphery are defined, according to whether there is a greater or a shorter distance between them. In a model, where the centre dominates above its periphery, the society becomes more integrated in direction from the centre to periphery. Thus, the centre can locate far from the periphery. The second type is also characterized by a large distance between the centre and periphery, however, the sphere of effects of the centre’s persuasions on periphery lies outside the border of the centre’s influence circuit, periphery is given to itself (bureaucratic-empire societies). The third type is an intermediate model, which is characterized by a large distance between the centre and periphery, which is filled by the stairs consisting of the levels of power; each of them, to a certain extent, is independent, but each acknowledges the leading role of the big centre (feudal and federal systems). And the last type of societies are the ones in which the centre and periphery are not remote from each other (traditional African societies, ancient Greek policies) (Shils 1975, 71).

It seems interesting what Е. Shils concluded about the growth of national feelings which are based on the conviction that the society should consist of those,

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who share common experience of the prolonged dwelling on one territory. The scientist comes to this assertion, explaining it by the impossibility of rapproche- ment between the centre and periphery and limiting the basic settings of the society by the area round the centre. He says that if, for instance, the English or the Dutchmen had firmly settled down in India or Indonesia, as it was done in the past by the conquerors, instead of being only the temporal agents who present the distant and territorially isolated districts of the Earth, nationalistic movements would not have reached such a wide scope (Shils 1975, 74). From this example it can be seen, that the question is exceptionally about the one- sided relations between the centre and periphery, where the centre in any case is closed, setting the limits and protecting the integrity. Not denying, that the centre in any society, group or state, plays the pivotal role, it is necessary to notice that its weakness or force can depend on bilateral influence between the centre and periphery. And the emergence of ethnic or local sub-centres can lead not only to the weakening of the basic centre but also to instability and loss of its central value.

In this connection, we should refer to the sociological works by Sh. Eisenstadt, who, studying the features of various civilizations and comparing them, distinguishes specific cultural orientations and traits of European civilization: presence of many centres; high degree of interpenetration between the centres and periphery; autonomy of groups and layers, both in their attitude towards each other and in relation to access to the centres of the society; autonomy of the legal system in relation to the political and religious ones; high degree of autonomy of the cities, which became the centres of societies’ creation, formation of institutional structures and cultural identity. Among the most essential types of activity of the centre (or centres) in the history of civilization he emphasises: accumulation and distribution of additional product in economy, legislation and laws codification, the advance of major symbols of identity for the community and cultural order, also. The aggregate of these processes, as the scientist spec- ifies, is usually associated with the origin of the state (Eisenstadt 1978, 95).

Thus, existence of the civilization is directly related to the origin of the centres (and peripheries, as a result), a separated legal system that is based on the economic substrate and under the sign of public and cultural identity. And if the presence of these feature leads to the formation of a state and the cities come

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forward as the special numerous centres; then there is an obvious clear connection between a city and a state.

Formation of some centres within the state space is related to creation of specific local territories. As it is emphasised in some research, a centre is understood as a place of generation of technological, social and other innovations, while a periphery serves as the space of their extend, thus the intensity of such extend directly depends on how closely the periphery co-operates with the centre. The primary distribution of functions takes place, and also the hierarchy of centres is built. Such peripheries get unsteady boarders, as strengthening of one centre influence over the others, accordingly, leads to the expansion of its peripheral limits (Gritsay 1991, 186–190).

THE MAIN ROLES OF A CITY IN THE CENTRE-PERIPHERY RELATIONS WITHIN THE PUBLIC SPACE

A city can be seen as a primary centre and basis for the origin of the state (ancient policies), and with the development and increase of the public space, cities can come forward as centres of the multilevel system: a city-capital; a city-cultural centre; a city-port; a city-regional centre and others like that. Meantime, the problems of centre-periphery relations can be found on different levels: metropolis-colony, centre-national formations (European Union – states-members), city-state, centre-regions, centre-province (city-village). On each of the levels the same concept can have the functional meaning of the centre as well as the periphery. In addition, a centre of one of the presented levels can also be a centre of some other level. A bright example of this phenomenon was given by Е. Shils, who fairly marks, that Paris during the centuries was the cultural and artistic centre not only for France but also for the considerable part of Eu- rope, and also for French speaking parts of Africa (Shils 1975, 95). Conse- quently, the pattern of interaction between a city and a state can be perceived quite differently at the level of metropolis (presented by the centre-city) – colony or the centre (the city of Paris) and Europe. Actually, here it goes about the fact that cities-centres are selected by their functional characteristics, but not by the territorial ones. In order to carry out the proper role, for the centre, it is not

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necessary to be «in the centre» in the literal sense of the word. The association of that or other city with a centre has rather symbolic, often subconscious, character (for example, in the first years of independence most Ukrainians continued to perceive Moscow as the centre of making political and legal decisions, regardless to the presence of Kyiv as the capital city. However, gradually in the consciousness of the Ukrainians there was a steady trend towards acknowledge- ment of Kyiv to have become a self-sufficient political and legal centre).

According to the conception of the world systems by I. Wallerstein, who brings the additional element into the dichotomy “centre-periphery”, economic development of every country is carried out within the framework of the world economy system which develops following the universal law, thus the distinction between a “periphery” and a “centre” is maintained during the whole historical process, although the precise contents of the concepts “periphery” and “centre” change constantly. I. Wallerstein considers three fundamental types of states- participants of modern world economy: 1) “core” states which own strong and effective political organization, occupy dominating position and extract a max- imally possible benefit from the existent division of labour, 2) “peripheral” states which make the source of raw materials for the world economy mainly; 3) “semi-peripheral” countries which occupy intermediate position due to the degree of political autonomy in the world system (Wallerstein 1999).

Applying the model of such three-unit pattern at other level of centre-periphery relations, it is worth to turn to the concept by J. Friedmann, in accordance with which the unevenness of social, political, legal development and process of spatial polarization unavoidably result in growth of disproportion in the regional structure of the state. The periphery already appears to be heterogeneous formation, which includes “internal” periphery, directly connected with the centre, and “external” one, which the centre does not practically have any influence on (Friedmann 2002, 13). In the state there can be cities-centres, acknowledged as such in a political, economic, cultural context, and as a result of one centre’s weakening, the others increase their strength; or the status of the centre can be acquired by an external-periphery city which swiftly develops and already does not require the support from the primary centre. It should be mentioned here that very often those cities which seem to organize the public space around them appear to be the centres only symbolically, not having any real political and

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economic reasoning for that. For example, there was a well-known saying that in Ukraine the city of Donetsk as the centre of Donbas “feeds the whole Ukraine”. This idea was so deeply rooted in the consciousness of many Ukrain- ians that only the actual war on the territories of Donetsk and Lugansk regions could shaken their belief in the truthfulness of this assumption, to put it under a doubt. From the economical point of view, Donetsk cannot be considered as taking the position of the economic centre of the state, even because of the fact that Donetsk region, in particular, last year received the most subsidies from the budget, which exceed the subsidies on Ivano-Frankivsk, Lviv and Ternopil regions, altogether (On the State Budget of Ukraine 2014). In other words, economically Donetsk in a lot greater measure depends on the real centre (Kyiv), than many cities in the west of Ukraine.

It is necessary to notice that conceptions of Е. Shils, Sh. Eiesenstadt, I. Waller- stein, J. Friedmann and other researchers follow the methodology of structuralism in their research program. Analysing the works by structuralism scholars in concern with centre-periphery relations, J. Derrida drew the following conclusion on the role of a centre in peripheral relations: “a centre, as a rule, is associated with aggressiveness, force, unification, reliability, stability, organisation, “normality”, civility, complication, self-sufficiency, dynamism, development. The relations of hegemony here arise in that case, when in the conditions of existence of external contradictions it is necessary for the system to present itself by means of its own elements. In this exact sense, it is possible to consider that a centre integrates the system from the inside and presents it outside” (Der- rida 1978, 353). The periphery in its turn, on the contrary, appears as dependent, backward, saturated with envy, chattiness, deviations, narrowness, misbalance, archaism, by the deficiency of resources, simplicity, sluggishness (Anssi 2012, 16). Meantime, in opinion of poststructuralist researches, such contrasting of a centre and periphery in the modern world loses its meaning, as most centres in fact are not really like this, and only position themselves as such at the level of symbolic forms.

In this connection, in A. S. Makarychev’s opinion, we should also take into account poststructuralist interpretations of centre-periphery relations, which do not give absolute advantage to the centre and can demonstrate its vulnerability. He suggests three options: 1) centralization of the peripheral subjects, when

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those social structures, which seemed to be on the periphery, gradually begin to play the part of the centres (for example, cities-innovation centres, which are on the periphery of the European continent, but gradually concentrate scientific and financial resources – Oslo, Copenhagen, Helsinki); 2) origin of the phenomenon of the boundary centre, that is a reverse situation, when a centre is ousted on the periphery in an unnatural, artificial way, or by virtue of cardinal changes in the public space (for example, transference of the capital from Saint Petersburg to Moscow in Russia, or gradual extrusion of Tartu in Estonia to the periphery of public relations); 3) marginalization of the centre, that is its weakening to the condition, when it stops to be able to make state decisions (for example, for many modern European cities Brussels, from the point of organization and financing different projects, is far a major centre, than the capitals of their actual states) (Makarychev 2006, 23).

From this point of view, it becomes clear that the public space is no less heterogeneous, than the legal one, thus, for the public space this heterogeneity acquires the special significance in the context of existence of centre-periphery areas which are directly linked with the cities and with their legal systems’ influence on functioning of the state. In this connection, the correlation between a city and a state acquires the new sounding and colouring, and the problem of a centre and periphery is placed on the foreground of the state studies.

METHODOLOGY OF THE CENTRE-PERIPHERY RELATIONS THEORY AP- PLICATION TO THE PROCESS OF THE STATE DECENTRALIZATION

The theory of the centre-periphery relations, formed on the basis of world-centred system analysis and economic-centred region studies, in its application to the problems of analysis of the cities in the modern state, comes forward as a method. However, it is important not simply to establish the presence of such a method, but also to find out, whether it is relevant for the problems which jurisprudence faces when it completes the tasks of the decentralization of the state.

Adequacy of any method means that it must be relevant and divergent in relation to the object of its application. As it was marked by A.Y. Tsofnas, a relevant method means, that: a) it must be of the same volume as or of a greater

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volume than the sphere which it is planned to be applied to; b) the basic concepts which are included in the contents of an object must be understood in the contents of the method in the same sense (Tsofnas 1998, 33–34). It seems that from this point of view the theory of centre-periphery relations is relevant to the problems of jurisprudence in the aspect of solving the tasks of power decentralization and defining the role of cities in this process. Firstly, the theory of centre-periphery relations is the sphere of knowledge, which embraces the problems of economy, sociology, politics, geopolitics and jurisprudence, so the first requirement of relevancy is met. Thus, very often by the supporters of this theory the cities, in particular, are perceived as centres which accumulate resources, ideas and form institutes, that is why we can consider that the second requirement of relevancy is also completed: cities both in the theory of centre- periphery relations and in jurisprudence are understood in one sense – as centres.

“Divergence” of the method means that it must have some specific means of acquiring and grounding the knowledge, and also the other ways of result presentation that are different from those used in the subject which this method was applied to (Tsofnas, 1998, 35). This constituent of the method adequacy is often ignored in the research, when some legal concepts, institutes and processes, are explained through themselves. “Divergence” implies, that the method describes a subject by the specific system of concepts and categories. The theory of centre-periphery relations totally responds to the requirement of divergence, as in fact the public space is seen from an angle of view of such notions as centre, periphery, local territories, marginal territories and others like that. All of them allow us to present the traditional issues of organization of the state and its decentralization in the new way.

The application of the centre-periphery relations theory to the problem of decentralization of the state, when the centres are seen as the urbanized territories, and the periphery as adjoining territories, makes provisions for the perception of public space as a specific communicative network, which is related to the management, circulation of financial means and forming the political will. The more influential the centre will be, the greater amount of resources it will accumulate round it, the more significant it will be in taking the administrative, inner policy and foreign policy decisions.

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THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE IDEAS OF FEDERALISM AND DECEN- TRALIZATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CENTRE-PERIPHERY RELA- TIONS

If to appeal directly to the theory of the state, then in most cases methodology of centre-periphery relations is used in the studies on the federations and federalism in combination with regionalism (Turovskiy 2003; Goptariova 2005). However, no less important is the application of this approach to the co-operation of central and peripheral areas in a unitary state.

So, in the political scientists, economists and lawyers’ opinion, the decentralization of states is a modern trend in the world progress; this reveals itself in the expansion of federalism as a special model of the decentralized state. It is emphasised, that after World War II not less than half of the all federal states were formed, for instance, Germany and Austria again were constituted as federations. Also, there is the deep regionalisation of the former unitary states which, with some stretch of the truth, can already be acknowledged as such (for example, Spain whose parts are the autonomous territorial formations; however, it is provided by the constitution of the state that they are prohibited to form the federation) (Turovskiy 2003, 54–55).

This problem acquires its special actuality today in Ukraine, in connection with the armed conflict in the East of the country and separation moods after the annexation of Autonomous Republic of Crimea by the Russian Federation. It resulted in the situation, when two conceptions were contrasted in the political discourse: decentralization and federalisation. Thus, the position of the Ukrain- ian government promotes the idea of decentralization of power by making al- terations in the Constitution of Ukraine.

If we start the analysis of these conceptions, it is important to highlight that the concept of “federalisation” is not known well enough to either general theoretic jurisprudence or political science or to the practice of state building. The world knows only a few examples, when the unitary state became federal, because both from the point of organization of state administration and from the efficiency of functioning of mechanism in the state it is a step back. Moreover,

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federations, as a rule, arise in the cases where there were historical pre-conditions for the association of the territories; that means where the separate territories had their independent national or spatial territorial authentication, and sometimes even their independent state system. For Ukraine, all the above mentioned is not actual, as the unitarity of its polity is demonstrated by both the historical experience, and by its rather successful experience in the state administration over the last 20 years. Therefore, the conception of federalisation can be considered as an example of the political and scientific mythmaking, this process as it is, in fact, has nothing in common with the rational approach to the development of any statehood.

The situation concerning the conception of decentralization is absolutely different. It is known that the idea of power decentralization is one of the points in the program of the Ukrainian Government, and by today the Conception of the local self-government reform and the project of changes in the Constitution of Ukraine (in relation to decentralization of power) have already been drafted (Conception of Reformation 2014). At the same time, in general theoretic jurisprudence there is no unity as for which state can be considered to be centralized, and which – decentralized. Moreover, incomprehensible is the role of the cities in the process of decentralization and centralization of power.

So, in Y. M. Oborotov’s opinion, decentralization of the state power must be marked off from de-concentration of the state power. If de-concentration of the power is the process whose essence is in the systematic assignment for the agents of the state centre to work “on location” (in the periphery); then decentralization of power is estimated by normative and organizational independence of the formations at the local level, with the transfer of authorities to the lower levels of management at the maximum possible measure (Oborotov 1998, 36– 37). At the same time, there is an opinion according to which decentralization of the power implies, foremost, the redistribution of the means of influence on the local institutes by the revision of the system governmental and delegated plenary powers (that is, decentralization is a part of the process of co-operation between the state power on places and organs of local self-government) (Tkachuk 2013, 26).

We consider that the question of decentralization must be studied in the context

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of problem of centre and periphery. The point is that the idea of decentralization, as it is, foresees blurring, destruction of the certain centre, its “spreading” over the peripheries. This process is unnatural to a certain extent, as it conflicts with the logic of existence of the centres as such (Urmanov 2010, 128). It is believed, that understanding of problems of decentralization in fact is related to the formation of new centres which cities, in particular, become. In this sense, it is obvious that all the projects of decentralization, in their essence, predeter- mine denationalisation of the local authorities’ power, as it is passed to the organs of local self-government. At the same time, the district and regional councils are more frequently listed in the array of these organs, while cities practically are not considered as subjects of decentralization of power, although they come forward as that motive factor which predetermines the development of tendencies to decentralisation.

We reckon that decentralization of power must be orientated not only on re- thinking the mechanism of organizational and financial independence of areas and districts by strengthening the positions of local self-government in comparison to the organs of executive power on places, but also on strengthening the role of cities as organizing centres, that are able to function as the real engines of economic and social development. In other words, decentralization as a tendency in the modern Ukrainian state development is the real chance to complete urbanization of Ukrainian society, which will not only strengthen the positions of regional centres, but also will properly make the positions of village in the society more solid.

ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CITY AND THE STATE IN THE PUBLIC SPACE STUDIES

Another aspect of the problem of centre and peripheries as a model of the state and cities coexistence involves distinguishing the cities in the structure of a form of the territorial organisation. Indeed, decentralization and de-concentration of power relates to this issue on the political-organising level, but it does not exhaust the whole contents of the problems.

The questions of decentralization of state power are directly related to the theory

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of form of the state, which, in some authors’ opinion, today is one of the problem areas of the state studies (Kryzhanovskyi 2013). Indeed, the analysis of modern publications shows that, in essence, the problem of cities appeared to be out of the boundaries of the state system issues consideration.

To a certain extent, it is possible to agree with the criticism of the modern theory of the state concerning the fact, that the state experience is far more various and more interesting and in many cases cannot be fitted into the unitary-federal pattern. V.V. Ivanov asserts that such examples are not only Spain or Italy, as the unitary states with the features of federation, but also China; for instance, the existence of such Chinese cities-centres as Hong Kong and Macao, in the past the domains of the United Kingdom and Portugal, which became the special administrative districts, where the principle of «one country – two systems» is used.

This principle resulted in the complete independence of these cities practically in all aspects, which in their status allows them to approach closer to the subject of federation, than to the autonomies within the unitary state. On the other hand, territorial formations which are included in the federal states might not have the status of their subjects. In India there are seven allied territories among which are the national capital territory of Delhi and Puducherry that belong to the autonomous formations. It is stated that the unitary-federal pattern is a kind of «the bed of Procrustes» and that the introduction of a separate regional form of the political system would enhance the situation; or a partial solution would be distinguishing of the centralized and decentralizing sub-forms of the unitary and federal types (Ivanov 2008, 299–310).

But there is an absolutely logical question: do the centres which are formed in particular societies actually have to get their special legal statuses in order to get influence on peripheral territories; is there such influence even without the legal fixing? Going back to the problem of forming the model of decentralization of the state power in Ukraine, it should be underlined that from the positions of the democracy ideas, all the territorial communities are equal in their rights. Similarly, the municipal law does not see the difference between the legal status of the village, settlement and city councils, rural, settlement and city

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chairmen and others like that, as the principle of formal equality is thus provided. However, the legal aspect of centre-periphery relations not to a full degree represents the real state of affairs. As D.V. Urmanov justly marks, in the centre-periphery analysis it is impossible to equally estimate the different spatial points. A stress is always put on the large cities which give impulses for the development to the peripheral territories. Accordingly, the local self-government also appears to be the hostage of this social rule: socio-economic, political and legal connections, which arose, formed and develop between the settlements, generate inequality of territories, when, from one side, the developed centre and depressed periphery are formed, which cannot exist separately. That is why local spaces which combine both centre and periphery are formed – local enclaves (enclaves of local communities) (Urmanov 2010, 129).

As the researcher convincingly proves, a model of decentralization, based on the acceptance of local enclaves, not the regions, to be the key «participants», is the most successful one, as it demonstrated its efficiency repeatedly. For example, the experience of Canada is referred to: the organs of local self-government in Canada are in a greater degree engaged in economic development of the municipal formations on the basis of policy of self-assistance. The directions of such policy mean the support and development of the existing economic (among them industrial) types of activity, strengthening and diversification of local economy, but not bringing in the external investments, by means of the inter-municipal forms of co-operation, strategic planning, business consulta- tions, accumulation of information on places etc. The processes of economic co-operation between a city and rural settlements come forward as the important features, which in this way form the conditions for the development of mechanisms of the territories’ self-sufficiency (Urmanov 2010, 129).

It should be underlined that the conception of centre-periphery relations is fully applicable in the context of the so-called regional paradigm. From the political science point of view regionalism is seen from two sides. At first, as an aggregate of social and political movements which argue against centralist tendencies in many spheres of living in the heterogeneous society, secondly, as the proper system of looks, which is in the purpose close to separatism (Goptariova 2005, 98). Not turning to the detailed study of separatism as an extreme degree of regionalism (although this idea can be presented in a different way «less etatism

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– less separatism» (Turovskiy 2003, 58)), we should agree that regionalism, foremost is a regional policy in the state with any form of the political system. «Regionalism and regional policy are rather related to the technologies and contents of the government administrative activity» (Kim 2008, 57).

Thus, our agreement with the idea concerning the correlation between federalism and regionalism does not mean in this context, that we should leave unitarism without attention. So, unitarism, the same as federalism, is only the legal- political means of fixing the status quo, which does not include the solution for the main problem – inter-regional asymmetry; there is only its denotation and declaration of the known political principles, according to which it will be solved.

The subject domain of regional policy is legal and social development of the regions. The federal and unitary policy relates to the power organization of the state: it is intended to provide spatial structuring of the state and optimize territorial dispersal of functions of the state power. Primary purposes of federal and unitary policy are the unity and integrity of the heterogeneous structure of the states which are achieved by the use of the special constitutional-legal means (Kim 2008, 65). Thus, the selection of regional form of the political system will only result in the fact that a borderline between federalism and unitarism will be finally erased, because both in unitary and in federal states regional policy can be present, and it is actually present.

It is possible to notice, that the considered conceptions of regionalism and federalism are built on the narrow understanding of centre-periphery relations, when a centre is understood as central state power, and all the other is thought to be a periphery. Thus, federalism and unitarism in correlation with regionalism in such aspect is a mono-centric (monistic) idea, related to the existence of the strong state power in a centre, and at the deepened use of the idea of mutual relations between the centre and periphery, which influence each other, it is possible to reach the conclusion about the presence of a few centres in the state, that is the existence of the poly-centric states.

Often poly-centric nature of the states is regarded as somehow unprofitable for the state, as something, that must be eradicated for the benefit of the construction of a united, effective centralized system of government (Vodolazov 1993).

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This idea is postulated as an alternative to the differentiation: one strong centre – one strong state; many weak centres – a weak state (Shokhin 1995). It is im- agined, that such a position is not only unrealistic but also harmful for the state development. Firstly, forming of the unique centre is often taken to the suppres- sion of other centres (for example, elections of city chairmen by the direct vote were cancelled in the Russian Federation (About Modification of Federal Law 2014)). Secondly, as the specialists in the field of theory of the systems mark, the centred systems are not reliable, as the destruction of the centre leads to the destruction of the whole system (Tsofnas 1998, 52). In other words, mono-centrism for the modern state cannot be viewed as the most effective, not to say the only possible, model of organization of centre-periphery relations.

What about the idea of the centralized and decentralized sub-forms of the unitary and federal form of the state organisation, then, only confirming the doubts of its author, V.V. Ivanov, we should pay attention to another variant of the typology of the forms of the state organisation, based on the methodology of correlation between the centre and periphery. The existence of one or a few centres within the different states is already confirmed by the above-described idea (the “centralized and decentralized sub-forms”), however, on the other hand, this idea is limited to the type of organization of administrative-territorial structure and degree of independence in relation to the central power. Applica- tion of the centre-periphery relations in the classification of the forms of the state organization hints at the idea about the existence of one or a few centres in the different states, which are concentrated in cities not so much in the sense of their administrative-territorial or political meaningfulness, as in the sense of the real concentration of power and various resources in the legal and public space.

Significant in this sense is the fact that in many states such centres as the cities- capitals are selected in separate territorial formations (e.g. Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria, the United States, and Malaysia). And in some states there are several centres of this type, chosen on different grounds: political, economic, geographical, cultural and others. For example, in Malaysia such centres are the old and new capitals of Kuala-Lumpur and Putrajaya, and also the off-shore financial centre of Labuan, in Brazil – the old and new capitals-centres are Rio de Janeiro and Brasilia, in the USA – Washington and New York, in Russia –

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Moscow and Saint Petersburg, in Kazakhstan – Astana and Almaty and so on.

At the other level of centre-periphery correlation of the cities in the state there is a copula “centre-regions”, where, in the mono-centric state, as well, at the regional level the strong centres in the regions can be present. Ukraine as a mono-centric state with a strong centre (the city of Kyiv), is characterized by the multi-level embodiment of co-operation between the centre and periphery. V.M. Lisovskiy, researching the centre-periphery relations in the territorial-political system of the state from the positions of spatial authentication, distinguishes three influential «regional groups (clans)» in Ukraine: Kyiv’s, Dnepro- petrovsk’s and Donetsk’s, and also regions of the second row: Odesa’s, Kharkiv’s and the Crimean. According to his opinion, the status of these regions became firmly established, based on the regional financial and industrial resources, which strengthened lobbying the interests of the entrepreneurial groups of the regions and their representation in the power. A level below there are the regions, centred around the cities with lower investment potential, which demonstrate the growth of industry and agriculture (Vinnitsa, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil, Chernivtsi and others) and the ones which, in a greater degree, cannot do without the help from the centre (Sumy, Kherson, Zhitomir, Chernihiv, Ki- rovograd) (Lisovskiy 2007, 14–15).

The level of problematic of correlation between the centre and periphery acquires more local sense, when a city is differentiated from “not a city”, while a city is viewed as a centre, and “not a city” – as periphery. In this connection, the suggestion, that periphery is the one, the unique self of the society, and a city is its whole, seems interesting; a city in correlation to the society carries out the functions of its being, periphery is functions of its existence. If integrity, hierarchical system, essence and internal orientation of the legal activity are inherent to a city, as to the form of the society organization, then the descriptions of periphery, as a form of the society organization, is absolutely opposite. Many features of culture of city and rural residents are not anything other than the expression of these characteristics. For the problem of centre-periphery relations, an important role is played by a postulate: «the weaker the division of the whole into the parts is, the lower the degree of integrity is» (Shipilov 2007). Accordingly, the more powerful the periphery is, the stronger the centre is. The centre prerequisites the periphery, and vice versa.

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It should be underlined that a city comes forward not only as a territorial unit with its certain legal status, but also as a specific legal space with the special character of attitude toward the law. In modern sociology a city is studied as principally new type of the society organization, specific integrity, which produces new senses. This thesis is decrypted through consideration of «the maximum case» of a city, a city of par excellence – the capital of an empire, which was initially created as materialization of the social-legal myth and showed the «clot of senses, norms, rules and interpretations» (Shipilov 2006).

Another important constituent of the centre-periphery relations between a city and a state is co-operation of a megalopolis and a state. New York and Tokyo are the centres of global co-ordination and control. Tokyo by the particular relations is connected with the Tokyo government, the region of Kanto, Japanese unitary state and East-Asiatic region, which is characterized by the special division of labour and Confucianism inheritance. The city of New York is related to quite different legal-political and cultural group: the state of New York, the North-Eastern United States, American federalist powerful state and the West- ern-Atlantic region. However, in Tokyo configuration, the state played more active role, than in New York one. Mass deindustrialization and class polarization on the basis of private production presented itself in New York, but not in Tokyo, where the state institutional and political mechanisms of control over this global centre are strong (Hill 2004, 380). In this aspect, the cities as centres are the focus of the national legal system, as well as regional one, and also the specifics of their location, but, at the same time, they (cities) go their own way.

The researches of a city not only allow to give adequate description to many modern legal-state processes and phenomena, they attract attention on the most various, heterogeneous environment, where different ethnic, religious, status, sub-cultural groups coexist, but also let us describe the processes and phenomena, characteristic for the modern society on the whole. It underlines actuality of the questions, related to the concept of legal space, legal measuring of existence of a city as the special centre.

By means of law the formalization of a city priority as the centre above the periphery takes place, in this connection, it is possible to talk about the cities of the world level (world centres), state (republican) value, cities of regional value,

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opened (typical) and closed (off-type) cities, free cities (so-called “free-ports”) and others like that. Legal typology of cities is a confirmation of their special value for the relations between the centre and periphery in the modern state. In addition, the city law gives the image of a city as an independent legal structure, when a city as the integrity owns the ability to enter into relations, including legal, with other cities, social associations, in co-operation with periphery.

Thus, the centre-periphery relations can be studied as a component of the city legal space on the different levels of its existence (beginning from the level of centre-megalopolis of the world level and concluding with the city-centre of peripheral value) and as methodological grounds of research of the mutual relations between a city and state which unavoidably leads to the exposure of the problem questions in the theory of territorial form of state organisation.

MONO-CENTRIC AND POLY-CENTRIC STATES AS FORMS OF STATE OR- GANISATION

Determination of a form of the political system as its internal territorial power organisation, in connection with the complexity of distinguishing every state as exceptionally unitary or federal one, results in the multi-layered division of form of the state organisation into sub-types (the unitary states – centralized and decentralized; territorial, national and mixed federations; symmetric and asym- metric federations; quasi-federations – which approach closer to the unitary form of the state organisation, federation de facto –the regional states etc. (Obo- rotov 2011, 377–379)) and needs clarification.

In connection with the use of other foundation – centre-periphery correlation between the cities as centres and state, the theoretical concept of the form of the state organisation can be complemented by the concepts of mono-centric and poly-centric form of the mode of the state. Consequently, the form of the political system can be determined as the order of authoritative (centre-periphery) mutual relations between the state and its cities-centres. Accordingly, the mono- centric state is a form of the state organisation, where there is one intensely expressed city-centre, with the possible hierarchy of the cities-centres of lower value (France, Ukraine, Germany and others); and the poly-centric state is a

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form of the state organisation, where there are two and more cities-centres equal by their value (Spain, Italy, Germany and others). Thus, some states by virtue of geographical reasons can be only mono-centric, in fact due to the limited space; the formation of other centres is impossible (Singapore, Monaco, Lux- emburg and others).

Division of the states to mono-centric and poly-centric, centralized and decentralized, with the use of ideology of centre-periphery methodology, has a prospect also while substantiating the relations between the city legal system and national legal system. The city legal space, presents the substrate of the city legal system, forms grounds for certain autonomy of the cities in the legal sense. In other words, the national legal system and city legal system are not correlated as the unit and a part. This correlation is a issue of co-operation between their centres. The city legal systems, becoming more influential from the point of realization of their right on the own models of value-normative regulation, do not create the competition for the national legal system, do not hinder realization of positions of national legislation, but allow to complement it, to perfect its action from the position of centration and from differentiation of legal consciousness, legal culture and legal mentality of townspeople.

Next to the issues of a centre, it is impossible to forget about the problems of periphery. In particular, as N.M. Krestovska underlines, absence of the legal status and in general the legal reflection of the problems of development of rural spaces leads to substantial complication of the processes of urbanization (Krestovska 2014, 35–37). I.V. Mishchenko also accents attention on this. In her opinion, taking into account the «poles of growth» within the framework of every separate enclave does not allow to forget about periphery, as if it were ineffective, then the centre would lose its properties quickly. The dependent status of rural territories is determined, foremost, by impossibility of successful development of village without effective urbanization, as much paradoxically it would not sound (Mishchenko 2012, 100–101). For rural territories, the factors of the excessive development are practically inaccessible, on which an accent is often placed in the various programs of development of rural territories in Ukraine, and that is why the development of village depends on the development of cities. Such position, as it seems, must get the adequate reflection at the level of reformation of decentralization in the state power.

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The proper legal reflection of the centre-periphery model, when a key role is given to the cities, but not the whole regions, is, on our persuasion, a guarantee of successful decentralization of the state power in Ukraine. It, at first, is confirmed by the world experience of decentralisation processes, secondly, allows us to solve the problem of management distribution due to the ideology of self- help.

CONCLUSIONS

Cities come forward as urbanisation centres within the limits of the public space, concentrating legal ideas and norms. Every city is the centre (political, legal, cultural, economic) of one or another region. Successful development of regions is impossible without successful development of cities-centres, which is confirmed both by the world practice and Ukrainian experience. Therefore, the ideology of decentralization of the state power in Ukraine must be based not only on the ideas of regionalism, but also on the ideas of urbanism.

The methodology of centre-periphery reveals its efficiency at the construction of the program of decentralization of state power. Transference of accents from regions to enclaves, which from the socio-economic point of view are the real bearers of the centre-periphery relations, is, as it seems, the way which will allow to considerably strengthen the status of a city in the Ukrainian law and in the public space, to form such a matrix of mutual relations between the state and the local territories, which will give the possibility to build the mutually beneficial provisions of financial, political and legal character. Exactly the Ukrainian cities today must be acknowledged to the engine of decentralization, as without the proper legal accompaniment of urbanisation processes decentralization of the Ukrainian state will appear to be the project whose realization will be far less effective.

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Легальний статус (Tkachuk, A.F. 2013 Decentralization of Power: from Neces- sity to Realization, Kyiv : Legalnyi Status) 24. Туровский, Р. 2003. Баланс отношений «центр-регионы» как основа территориально-государственного строительства, Мировая экономика и международные отношения 12: 54–65 (Turovskiy, R. 2003. Balance of Rela- tions “Center-Regions” as a Basis for Territorial and State Building, World Econ- omy and International Relations 12: 54-65) 25. Урманов, Д.В. 2010. Локальные территории в пространственном развитии системы «центр – периферия» региона, Вестник Томского государственного университета 339: 127-130 (Urmanov, D.V. 2010. Local Territories in Space Development of the “Center-Periphery” System of Region, Bulletin of Tomsk State University 339: 127-130) 26. Цофнас, А.Ю. 1998. Теория систем и теория познания, Одесса: Астропринт (Tsofnas, A.Y. 1998. Theory of Systems and Theory of Knowledge, Odessa: Astro- print) 27. Шипилов, А.В. 2007. Иное города http://ecsocman.hse.ru/data/088/996/1219/ shipilov2.pdf (Shipilov, A.V. 2006. The Other of City) (accessed December 25, 2014) 28. Шипилов, А.В. 2006. О смысле города и городе-смысле Человек 1:23–30 (Shipilov, A.V. 2006. About Sense of City and City-Sense Human 1:23-30) 29. Шохин, Е.И. 1995. Для центризма появилась объективная основа Общественные науки и современность 6:5–17 (Shokhin, E.I. 1995. For Cen- trism Appeared an Objective Basis Social Sciences and Contemporaneity 6:5-17)

Dr. Olga Melnychuk - National University “Odessa Law Academy”, Odessa, Ukraine e-mail: [email protected]

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SOCIAL ISSUES – V. SOME EXAMPLES

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Włodzimierz CHOJNACKI

REPRODUCTION OF EDUCATIONAL INEQUITIES

ABSTRACT

In author`s opinion the policy of education in Poland, on limited scale is the subject of deepened organizational-institutional analyzes oriented toward restricted reproduction of social inequity generated by education system and labor markets. At the present stage of development in capitalist economy the discourse of national education appears spo- radically in Poland. For description and explanation of the above problems I have used the assumptions of the theory: cultural functionalism, structural and behavioral exchange. Their application enabled to make evaluation and identification of crucial phenomena and processes closely connected with the reproduction of social inequity. The structural approach to cultural-educational capital was based not only upon different kinds of paradigm but also revealing the cognitive organizational and interpersonal conflicts taking place on external side of educational institution.

Keywords: national education, reproduction, social inequity, cultural functionalism, cultural and educational capital, interpersonal conflict.

INTRODUCTION

The strict connections between education and social inequities were perceived by the ancient precursors of science like Socrates, Plato1 and Aristotle2 and later its outstanding representatives in the Enlightenment such as M. Copernicus, J, Komensky, I. Newton, R. Descartes including many sociologists and experts in scope of social policy. The beginnings of bonding relations of individual and collective entities with education resulted from urgent demand on educated people in the economy of capitalism and secularization of political systems. The need of measuring and assessing the educational concept and its practice became an essential topic of numerous scientific research in the monographic and

1 Plato, Fedon, Warszawa 1958 2 Arystoteles, Dzieła wszystkie (Complete works), t. 5, Warszawa 1996, s. 198-200.

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empiric aspect. At the beginning they were regarded as autonomic institutions and then as the educational system incorporated into the national politics and social development3. However the theoreticians and practitioners of education neglected after 1989 the studies on complex relations between quality of teaching in faculties or departments of education and needs of labor market.

The changes in the social structure at the micro and macrosocial level as well as lack of balance were manifested in the growing social inequities concerning labor division. At present the educational policy is a matter of analysis not only in the two ministries but also in in the Departments of Education of the Public Administration. It also becomes a crucial element in the marketing strategy of political parties oriented toward reducing and reproduction of social inequities generated by the educational system and labor markets4. However a discourse on the national education is very seldom focused on the essence of problem to follow most often apologetic criticism5. The following trends are dominant in critical disputes on education:  liberal trend preferring freedom, rivalry, rationalism and privatization of educational centers for achieving own political, economic and cultural objectives;  democratic-national trend based on broad participation of government and church in shaping students' personality by education through patriotism re- lying on love, responsibility and need of sacrifice for homeland as well as manifesting high moral valor6.  social-democratic trend preferring lay humanism, pragmatism and pro- gression as the basis for familiarity with knowledge and skills essential for efficient solving social, economic, political and cultural problems;  professional trend emphasizing the care about occupational qualifications of teachers and students based on adjusting programs, forms, methods and principles of education to the social economic needs – first of all – con-

3 Wiłkomirska A., Zawodowe i społeczno-polityczne orientacje nauczycieli (Professional and socio-political teacher`s orientations), Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2002, s. 19-20. 4 Abolition of compulsory education in primary schools for children in age of 6 and in kindergartens in age of is written in the Legal Act on Education System signed by President A. Duda on 07.01. 2016. 5 For example the research published by the Institute of Educational Research in its annual reports with exclusion of Report on education state, Community on the path to knowledge published by IBE Warsaw 2011 containing the chapter dedicated to social inequities. 6 Gutek L., G., Filozoficzne i ideologiczne podstawy edukacji, (Philosophical and ideological education bases), (Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2003, s. 209.

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cerning about quality and effectiveness of preparing students for performing professional tasks;  anarchistic trend created by theoreticians, teachers and clerks striving for more autonomy and reinterpretation of schools functioning including resistance against changes, disputes and humanization without bearing any responsibility for the final effects of their ventures. They come up with an idea that school is to be a place for shaping critical and oppositional attitudes against the government for active sharing community transformations.

In author's opinion it is worth filling a gap resulting from the destruction in social structure and impact of social inequities penetrating into all the above ideological trends. A description of reasons and causes concerning educational inequities and their reasonable explanation requires deeper considerations on the historic impacts for establishing the democratic citizen community. Nowa- days as a result of both these reasons interference there are negative consequences of social inequity in access to kindergartens, primary and secondary schools and higher education. First of all, there are difficulties in creating good conditions for endowing graduates with an adequate cultural-educational-professional capital to enable them personal development of knowledge and permanent education accordingly with their skills, personality traits, aspirations, motivations, and interest. In large measure the Polish governments after 1989 are blamed for high rate of unemployment concerning students graduated from high and higher schools. These governments are criticized for decisive popu- lism, weak cooperation with employers, local and regional self-governance, schematic thinking and acting to follow the patterns of educational systems in the EU states and USA. First of all the ideologically minded reformers of education supporting the right, central or left political fractions, public administration, and informal oligarchies in high and higher education are guilty for their care about extension of owned power and economization neglecting educational quality and creation of new occupational posts. For instance, as a result of making these mistakes after 1989 was the emigration of more than 2 500 000 educated Poles (with majority of young people) never experienced before in the Polish history. A considerable decrease in demography and pressure of academic spheres caused an increased interest in opening new educational profiles,

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faculties and polytechnic specializations as well as cooperation with business entities including investments in modern workshops and laboratories7.

For describing and explaining the above problems an incentive motivation to the author of this article was to apply the assumptions of cultural functionalism theory, structural theory and behavioral theory of exchange. They favored an evaluation and analysis of individual behaviors in the context of selected phenomena and social facts. An approach of structuralism to the cultural-educational capital was based not only on various paradigms referred to the objective sphere of the educational process but also on revealing the cognitive, organizational and interpersonal conflicts inside the educational institutions. All of that is accompanied with stress resulting from differentiated situation of pupils and students during education and shaping their individual identity. Interactive epi- sodes occurring in the educational process are not only an ordinary release from an excess of cognitive, social, physical activity or adaptation to the cultural code. They are featured with individual or stratified social dramatization. Its processional course reveals conflicts, interests, violence and aggression manifested in attitudes and situational behaviors of educational entities8.

Recurrent and arbitrary character of experiments and changes of situational context within recent 25 years are the main markers of hidden social structure rev- eled also in generating strains and social divisions9. Social conflicts at the structural-functional background lead to an attempt of restoring some balance but at the new level of reflections, capabilities and experiences. Dependencies between the type of community and conceptions of social structure are shown in table 1.

Tab. 1. Type of community and economy versus conceptions of social structure

Type Kind Type Conception of social structure of community of economy of culture Functional symbolic / Primitive agriculture Family Chief, environment verbal agriculture rulers, scholars the rich material and Slavery craft, military, farmers middle class non-material trade craftsmen the poor

7 In 2006 year an amount of students at higher schools was about 1 800 000 and now, only 1 200 000. 8 Turner V., Drams, fields and metaphors: symbolic action in human society, Published by Cornell Uni- versity Press, Ithaca-London 1974, s. 25. 9 Manterys A., Sytuacje społeczne (Social situations), Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS, Kraków 2008, s. 236.

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Court Court culture Nobility culture Clergy Feudalism agriculture Urban culture Middle class Noblemen Rural culture Peasants-class Middle class Peasants-class Capitalists Higher social class elite Middle class Capitalism industry Middle social class mass Landed gentry Lower social class Workers Higher class Corporation Middle class elite members Postindustrial services Production-service mass Professionals class Excluded persons Lower class

Source: Elaborated by Błuszkowski J., Struktura społeczna ( Social structures),[w:] Wojtaszczyk K., Jakubowski W., (red.), Społeczeństwo i polityka. Zarys wykładu (Society versus politics. Outline of the lecture), Wyd. Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR, Warszawa 2001, s. 111.

The reasonable diagnoses of the above problems are introduced in the elaborations of the following Polish authors: Roman Dolata10, Henryk Domański11, Marta Zahorska 12 , Tomasz Szkudlarek, Bogdan Jałowiecki, B. Murawska, Mikołaj Herbst13 and Krzysztof Frysztacki14. Generally, they contain perfectly conducted empirical research with the use of historical-comparative analysis reflecting the various forms of educational inequities in the common social awareness and their impacts on the social sphere15. A weaker aspect of these elaborations covers too short conclusions drawn from the research studies including models and methods not good enough for solving problems16. One can realize that these researchers feel a restricted sense of their rights and decisive competencies resulting not only from the long-term process of socialization

10 Dolata R., Szkoła, segregacje, nierówności (School, segregation, inequities), Wyd. Uniwersytet War- szawski, Warszawa 2008, s.11-12. 11 Domański H., Sawiński Z., Słomczyński K., M., Nowa klasyfikacja i skale zawodów. Socjologiczne wskaźniki pozycji społecznej w Polsce (A new classification and vocational scale. Sociology factors of social status), Wyd. IFiS PAN, Warszawa 2007, s. 15-20. 12 Zahorska M., (red.), Zawirowania systemu edukacji (Disturbances of education system), Wyd. Uniwer- sytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2012, s. 54-57. 13 Herbst M., Edukacja jako czynnik i wynik rozwoju regionalnego. Doświadczenia Polski w perspektywie międzynarodowej (Education as factor and result of regional development), Wyd. Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2012, s. 50-58. 14 Frysztacki K., Socjologia problemów społecznych (Sociology of social problems), Wyd. Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2009, s. 135-141. 15 Domański H., Zadowolony niewolnik. Studium o nierównościach między mężczyznami i kobietami w Pol- sce (Happy slave. Study on inequities between man and women), Wyd. IFiS PAN, Warszawa 1992. 16 At this angle this elaboration must be positively assessed - J. Herczyński, A. Sobotka, Zmiany w sieci szkół ponadgimnazjalnych w latach 2007-2013 (Changes in secondary education school network between 2007-2013), Wyd. Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2015.

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within the recent 25 years but also from the previous system of insufficient economy/ economy of insufficiency17. In such circumstances they do not give politicians and their advisers or journalists specialized in this field any decisive opinions in the issues relevant to broadly understood education for security of the state, nation and community. As a result of such negligence and conformist attitudes the kind of conformist citizen accuracy is shaped to lead to the deeper civilization and cultural isolation/distance of our country and community in relation to the highly developed states.

One of the negative results of this process is a cognitive and axiological gap in the area of working out an efficient strategy of reducing equities reproduction generated by the educational system in Poland because too wide spectrum of such inequities leads to social exclusion and the process of establishing the deep social divisions. They come from the introduced elite post-ford and post-mod- ernistic model of capitalism and its result as the never sustained social-economic development based on the specifically understood democracy, law, liberty, social equity and justice in Poland. The reasons and causes influencing dis- functionality of the educational system outlined in this article were dedicated to a critical assessment.

GENERATION OF INEQUITIES IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Reproduction of educational inequities may be understood as a process of reproducing and deepening a functioning social structure by an educational system playing an important role in functioning a social-economic system. How- ever the author of this article is not interested in marks achieved by students at school that on the one hand are often an effect of effort put by them but on the other hand their reluctance and laziness reflected in the results of research studies conducted by international organizations18, focusing their attention on quality and efficiency of learning and teaching processes. In Poland there are conducted mainly by the Institute of Educational Research, Chamber of Parliament

17 Krzemiński I., Wielka transformacja. Zmiany ustroju w Polsce po 1989 (Great transformation. Changes system in Poland after 1989), Wyd. Oficyna Wydawnicza ŁOŚGRAF, Warszawa 2011. 18 Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Oceny Osiągnięć Edukacyjnych (IEA International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement); Europejskie Centrum Wergelanda (EWC European Wergeland Center).

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of the Polish Republic, and materials signed by the Society of Anti-discrimination Education. Due to the cognitive and social-demographic reasons for these institutions the analysis of attributes such as sex, address, faculty, occupation and financial status of children parents was very important.

That is why this article tackles the author's attempt of explaining an impact of family financial status on aspirations and achievements of students and the critical analysis of information about social inequities in the reports on education. An appearance of the above dependency was treated by the author of this article as a confirmation of hypothesis on reproduction of educational inequities.

It is worth emphasizing that many authors indicate19 that an impact of family20 on shaping cultural competencies including knowledge, skills and attitudes21 as well as students behaviors is most important both in positive and pathological aspect. This process was called by Pierre Bourdieu22 as habitus23. The intellectual development of children and youngsters depends mainly on styles and ways of impact of parents who are reliable and responsible or indulgent and rejecting protectors or experts, advisers and consultants including therapeutic, preventive and correction activities oriented toward teaching for thinking and good interpersonal communication, equal start in life due to proper upbringing and education. Quality and quantity of kindergarten job in Poland was never sufficient in relation to social needs and demand. Within the first several years of transformation after 1989 about 20% of kindergarten net was liquidated. Most of them disappeared in small towns and rural boroughs with a low rate of social- economic status24. From 1989 to 2006 inequities of incomes measured with the

19 Ziemska M., Rodzina a osobowość (Family and personality), Wydawnictwa Szkole i Pedagogiczne, War- szawa 1975, s. 5. 20 Rachalska W., Wybór zawodu a wychowanie przez pracę w rodzinie (Selection of vocation versus upbringing through working in family), Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych, Warszawa 1984. 21 Pospiszyl K., Ojciec a wychowanie dziecka (Further versus child upbringing), Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2007, s. 37. 22 Bourdieu P., Dystynkcja. Społeczna krytyka władzy sądzenia (Distinction: A social critique of judgment of taste), Wyd. Scholar, Warszawa 2005, s. 572-573. 23 Habitus – according to P. Bourdieu these are abilities and competencies acquired by an individual that become a form of permanent dispositions such as the ways of perceiving the reality and rules of activity. But it is not a set of solid rules and principles of activity but an elastic instrument for achieving an assumed goal. 24 Sadura P., Państwo i nierówności społeczne w systemie edukacji: kierunki działań, (State and social inequities in education system: working trends ) [w:] Kłos B., Szymańczak J., (red.), Raport Kancelarii Sejmu o stanie edukacji w Polsce (Report of the Parlament Secretary), Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, War- szawa 2014, s. 166. oraz Federowicz M., Choińska-Mika J., Walczak D., (red.), Raport o stanie edukacji 2013 (Report on state of education), Wyd. Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2014.

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Corrado Ginie coefficient proved the highest value in the EU states closely to the US, Mexico and Turkey. When basing on the research conducted by P. Sa- dura it results that slow reversion of this disadvantageous trend took place in 2007 to achieve the value 0.38. The data obtained from the Ministry of National Education inform that in 2013 only 74% of children aged 3-5 years were taken to kindergartens including 81.5% in towns and 63.3 %. It is the worst results in the EU states according to the report European Commission25.

Moreover it is important that 21% of expenses on children in kindergartens came from family budgets when an average European value was 14 %. At school in Poland a pupil from a poor family modestly clothed is synonymous with a worse child as a poor person. If he agrees to be treated as a scape goat it is very difficult to him to quit such a role. According to the research by B. Mu- rawska division of children due to family material status is respected in 20% of primary schools in Warsaw. As a result the classes for the rich have a different social status than classes for poor children of parents with occupational or primary education and the unemployed. The Pedagogical Councils at schools striving for high positions in educational achievements ranking consciously select children to run business of teaching in paid lessons in foreign languages, computer science, mathematics or dancing sessions. It happens that children from poor families learn worse in insufficiently equipped classrooms and at the second shift (afternoons, evenings). Sometimes the rich parents force the head of school to prevent their children from contacts with poor kids. As a result at the initial stage of education children from the poor families are stigmatized and convinced that they are worse than those from the rich families26.

SOCIAL INEQUITIES AMONG PUPILS OF PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR- SCHOOLS

Consequences of inequities resulting from differentiated social positions and unequal access to education are reflected at the level of knowledge and skills concerning children entering the first course at primary school. At this stage of

25 Komisja Europejska, Key Data on Early Childhood Eurydice and Eurostart Report, Bruksela 2014, s. 67-68. 26 http://www.fakt.pl/Segregacja-dzieci-w-stołówce-artykuły, 179256, 1. html from 10.01. 2016 r.

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selection and classification these processes are a kind of formal or informal practice applied by schools. Parents are asked for filling a questionnaire with data of their employment place, incomes and sometimes standard of a flat. On the basis of gathered data a division of classes is done. Practically, many schools creates classes for clever pupils, ordinary ones and compensation classes, especially at grammar-schools27.

As a matter of fact exceptions of rich parents children attend elite private or religious schools with high fees or foreign schools in the Polish cities28. It is worth emphasizing that the results of research published more than 20 years ago by an American sociologist James. S. Coleman proved that not any division into clever and not clever children but common learning had the greatest impact on their achievements, motivations and educational aspirations, especially concerning weaker pupils29.

Educational segmentation is intensified above the level of grammar-schools that their graduates are trying to reach. It is facilitated by the system of assessment based on points scored by teenagers and supported by their educated parents who care about preparing an offspring to pass an extended exam for secondary school certificate to have more chance for attending a chosen faculty at higher school providing for the high social -economic status. One can conclude that at the level of grammar-school the highly selective system has its very beginning to cause social inequities. It mainly concerns the big cities where the hidden process of automatic or ordinary selection is supported by practical parents from the small towns and villages who send their children to the big cities only during recruitment to grammar-schools. These parents collaborate with the Heads of grammar-schools admitting so called “free” places at their disposal.

It is reasonable to consider if generation of inequities is a problem of the present educational system or it took place in the past. According to H. Domański in

27 Dolata R., Procedury rekrutacji i dzielenia uczniów na oddziały w gimnazjach – ocena z perspektywy nierówności społecznych w edukacji (Recruitment procedures and dividing into sections at secondary schools – assessment of social inequity in education) [w:] Wosik E., (red), Zmiany w systemie oświaty. Wyniki badań empirycznych (Changes in education system. Empirical research results), Wyd. Instytut Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2002, s. 181-182. 28 Por. American School of Warsaw, Warszawska 202 street in Konstancin-Jeziorna; British School, Limanowskiego 15 street as well as International European School in Warsaw, Wiertnicza 75 street. Full list of international schools - http://www.paiz.gov.pl/ 29 Coleman J.S., Equality of Education Opportunity, US Office of Education, Washington 1966.

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the years1955-1980 an impact of parents social position and education was held at the similar level and reflected in form of cultural inequities. As a matter of fact in the 40-ties and 50-ties the socialism gave more preferences for children and teenagers of workers and villagers but in the 60-ties and 70-ties the results of entrance exams were arbitrary in admissions to the particular schools. About 70 % of youngsters who passed entrance exams attended occupational schools in production plants and technical colleges and about 30% of them attended higher schools. Such proportions were favored by occupational education as it still present in Germany. As a result of these ventures only 12 % of teenagers in the domestic population studied at higher schools30. In the years1992-2010 of educational boom the threefold increase in high schools was accompanied with the same decrease in occupational schools31 Moreover, an amount of private higher schools was twice as much bigger than the number of public schools. This way the state enabled its secondary school graduates a broader access to higher education that resulted with a rapid increase in scholarization rate to about 50% in 2014. The reported data indicates that the reform of educational system implemented in 1999 reduced the barriers in access to high schools. Nevertheless, a problem of educational system is not based only on the better access to schools but on providing their graduates for employment and good salaries as well as reducing educational dependencies on parents position and education that finally leads to social inequities. As it is emphasized by P. Sadura the changes introduced after 1999 were based on economizing the education including parametrization and quantification of educational achievements supported with the market game in managing the finances of public schools. They are similar with those introduced 20 years ago in the western states of Europe. When implementing the educational reform the decision-making persons in the Ministries omitted a very important problem in transformation from the socialism to capitalism in Poland. They did not pay any attention to the fact that the new educational system was adjusted to the culture of middle-class of the western community different than the workers and peasants- class culture of socialism prevailing in Poland. Hence, it is not a coincidence

30 Domański H., Kształcenie córek i synów (Daughters and sons upbringing), Wyd. Res Publica Nowa”, 2002, nr 11, s. 44. 31 Zahorska M., Polski boom edukacyjny i jego następstwa ( Polish education boom and its consequences) [w:] Buholc M., i in. (red.), Polska po 20 latach wolności (Poland after 20 years freedom), Wyd. Uni- wersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2011, s. 176.

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that children from the lower social classes have still difficulties in achieving good results in the new educational system. Furthermore, too weak incentive motivation of children from the lower social classes creates the specific educational atmosphere when teachers put an effort in achieving the goals assumed in the educational programs32. A reduction of social barriers in access to education was one of the most important purposes of the reform from 1999. Accord- ing to Z. Pawiński the PISA33 results from the years 2000-2012 are not sufficient to conclude that the grammar-school reform contributed to reduction of inequities in the Polish education. On the one hand this research proves the an impact of social origin on choice of secondary school was decreased but on the other hand the elite grammar-schools are a new path to educational, occupational and social promotion. Therefore during the last years of attending schools the children and youngsters from the lower social classes are proposed to focus their interest in occupational schools and technical colleges – as it is emphasized by M. Zahorska. It is favored by the selection at schools causing that youngsters attending them are weakly prepared for gaining knowledge, skills and competencies and have a low social status. When generalizing the social customs it is reasonable to conclude that a son of worker chooses an occupational school ensuring his job in the nearest future. A son or daughter of a middle class representative such as a doctor, lawyer attends a good high school creating the real possibility of passing an exam to elite medical studies, psychology, computer science, architecture or law.

FINANCING THE SCIENCE AND HIGHER EDUCATION VERSUS SOCIAL IN- EQUITIES

A strict correlation between the number of scientific research conducted in the higher schools and quality of students education is not a coincidence. The position of a given school in the ranking depends mainly on the particular achievements of academic staff. As it was noticed by J. Wilkin34 the development of

32 Sadura P., op. … cit., s. 173. 33 PISA Programme for International Student Assessment – Program Międzynarodowej Oceny Umiejętno- ści Uczniów. 34 Wilkin J., Finansowanie nauki i szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce. Wybrane problemy i postulowane kierunki reform, (Financing science and higher education in Poland. Selected problems and postulated

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science and higher education is obstructed by the internal structures of higher school deeply rooted in conviction of academic staff and by insufficient financing the scientific research from the public and private assets. It is fairly visible in relations with the GNP in comparison with other European states35. A difficult situation of financing the scientific research is intensified with insufficient incomes from the government and private entities. As it was previously mentioned by the author of this article the development of science, its research and didactic activity has its reasons in the traditional structures of institutions including attitudes and behaviors of academic oligarchy. A positive phenomenon is designation of financial assets for the research studies conducted by young scientists covering also the beginners originating their scientific career36. Nev- ertheless, there is a relatively small amount of scientists employed in the research-development sector in Poland that in the light of small expenses on the research studies does not allow to employ a great potential of higher schools for re-industrialization and development of the Polish firms. There is a lack of effective educational system at the level of higher education including the en- larged research-development sector employing persons with higher education certificates, predispositions and achievements in this field37. In this situation J. Wilkin comes up with the following suggestions: 1. Increasing expenses on the research and development in relation to GNP that would be in favor of employment in this sector. This way we can attain the median European value. 2. Transition from the quantitative to qualitative phase in educating students in the nearest years that would be connected with bearing higher costs. The present practice of academic authorities is based on increasing an amount of student groups with simultaneous decreasing the paid activation hours

trends of reforms) [w:] Nauka i szkolnictwo wyższe (Science and higher education), Studia Biura Analiz Sejmowych, Wydawnictwo Sejmowe Kancelarii Sejmu, Warszawa 2013, s. 52. 35 Poland spend only 0.94% of GNP on the scientific research in 2015 versus the average value of the EU 3% of GNP. The former government planned a gradual increase in expenses on the scientific research to 1.7 % in 2020. 36 To achieve this purpose the National Center of Science spends about 20% of its budget on the scientific projects. Moreover, the young scientists are supported by The National Center for Research and Devel- opment, and Foundation of the Polish Science. 37 The report on the completion of so called Lisbon strategy elaborated by the team of Wim Kok in 2004. The report stated that about 60% of growth in labor productivity comes from expenses on research, development and innovations

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(conservatories, laboratories, workshops exercises) – limited amount of lec- tures to be chosen by students. 3. Extension of the leading scientific centers activity in Poland. 4. Simplification of legal rules on the public orders and finances referring to the higher schools and research institutes. 5. Effective employment of research development potential accumulated in the Institutes of the Polish Scientific Academy38.

REGIONAL AND URBAN-RURAL DIFFERENTIATION OF SOCIAL INEQUI- TIES

An important problem of changes after 1989 in Poland was a growth of demand on education and its development. Those changes originated the transition from the elite higher education covering about 10 % of population to the model of higher studies available in a large scale to educate about 50% of people aged between 19 and 26 years. When basing on the data obtained from the Chief Office of Statistics in the years 1998-2002 M. Herbst concludes that the big cities attracted the highest potential of educational capital. Table 2. contains the percentage of population with higher education in the selected districts from 2002 to 2008 year.

It results from the data in table 2 that dynamics of increasing amount of educated citizens indicate the following districts: Podlaskie, Opole and Warmia- Mazur. The leader is the Mazovia district where disproportions between the capitol and its peripheries are visible. The higher school graduates are attracted by the authorities of the biggest cities like Warsaw, Wrocław, Cracov and Gdansk is the reason for these disproportion. Such a geographic distribution of human quality capital in Poland is in large measure determined by social, economic, historical and cultural reasons. First of all - the main reason is the elite model of capitalism in Poland characterized with considerable differences in incomes of citizens and widespread areas of poverty. Finally, the Polish model of comprador`s capitalism is featured with unemployment and poverty as well

38 Wilkin J., Uniwersytet w sieci, w chmurze i na rynku. Co z tego wynika?( University in network, in information cloud and market. What is the result?), Wyd. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego „Czasopismo uczelni” 2013, nr 2.

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as disproportions in incomes and salaries.

Table 2. Percentage of higher schools graduates in the selected districts in 2002 and 2008

Name of district 2002 2008 Lower Silesian 10,1 14 Lublin 9,4 14,3 Lodz 9,5 15,0 Small Poland 10,3 17,5 Mazovian 14,3 24,1 Silesian 10,0 15,3 Holy Cross 9,4 13,6 Warmia-Mazur 8,7 15,5 Great Poland 9,8 12,4 West Pomerania 10,6 14

Source: Herbst M. Edukacja jako czynnik i wynik rozwoju regionalnego. Doświadcze- nia Polski w perspektywie międzynarodowej (Education as factor and result of regional development), Wyd. Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa, s. 67.

Moreover, high costs borne by families for food, clothes and upbringing children are a burden leading to considerable differentiation of chances for access to the adequate educational levels, well-paid job and professional career 39. When children are classified into a group of the poor we can consider the educational inequities inherited by successive generations. The results of PISA research conducted in the years 2000-2009 indicate one more problem – a connection between parents education and results of children competencies. On the basis of these results R. Szarfenberg proved correlation between parents higher education and the results of tests on knowledge and skills of their children. That is why he concludes that the educational reforms at the end of 90-ties did not bring the expected positive changes in egalitarian transformation of our com- munity40. The specific “ghettos” maintaining the low educational level were also noticed by L.K. Gilejko who points at the distinct division between cities

39 Laskowska I., Zdrowie i nierówności w zdrowiu – determinanty i implikacje ekonomiczno-społeczne (He- alth and inequities in welfare – determinants and socio- economic implications) , Uniwersytet Łódzki, Łódź 2012, s. 208. 40 Szarfenberg R., Ubóstwo, wykluczenie, nierówności, dyskryminacja – problemy wymagające rozwiązań (Poverty, exclusion, inequity, discrimination – problems demanding solutions), Wyd. Uniwersytet War- szawski, Warszawa 2010.

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and villages. On the basis of information from the Regional Development Min- istry its results that 30% of population in the cities had a higher education in 2010 whereas only 6.7% covers the rural regions. In the light of comparisons with other states there is fourfold less people with higher education in Poland than in the EU.

The above outlined theoretical platform favors explaining that the social problems are characterized with certain features and functions that can be advanta- geous or disadvantageous for duration, survival and development of the social system. First of all it is necessary to expose the strict correlation between individual educational achievements of students and their family social status, sex, and certificate of graduation. It is also important to pay attention to the schools legitimizing and petrifying the existing social inequities and to ask how they provide for equal chances, possibilities of development and a change of position in the social structure. They also enabled some authors to present the dynamic character of social inequities through the outlined net of correlations between social status of parents and educational achievements of their children. These correlations are determined by decisions of domestic authorities and sets of personal attitudes adopting a form of activity patterns sanctified by the tradition. They are in favor of reproducing social inequities through renewal and reproduction of individual positions in the social structure.

When summarizing the multidimensional and multilevel frequently interfering social inequities are an efficient barrier for development of individuals, families, local societies and the community. The Constitution of the Polish Republic admits all the citizens the equal rights but the normative system of equal rights does not guarantee their really justified application. A model of equal rights community assumes an individual awareness of own rights and sensitivity to any forms of inequality, exclusion, poverty or discrimination. In order to get closer with this model it is recommended to develop the equity of rights, chances and obligations through education based on the new strategy supported by adequate correctional-educational programs including prophylaxis, diagno- sis of education for labor market, individual and collective perpetrators deepening the social inequities. Creation of community based not on the virtual and declared equity but real equal rights is a great challenge and chance for employment of social capital and educational potential at the beginning of XXI century.

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A great chance is to quit the present model of education with its expired possibilities of development. Empty slogans limited to empty promises of teachers vested interest instead of the real functional-structural changes and extension of education financing range will still generate the social inequities. Therefore in exchange of beautiful visions of changes to comprehensive knowledge to come and reduce social inequities the following issues are recommended to consider:  What are strong and weak points in a network of common management and education by the Ministry of National Education, Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Ministry of Finances, Polish Academy of Sciences, labor offices, and territorial self-governing boards?  What ventures can be taken by the territorial self-governing boards to prevent graduates of high and higher schools living in small towns and villages from migration to big cities and abroad to be employed?  When the educational programs for children in kindergartens will be correlated with educational programs in primary schools concerning reading, writing, speaking, counting, sports, initial familiarity with foreign languages, usage of computer, tablet or mobile phone?  When exactly the schools will receive financial support for purchasing the handbooks for pupils in the primary and grammar-schools?  What is a strategy of achieving the above purposes from the GNP ( Gross National Product) surplus without any increase in the budgetary deficit?

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Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa 2008. 6. Domański H., Kształcenie córek i synów (Daughters and sons education), Wyd. Res Publica Nowa”, 2002, nr 11. 7. Domański H., Sawiński Z., Słomczyński K., M., Nowa klasyfikacja i skale zawo- dów. Socjologiczne wskaźniki pozycji społecznej w Polsce (A new classification and vocational scale. Sociology factors of social status), Wyd. IFiS PAN, War- szawa 2007. 8. Domański H., Zadowolony niewolnik. Studium o nierównościach między mężczy- znami i kobietami w Polsce (Happy slave. Study on inequities between man and women), Wyd. IFiS PAN, Warszawa 1992. 9. Frysztacki K., Socjologia problemów społecznych (Sociology of social problems), Wyd. Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2009. 10. Gutek L., G., Filozoficzne i ideologiczne podstawy edukacji, (Philosophical and ideological education bases), (Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2003. 11. Herbst M., Edukacja jako czynnik i wynik rozwoju regionalnego. Doświadczenia Polski w perspektywie międzynarodowej (Education as factor and result of regional development), Wyd. Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2012. 12. Herczyński J., Sobotka A., Zmiany w sieci szkół ponadgimnazjalnych w latach 2007-2013 (Changes in secondary education school network between 2007-2013), Wyd. Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych, Warszawa 2015. 13. http://www.fakt.pl/Segregacja-dzieci-w-stołówce-artykuły, 179256, 1. html from 10.01. 2016 r. 14. Komisja Europejska, Key Data on Early Childhood Eurydice and Eurostart Re- port, Bruksela 2014. 15. Krzemiński I., Wielka transformacja. Zmiany ustroju w Polsce po 1989 (Great transformation. Changes system), Wyd. Oficyna Wydawnicza ŁOŚGRAF, War- szawa 2011. 16. Laskowska I., Zdrowie i nierówności w zdrowiu – determinanty i implikacje ekonomiczno-społeczne (Health and inequities in welfare – determinants and socio- economic implications), Uniwersytet Łódzki, Łódź 2012. 17. Manterys A., Sytuacje społeczne (Social situations), Zakład Wydawniczy NO- MOS, Kraków 2008. 18. Plato, Fedon, Warszawa 1958. 19. Pospiszyl K., Ojciec a wychowanie dziecka (Further versus child upbringing), Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2007. 20. Rachalska W., Wybór zawodu a wychowanie przez pracę w rodzinie (Selection of vocation versus upbringing through working in family), Instytut Wydawniczy

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Związków Zawodowych, Warszawa 1984. 21. Sadura P., Państwo i nierówności społeczne w systemie edukacji: kierunki działań, (State and social inequities in education system: working trends ) [w:] Kłos B., Szymańczak J., (red.), Raport Kancelarii Sejmu o stanie edukacji w Polsce (Report of the Parlament Secretary), Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, Warszawa 2014, s. 166. oraz Federowicz M., Choińska-Mika J., Walczak D., (red.), Raport o stanie edukacji 2013 (Report on state of education), Wyd. Instytut Badań Edukacyjnych, War- szawa 2014. 22. Szarfenberg R., Ubóstwo, wykluczenie, nierówności, dyskryminacja – problemy wymagające rozwiązań (Poverty, exclusion, inequity, discrimination – problems demanding solutions), Wyd. Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa 2010.Turner V., Drams, fields and metaphors: symbolic action in human society, Published by Cor- nell University Press, Ithaca-London 1974. 23. Wilkin J., Finansowanie nauki i szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce. Wybrane problemy i postulowane kierunki reform, (Financing science and higher education in Poland. Selected problems and postulated trends of reforms) [w:] Nauka i szkolnictwo wyższe (Science and higher education), Studia Biura Analiz Sejmowych, Wy- dawnictwo Sejmowe Kancelarii Sejmu, Warszawa 2013. 24. Wilkin J., Uniwersytet w sieci, w chmurze i na rynku. Co z tego wynika?( University in network, in information cloud and market. What is the result?), Wyd. Uniwer- sytetu Warszawskiego „Czasopismo uczelni” 2013, nr 2. 25. Wiłkomirska A., Zawodowe i społeczno-polityczne orientacje nauczycieli (Pro- fessional and socio-political teacher`s orientations), Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2002. 26. Zahorska M., (red.), Zawirowania systemu edukacji (Disturbances of education system), Wyd. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2012. 27. Zahorska M., Polski boom edukacyjny i jego następstwa ( Polish education boom and its consequences) [w:] Buholc M., i in. (red.), Polska po 20 latach wolności (Poland after 20 years freedom), Wyd. Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa 2011. 28. Ziemska M., Rodzina a osobowość (Family and personality), Wydawnictwa Szkole i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1975.

Dr hab. Włodzimierz Chojnacki – professor at Higher School of Finances and Man- agement in Warsaw, Poland. e-mail: [email protected]. or [email protected]

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Krystyna M. BŁESZYŃSKA Yehudi WEBSTER

ATTITUDES OF POLISH IMMIGRANTS TOWARDS PEOPLE OF OTHER RACES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

ABSTRACT

The text exams the roots of racist attitudes in some groups of Poles living in the United Kingdom. Particular parts of the undertaken analysis discuss cultural, historical, political, psychological and economic backgrounds of the aforementioned behaviors. Finally three of these factors are pointed as responsible once: the economic one (economic competition with people of color living in the UK), the political one (feeling the injustice caused by the “so called positive discrimination” of whites against non-whites at the labor market), and the psychological one (feeling of marginalization and social depreciation). Concluding, the text shows the behaviors defined as manifestations of racism don’t need to be associated with real racism and its ideology.

Keywords: racism, ideology, racist behavior

Analyzing racism and racist behaviors in any group of immigrants requires a short introduction defining the basic categories of “race” and “racism” as well as listing the factors which determine this kind of behaviors.

Following Warner, the term “race” should be differentiated from the term “ethnicity”. “Race” category usually is used to distinguish groups on the base of their physical characteristics such as a color of skin, a shape and color of eyes, hair and other features analyzed to describe the biological specificity of a group (Giddens, 2001; Goodman, 1992; Webster, 1992; Zuckerman, 1990). Conse- quently, a racial group is defined as a “human group that defines itself and/or is defined by other groups as different from other groups by virtue of innotate and immutable physical characteristics” (Feagin&Feagin, 1993, 7). The “ethnicity”

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category highlights distinctive group characteristics on the base of their historical, cultural, religious and national milieu. Following the above mentioned, an ethnic group can be defined as a group distinguished rather by its national origin, language, history and culture than physical characteristics of its members (Giddens, 2001; Goodman, 1992).

Application of this approach limits the terms “racism” and “racist attitudes” to ideas and behaviors which base on the assumptions of a natural racial inequality manifested in intellectual, moral and/or cultural superiority/inferiority of particular racial groups. It also suggests that categories of “anti-Semitism” or “islamophobia” should be perceived rather as ethnicity-related than race-related behaviors. The above made distinction reflects not only the particular scientific approach, but also the moral attitude. And, the core of this attitude is rejecting the Rosenberg’s concept of Jewish race which brought Nazis Germany to Nurn- berg Laws (1935) and Holocaust.

Racism, anti-Semitism and islamophobia as well as ethno-nationalism and religious fundamentalisms have similar roots and generate similar tensions resulting in violence and hate-crimes. And, due to their social meaning and origin should be discussed alongside. Unfortunately, the limits of this presentation do not allow include all those issues. Following the above mentioned, the presented paper is focused mainly on attitudes of Polish immigrants towards persons and groups distinguished on the base of their physical characteristics.

The above mentioned attitudes are determined by the factors pertaining to immigrants’ personal characteristics (like intelligence, neuroticism or authoritari- anism), traditions and experiences carried over from their home country, immigrant policies of receiving countries as well as by the processes of adaptation/acculturation. This milieu is differentiated in respect to immigrants’ education level, social origin, migration experience, worldview and political orientation, and visible in their life styles and behaviors towards the surrounding social environment.

The individual determinants of racial attitudes have been discussed in numerous psychological publications. Thus this paper aims to analyze only more general background connected to the experience of immigrants from their home, Poland and a receiving country, the United Kingdom.

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POLISH BACKGROUND: WHAT DO POLISH IMMIGRANTS BRING WITH THEM TO THE UNITED KINGDOM?

Poland is not characterized by stable and commonly displayed racist attitudes due to the history and geographic location of that country. Polish attitudes towards those perceived as foreigners reflect 1) the traditional Polish hospitality, 2) historically shaped attitudes of tolerance towards ethnic and religious diversity, 3) some ethnocentrism related to the past racial homogeneity, 4) the absence of a colonial past , 5) five decades of isolation from the multicultural democracies in the West, 6) a shock of opening to the world after the collapse of the communist system, as well as 7) strong social frustrations resulting from political and economic transformation. Particular emphasis should be also placed on 8) the relatively low ethnic differentiation and limitations of contact with people from racially different groups.

Contemporary Poland is still a nation-state dominated by one ethnic group: ethnic Poles. Similarly as in other countries, its inhabitants think about other races in a stereotypical and prejudiced way. And, the only one racially different Polish minority group, the Roma people, for a long time were also the most discriminated against and subjected to highest levels of prejudice and social exclusion. (ECRI, 2004).

Initiated in the ’90-ties processes of social and political transformation have resulted in significant changes. The country faced the influx of immigrants and refugees, while Poles started migrating to other countries. EU legal regulations that introduced international standards of minority groups protection have been adopted, including the legislation counteracting racism and racial discrimination, such as Strategic Litigation of Race Discrimination in Europe, Racial Equality Directive (ECRI, 2004). Programs have been implemented and agencies have been established overseeing the implementation of those laws (Na- tional Program for Countering Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racial Intolerance 2004-2009, Committee for Monitoring of Racism and Xenophobia, EUMC National Focal Point, Never Again Association and many others). The issues of countering racism have also appeared in education and upbringing programs (“Football Against Racism”, “Kick Racism Out of Stadiums”). Edu- cational, cultural and social work centers have initiated programs promoting

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human rights and raising awareness of racism and its countering. (Sierocinska, 2004).

As a result of those activities more and more Poles have realized the need of combating racism. Limited scope and funds, and short time of the programs operation have not changed dramatically the situation. Racial issues are still perceived as marginal versus the ethnic ones, and Polish citizens have not been sensitized to racism yet. Except for Roma people, who are perceived as permanent, albeit disliked and unwanted element of the Polish society, racially different people living in Poland are still perceived rather as temporary visitors or illegal immigrants than citizens of Poland. That perception contributes to the social exclusion, lack of solidarity and indifference of the society towards acts of aggression or discrimination against people of different skin color.

The above mentioned aggression can have physical and/or symbolic dimension. Physical aggression against persons of another color is rather uncommon, although an increasing number of attacks have been recorded in recent years (in 2005 there have been documented in Poland 247 cases). More frequent is a symbolic aggression most often found in its verbal forms. Ethnic jokes are com- monplace (also in the media) as well as expressing opinions based on negative stereotypes and prejudice. The attitudes towards people of various races differ according to their ethnicity or nationality, however.

Data gathered by the Center for Social Research indicate that the most consistent prejudices are directed against Romas and Africans. Attitudes to-wards Asians are differentiated according to their nationality. The most discriminated against group are the Vietnamese who are the most numerous Asian immigrants in Poland, while the most favored Asians are the Japanese (www.cebos.com). These data suggest that inter-group behaviors are predicated on ethnic rather than racial prejudices. They also confirm the significance of the first contacts.

Attitudes towards people of other races are also differentiated socially. Racist behaviors are less present in the milieus of liberally oriented cosmopolitans, higher educated people and large city dwellers. The strongest racist attitudes are found in the nationalist groups of low education level, workers and small town inhabitants. However, women are less open than men on people from other ethnic groups.(Bleszynska 2002, Sobecki 2000).

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Some behaviors unfriendly towards those who are racially different can be also interpreted as a transferred aggression. Research carried out in 2000-2004 by Galas (2005) indicates that growing political frustration of the Poles is accompanied by a change in the targeting of their anger and aggression. Initially those attitudes were addressed towards Polish politicians, but recently they have been transferred towards immigrants and refugees, particularly those who are distinct due to their physical appearance and customs (a scapegoat mechanism). Fol- lowing Horowitz (1985) and Olzak (1992) the increasing hostility of attitudes towards the “Strangers” can be also explained by a high level of unemployment in Poland and competition by migrants at the labor market.

Tensions in inter-group relations are exacerbated with inappropriate behavior on both sides. Violation of the law by the couple of Roma youth caused rioting in Mlawa in 2002. Chechens, who are located in refugee centers get sometimes in conflicts both with fellow refugees from Africa as with the social environment of their center. Illegally employed or gang organized Asians fight with their Polish counterparts. Such incidents are then reported by the media, contributing through this to growing lack of trust and social exclusion of the Romas, Asians, or Africans.

High level of general social frustration, brutalization of everyday life, lack of overall awareness of the racial issues as well as inefficiency of the legal system encourage proliferation of physical aggression acts towards people identified for their physical appearance, cultural specificity or sexual orientation. Most frequently those are individual acts defusing general frustration of the subject. But there also appear typical forms of ‘hate crimes’ characterized by organized and even ritualized nature.

Such behaviors can be classified into two groups. To the first we can assign acts of aggression displayed by adolescents and young adults making up gangs, or radically left/ right wing racist political and paramilitary organizations. The second group comprises of brutal behaviors at sport games. The phenomenon of racism at the stadiums is all-European in nature and extends beyond the Polish scene, therefore I will omit it in my further exposition. I will just remark that both types of racists behaviors can go together or overlap: loose groups of sports fans expressing racial sentiments and attacking people of different skin color

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are often infiltrated by members of organized neo-Nazi groups advocating the ideology of racism, ethnocentrism and violence.

The number of organizations promoting racism in Poland is not known. Those groups operate illegally (as skinheads; National Front of Workers; National Radical Camp; Blood and Honor – Poland; Ion Steward Corps; White Front; or Ra-Ha-Wa Front), or find themselves at the peripheries of youth elements of the extremist political and social organizations (as All-Polish Youth or League; of Polish Families), or they conceal their true aims and doctrines under the cover of certain sports clubs specializing in martial arts.

Polish racist groups are often supported and cooperate with similar organizations in Great Britain (Combat 88, Racial Volunteer Force), Germany, Tchech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia and Russia (Slavic Union), pan-European ones (Blood & Honor, Eurasian Union of Youth Against Illegal Immigrants). They also have extensive ties with racial American organizations (The Church of Cre- ator, Aryan Brothers). Their activities include promotion of their ideology on the Internet, gathering funds, publishing books and pamphlets, music record- ings, gadget production, ideological and combat training, as well as intimidation of racial and ethnic minorities’ representatives and human rights fighters by verbal and physical violence. They organize concerts of music groups promoting racism and violence ( as Serbian turbo-disco, rock groups: Screwdriver, Ag- gressive 88, Front HB, Blood Code, Izgorn, Salute, White Devil, Deluge or Honor) to provide platform for national and international get-togethers and re- unions. Aggression towards representatives of other races is also a frequent element of the initiation rituals crowning the boot-camps for new members.

If identified such behaviors are penalized and perpetrators are punished. Pre- vention and prosecution of the racial based crimes is not easy, however. Banned Internet sites are moved to servers in other countries ( most often to Russia or USA). The police doesn’t intervene in cases that do not involve bodily harm or redefines the act as a street violence instead of a racial attack. Human rights protection organizations and few counseling centers are neither well advertised nor accessible for people from smaller settlements. Many victims do not file complaints due to insufficient language competence, complicated legal procedures or from fear of the police (The Commissioner for the Protection of Civil

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Rights gets only about 30 complaints a year). The above mentioned limitations, the general lack of racial sensitivity, as well as the post-communist collapse of social capital in Poland and the recently diagnosed lack of solidarity with any victims (also attacked Poles) establish the climate of lawlessness in which few but very aggressive perpetrators operate.

BRITISH EXPERIENCE: WHAT DO POLISH IMMIGRANTS FACE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM?

Some factors shaping the attitudes of Polish immigrants toward other races in the United Kingdom are also of the adaptation nature. Poland’s access to the EU opened the opportunity to reach stability in their lives beyond the Polish borders for thousands of young and frustrated Poles. Upon arriving in Britain they meet a pluralist society, the rules of which they usually do not know and sometimes do not accept. They have to deal with acculturation and adaptation processes. They have also to deal with an experience of uprooting, disorienta- tion, deprivation of needs, emotional stress, collapse of identity and self-esteem, a loss of a former social status and networks, social depreciation and degradation, xenophobic attitudes and prejudices, marginalization, numerous acts of isolation and discrimination which are usually connected with the experience of immigration.

Coping with the above mentioned problems and experiences takes place within a society displaying specific attitudes toward immigrants and strangers, carry- ing out specific policies on immigration, structuring its labor market in a certain way and offering some social support. Immigration policies can attract or dis- courage particular groups of immigrants. Social attitudes toward strangers can be more or less open and friendly, or hostile and discriminating. Organization and functioning of a labor market as well as its conditions, economic processes and competition for jobs, determine individual and group behaviors of social actors entering this market. Ways of functioning of a social and institutional support for immigrants impact their ability to deal with processes of acculturation, as well as with their understanding and integration with the host society.

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And - last but not least - functioning, accessibility and sensitiveness of institutions of social care and mental health determine a fate of those immigrants who fail in their processes of adaptation and searching for a new life.

Polish immigrants in the United Kingdom face all the above mentioned problems of migration and acculturation. Like all immigrants, they work hard to reconstruct their lives and identities, and to integrate within their new communities. And, thousands of them do that successfully, in spite of numerous barriers and obstacles including language problems, insufficient support for new- comers, unfriendly attitudes of the members of the groups Polish immigrants compete with in the labor market, as well as discriminatory practices of particular employers and representatives of a social milieu.

However, in each population there are groups and individuals whose abilities to adapt successfully are limited for various reasons. Psychological responses to the stress of acculturation, as well as diversity of adaptation strategies, alongside with frustration and desperation, may produce in those immigrants reac- tions of hostility to the members of other groups, particularly of similar social status, but visibly differentiated from their own group (Bleszynska, 2005). Their misbehaviors are neither directly related to racist attitudes nor representative for the majority of Polish immigrants. The visibility of those actually marginal acts (especially if manipulated by the media) alongside with the rule of the “first contact” can, nevertheless, create the negative stereotype of Poles presented and perceived as racists.

Certain problems perceived as race-related are created also by diversity of a historical experience as well as a discrepancy of rules and norms promoting social diversity and justice. Immigrants from post-communist countries do not share the feeling of guilt and responsibility for colonialism. Instead, they expect moral responsibility of western countries for certain behaviors from the time of the WW-II, as well as communism and consequences of political division of Europe. Finally, their political claims interfere with immigrants’ sensitivity to the factors determining their situation resulting in rejection of social rules perceived as unjust or discriminating.

In the group of such rules the most questioned, rejected and condemned is the practice of a positive discrimination (American affirmative action). Immigrants

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from Central and Eastern Europe often express the feeling of being treated as “the third category of immigrants” or “the second category of Europeans”, as well as an experience of social discrimination, inequality and exclusion resulting from the lack of regulations protecting those who arrive from post-communist countries and face numerous acts of discrimination at a labor market. Trying to oppose their situation they usually point to the policy of strong protection and numerous privileges offered to British minorities and persons of non-European origin by the practice of “positive discrimination” (they ask: “positive, but for whom?”). Paradoxically, the policy aiming at support of social equality and justice creates in Polish immigrants the feeling of inequality, injustice, racial discrimination and social exclusion. Interfering with competition at a labor market it also increases inter-group tensions, which may be expressed by certain individuals by their hostile verbal and/or physical behaviors and/or joining British groups promoting hate and racial discrimination.

The issues outlined above highlighted selected problems of inter-group behaviors for Polish immigrants to the United Kingdom. Concluding, it should be stressed that the pointed problems are not typical for immigrants from Poland or other post-communist countries nor connected mainly to racial issues. There seems to arise a more general problem of immigration, social integration of immigrants and inter-group relations in EU countries as well as the urgent need for the study, research and debate not only on the behavior of Polish or non- Polish immigrants towards representatives of other racial groups but also on social rules and policies in receiving countries.

REFERENCES:

1. Błeszyńska, K. M. (2006): Strategies of adaptation of Polish immigrants to multicultural society in California; unpublished research report for Kosciuszko Founda- tion. 2. Błeszyńska, K. M. (2002): Nationalism and Criteria of Establishing National Iden- tity. In: P. Boski, F. J. R. van de Vijer, A. M. Chodynicka (red.): New Directions in Cross-Cultural Psychology; Warsaw: WIP PAN; 3. Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej (2006): Raporty z badań nad postawami Pola- ków wobec innych narodów i grup etnicznych 1997-2003 (Research reports on attitudes of Poles towards other ethnic groups and nations); www.cebos.com 4. European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance ECRI (2004): Third report

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on Poland; Strasbourg: Council of Europe; www.ecri.coe.int 5. Feagin, J.R, Booher Feagin, C. (1993): Racial and Ethnic Relations; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 6. Horowitz, D.L. (1985): Ethnic Groups in Conflicts; Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 7. Galas, B. (2005): Młode pokolenie Polski w procesach transformacji społeczno- politycznej (Generationof Polish youth in the processes of political transformation); unpublished research report; Uniwersytet Warszawski; 8. Kosko, K. (2006): Postawy studentów pedagogiki wobec przedstawicieli innych ras (Racial attitudes of students); unpublished MA dissertation, Warsaw Univer- sity; 9. Olzak, S. (1992): The Dynamics of Ethnic Competition & Conflict; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 10. Sierocińska, K. (2004): Rasizm i programy zwalczania rasizmu w Polsce (Racism and programs of its combating in Poland); unpublished MA dissertation, Warsaw University; 11. Sobecki, (2000): Środowisko zamieszkania a postawy młodzieży wobec odmien- ności rasowej (Social setting and attitudes of youth toward racial diversity). In: T. Lewowicki (red.): Edukacja międzykulturowa w Polsce i na świecie (Intercultural Education in Poland and abroad); Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ślą- skiego; 12. Zuckerman, M. (1990): Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences; American Psychologist 45: 1298-1303;

Dr hab. Krystyna M. Błeszyńska - professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences e-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Yehudi Webster – Professor Emeritus, California State University, Los Angeles, USA

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