The Earliest Alaskans and the Earliest Americans Theme Study

:.J

THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THE EARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY

by Brian T. Wygal

Final Edition

A THESIS Presented to the Department of Anthropology and the College of Arts and Sciences University of Alaska Anchorage in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts in Anthropology

December 2003 1 l

I THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THE

1 EARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY

1 by_ 1 Brian T. Wygal 1 THESIS

1 j W~er4Jd~ William Workman, PhD

ACCEPTE .

) J December 2003 J

ARLIS ~" J AlaskaReso~rces Library & Information Service Library Building, Suite 111 "/,. 3211 Providence Drive J Anchora@:e, AK 99508-4614" J Acknowledgments

My graduate committee at the University of Alaska, Anchorage has been

of special importance during the past two and a half years. Dr. William

Workman's suggestions, directions to publications, and knowledge of Arctic

archaeology provided indispensable insight to this research. Dr. Owen Mason

also provided me with hard-to-find publications, and the understanding that

geology, ecology, and site formation processes are fundamental when discussing

archaeology. I must also thank Robert Gal with the Western Arctic National

Parklands for providing his expertise on Paleoindian archaeology, lithic

technology, and analysis, as well as laboratory and field methods. His project,

the spatial and lithic analysis of the Last Day site, provided me with essential

introductions to the software and techniques used in archaeological analysis.

Dr. Becky Saleeby's efforts, from the beginning, have been most

supportive. She provided me with the support and motivation to study Early

Alaskans without restriction. Becky was responsible for taking on the Earliest

Americans Theme Study in Alaska and securing funding from the National

Council for Preservation Education and the National Park Service for my

internships under her supervision.

Becky was also responsible for introducing me to Dr. David Yesner, whose

work first inspired my desire to study Paleoindian archaeology during my o LO f"-. o f"-. f"-. o o o LO LO f"-. M M undergraduate years. David Yesner has been a true friend and mentor, studying under his advisement has been an honor, and his example and influence shall remain with me for my entire c..areer.

Finally, I must extend the utmost appreciation and gratitude to Kathryn

Krasinski, whose unlimited tenacity and work ethic provided much needed inspiration in the final phases of this stage in the earliest Alaskan project. Her countless revisions and constructive criticism contributed immensely to the final drafts of this thesis.

Although many people, including my graduate committee, have provided suggestions and knowledge, and directed me toward many publications and ideas, the opinions and thoughts I have written in this thesis are entirely my own.

The positions included mayor may not reflect that of anyone of these individuals.

ii Abstract

A Theme Study considers the significance of cultlJral properties under a common theme deemed nationally significant. The National Park Service has been working to nominate archaeological properties to the National Register of

Historic Places based on the Earliest Americans Theme Study, as mandated by the United States Senate in 1995. Alaska plays a vital role in developing this theme since groups must have migrated throughout the state during the peopling of the Western Hemisphere. As a contribution to this important Theme Study, this thesis involves the development of methods used to assess the current body of literature pertaining to Early Alaskan sites dated to between 8,000 and 12,000 radiocarbon years before present (rcybp). It reviews the current state of Alaskan

Paleoindian Cultural Resource documentation and provides information necessary for the development of a multiple property nomination capable of assessing the differing degrees of integrity and significance of these early sites.

iii Table of Contents

Chapter Page

I. Introduction 1

II. The Earliest Americans Theme Study 6

Ill. The Earliest Alaskans 10 A. Geographic Focus 16 B. The State of Early Alaskan Cultural Resources 20 C. Alaskan Site Categories and Methods of Analyses 22

IV. Pleistocene/Early Holocene Environments and Archaeology in Alaska 29 A. Paleo-environment of the Pleistocene and Holocene 29 B. Early Alaskan Archaeological Classifications 36 C. Early Alaskan Component Frequencies 47 D. An Alternate Approach: Primary Mode of Lithic Production 48 E. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations for Early Alaskan Sites 52

V. Spatial Integrity of Ancient Surface Sites: A Case Study at Last Day 56

VI. Results and Conclusion 66

Notations 70 References Cited 71-88 Appendix 89-216

iv Tables and Figures Page Table 3.1 Summary of Early Alaskan Sites 11-12 Table 3.2 Summary of Site Rankings 15 Figure 3.3 Early Alaskan Sites 16 Figure 3.4 Northem Distribution of Early Sites 18 Figure 3.5 Interior Distribution of Early Sites 19 Table 3.6 National Register Designation Codes 20 Figure 3.7 National Register Designations for Early Alaskan Sites 21 Table 3.8 Early Alaska Site Categories 23 Figure 4.1 Alaska Paleoglaciation 32 Figure 4.2 Beringia Digital Elevation Model 33 Table 4.3 Early Alaska Technological Classifications 37 Table 4.4 Mesa Complex Sites 42 Figure 4.5 Early Alaska Component Frequency 48 Figure 4.6 Percentages of Early Alaskan Components 48 Table 4.7 Early Alaskan Technologic Classifications 49 Figure 4.8 Mode of Production in Early Alaskan Components 51 Table 4.9 Radiocarbon Determinations and Calibrated Years 54 Figure 4.10 Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations 55 Figure 5.1 Spatial Integrity at the Last Day Site 59 Figure 5.2 Artifact Types in Cluster A at Last Day 60 Figure 5.3 Blade Width verses Thickness 63 Figure 5.4 Last Day (XHP-497) Lithic Artifacts 65 Table 6.1 Brooks Range 69 Table 6.2 Seward Peninsula 69 Table 6.3 Interior 69 Table 6.4 Southeast 69 Table 6.5 Southwest and Alaska Peninsula 69 Table 6.6 Aleutians 69

v Tables and Figures (continued) Page Table 7.1 Broken Mammoth 101 Table 7.2 Broken Mammoth 102 Table 7.3 Cario Creek 107 Table 7.4 Chuck Lake Horizontal Provenience 110 Table 7.5 Chuck Lake Locality 1 Vertical Stratigraphy 110 Table 7.6 Delta River Overlook 115 Table 7.7 Excavated Areas at Gallagher Flint Station 118 Table 7.8 Gallagher Localities 121 Table 7.9 Stratigraphy at all Three Gallagher Localities 121 Table 7.10 Ground Hog Bay 2 126 Table 7.11 Healy Lake Village Site 131 Table 7.12 Hidden Falls 138 Table 7.13 Mead 156 Table 7.14 Moose Creek 166 Table 7.15 Moose Creek Calibrated 166 Table 7.16 On Your Knees Cave 172 Table 7.17 Owl Ridge 177 Table 7.18 Panguingue Creek 180 Table 7.19 Putu Locality 186 Table 7.20 Swan Point 194 Table 7.21 Swan Point 195 Table 7.22 Trail Creek Caves 199 Table 7.23 Ugashik Narrows 207 Table 7.24 Usibelli Site 210 I would like to extend special thanks to my parents, Robert and Karen Wygal, and my family who have offered infinite support and enduring patience during my academic pursuits. These accomplishments would certainly not have been possible without their assistance and support and, as a result, I would like to dedicate this thesis to them.

vii I. Introduction

The nomination of archaeological sites to US National Landmark status has been a part of federal policy since the 1930's. As a part of that continuing effort and to re-invigorate the National Historic Landmark program, the United

States Senate mandated the Earliest Americans Theme Study as a national endeavor in 1995. The "Earliest Americans" was selected as a theme based on the importance of the peopling of the Americas as a broad theoretical issue for both professional archaeologists and the American public (Grumet 1995). In the summer of 2000, the National Park Service Alaska Support Office initiated research on early Alaskan cultural resources as a contribution to the theme study. This thesis is a culmination of that research and a review of Alaska's cultural resource management documentation and policies pertinent to the cultural preservation of early Alaskan sites. The information provided here establishes the necessity for future work and the development of a Multiple

Property Nomination document.

Following federal guidelines, early Alaskan archaeological resources are considered those that date between 8,000 and 12,000 radiocarbon years before present (rcybp), an arbitrary span of time representing the Terminal Pleistocene

Early Holocene transition in Alaska. A literature search, standardized by several categories of data based on aspects of scientific significance, integrity, and control over accurate dating methodology, has identified 47 early Alaskan sites for consideration. Those sites form the framework and establish the context for the comparison of individual sites. Thirty-four well-documented early Alaskan sites were judged to possess "High", "Medium," or "Low" levels of integrity and scientific significance, respectively, within this context. These ranks determine the SUitability of cultural properties (archaeological sites) for nomination to the

National Register of Historic Places (NR) and the designation of National Historic

Landmarks (NHL). The remaining 13 sites are discussed further in Chapter III.

Why is the nomination of sites necessary for cultural resource management in Alaska? The purpose of the NR is to "serve as a planning document alerting Federal agencies to the existence of historic properties that may come under their jurisdiction" (Neumann and Sanford 2001). It is a list referred to by agencies and decision makers regarding compliance with the

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. This involves not only checking the

NR to determine if a property has already been listed, but also requires determining potential impacts by agency undertakings or actions associated with federal money on any cultural properties, documented or not. Sites eligible for the NR under its criteria for evaluation (NPS 1991 a) are afforded the same consideration as if they were a NR property (King 2001). Although some agencies treat all sites on federal land as though they were eligible, when a site is actually on the NR it increases management awareness. If threatened, a NR

2 or NHL site or National Register eligible site is "mitigated" in order to preserve site data and integrity as much as possible.

How does the State Historic Preservation Officer and Federal Agencies currently manage resources in relation to the NR? Alaskan cultural resources are classified based on a system of codes and "Determinations of Eligibility"

(DOE). The DOE is the standard document that cultural resource offices and contractors use when evaluating sites for potential nomination. These evaluations influence mitigation that follows and the determination of eligibility for the NR in no way immediately halts the development or undertaking of a particular project (King 1998, 2001).

A NHL is the highest level of designation on the NR. NHLs possess levels of national significance and integrity as cultural properties, and are afforded the highest levels of protection1. NR properties, considered significant on a local or regional scale, are also closely monitored and provided significant protection.

Theme studies generate NHLs and have documented and protected North East

Coast Lighthouses, Covered Bridges, and Underground Railroad properties under NHL status. The first theme study was a pioneering effort, prepared by

Marie Wormington (1960) on "Prehistoric Hunters and Gatherers", focusing on

Earliest Americans west of the Mississippi River. Her work successfully

1 The term protection is used as in a relative sense, as federal regulators simply require that the effects of potentially destructive actions be considered within the NHPA 106 process. 3 nominated the Clovis and Folsom sites as NHLs in New Mexico (Grumet 1995,

NPS 2003a).

Theme Studies serve as a heuristic device and aid in the interpretation of

America's shared cultural heritage through a multidisciplinary approach (NPS

2003b). However, there is a major difference between the Earliest Americans

Theme Study and those of the past: the inclusion of supplemental documentation

separate from the perspective of cultural resource management. The National

Museum of the American Indian plans to record American Indian perspectives on the Earliest Americans theme and their own perspectives on how their ancestors came into the Americas (Grumet 1995).

Thematic studies do not replace primary archaeological research or other scientific inquiry. Instead, they are a methodical way of interpreting archaeological data for the American public. A major goal of the Early Americans

Theme Study is to facilitate the development of educational programs essential for providing information to the people through literature, internet addresses, and outreach programs capable of bridging a widening gap between professional archeologists and the public at large.

Aside from explanations of the Earliest Americans Theme Study and the methods of analysis developed for the documentation of early Alaskan sites in the Appendix section, the discussions that follow focus on Alaska's geographic regions, paleoecological factors, and radiocarbon determinations in relation to

4 early Alaskan sites. Also addressed are an alternative to traditional technological classifications used for early Alaskan assemblages, and a case study from XHP

497, in which an assemblage unclassifiable by current typologies was analyzed and problems regarding the integrity of surface sites in the Brooks Range.

5 II. The Earliest Americans Theme Study

Theme Studies designed by the NPS encompass major segments of

American History. They provide an historic context of properties and evaluate their significance in determining property eligibility for NHL status (Code of

Federal Regulations 2003).

The NPS monitors NR and NHL properties for the purposes of recognition, planning, preservation, and public education (Shull 2002:3). Educational information about listed properties is immediately accessible via the National

"visits" per year (Shull 2002). Such accessibility allows millions of individuals the ability to research, teach, learn, or travel to our nation's most treasured cultural- historical properties.

Properties associated with America's earliest inhabitants represent some of the nations most significant and most threatened groups of cultural resources. Responding to this challenge, the National Park Service is working with its partners in the government, scholarly, avocational, tribal, and historic preservation communities to develop the Earliest Americans National Historic Landmark Theme Study. This project is a multi-year effort to recognize and protect nationally significant archeological properties associated with America's first inhabitants (Grumet 1995:14).

Nationwide work on the Earliest Americans Theme by State Historic

Preservation Offices (SHPOs) indicates that only 35 states have some degree of documentation on Paleoindian sites within their boundaries. Furthermore, only

24 of these states have documented their properties on a statewide scale (NPS

6 2002a). Alaska can provide a major contribution by compiling such information from within its borders.

David Anderson (2003) provides a perspective on the Earliest Americans

Theme Study and the development of NHL and NR properties.

Linked with the evaluation of specific NHL property classes and categories is an assessment of their integrity. Three levels of integrity are employed in the present NHL theme study, High, Moderate, and Low. PiOperties whose integrity is High are potential NHLs or have national level NR significance. Sites with High integrity have clearly identified Paleoindian component(s) in secure context, and with precise calendric dating. That is, the geologic and sedimentary context of the assemblage(s) are well documented, with sources of intrusion or disturbance recognized and controlled, and the age of the deposits ascertained using one or more absolute dating procedures, such as radiocarbon or OSL dating. Sufficient age determinations must, however, have been obtained from samples in secure context to ensure confidence in the results. Individual dates, accordingly, or even large numbers of dates from controversial associations, will probably not be considered sufficient, unless supported by other kinds of evidence, such as unambiguous geological or biotic associations. Where materials for absolute dating are not available, the assemblage(s) must be of highly unusual significance. In the Southeast, properties with high integrity and national level significance include Cactus Hill, Sloan, Dust Cave, and various sites in the Allendale, South Carolina, Aucilla River, Florida, Christian County, Kentucky, and Nottoway River, Virginia localities (Anderson, David 2003).

Areas first focused on by the Earliest Americans Theme Study included those not documented by Wormington's (1960) "Prehistoric Hunters and

Gatherers", the first federal document summarizing Paleoindian sites. Her work depicted big game hunters on the Western Plains. Today, in light of the time gap since her earlier and influential research, there is a substantial need for changing the American public's perception regarding Paleoindian subsistence strategies away from stereotypes propagated by the big game kill sites found in the western

7 central United States. Archaeological evidence from sites east of the Mississippi, for example, indicates that Paleoindians possessed a much more diverse economic strategy (NPS 2003a). David Anderson (2003) has described the eastern United States regional divisions: the Midwest, the Northeast, and the

Southeast.

During the Pleistocene, the Midwest region (Wisconsin, Minnesota and

Michigan) was a dynamic ecosystem, a difficult periglacial environment with melt waters and torrential rivers. The earliest inhabitants of the Midwest region likely arrived approximately 13,500 calendar years ago (NPS 2003a).

The Northeast bordered a shallow sea in present day New England. In this region, there were low population densities of Early Americans living a pattern of seasonal migrations. In addition to hunting the plentiful herds of big game they fished, hunted birds, and collected crustaceans. During the harsh winters they may have migrated along rivers, following familiar routes and hunting smail-to-medium sized game like rabbit, deer, caribou, and beaver (NPS

2003a).

Finally, the Southeast region was more bountiful than regions to the north.

Glacial meltwaters ran south supporting marine and marshland ecosystems downstream. The earliest people who settled here traveled south along the

Appalachian Mountains. They trapped fish and other marine animals along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico (NPS 2003a).

8 Further to the west, across the Mississippi River, there were different

animals including bear, elk, large herds of giant bison, and various plants that

existed in the woodland areas bordering the Great Plains (NPS 2003a). Future

efforts on behalf of the Earliest Americans Theme Study plan to incorporate the

Great Plains and regions throughout the Western United States.

In Alaska, four early sites have previously been placed on the list of NHLs:

the Onion Portage site (1972), the Dry Creek site (1974), the Gallagher Flint

Station (1978), and the Anangula site (1978). Onion Portage was designated a

NHL because it was favored by early Paleoarctic hunters, defined by Anderson

(1988) as the Akmak complex dated prior to 8,000 rcybp, in addition to eight

other groups each using different technology at Onion Portage throughout the

Holocene. When Dry Creek became a NHL, it was the earliest archaeological

site in Alaska with fragmentary remains of large Pleistocene fauna (bison, wapiti,

and mountain sheep) similar to species from Siberia. The Gallagher Flint

Station, at the time of its nomination, was the oldest documented site in northern

Alaska. Anangula became a NHL because, at the time, it represented the

earliest group of maritime peoples living along the coast of the former Bering land J bridge. Today, Anangula and Onion Portage retain most of their original significance; Dry Creek and Gallagher Flint Station remain historically significant

J despite additional research and the discovery of additional sites (N PS 2003d)1.

1Source:http://www.nr.nps.govIiWisapi/explorer.dll?IWS SCHEMA=NRIS1 &IWS LOGIN=1 &IWS REPORT=100000044 9 m. The Earliest Alaskans

The following chapter considers the geographic focus of Paleoindian research in Alaska and the distribution of early sites within regional subdivisions of the state. It also reviews state and federal efforts in preservation for early sites and information relevant in nominating archaeological sites to the NR. Finally, it contains a discussion of the research methodology and categories of information used to rank early Alaskan sites in the Appendix.

Table 3.1 displays 47 sites initially considered for nomination by this project. Taken together, these sites constitute the basis for early site evaluation in Alaska. Twelve of these sites were not included in the Appendix because they did not contain enough information for evaluation, are currently awaiting further research, or are already listed as NR properties or as NHLs with no significant changes in their interpretation. One NHL, the Gallagher Flint Station, was chosen for inclusion in the Appendix because continuing research has provided additional information since it was first nominated, that site was not provided with a site ranking as it is already an NHL.

10 L..J L...J

Table 3.1: Summa of Earl Alaskan ~)ites • • A· Land Owner !k9.LQn Basal Date ~ Rank Ama knax Isan I d UNL-0054 NONE ounaIashka Aleu lans Yes Low 2 Anangula-Ananiuliak SAM-012 NHL FWS Aleutians -8400 No 3 Batza Tena MLZ-2 NHS BLM Brooks Range 11,770+220 Yes Med 4 Broken Mammoth XBD-131 NONE State Interior 11,770+220 Yes High Carlo Creeko HEA-031 DOE State Interior 8400+200 Yes Med o Chuck Lake CRG-00237 NONE USFS, Tongass Southeast -8200-7300 Yes Med Chugwaterf FAI-035 NHR COE Interior 9460+130 No 8 Delta River Overlook XMH-297 DOE DOD Interior 8555+380 Yes Med Donnelly Ridge9 XMH-05 DXS DOD Interior Yes Med 10 Dry Creek HEA-5 NHL State Interior 11,120+85 No 1 Eroadawai Pending NONE State Interior 8640+170 No 1 Gallagher Flint Stat. :l PSM-0050 NHL State Brooks Range 6960+90# Yes Gerstle R. Quarry13 XMH-246 DOE DOD Interior No 14 Ground Hog Bay 2 JUN-037 NRXCL USFS, Tongass Southeast 10,180+800 Yes High Healy Lake15 XBD-00020 NRXCL Native Allotment Interior 11,550+50 Yes Med Hidden Falls16 SIT-00119 DOE USFS, Tongass Southeast -9500 Yes Low Hill TOp11 not listed NONE BLM Interior Yes Low Hog IslandH:l UNL-00115 NONE Ounalashka Aleutians 7960+90 Yes High Houdini Creek19 HEA-295 NONE State? Interior 7880+60 No Irwin Sluiceway20 Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range 10,060+80 No Koggiung[ NAK-00018 NONE Native Claim AK Peninsula 7945+90 Yes Low Last DayLL XHP-497 NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range 8530+60 No Lime Hills Cavesz; N/A NONE Private? Southwest 9530+60 Yes Med Lisburne24 KIR-00096 NONE BLM Brooks Range -8000 Yes Med Mead:lO XBD-00071 NONE Private Interior 11,600+80 Yes High Mesa:lO KIR-102 DOE BLM Brooks Range -10,000 Yes High Moose Creek:l l FAI-206 NONE State Interior 11,190+60 Yes Med NR_5:l8 Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Range -10,000 No Table 3.1: Summa of Earl Alaskan Sites (Continued) • • A.. Land Owner ~ Basal Date ~ Rank Nukluk Mountain BTH - 069 NONE FWS Southwes Yes Low Oiled Blade;jU UNL-318 NONE Ounalashka Aleutians 8400-7900 cal Yes Med 31 On Your Knees Cave PET-00408 NONE USFS, Tongass Southeast -9200 BP Yes High Onion Portage;jL AMR-1 NHL NPS Brooks Range 9857+155 No Owl Ridge33 FAI-91 NONE BLM Interior 11,340+150 Yes Med Panguingue Creek;j4 HEA-137 NONE State Interior 9951+56 Yes Med Phipps;jb XMH-00111 NHS State. Interior 10,190 ave. Yes Med Putu-Bedwelfjl5 PSM-27 NONE BLM Brooks Ranoe 10,490+70 Yes Med RBS;j( Pending NONE NPSIWEAR Brooks Ranoe No Slate Creek38 HEA- 00129 NONE State Interior Yes Low Spein Mountain,j~ BTH 62-65 NONE FWS Southwest 10,050+90 Yes High Swan Point4U XBD-156 NONE State Interior -12,000 Yes High 41 Teklanika District HEA-85 NXS NPS Interior -10,000 No 4L Trail Creek Caves BEN-00001 NRXCL NPS/BELA Seward Penn 9070+250 Yes Med 4 Tuluaq Hi1l ;j DEL-360 NONE NPS/WEAR Brooks Range 11,110+80 Yes High Ugashik Narrows44 UGA-00001 NONE Native Claim AK Peninsula 8995±295 Yes High Usibelli4b HEA-00128 NONE State Interior 3195+295 Yes Med Walker Road 40 HEA-130 NONE State Interior 11,300+120 Yes High Whitmore Ridge47 XMH-072 NHS State Interior 10,360+60 Yes Med

References 1 Veltre et al 1984, McCartney & Veltre 1996, Knecht & Daviis 2001; 2Veltre et al 1984; 3Clark & Clark 1993; 4Yesner 1996; 5Bowers & Mason 1992; 6Ackerman 1985; 7Lively 1996 (West editor); 8Holme!; 1979; !West 1967; 10 Hoffecker et a11985, Hoffecker 1988, Goebel et a11991; 11Radiocarbon data published in Mason et a12001; 12Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997; 13Potter 2001; 14Ackerman1992, 1996; 15Cook 1975, 1975, 1996; 16Davis 1979, 1980; 17Bever 2001; 18Veltre et aI1984, Dumond & Knecht 2001; 19Mason et a12001; 2°Rasic 2000, 2002; 21Dumond 1981; 22Gal 2003; 23Ackerman 1996; 24Bowers 1982, Gal 1980, LOJ( & Dixon 1998; 25Pewe 1983, Yesner 1996; 26Kunz & Reanier 1994,1995,1996; 27Hoffecker et a11985, Hoffecker 1996~ Pearson 1999; 28Ra!.ic 2000; 29Ackerman 1996c; 30Knecht & Davis 2001; 31Dixon 1999; 32Anderson 1988; 33Hoffecker et a11985, Phippen 1988; 4Hoffecker 1988, Powers & Hoffecker 1989; 3SWest et a11996; 36Ga11980, Reanier 1994,1996; 37Gal 2003; 38Hoffecker et a11985; 39Ackerman 1996c, 2001, Bever 200'1; 4°Holmes 1998, 2003; 41 West 1967; 42Larsen 1968; 43Rasic 2000, 2002; 44Dumond 1975, Henn 1978; 45& 48 Hoffecker 1980, Hoffecker et aI19B:5, Powers & Hoffecker 1989; 47West 1996d The remaining 34 sites appear in the Appendix, and are ranked as possessing differing levels of integrity and significance from information documented through interviews, newspapers, textbooks, professional papers, the

Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS), and professional journal articles. Of these, eleven sites are recommended for NHL designation and seventeen for NR nomination. Six sites, ranked "Low" within the context of the others, did not provide sufficient information for recommendation. Their inclusion in the

Appendix provides additional historic contextual comparison.

A summary of the information documented in the Appendix used to determine site ranks is outlined in Table 3.2. The information listed corresponds to the information documented under specific categories. The category scientific significance documents how each site has contributed to the Alaskan archaeological record. Historical significance, similarly, contains information about how the site has contributed to the history of archaeological theory in

Alaska. The categories spatial integrity, disturbance, and intact deposits help establish the integrity of cultural deposits. Spatial integrity documents the nature of deposition based on stratified or surface sites; sites listed as "buried" were not surface sites but occurred in buried contexts that were not clearly stratified.

Disturbance estimates the degree to which deposits have been disturbed from their original in situ deposition by accounting for site formation processes. The category intact deposits estimates which of the sites may still contain cultural

13 material, although definitive conclusions were not possible. Early Alaskan diagnostic artifacts document only the earliest components, without considering later deposits (documented elsewhere). Secure dating is the degree in which cultural deposits have been securely dated through multiple radiocarbon determinations. The final category "Rank" are my recommendations for NHL and

NR nominations.

14 Table 3.2: Summa of Site Rankin s ati!!! Disturbance Intact ~ Secure .Rank lt~i!Y ~ Di~ DatillQ Ama knax Isan I d Med Low Stratified Med Possible Anangula Low Low Batza Tena High Med Surface Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic Low Med Broken Mammoth High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High High Carlo Creek High Med Stratified Low Possible Unknown High Med Chuck Lake High Low Stratified Med Possible NW Coast Microblade High Med Delta River Overlook Med Low Stratified Med Yes Paleoarctic High Med Donnelly Ridge High High Surface N/A No Denali Low Med Ground Hog Bav 2 High Med Stratified Med Possible Denali (variant) Yes High Healy Lake Med High Buried High ? Nenana Med Med Hidden Falls Med Low Stratified High Yes NW Coast Microblade Med Low HillTop Med Low Surface Unknown N/A Mesa Med Low Hog Island High High Stratified Low Yes Anangula High High Koggiung Low Low N/A High No Paleoarctic Med Low Lime Hills Caves Med Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic High Med Lisburne Med Med Surface Med Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic Med Med Mead High Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High High Mesa High High Surface Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High High Moose Creek High Med Stratified Med Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High Med Nukluk Mountain Low Low Surface High Possible Paleoarctic Low Low Oiled Blade High Low Stratified Low Yes Anangula High Med On Your Knees Cave High High Stratified Low Possible NW Coast Microblade High High Owl Ridge High Med Stratified Med Possible Paleoindian? Paleoarctic High Med Panguingue Creek High Med Stratified Low Possible Paleoindian? Paleoarctic High Med Phipps Med Med Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic High Med Putu-Bedwell Med Med Surface High Possible Paleoindian, Unknown Med Med Slate Creek Unknown Low Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic Low Low Spein Mountain High High Stratified Med Yes Paleoindian High High Swan Point High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic High High Trail Creek Caves High Med Stratified Med Possible Paleoarctic High Med Tuluaq Hill High High Buried Low Yes Paleoindian High High Ugashik Narrows High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoarctic/Anangula? High High Usibelli High Low Stratified Low Yes Paleo indian, Paleoarctic Low Med Walker Road High High Stratified Low Yes Paleoindian, Paleoarctic? High High Whitmore Ridge Med Med Buried Med Possible Paleoarctic High Med A. Geographic Focus

The geographical focus for the early Alaskan project encompasses the

Alaska state boundaries, a huge region. Because Alaska is varied in its reaches,

I have subdivided the state into nine geographic regions for analytical purposes:

Southeast Alaska, Southwest Alaska, Southcentral Alaska, the Interior, the

Brooks Range, the Arctic Slope, the Aleutians Islands, and the Seward and

Alaska Peninsulas.

Figure 3.3: Distribution of Early Sites

]

a 500 1000 2000 ~i~~~~~~~~~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~,'Kiiometers

~ 16 J J Figure 3.3 illustrates 42 of the 47 sites dated within the temporal focus of the project. "Unknown" sites (sites pending further research) were not included in the figure. Those depicted are a representative sample of the sites that satisfy age categories for inclusion in the analysis. It is important to keep in mind that many points overlap on this map; some sites appear in clusters. In an effort to conceal specific locations, each triangle covers an area larger than five square miles. Specific location information is available for these sites only through the

State Historic Preservation Office.

Lime Hills Caves, Spein Mountain, and Nukluk Mountain were the few sites found in southwestern Alaska. On the Alaska Peninsula were the Ugashik

Narrows and Koggiung sites. In the Aleutian Islands were the Hog Island, Oiled

Blade, and Anangula core-and-blade sites. Southeast Alaska revealed several sites, including Ground Hog Bay 2, Hidden Falls, and On Your Knees Cave.

17 Figure 3.4: Northern Distribution of Early Sites

o •

Figure 3.4 depicts the Arctic Slope region with its major drainage, the

Colville River, the Brooks Range, with the Noatak and Kobuk Rivers draining that

region to the west and the Seward Peninsula (located in the southwest corner of

the map). The Brooks Range contains ten early Alaskan sites, including the

Mesa, lisburne, and Putu-Bedwell sites located in the northern foothills bordering

the Arctic Slope region. On the Seward Peninsula, Trail Creek Caves is the only

early Alaskan site identified to date.

J Figure 3.5: Interior Distribution of Early Sites

Interior Alaska contains the majority of early sites, in part due to the

development of the Alaska Highway system and the opportunity it has provided

for archaeological discovery. The Shaw Creek Flats sites, the Gerstle River

Quarry site, sites in the Nenana Valley, and the Tangle Lakes and Teklanika

Archaeological Districts appear in Figure 3.5. Also depicted is one of the major

interior drainages, the Tanana River draining northwest into the Yukon River.

The Alaska Range formed a formidable mountainous glacial barrier during the

] 19 j Pleistocene and, as it did then, it continues to provide great relief feeding the

Tanana River from the south with snow and glacier runoff.

B. The State of Early Alaskan Cultural Resources

There are 31 National Register Designation Codes (NATREG) designed to rank cultural properties based on National Register criteria. The codes assist in planning the mitigation of impacts to cultural properties that may come under threat. Table 3.6 lists (in a simplified version) the codes that pertain to

Paleoindian sites in Alaska.

Table 3.6: National Register Designation Codes (AHRS 2003) Designation Code Translation _.Q_Q_~ p.t_~P~.r:1:Y.__ 9_~.!~r..t1Ji.Q_~_~I. __~!_t9.i~!~ __ f9.E_!b_~ .. ~_~!i.9_Q?.L.B~g!§!~E .... _. . _.Q~_§' §J_!~_gE~_!t~~!~E~IJY.i.!~!_Q ~_Q ~!!9_i.~_~~ gQ.~ _ _~~_§. §J_!~ __9.E~_~E~_~!~E~~_i.!~ __~_Q ~~~_~_~_~9.!_9.gig_~'___g_!§!tig! .. __ _~_t1_h N_~!!9.IJ~LtlJ.~!9Ei~~__~_Q_9_t1J_?E~ __~.. QLN_§.!ig_Q§_'__$_!.g_Qifi.~_§_Qg_~ __ NHR Nominated to the National .... of Historic Places :EE$:::::::::::::::~:::::: :::_:~:::_:~_: __ __ National Historic Site ...'"C. NRXCL DOE file inactive ~~~~~~~~~,.~_._~_nM_"~"_ __••__.. .._ ",.._ _.,.."...... n _ _ ..'., •., , __ _ , .-__ __ ..M•.•_, __ _ ...' _...... ,., •. '_ n _ . NON E The property has not been reviewed

The reason that cultural resource management archaeology exists in the

US today is to ensure surveys are completed so that nonrenewable cultural resources will be protected and properly documented before any potentially destructive action is undertaken, also to find and record previously unknown sites. A site that may be eligible for the NR or documented through a

Determination of Eligibility (DOE) is treated as if it has already been nominated

(King 1998, Neumann and Sanford 2001).

20 The NATREG information for Alaskan archaeological sites and districts

dated between 8,000 and 12,000 rcybp was collected in an effort to establish the

state of early site preservation efforts in Alaska. For those sites lacking such

documentation, the category NONE was employed. The results depicted in

Figure 3.7 document the total number of known early sites. It indicates that the

system designed to track and preserve early Alaskan sites has not been

providing the necessary documentation.

Figure 3.7: National Register Designations for Early Alaskan Sites 30

o NONE NHL NHR NHS NRXCL NXS DOE DXS

J J One major reason for nominating sites to the NR or as NHLs is to facilitate

research; it is the only nationwide database of cultural properties and

archaeological sites. Another reason for nomination is to provide additional

visibility to nominated sites, allowing researchers access to basic information

regarding the quality and significance of data from different regions of the

country. Planning and stewardship makes agencies and developers aware of

important sites before a project begins, ensuring the property's protection for future generations (Sprinkle 1994).

C. Alaskan Site Categories and Methods of Analysis

The arbitrarily set timeframe for this study (8,000-12,000 rcybp) reflects the period from when early Alaskans lived and was the initial factor for determining sites to include in the analysis. Keeping in mind some of the difficulties inherent in 14C data, I have included most dates in the text as uncalibrated. A comprehensive section on radiocarbon calibration into calendar years appears in Chapter IV, Section E.

Several categories of information helped establish a framework within which archaeological properties were compared. These categories include site significance, integrity, environment, history, description, artifacts and features.

They document aspects of site location, design, setting, material, workmanship and association used for considering a property's eligibility to the NR (Little et al

2000). With this information, it was possible to rank most of the properties as

22 having "High", "Moderate" or "Low" levels of integrity and significance based on

the Earliest Americans Theme Study guidelines (Anderson 2003). Ranking sites

based on integrity and significance was a sUbjective process completed through

a systematic search of the literature. Suggested ranks for each site are included

in the Appendix next to the site name. Sites considered for NHL status ranked

"High" and sites considered for nomination to the NR ranked "Moderate" (Med).

Sites ranking "Low" did not possess sufficient integrity or significance for

nomination consideration.

Table 3.8: Earl Alaska Site Cate ories ..§.!!E? ~'§'!!.1.~ _ _ g.

The category site name documents the common name by which sites are

referred, often used in place of the more formal site number provided by the

Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS). The category region documents where in Alaska each of the sites occur. The category repository documents the institution where artifacts are formally housed. Landowner records the agency where each site is located, and who is responsible for site preservation; it also documents sites located on private land. Basal date is a category containing the oldest single radiocarbon date or an approximate radiocarbon age accepted by

23 consensus in literature. Its purpose is to provide a general estimate of site age.

Site integrity played a role in selecting the basal date; basal date is not necessarily the absolutely earliest date of cultural material from any given site.

Many of the basal dates were used in the discussion of radiocarbon calibration.

The term tradition is widely used in North American archaeology to describe wide-spread and lasting technological attributes. Traditions suggest a larger temporal cultural continuity than do complexes. Technological complexes occur in similar context and within a relatively constrained period of time and geographic location. Typically, several complexes comprise a single tradition.

Tradition and complex could be thought of as similar to a genus and species system, not in an evolutionary sense, but rather as a taxonomic system that becomes more specific in the classification of assemblage attributes, in this case artifact attributes.

William Andrefsky (1998) has described various approaches for attribute analysis. Assemblage attributes are snapshots of always-changing lithic tool kits.

Artifacts recovered at any stage of their use-life can represent a number of shapes or functions, and archaeologists may find them at any given point during a reduction sequence (Andrefsky 1998).

In an attempt to standardize the classifications used, two classifications were not employed: West's (1981 :163) "Beringian Tradition" and Davis'

"Paleomarine Tradition" (Davis 1989). This is because, in my opinion,

24 "Paleomarine" is better subdivided into the Anangula and Northwest Coast

Microblade traditions, and the Beringian tradition is simply too broad in scope,

covering both NE Asia and Alaska, and was documented here as either Denali or

Paleoarctic.

Complex is an analytical classification based on artifacts that occur together in association. To define the category complex, I used generally

accepted terminology in current archaeological literature. Flaws in that terminology exist with "the notion of tracing the evidence of the oldest human

occupation from lower North America back to Alaska, and ultimately to Asia,

produced expectations about the archaeological characteristics of late

Pleistocene Alaska" (Bever 2001 b). In some ways, a uniform classification system is still needed in Alaskan archaeology (Bever 2001a: 98). Despite these difficulties, a description of technological temporal persistence, presented by Gal and Hall (1982), has been a useful conceptual device for organizing various archaeological components left by the earliest Alaskans. However, this system is similar to the way in which archaeologists have attempted artifact classification for years, with one exception. Gal and Hall (1982) recognized that mUltiple assemblages likely co-existed in time and space. With this important addition,

"tradition" and "complex" are defined in a manner consistent with the definitions set fourth by original investigators. For occasions where there has been

25 disagreement, I have sided with the researcher who put forth the most complete

documentation.

To what degree can the tool kits of Paleoindians tell us about their cultural identities? Such questions demonstrate the difficulty in relying solely on technological determinations in tracing "cultures" through time, yet such evidence remains essential to tie people to the ground. Tool kits and subsistence patterns can provide information related to economic levels of societies and establish a geographic home. Although genetics and linguistics can establish connections between groups geographically and in time, they analyze evidence that is mobile, or not physically tied to the ground. Genetics or linguistic markers in Native

Alaskans could have developed anywhere in Asia or North America but material technology is left in situ and is therefore, immobile.

It is interesting to note that Paleoindian archaeologists in the contiguous

United States are grappling with similar problems of technological classification.

Using the concept of "co-traditions", investigators find multiple technological

"cultures" co-existing during the Terminal Pleistocene.

In several places, some archaeologists believe that Clovis is one of several contemporary traditions existing in North America at 11000 rcybp...in post-Clovis times the simultaneous existence of different traditions - such as Folsom, Midland, Agate Basin and Plainview at around 10200 rcybp ...Some archaeologists are not convinced that several types coexisted (Haynes 2002:257).

In Alaska, several site components are labeled "unknown" because they contain non-diagnostic artifacts. Many of the unknown assemblages are

26 assumed to be small collections from Denali or possibly Nenana complex occupations, based on stratigraphy and radiocarbon determinations. Others sites have been labeled "unknown" because they are currently under investigation. Occupations of unknown affinity may be determined eligible for nomination due to their potential to contain important cultural resources if deposits remain intact. In terms of the NR criteria, the potential to reveal significant information is enough for nomination (NPS 1991 a).

Environment documents the immediate surroundings and geological characteristics associated with the site location, ie, nearby seashores, rivers, and lakes; the local vegetation; and topography. Many site locations on record are inaccurate, recorded before the development of Global Positioning System

(GPS) technology. At some point, it will be necessary to verify many of the coordinates with state-of-the-art GPS readings.

The category history describes the research history of each site intended to document how much material 'v'v'as excavated at each site, as well as who worked there and when. To some degree, previous interpretations of site significance have been discussed under History, including instances when re excavation or re-analysis has uncovered nevv evidence, e.g. at the vvell-known

Campus site (Mobley 1991), at the Putu-Bedwell site (Reanier 1994, Hamilton and Goebel 1999), at the Mesa sites (Kunz and Reanier 1994, Hamilton and

Goebel 1999) and at the Gallagher Flint Station (Ferguson 1997a, 1997b).

27 Significance and integrity playa major role in the ranking of each site within this historic context. Significance is a statement of scientific relevance to the theme "Peopling of the New World". Sites can be significant in a number of ways and archaeologists often disagree about what makes a site or artifact collection significant; regardless, a concise statement of scientific significance has been provided for each site. Artifacts and features is an inventory of artifacts recovered from each component. The information recorded within this category establishes the technological complex or tradition present at each site.

Integrity plays a crucial role in assessing site significance, because artifacts and radiocarbon determinations require strong association for proof of provenience. The category description documents the precise spatial provenience of artifacts and associated radiocarbon samples as a priority for determining integrity. It also documents the geological sediments in relation to one another. Concerning the categories integrity and description, stratified sites with obvious separation bet\i'Jeen occupations were ideal, for example, the NHLs

Onion Portage (Anderson 1988) and Dry Creek (Powers and Hoffecker 1989).

However, it was necessary to consider the integrity of horizontally separate components, similar to those at the Lisburne (Bowers 1982, 1999) and Putu

Bedwell sites (Reanier 1994, 1996). As an example, a case study of the Last

Day site (Chapter V) includes a brief lithic analysis and demonstrates the spatial characteristics of surface components with a high degree of horizontal integrity.

28 IV. Pleistocene/Early Holocene Environment and Archaeology

Over the last 15,000 rcybp, Alaska has undergone significant environmental and climatic changes. These changes are an essential factor in the interpretation of archaeological evidence. The first people to arrive in

Beringia, between 12,000 and 15,000 rcybp, lived in a different environmental context than those who lived between 9,000 and 7,000 rcybp. Understanding these changes in different regions of the state allows consideration of major environmental barriers and specific adaptations made by early Alaskans.

A. Paleo-environment of the Pleistocene and Early Holocene

Dale Guthrie (1996:172) described the "Mammoth Steppe", as a late

Pleistocene grassland reaching from northeastern Europe across Siberia, China, and Mongolia, spreading out of Central Asia (Guthrie 1990, 1996, Bonnichsen and Turnmire 1999:6). The mammoth steppe is often characterized as both tundra and steppe, with similar megafaunal species existing in across two difficult but similar periglacial environments.

During Pleistocene cycles of low solar input, this grassy biome spread westward across Europe to the Atlantic, northward to the Arctic Ocean onto the huge exposed continental shelf of North Asia, and eastward to North America via the exposed Beringian land bridge. This combination of cold and aridity led to the elimination of wood plants, and favored certain arid-adapted grasses and forbs (Bonnichsen and Turnmire 1999:6).

According to Gary Haynes (2002:160), Tundra greatly expanded, and there was a [common zone] between tundra and steppe, perhaps possessing characteristics of both biomes. Beringia was unambiguous tundra, but the huge region of central Asia and southern and south-eastern Europe [was steppe]. 29 In the Great Plains of the United States and southern Canada, there was a

similar ecology as described in Europe, Asia and Beringia during the Pleistocene.

How did this Pleistocene world affect modern humans as they populated the

northern hemishperes?

Western Beringia was the last part of the Old World populated during the

Pleistocene. In central Russia, the availability of large game played a major role

in providing abundant resources for a growing population of modern humans.

Biotic productivity peaked in central Russia between 25,000 and 20,000 years ago; by 18,000 -12,000 years ago productivity was decreasing and megafauna were becoming extinct (Soffer 1985:206). Ancestors of the early Alaskans emerged from the north Eurasian environment moving eastward through Beringia on the continuous "Mammoth Steppe".

Geologists have discovered that large regions of interior Alaska and the

Arctic Slope, in Eastern Beringia, remained ice-free during the Last Glacial

Maximum (LGM) and only the Brooks and Alaska Ranges had local glaciation. In the Brooks Range, the most recent glacial episodes of Northwest Alaska are apparent in the Noatak River drainage. There, the most recent Anisak glacial advance dated from 13,600 years ago, marking the end of the LGM for the western Brooks Range. Anisak was contemporaneous with the less extensive

Douglas Creek and Itkillik Creek advances from the central Brooks Range. The

30 massive ice dammed Lake Noatak formed in the Delong Mountains from the runoff of these two glaciers (Hamilton 2001).

Sedge, poplar (Populus sp.), and birch (Betula sp.) were present in the southern Brooks Range during the LGM (Anderson and Brubaker 1996). It is certain that megafaunal species like horse, antelope, steppe bison, and mammoth roamed the Beringian landscape until present tundra environments emerged (Guthrie 1990, Walker et al 2001).

A modern analog for the Beringian landscape does not occur on earth today (Elias 2001). Similar vegetation patterns may have been similar to present-day dry tundra environments characterized as less acidic and with less cotton grass or tussocks. Studies indicate that Moist Non-acidic Tundra (MNT) dominated Pleistocene Beringia with more stable footing than the tussocks common in the Moist Acidic Tundra (MAT) found in most of Northern Alaska today. In addition to higher nutrients, MNT also contains more sedge and dwarf birch. The shifting of Beringia from a landscape dominated by large patches of

MNT to MAT likely had a role in the extinction of Pleistocene megafaunal species

(Walker et al 2001).

As vegetation began to reclaim the now fertile periglacial regions, so did species of fauna and human habitation was not far behind (Hamilton 1982).

Figure 4.1 shows the extent of ice in Alaska during the LGM and the Late

31 J

Pleistocene, allowing a reconstruction of regions where initial peopling most

probably occurred.

The oldest dates of colonization occurred between 11,500 and 12,000 rcybp. Earliest sites found in the interior of Alaska contained evidence that they were a colonizing population. In Northern and Interior Alaska, there was a push-pull effect from the changing climatic conditions of the disappearing Bering Land Bridge because of rising sea levels. The rise of birch-poplar may have killed mega-fauna, "obligate grazers" mammoth and horse. The increased birch and poplar supported large elk... rather than traditional mega fauna. There were also varieties of bird, small game and fish. The "Younger Dryas reversal" was dwarfed by the Mid Holocene period of dry windy conditions, during a period when the interior was likely largely abandoned (Yesner 2001 :315).

Fi ure 4.1: Alaska Late Pleistocene Glaciation 1 Alaska Paleo-Glaciation _ Terminal Pleistocene Last Glacial Maxim um

1 Adapted from Coulter et al 1965 and from National Park Service AlaskaPak GIS Meta Data (NPS 2002b) J 32

J The Bering Land Bridge became the Bering Sea approximately

11,000 rcybp (Elias 2000, 2001), closing the Asia-Alaska connection.

Stabilization of the American coast occurred in the Aleutians at

approximately the same time as in Chile, during the Early Holocene

(Yesner 1996:250). Portions of central Beringia inundated by water are

easily visible in maps of today's coastline, depicted in Figure and 4.2.

The Late glacial period (14,000-10,000 yr BP) was an interval of rapid environmental change throughout Beringia. Climatic fluctuations brought about wholesale changes in the distribution of Beringian plants and animals, and may have played the most important role in the regional extinction of many mega faunal mammal species... The pollen evidence indicates that herbaceous tundra vegetation dominated much of Beringia at the end of the last glaciation, giving way to shrub tundra in most regions between 14,000 and 12,000 yr BP (Elias 2001:10).

Figure 4.2: Beringia Digital Elevation Modef

2 Source: AlaskaPak GIS package (NPS 2002b) u 33 u j Elias (2001) explains that in Northwest Alaska the transition from lush moss and lichen vegetation during the Late Pleistocene began approximately

14,000 rcybp. This occurred in Siberia between 13,000 and 12,500 rcybp (Elias

2001: 10). After the Bering Sea expanded into lowland Beringia (11,000 yr BP), the Younger Dryas cooling trend emerged in the Early Holocene between 10,800 and 10,000 rcybp causing the shrub tundra vegetation to decline and herbaceous tundra expanded once again in interior regions (Elias 2001). The Milankovitch

Thermal Maximum (10,000-9,000 cal BP or 9,000-8,000 rcybp) followed the cooling trend with increases in average temperature (Mason et al 2001 :525).

Later, the remnant Beringian landmasses (the Lena Basin, Alaska and the

Mackenzie territory) developed coniferous spruce forests between 8,500 and

8,000 rcybp (Elias 2001:10-11).

The exact route(s) from Beringia southward across Canada into the lower contiguous states remain unknown. For decades, the picture of an "ice-free corridor" from Alaska through Canada has dominated our perception of big game hunters with fluted projectiles leading the southern migration. Today, offshore submarine evidence from the Northwest Coast indicates the former existence of ice-free refugia with the capacity for human habitation between 14,000 and

10,000 rcybp. This environment may have supported marine mammals (walrus and ringed seal) throughout the Pleistocene, providing the possibility for coastal subsistence and possibly early migrations (Mandryk et al 2001).

34 Evidence from Cold Bay, near the start of the Aleutians chain, indicates that the glacial ice centered over the Pacific shelf was in rapid retreat between

14,000 and 12,000 rcybp (Mann and Peteet 1994). A radiocarbon determination from a willow leaf from a deeply stratified profile suggests vegetation was present

11,520.::t100 rcybp (Jordan 2001 :512). The sample was recovered at the bottom of a well-documented series of peat sediments deposited throughout the

Holocene and provides an indication to when the region became inhabitable.

Shortly after the ice retreated, regional landmasses began rebounding upward as the immense weight of glacial ice was lifted. In

Glacier Bay, Southeastern Alaska, despite geologic uplift, rising water has submerged any sites along the coast older than 13,000 rcybp (Mann and

Streveler 1997), making it difficult to understand the extent of maritime economies during the Terminal Pleistocene.

Some archaeologists (Le., Yesner 2001) suggest that Alaskan maritime economies emerged as environmental conditions in the interior deteriorated, Le., changing paleoenvironments had a "push-pull" effect on early peoples living in Beringia (Yesner 2001). Others believe (Dumond

2001, \/Vorkman and McCartney 1998) site preservation biases in southeastern Alaska and the Aleutians make the discovery of sites dated between 7500 and 9600 rcybp very difficult, and as a result very few are known today. This disparity is the result of complex coastal interactions of

35 eustatic, isostatic, and tectonic processes that eroded or obscured sites from that period (Jordan 2001 :520).

B. Earlv. Alaskan Archaeoloaical~ Classifications

Some archaeologists resist using traditional technological classification systems because of the cultural connotations they generate. Despite this, without making statements regarding ideology, material cultures are theoretically classifiable by assemblage attributes (Andrefsky 1998). The following discussions of late Pleistocene/early Holocene archaeological complexes in

Alaska based is on artifact assemblages from a broad sample of sites exhibiting similar shared attributes. It attempts to subsume the range of variation of early

Alaskan technological complexes, while realizing that alternative constructs might be developed to accomplish the same goal. Note that, at times, archaeologists have lumped both the Akmak and Denali complexes into the Paleoarctic tradition

(Mason et al 2001), and have lumped both Nenana and Denali complexes with

Dyuktai into the Beringian tradition ('Nest 1981).

Dixon (2001 :283-287) has synthesized the archaeological technologic traditions in eastern Beringia based on the Alaskan archaeological literature.

Table 4.3 presents a summary of his synthesis and the range of radiocarbon dates within which he believes each technology occurred (Dixon 2001 :295).

36 Table 4.3: Earlv Alaska Technoloaical Classifications (Dixon 2001) Tradition· Complex Radiocarbon Range (rcybp)

Most archaeologists would agree with Dixon's (2001) summary of early

Alaskan technological classifications, despite the controversy surrounding his proposal for the coastal migration into the New World around 13,500 rcybp

(Dixon 1999). Dixon (2001), however, did not compile a compete list of ail early

Alaskan assemblages, and many traditions contain several technological complexes. For these reasons, a comprehensive discussion of each complex and tradition utilized in this study is necessary.

... _-1.1...._ ..... _ ... I~~L ..... -I "_!..... Jl.. ,...... _~M ..,...1-_ -I:_J.: ...... L:~ ...... L __l- I __.w: ..... l'IUfLlltnn rluu~u r-UIIIL vUIlIPI~A; 1 II~ UI:::>llll\jlIV~ l~\j"IIUIU~Y I::> associated with the Northern Paleoindian tradition often considered to have originated from the Nenana complex (Goebel et al 1991). Many examples of fluted point technology occur in the Batza Tena area where 18 fluted points have been recovered, four times the number found in the rest of Alaska (Clark and

Clark 1993, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:181). Despite similarities with the classic

Paleoindian Tradition, recent work suggests a "strong association" (Kunz et al

2003) between the fluted projectile points in the Brooks range and microblade technology (Bowers 1982, Reanier 1995).

37 The Batza Tena fluted point sites represent the basis for the Northern

Fluted Point complex, appearing most commonly in, or near, the Brooks Range.

in the Batza Tena region, additional tools associated with the points include endscrapers, graver spurs, blade-like flakes, utilized or waste flakes, bifacial tools, bifacial cores and flaked unifacial tool fragments (Clark and Clark 1993).

A single point described as "fluted" was found in Anaktuvuk Pass in association with the Kayuk complex (Campbell 1959:6). The Kayuk complex contained large, finely crafted bifacial projectile points and a unifacial core-and blade technology, including spalls and reworked spalls left over from blade production. The Kayuk lanceolate projectile points measured between 5.5 and

12.5 cm with "thick ovate to diamond cross sections, convex base, and finely executed parallel oblique flaking which extends downward from left to right across both sides of the blade" (Campbell 1959:98).

Kayuk's relationship to Northern fluted points remains unclear (Campbell

1959, Alexander 1969). The relationship of the technology with Sluiceway projectiles at the Tuluaq Hill site (Rasic 2000) is also unclear. Most of all,

Sluiceway's relationship to the Mesa complex at the Putu (Reanier 1994, 1996) and Lisburne sites (Bowers 1979, 1982, Loy and Dixon 1998) is just as unclear.

In fact, fluted projectiles tend to appear almost randomly in a variety of Alaskan

Paleoindian assemblages.

38 Initially, there was an attempt by Clark to suggest that the Northern Fluted

Point complex was ancestral to Paleoindians in the Western United States (Clark

1991). Unequivocal proof of this has not been forthcoming. As Clark and Clark

(1993:80-82) have more recently noted, the technology in Alaska has long been the subject of confusion.

The points described here [Batza Tena] differ from classic Clovis points in that the shallow medial flute of the classic point usually is larger than the lateral flutes or 'guide flakes' as they are called in that case. Detachment of the medial flute in the case of the Alaskan and Yukon points leaves the lateral flutes intact to a substantial degree, so that many of these points can properly be described as triply fluted or channeled. Many southern Paleo-Indian sites, however, are characterized by points which in terms of their multiple fluting are not particularly different from the Alaskan specimens... and this especially is the case for points from western Canada...There is considerable variation in the size of specimens from various assemblages, but those from the north tend to be smaller than classic Clovis points.... Critical to interpreting the significance of northern fluted points is the question of their age. This is not completely settled. For the southern approaches there is an unreliable radiocarbon date of approximately 9,500 years from a fluted point component at Sibbald Creek, Alberta and three closely clustered dates, averaging 10,500 years, from the fluted point component of Charlie Lake Cave... Regarding the earlier Nenana sites... This negative evidence suggests that the Alaskan points either date to yet an earlier or later period, or that whatever their age they are so uncommon that they are not present in many site assemblages (Clark and Clark 1993:80-82).

Clark and Clark (1993) did not associate fluted points from Batza Tena with the Nenana complex, nor did they assume they represent temporal ancestors to classic Clovis technology further south. In Alaska, fluted point technology appears to be an early Holocene technological phenomenon appearing between 10,000 and 10,500 rcybp (Dixon 2001: 289). Fluted points in

Alaska may have derived from Northern Paleoindian traditions, but many

39 Alaskan archaeologists believe that the technology originated in the south and

migrated north, an idea Dixon (1999:188) originally attributed to Wormington and

Forbis (1965:183-188) based solely on typological distributions. When

radiocarbon dates from sites with Clovis-style fluted projectile points from the contiguous United States are compared with dates associated with similar tools in Canada and Alaska, the oldest dates occur furthest south and consistently become younger through the western Canadian corridor. The trend possibly continues northward into Alaska, suggesting that interior continental migrations occurred in a direction opposite the classic "Clovis-First" model. Admittedly, there are few securely dated examples of Paleoindian sites in western Canada and Alaska, but the presence of lanceolate points found in Mesa complex sites have also been suggested to have resulted from a reverse migration from the northern Plains to Alaska during the early Holocene (Roper and Wygal 2002).

The similarities between Mesa complex Paleoindian artifacts with those from

Agate Basin, Wyoming (Frison 1978) were first purposed by Kunz and Reanier

(1994, 1995). Such evidence leaves the technological origins of Alaskan fluted points, as well as their relationship to early lanceolate point industries, enigmatic and unresolved at best.

Mesa Complex: The sites listed below (Table 4.4) represent the Mesa complex, including two geographic outliers: Spein Mountain, located in southwestern Alaska, dating to 10,050.:t90 rcybp (Ackerman 2001:91), and the

40 multicomponent Engigstciak site along the Beaufort Sea coast in NW Canada,

dating between 9,400 and 9,900 rcybp (Mann et al 2001).

Typically, Mesa technology occurs in the Brooks Range (Kunz and

Reanier 1995) in relative close proximity to "Sluiceway" sites. Sluiceway is

currently an unclearly defined technology featuring sites such as Irwin Sluiceway,

Tuluaq Hill (Rasic 2000,2002), and NR-5 (Anderson, Douglas 1979, Rasic

2000). Bever (2001a: 101) has written that the Tulauq and Mesa sites share

many attributes, including >11,000 rcybp determinations (Rasic 2000, 2002) from

both sites. Despite the earlier 14C date at the Tuluaq site, Rasic (2000:64) tentatively suggests that the oblanceolate projectiles points found there date to

approximately 10,000 rcybp. So far, the secure dating of the Paleoindian technology at Tuluaq Hill, and its relationship to the Mesa complex, remain

uncertain (Dumond 2001: 201).

Although it lacks Mesa-style projectile points, the Tuluaq assemblage is dominated by broken bifaces and bifacial waste flakes. It appears to be very similar to the Hill Top assemblage, though whether it is apart of the Mesa complex is unclear (Bever 2001a: 101).

The Mesa, Lisburne, Putu-Bedwell, Hilltop (Bever 2001a), and Spein

Mountain sites (Ackerman 2001) comprise the majority of Mesa complex sites.

Bever (2001a) also included TES-012 and MIS-131 in the Mesa complex; however, additional analysis is necessary to clearly establish these as Mesa sites.

41 ]

Mesa technology is an important component of the Paleoindian tradition in

Alaska (Ackerman 2001, Bever 2000, Bever 2001a, Kunz and Reanier 1995,

1996). It is securely dated between 9,900-10,200 rcybp, based on averages

from Mesa, though not including two outlying >11,000 rcybp dates (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999). Evidence from other Mesa complex sites supports this age range

(Bever 2001a).

Table 4.4: Mesa Complex Sites Site Citations

Nenana Complex: The Nenana Complex is "more closely related to the

Clovis tiadition than to the Denali compiex" and commoniy found in the interior

region of the state (Goebel et al 1991). Nenana and Clovis technology were

roughly contemporaneous and possessed similar attributes, especially when

ignoring their respective distinctive Chindadn and fluted lanceolate projectile

points. Without these, the rest of the assemblages are comparable (Goebel et al

1991 :73).

The Nenana complex includes characteristic triangular and teardrop

shaped projectile points and an absence of core-and-blade technology. The

Nenana complex was originally discovered and defined as "Chindadn" in the

lowest levels of the Healy Lake site (Cook 1969), and later identified in early sites 42 in the Nenana River Valley including Dry Creek, Walker Road, and Moose Creek

dated at approximately 11,300 rcybp (Hoffecker 1996). The Shaw Creek Flats

sites along the Tanana River, northwest of Healy Lake Village, have more

recently been found to contain the earliest evidence of Nenana technology, dated

to approximately 11,800 rcybp (Yesner 1996, Holmes 2000). Although these

dates are, to some extent, contemporaneous or slightly earlier than Clovis

occupations in lower North America, there is as yet no definitive link between the

two technologies. Despite this, the Nenana complex still represents the

strongest possibility for an ancestral connection between Paleoindian sites in

Alaska and the lower contiguous states (Goebel et al 1991).

Artifact types that define the Nenana complex are: (1) triangular and "teardrop-shaped" projectile points and knives, (2) straight - or concave based lanceolate projectile points, (3) perforators, (4) end and side scrapers, (5) burins, (6) hammer and anvil stones, (7) unifacial knives and scrapers. Flakes, small stone wedges (piece esquille'e), and lithic debitage are also associated with these sites. These diagnostic types of stone artifacts have been found at Component I at the Dry Creek site, the VVa!ker Read site and the Moose Creek site (Dixon 2001 :283).

Paleoarctic Tradition: The core-and-blade technology associated with the Paleoarctic tradition is derived from the Dyuktai tradition from Siberia where it dates approximately between 23,000 and 10,500 rcybp (Slobodin 2001: 38). It may have appeared in the Alaskan archaeological record as early as 12,000 rcybp (Holmes 2003) but was more fUlly developed in the Paleoarctic traditon.

Paleoarctic sites are characterized by a unifacial core-and-blade technology and the manufacture of bifacial lenticular projectile points (West 1975). Similar 43 technology existed for at least another 8000 rcybp in Alaska (Clark and Clark

1993) and became one of the most prevalent lithic evidence left by early

Alaskans.

Denali Complex: West (1967,1975, 1996a: 303) described Denali core styles as generally wedge-shaped with mUltiple microblade facets. The Denali complex was a core-and-blade technology that included bifacial tools such as lanceolate projectile points as well as large flakes and blades. Also associated with the wedge-shaped core and blade artifacts were core tablets created when a fresh platform surface was generated with the purpose of renewing the striking surface for blade removal (West 1996a). The distinct core tablet by-products were produced when the "spall then hinged up about one-fourth to one-third of the distance back from the face. A stop notch on the top at that point ensured the termination of the core tablet spall there and prevented the entire core top from being carried away" (West 1996a: 303). Other artifacts from the Denali complex include endscrapers, cobble spalls, large blades, and the distinctive

Donnelly burin.

Holmes (1998, 2003), has recently established core-and-blade technology in situ in the lowest levels of the Swan Point site in the central Tanana Valley, effectively placing core-and-blade technology contemporaneously with the earliest Nenana complex artifacts. However, he suggests that the early

44 microblade technology at Swan Point is more similar to the Dyuktai culture of the

Lena River Basin than to the Denali complex.

The Denali complex typology commonly applied to sites in the interior regions of Alaska (West 1967, 1975) includes a variant technology appearing south of the Alaska Range early in the Holocene (see Ackerman [1992, 1996a,

1996b] for Southeast Alaska, and Henn [1978], Dumond [1975,1981, 2001] for the Alaska Peninsula). These sites appear shortly before estimates indicate

Denali population density was highest, between 8500 and 8000 rcybp based on radiocarbon dates from 71 sites (Mason et al 2001).

Akmak: Originally defined by Douglas Anderson (1968, 1984, 1988), the classic Paleoarctic tradition type-site, Onion Portage, was discovered by Louis

Giddings (1967) along the Kobuk River. The Akmak complex is often lumped into the Denali complex (Mason et al 2001). The technology includes bifacial projectile points and unifacial core and blade technology (Anderson, Douglas

1970, 1984, 1988).

Vitreous chert (Inupiaq akmaq) was used for many tools in the Akmak complex. The assemblage is characterized by large cores on which steeply angled platforms were created for the purpose of striking off blade preforms. The preforms were reworked to end scrapers, gouges, several kinds of knives, and shaft smoothers. Narrow grooved shaft straighteners of basalt suggest that bows and arrows were used. Microblades found in the complex were produced from narrow wedge shaped cores of a type found at sites in Siberia, Mongolia, Japan and central Alaska (there called Campus type microblade cores); and the Akmak specimens undoubtedly owed their method of manufacture to techniques developed earlier in Eurasia (Anderson, Douglas 1984:81-82).

45 Anangula: Anangula technology occurs in the Eastern Aleutian Islands.

Few sites contain the unique Anangula unifacial core-and-blade technology, distinguished from Denali by a lack of bifacial reduction. The characteristic attributes include the micro-to-medium-sized conical cores and associated blades, produced through unifacial reduction techniques. The assemblage contains no bifacial artifacts (Aigner 1978, Veltre et aI1984). The Anangula tradition may have ancestors in the Sumnagin technology in Siberia, dated between 10,500 and 6,000 rcybp (Powers 1996:237-238).

Northwest Coast Core and Blade: The Northwest Coast Microblade tradition core-and-blade technology, concentrated in coastal regions of southeast

Alaska and British Columbia, shares similarities with the Anangula tradition in age as well as a focus on unifacial reduction strategies, but the technologies are clearly derived from different sources. The Ground Hog Bay 2 site in Southeast

Alaska contained "crude bifaces" and obsidian from the Wrangell Mountains, found in the earliest levels, which provides evidence that the Northwest Coast

Microblade tradition derived from Denali complex technologies (Ackerman

1996b).

The Northwest Coast Microblade Tradition extends from the northern Alexander Archipelago of the Alaskan Panhandle to just north of Vancouver Island and consists of microblades, pebbles tools, and flakes, and contrasts with other early cultures in having very few or no bifaces. The Northwest Coast Microblade Tradition is dated from approximately 9000 [rcybp] to 5000 or 4500 [rcybp] and includes clear evidence of the use of coastal resources... and is clearly related to the Denali Complex but differs from it... Wedge-shaped cores, which are distinctive of central Alaska and Late Paleolithic northeast Asian assemblages... are found on 46 the Northwest Coast, but the nodular core form is more common ... In addition, burins and burinated flakes, are common in many East Asian and Alaskan assemblages, but only burinated flakes are found on the Northwest Coast, but these are not common (Matson and Coupland 1995:82).

C. Early Alaskan Component Frequencies

It is important to note that many early Alaskan sites, especially in the

Interior, contain multiple cultural deposits or components. For example, in the

Interior, Nenana complex deposits occur stratigraphically beneath Denali complex deposits in nearly every early site found in that region. Although there are 47 early sites, there are 62 early Alaskan archaeological components identified in the literature. These sites are depicted by frequency in Figure 4.5.

Those sites not classifiable at the complex level have been included in their respective tradition. Table 4.6 lumps each complex into its respective tradition, placing the Akmak and Denali complexes into the Paleoarctic tradition, and the

Nenana, Mesa, and Northern Fluted Point complexes into the Paleoindian tradition. The charts compare early Alaskan components statewide and provide a greater sense of technological diversity between 8,000 and 12,000 rcybp.

47 Figure 4.5: Early Alaskan Component Frequency 25.------

....VJ 20 +------=~ 15+------Q e10+------Q U 5+------o+--JI--....-

Figure 4.6: Percent of Early Alaskan Tradition Components l~~ % jr------;o;]~-

f-----.---....------..-.-.--I !---"--r----J'---.-

D. An Alternative Approach: Primary Mode of Lithic Production

Primary modes of lithic production serves as an alternative method for classifying the material technology of early Alaskans. The model assumes two fundamental manners of lithic reduction, bifacial and unifacial; some technologies 48 use one or the other of these modes, but the Paleoarctic tradition incorporates both of these. Andrefsky (1998) explains lithic reduction stages as unifacial or bifacial modes of production. Investigating trends in their use among early

Alaskans could be a viable and testable attribute, an attribute commonly described in the archaeological literature.

Lithic reduction sequences from the Anangula and Northwest Coast

Microblade core-and-blade traditions appear as strictly unifacial flaking strategies

(Ackerman 1980, Matson and Coupland 1995, Veltre et al 1984). Paleoindian tradition technology typically begins with the manufacture of bifacial blanks and preforms. Although Paleoindian technology does contain small percentages of unifacial tools, these were typically retouched flakes generated through bifacial reduction (Goebel et al 1991). In contrast, Paleoarctic tradition technology incorporates both unifacial and bifacial reduction techniques (Anderson, Douglas

1988) employing both modes of production simultaneously.

At this point, I must stress that these reduction strategies have been assumed based on assemblage descriptions provided by site investigators.

Proving modes of reduction would require analyses of each early Alaskan assemblage. Table 4.7 depicts how each assemblage would be categorized.

Table 4.7: Earl' Alaskan Technologic Classifications Tradition Complex Primary Mode of Production ···PaieoTri·d"fa·n·····Paleoarctic .. ····..·.. '''i\Je-nana:-Mesa:-Denali, Akmak NorthernFTLitecfpoTilC...... · ··Sifa·Claj·····Both unifacial.. ··..··..···and..·.. ··.. ··bifacial..··· ...... ··..·....·· ..·.... ··.. };~?6~~~[~=::::::::::::::·::· _§.§!.rlg~.!~.~:=::=.~~===~=-~~=:=~~===~=::=~:::~~~:~: .:II6If~~[§L·::::::::::::~~~:~:::~::~::.:::::::::::::::.:::: NW Microblade NW Microblade Unifacial

49 As groups migrated through Beringia and Northwest Alaska, some settled in the Tanana and Nenana Valleys, gradually penetrating south of the Alaska

Range. Over the millennia, they trickled down to rich coastal regions in

Southeast, Southcentral Alaska and the Aleutian Islands (Yesner 1996).

Differences in lithic production techniques plotted across the state in Figure 4.8, may represent separate migrations or diffusion of technology.

50 Figure 4.8: Mode of Production in Early Alaskan Components

~~r·,_- Biracial £i

Biracial & Unifacial

51 E. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations for Early Sites

Radiocarbon samples detect the decay of isotopic carbon beginning upon the death of an organism. The older the sample, the greater the radiocarbon determination diverges from the actual calendar date the organism died (Haynes

2002). There has been extensive analysis regarding radiocarbon calibration, and calibrated dates appear in a variety of previously published articles and books

(e.g. Bigelow and Powers 2001:Table 3, Hamilton and Goebel 1999: Appendix).

The importance of radiocarbon calibration to the Early Americans Theme Study, and to this project, is a need to convey site antiquity in the form of calendar years before present, rather than in rcybp, making the age of sites comprehensible to non-archaeologists (NPS 2003a).

In addition to problems of association, radiocarbon dates may be affected by the marine reservoir of fossil carbon, if they are based on shell, fishbone, sea mammal bone, or sea mammal fats. An additional problem of particular relevance to the earliest Alaskan sites is the "radiocarbon plateau" around

10,000 rcybp, in which different calendar dates are associated with specimens showing similar radiocarbon dates.

Radiocarbon dates from the 47 early sites listed in Table 3.1 represent a range covering the period between 6,000 to 12,000 rcybp. The results appear in

Table 4.9 and Figure 4.10 including both radiocarbon samples obtained from early Alaskan sites and their calibrated calendar year. Note that there are two

52 apparent slight inconsistencies in the calibration of data at approximately 9,700 and 11,100 rcybp.

53 Table: 4.9 Radiocarbon Determinations and Calibrated Years Site Name Level RCYBP Deviation Median Low .tf.igh Delta River Overlook CZ2 6675 175 7523 7252 7840 Gallagher 6960 90 7771 7612 7958 Panouinoue Creek CII 7130 180 7942 7593 8336 Broken Mammoth CZ2 7201 205 7991 7615 8394 Jay Creek Ridoe 7220 110 7987 7792 8284 Swan Point CZ2 7400 80 8182 8015 8378 Koggiuna 7475 60 8253 8170 8391 Broken Mammoth CZ2 7700 80 8439 8366 8631 Koggiung 7765 95 8541 8385 8977 Koooiuno 7895 90 8643 8451 9011 Owl Ridge CII 8130 140 9028 8602 9471 Panguingue Creek CI 8170 120 9088 8720 9471 Chuck Lake Locale 1 8180 130 9127 8656 9486 Chuck Lake Locale 1 8220 125 9208 8781 9516 Carlo Creek CZ 1 8400 200 9448 8818 9890 Last Day 8530 60 9596 9434 9596 Delta River CZ 1 8555 380 9532 8564 10546 Carlo Creek CZ 1 8690 330 9627 9001 10575 Trail Creek Cave 9070 250 10220 9536 11064 H82 3 130 30 0239 ~787 0692 n Knees Cave harcoal 210 0 0382 10235 0548 HB2 3 220 0 0334 ~0218 0665 roken Mammoth Z3 310 65 10434 ~0185 1112 n Knees Cave uman 730 0 0330 ~0206 1128 anguingue Creek I 836 2 11204 ~ 1167 ~1337 .... v ...... ,.. r" .... ~ .... 00'"' ...... e"l I' r" It:;"C» \Jave luman OOU u'"' 10624 IUo:>""U""""''' II l~hJ ipein Mountain 0050 0 1492 1229 12261 wan Point Z3 0230 0 1790 1444 2715 roken Mammoth Z3 0270 10 12021 1365 2791 roken Mammoth Z3 0290 0 1997 1699 2753 !lead .jZ 3 0460 10 12492 1780 2911 utu-8edwel! Putu .0490 .0 .2477 1961 .2907 oose Creek II 0500 0 2472 11971 12908 roken Mammoth 3 0790 30 2886 11985 3181 roken Mammoth Z4A 1040 60 3779 ~2391 3013 lry Creek Z1 1120 5 3376 12682 3137 oose Creek I 11190 0 3153 2903 3752 uluaq Hill 1200 0 13155 2911 3751 roken Mammoth "z 48 1280 90 3174 2889 3807 ] Valker Road 11300 120 3180 2787 3001 wi Ridoe I 1340 50 3258 2998 13805 roken Mammoth Z48 1420 0 3422 3149 13799 roken Mammoth Z48 1510 20 3459 3153 13840 ead Z4 1600 :sO 3492 3195 13862 wan Point .jZ 4 1660 0 3700 3424 15053 roken Mammoth CZ4C 1770 '10 3816 3180 15240 J 54

1 J ]

Figure 4.10: Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations 12000 ...... f+T s:::::: Q) f+ . m11000 ... + 0.. G) -+.+ o10000 " 'to + Q) ++ CD ~ 9000 # (0 ~ :4" ~-t E 8000 ..c... *+ (0 .po (.) ...:t" .2 7000 "0 T (0 + 0:: 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000

Figure 4.10 provides rough calibrations of radiocarbon years before present into calendar years ago.

55 v. Spatial Integrity of Ancient Surface Sites: A Case Study at Last Day1

Spatial analysis has played, and will continue to play, an important role in assessing the significance and integrity of Paleoindian sites. Anderson and

Gillam (2000) indicate the usefulness of spatial analysis and encourage the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Paleoindian studies.

There have been comparatively few studies at the continental or hemispherical scale, directed to resolving specific routes taken by colonizing peoples-that is, which particular rivers, passes, lake margins, or other landscape features were likely used by colonizing peoples. Where were major barriers to movement located? What landscape features may have predisposed movement? While there have been precursor studies, the availability of GIS technology and global environmental data sets offer, for the first time, the opportunity to explore these questions quantitatively at a high level of resolution and precision (Anderson and Gillam 2000:44).

GIS can depict technology in different regions of the state during the

Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene. The large-scale maps appearing in previous chapters show the distribution of these technologies in relation to topography and Pleistocene glaciers. Alaska's vast geography, visible through

GIS, provided many barriers to it's earliest inhabitants.

One major geographic barrier to the first Alaskans/Americans was the

Alaska Range. The Brooks Range did not have the same inhibiting effect, and many early sites exist there. However, unique environmental circumstances characterize the region, posing certain difficulties for archaeologists. Deeply stratified sites are rare; more common are lithic surface scatters lacking substantial organic preservation. Cryoturbation is also a factor, although hearth

1 Portions of this chapter are pending pUblication elsewhere under co-authorship with Robert Gal. 56 smears occur and radiocarbon samples are recoverable. These circumstances have led archaeologists to refocus on the potential value of small sites rather than dismiss them as unproductive scatters. Hall (1982) recognized the potential for "small site archaeology" in the region, where isolated lithic scatters can identify lithic typologies present in more complicated Brooks Range sites.

The Lisburne site (Bowers 1979), repeatedly occupied in prehistory, exhibits multiple overlapping archaeological components that have proven difficult to sort apart. In contrast, isolated lithic scatters at the Last Day Site

(XHP-497) contained only 87 total artifacts, recovered from surface and subsurface proveniences. The small site provides an excellent snapshot of a prehistoric lithic tool kit without multiple overlapping components.

The Last Day site contained two artifact clusters separated by a slight ridgeline significant enough to keep artifacts from Cluster B from eroding downhill into the vicinity of Cluster A. Cluster A, the larger of the two components, contained 75 artifacts including an wide oval-platformed blade core (Anderson

1970:11), a single blade fragment, a burin spall, and a thin notched projectile point reminiscent of Nimiuktuk-11 style points first described by Anderson (1972).

The assemblage also included tvVo fragments of a core face rejuvenation flake,

29 microblade fragments, and 38 waste flakes, several showing retouch. A fire hearth feature in Cluster A produced three conventional radiocarbon dates,

8990.:t60, 8830.:t60 and 8540.:t60 rcybp (R. Gal pers. comm. 2003).

57 Two clusters are visible in Figure 5.1. Seventy-five artifacts in Cluster A, depicted in more detail in Figure 5.2 are consistent with a single occupation event. Only 12 artifacts were recovered from Cluster 8; these included

retouched flakes, waste flakes, and utilized flakes. The long axes of the oblong distributions are roughly perpendicular to the slope, which suggests that less than ten artifacts in Cluster A have been transported a short distance downslope by erosion and gravity. The remaining artifacts are deposited in a pattern very close to their original deposition.

Douglas Anderson (1988) found, at Onion Portage and Cape Krusenstern, that human activity areas generally fall within clusters approximately two-meters in diameter. At the Last Day site, prior deflation of the terrace surface and downslope transport of some artifacts has result in the two clusters becoming distributed in a more circular pattern. The current distribution is similar to

Anderson's concept of human activity areas, only altered by the downslope movement of less than 10% of the total artifact collection. The relationship between the two clusters is uncertain; deposition of artifacts could have occurred simultaneously, or at intervals separated by millennia.

58 Figure 5.1: Spatial Integrity at the Last Day Site

.. 1 _t, ~, , so- I - ~ - -, - I Ir I I I , r • I I I t , I, I ! Go j ~ ~ 't) ... ~- I, . I 45 I I , I '. \ I I I . ! I ( ) I I I I " \ , • I , I . ( \ , t I I \ , I I i I . I 40 / , " ., ': I , \ I \ I I I , \ I, , , \ \ \ ! ( ~ \ I \ \. \ \ ( I \ \ \ 35 \ \ \ ~ , ''':> \ :' \ I I 30

...... __ ofF

2? -QI I 25~ • I q;) Cl , I C ! ..' 1: . 1:: 0 20), \ '.. C , I I , I , .-- I, I ~ I, 9 I \, I 15. I ., J l, .... \ . \ .... -_. \ 10~ .- - I 'I ., , I ..... \ , \ I 0:> I I I \ I ~ " 5.- I 'I'> I... i t , \ I I I I j' I I I , I I I , I I , /. I I ~~ .. I 0 ----- ..... ' I \ I I --'""'---- _...... ~ I , I T • T T' , I - I 305 310 315 320 325 330 335 340 345

59 L.J

Figure 5.2: Artifact Types in Cluster A at Last Day

I - \ I .. '! Map legend

\ \ I + Flake '. \ \ \ f-- X Microblade \ \... Blade Core 1 ~\,', \\ t \ I ~ ~:~d; 1 Point \ I .... Burin Spall 32 " \ \\ . \1 Rejuvenation Flake " \ \ >- C) Charcoal \\ \\ \\I Vegetation Line \ 'f \ \ \ ~30 I I I, \ \' l ~ \ + ,/ \ \+ '\ I I ~).v·x :0- 28 +: ," + ~1/ / + )' 'l + II c • T ~ / .• / ) / + + /1 + I j/+ / I 1,1'/1I / 1+ / + I/ 26 l +t+ + / I II // . ,- + i i ////

24- ._ . r _l 1__,. j _,_i;-"t _y-L __ ./_ _.S 328 330 332 334 336 338 340 342 eastin (ffiHters) Q) o Core and blade technology only occurred in Cluster A and accounts for

one third of the total artifact collection by count. Proximal blade segments comprised 58.1 % of the blade collection. Medial segments comprised 29% and

distal segments comprised 12.9% of the blades. Both the projectile point base and the manufacture of microblades are consistent with activities expected to occur around a small hunting party's fire hearth where lithic retooling took place.

Blade edge damage analysis did not necessarily indicate human use, but instead provided a measure of time exposed on the surface. Blades with a high

(12.9%) amount of edge damage demonstrated a significant amount of edge chipping along the majority of one or the better part of both blade edges.

Medium (6.5%) damage amounted to chipping along approximately half of a single blade edge. Low (19.3%) levels of edge damage included those with a minor amount of chipping along a single edge. Blades with no trace of edge damage (61 %) were the most prevalent, and when combined with blades of low damage levels, they represented over 80% of the total number of blades. Such evidence indicated the majority of discarded segments remained close to their original position of deposition with little or no movement across the gravel surface.

A minimum number of three cores are represented in Cluster A, although only the black ovate core was recovered. The first missing core produced the

61 majority of blades from gray chert. The second, a brown chert core, produced two refitting segments of a core face rejuvenation flake.

Material type was classified by generic stone color. Several shades of gray chert, including a gray and red variegated type, comprised 61 % of the total

number of chert artifacts. Two red chert waste flakes could have originated from the red portions of the gray and red variegated core. Black chert was the second most abundant material type (33.3%). Artifacts comprised of black chert were all similar in grain and texture, including the ovate blade core and the largest of the blades.

Based on weight, gray chert, including the red-banded variety, comprised

7.8% of the material type in Cluster A, whereas black chert comprised 86.7 %.

Varieties of dark gray and brown chert were the only other materials in Cluster A, which consisted of less than 4.6% by weight. In Cluster B, gray chert (46.5%) outweighed black chert (39%). Red-brown and tan varieties represented less than 15% of the materia! based on weight.

All of the blades are within the general size classification for microblades, with the exception of one outlier. All of the microblades were flaked from gray chert, and the blade thickness v. width data (Figure 5.3) lead one to conclude that they were derived from a single core. The single "macro blade" was flaked from black chert, similar in texture and color to the ovate core. Its curvature nearly matched the largest flake scar on the core face, and the blade length was

62 only slightly larger than the outermost scar. However, it was not a perfect match,

suggesting that the blade originated from an earlier reduction stage.

Figure 5.3: Blade Width vs Thickness

4.5 • 4

3.5

~ 3 CII CII -~ g 2.5 • III • III t· CII 2 • C ..:.: .... (J • ...:E 1.5 •• ~.• • ~.. ,

0.5

oJI---r----,---+------o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Width (millimeters)

The Last Day Site displays lithic attributes produced from both bifacial and unifacial modes of lithic reduction, and is a strong candidate for some of the earliest notched point technology in Alaska. The association of a notched bifacial projectile point with core-and-blade technology is persuasive, especially if one accepts the spatial integrity of artifact distributions around activity areas two- meters in diameter as suggested by Anderson (1988) and the significance of small site archaeology as proposed by Hall (1982). 63 Small surface scatters, or single occupation events, can assist in the

interpretation of more complicated multiple component surface sites (Hall 1982).

Although preservation is limited in surface sites, Iithics and provenience alone

can provide significant information and radiocarbon determinations are often

recoverable from calcined bone or hearth smears still present in the soil. The

recovery of data from the Last Day site suggests the integrity of small early sites,

an essential characteristic for eligibility to the NR, as emphasized by Hall (1982).

Acceptance of the importance of these sites has another ramification. As Tainter (1979) has pointed out, some archaeologists, convinced of the unimportance of small sites or frustrated by the difficulty of dealing with them, have attempted to define such sites out of existence by labeling them as "scatters" or "localities" rather than sites. By doing so they do not allow for the possibility that small sites are eligible for the National Register of Historic Places and, further, that excavation and analysis of cultural material from these sites might be important in our efforts to understand the past. The analysis of... small, single component, specific activity sites may be crucial in that effort.

64 Figure 5.4: Last Day (XHP-497) Lithic Artifacts

- J"llllllillllll'IJ1IJIfIIIII'lllllllll'llllliIIUI

Special thanks to Richard Martin for his assistance in artifact photography

U 65 LJ J VI. Results and Conclusions

The purpose of this project was to determine properties suitable for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, including those worthy of nomination to the National Historic Landmark status. The Earliest Americans

Theme Study must include Alaska to be truly comprehensive on a national scale.

Once a Multiple Property Nomination is completed, it can be easily updated with newly discovered sites. The need for such research is clear, to protect these resources under the fullest extent of Section 106 of the National Historic

Preservation Act of 1966, and to make available to the public information pertaining to the peopling of the Americas.

Early Alaskan archaeological resources dating between 8000 and 12000 radiocarbon years share a common theme, "Peopling of the New World". The analysis used to review literature pertaining to early Alaskan sites involved the compilation of several categories of information. These included aspects of site history, environment, integrity, artifacts and features, description of stratigraphic context and scientific significance. Other documentation concerning the current state of preservation efforts were based on a series of National Register

(NATREG) codes. Of the 47 early sites originally considered, documentation and status in the NATREG system were considerations in choosing the 35 sites described in the Appendix where a rank of "Low", "Moderate" or "High" levels of integrity and scientific significance is provided.

66 In the northern half of the state, the Brooks Range contains eleven early

sites, two of which are already listed as NHLs (Onion Portage and Gallagher Flint

Station). Of these sites, three (Batza Tena, Lisburne, and Putu-Bedwell) are

recommended for NR nomination and two (Mesa and Tuluaq Hill) for NHL status.

The Seward Peninsula contains one site (Trail Creek Caves) recommended for

NR status.

Twenty-two early sites were considered from interior Alaska, of which four are recommended for NHL status (Broken Mammoth, Mead, Swan Point, and

Walker Road) and ten for NR nomination (Carlo Creek, Delta River Overlook,

Donnelly Ridge, Healy Lake Village, Moose Creek, Owl Ridge, Panguingue

Creek, Phipps, Whitmore Ridge, and Usibelli). The Phipps and Whitmore Ridge sites, located in the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District, are National Historic

Sites (NHS), recommended for NR nominations. Donnelly Ridge is a contributing site in the Donnelly Dome Archaeological District and is recommended for NR nomination. Dry Creek is already a NHL.

Sites recommended for NHL status in Southeast Alaska include Ground

Hog Bay 2 and On Your Knees Cave; Chuck Lake is recommended for the NR.

Southwest Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula contain 't'J'JO sites recommended for

NHL status (Spein Mountain and Ugashik Narrows), and one for NR nomination

(Lime Hills Cave). Anangula, in the Aleutians, is already a NHL site; Hog Island is recommended for NHL status; and the Oiled Blade site for NR nomination.

67 This research forms the foundation of a future Multiple Properties

Nomination. Once completed, the MPN will be useful in nominating future sites.

The benefits of continuing the nomination process for early sites in Alaska, aside from preservation, is to make information available and easily accessible to the general public regarding the Earliest Americans and the Peopling of the New

World.

68 AMR-1 Akmak Anderson, Dou las 1988 PSM-50 N. Fluted Point Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997 KIR-102 Mesa Kunz & Reanier 1994-6 DEL-360 Paleoindian Rasic 2000 MLZ-2 N. Fluted Point Clark & Clark 1993 KIR-96 Mesa Bowers 1982 PSM-27 Mesa Bever 2001, Reanier 1994

Table 6.2: Seward Peninsula

Table 6.3: Interior SIte Name Number Complex References Rank Dry Creek HEA-005 Nenana, Denali Hoffeckeretal1985 NHL Broken Mammoth XBD-131 Nenana, Denali Yesner1996 Hiah Mead XBD-71 Nenana, Denali Yesner1996, Pewe 1983 Hiah Swan Point XBD-156 Pre-Nenana?, Nenana, Denali Holmes 1998, 2003 High Walker Road HEA-130 Nenana, Denali? Hoffecker 1980, Hiaas 1992 High Delta River Overlook XMH-297 Denali Holmes 1979 Med Carlo Creek HEA-031 Unknown Bowers & Mason 1992 Med Donnelly Ridge XMH-005 Denali West 1967, 1996 Med Healy Lake Village XBD-020 Nenana Cook 1969 Med Moose Creek FAI-206 Nenana,Denali Hoffecker 1996, Pearson 1999 Med Owl Ridae FAI-91 Nenana, Denali Hoffecker 1985, Phippen 1988 Med Panauinaue Creek HEA-137 Denali, Nenana? Powers & Hoffecker 1989 Med Phipps XMH-111 Denali West et al 1996 Med Wnitmore Kidge XMH·o72 Denali West 1996d Med Usibelli HEA-128 Nenana? Hoffeckeretal1985 Med

Table 6.4: Southeast Site Name Number Complex Reference Rank Ground Hoa Bav 2 JUN·037 Denali? Ackerman 1992, 1996 Hiah On Your Knees Cave PET-4G8 NWCoast Dixon 1999 Hiah Chuck Lake CRG-237 NWCoast Ackerman 1985 Med

Table 6.5: Southwest & Alaska Peninsula Site Name Number Complex Reference Rank Spein Mountain BTH 62-65 Mesa Ackerman 2001 High Ugashik Narrows UGA-001 Denali Dumond 1975, Henn 1978 High Lime Hills Cave N/A Denali Ackerman 1996 Med

Table 6.6: Aleutians Site Name Number Complex Reference Rank Ananaula·Ananiuliak SAM-012 Ananaula McCartnev & Veltre 1996 NHL Hoa Island UNL-115 Ananaula Knecht & Davis 2001 Hiah Oiled Blade-Hog Isle UNL-318 Anangula Knecht & Davis 2001 Med

69 Notations

AA Activity Area

L Locality

Approximate

AMS Accelerated Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon determination

SZ Stratigraphic Zone

CZ Culture Zone

C Component kya Thousands of Calendar Years Ago rcybp Radiocarbon years before present yrBP Years before present

P Paleosol

TL Tephra Layer

14C Carbon 14

GHB2 Ground Hog Bay 2

* Problem Date

MPN Multiple Property Nomination

NR National Register of Historic Places

NHL National Historic Landmark

NXS Site contributing to an archaeological district

DOE Determination of eligibility

70 References Cited

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88 APPENDIX I

Name: Amaknax Island (Low) f'Jumber: UNL-0054

Region: Aleutian Islands

NHR Designation: None

Repository: Museum of the Aleutians land Ownership: Ounalashka Corporation

Basal Dates: N/A

Tradition: Anangula, Aleut (Knecht and Davis 2001, Veltre et al 1984)

Environment: The site is located along the "western shore of Amaknak

Island, northeast of Cave Rock" (AHRS 1997). Amaknax is in the eastern

Aleutian Islands near Unalaska.

History: According to the AHRS database, the site discussed by numerous archaeologists including Hrdlicka, Jochelson, McCartney, Banks and

Bruce Ream (AHRS 1997). Each author referred to the site by different names including Amoknak and as Amaknak site B. In 1984, testing of the site was the focus of Veltre's field season (Veltre et al 1984).

Significance: Although there were no 14C samples recovered for

Amaknax, its oldest component was technologically associated with Anangula tradition (Veltre et al 1984). It is believed to date to a similar period as the nearby Hog Island site UNL-115 dated to between 7960±90 and 8050:t80

89 (Dumond and Knecht 2001, Veltre et al 1984). The site is significant under the

theme "peopling places" because is suspected associated the earliest known

lithic industry Aleutian Islands (Veltre et al 1984).

Integrity: Military activity has heavily disturbed the site. It consisted of

redeposited artifacts in disturbed bulldozed contexts. Several previous

excavations have also scarred the site. One amateur archaeologist, Cahn,

excavated a more recent portion of the site to a depth of 5.8 m of continuous

cultural deposits. Despite the site's lengthy history of disturbance, it contains

undisturbed deposits (Veltre et al 1984:29 and Fig. 10). The deposits could yield

significant information from lower levels of the site; artifacts found in association with a level of volcanic ash (Veltre et al 1984) could provide accurate dates without recovering radiocarbon samples.

Artifacts and Features: The earliest assemblage, described as a

unifacial reduction scheme typical of the Anangula tradition, included core and blade technology and lacked bifacial attributes (Veltre et al 1984:24).

Description: Two loci were identified; the hill top and shell midden localities. The core and blade technology was limited to the hill top location, a disturbed portion of the site (Veltre et al 1984). The shell midden locality was stratified and portions of it remained intact. The nature and relationship between the midden and the Anangula component from the hill top locality remain

90 unknown although the midden deposits are considerably younger in age (Veltre et al 1984:25).

91 Name: Batza Tena (Med)

Number: MLZ-00002

Region: Southwest

NATREG: NHS Archaeological District

Repository: Canadian Museum of Civilization, Quebec land Owner: US Bureau of Land Management

Basal Dates: The site could date in excess of 11,700 rcybp (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999:184)

Traditions: Paleoindian, Late Paleoindian, Paleoarctic

Environment: The Batza Tena obsidian quarries lie approximately 300 kilometers southeast of Onion Portage and nearly 500 kilometers east of the Trail

Creek Caves site, 30 kilometers south of Hughes (Clark and Clark 1993). More specifically, the location is southeast of Anaktuvuk Pass in the headwaters of the

Koyukuk River where the Kokrines-Hodzana Highlands convene with Koyukuk

Lowlands. The sites of prehistoric obsidian quarrying activities lies east, a few kilometers, from the main river channel where a major obsidian source is found on a "flat topped" ridge positioned between the Indian and Little Indian creeks,

"100- 150 kilometers above the Koyukuk flats" (Clark 1995). The local vegetation consists of tussock, shrubs and mixed spruce-birch forest, to the west (Clark

1995).

92 History: Clark and Clark conducted the original archaeological exploration of the region in 1968 through 1971, documenting 89 sites indicating heavy use in prehistoric times. Fifty of these were included in the Batza Tena

Archaeological District created in 1972 (Clark 1995, AHRS 1997).

Significance: "The Batza Tena obsidian locality in northwest Alaska was utilized at least as early as 11,700 BP, with obsidian distributed at least as far as the Tanana Valley... " (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:184). Obsidian artifacts, traced to Batza Tena sources, have been recovered from the Component II at

Dry Creek, Band 7 at Onion Portage, the Mesa site, and from the earliest occupations at Broken Mammoth (Cook 1995:95). Such evidence makes the

Batza Tena District significant to understanding early Alaskan trade and economic activities. Cook's (1995) obsidian sourcing project shows the quarry at

Batza Tena was used for at least 10,000 rcybp (11,700 when one considers the material in the lowest levels of Broken Mammoth).

Paleoindian fluted projectile points in the Batza Tena region (n=18), out number by four-times those found in any other site in Alaska (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999:181). Unfortunately, the evidence remains undated, there is however a growing pool of evidence that suggests the spread of Paleoindian lithic technology occurred from the south to north through Canada and into

Alaska beginning 10,500 rcybp and arriving in Alaska shortly before -10,000 rcybp (Dixon 2001 :289, Roper and Wygal 2002) and persisting there for an

93 undetermined amount of time. Because so much of the fluted point evidence has been found at Batza Tena, it is significant for the contribution it could make in

understanding connections with similar-earlier Paleoindian technologies in the lower forty-eight states.

Artifacts and Features: Artifacts from the Batza Tena District include fluted, side-notched, and lanceolate projectile points, bifaces, end scrapers and utilized flakes in high quantity. Lithic reduction waste flakes and cores litter the region, signs that it underwent extensive use as a prehistoric lithic quarry site.

The region also includes obsidian lithic resources from the surface in rivers and along lakeshores. Ten of the 89 surface scatters discovered by the Clark's contained fluted projectile points (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Integrity: All of the sites were surface scatters making direct dating of the

Batza Tena sites difficult because of general mixing and possible reuse of artifacts found there (Bever 2001b:155). 14C material was not recovered and the evidence indicated lithic raw material quarrying and stone tool manufacturing was taking place. Obsidian hydration analysis has been mostly inconclusive (Clark and Clark 1993). One group of fluted projectile points produce a cluster hydration rind thickness suggesting a date of 9000 rcybp; however, due to extreme environmental conditions, the obsidian hydration results varied widely from 1800 rcybp to as old as 21,000 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). If obsidian from Batza Tena, conclusively, is from the lower levels of known early

94 sites, then Batza Tena must have been a quarry site from those periods. This

may be the only method useful in determining the exact nature of the area's early

use.

Description: The Batza Tena Archaeological District contained 50 of the

known 89 surface sites in the region, which contain clusters of distinguishable components with relatively intact horizontal separation (Clark and Clark 1993,

AHRS 1997). Each component, both in and out of the district boundaries, likely contains significant data from the prehistory of Alaska, but as described above, these data will be difficult to develop.

95 Name: Broken Mammoth (High)

Number: XBD-131

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Owner: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: CZ 4-11 ,770.:t21 0

Complex: Nenana, Denali

Environment: Broken Mammoth is located on a bench overlooking the juncture of Shaw Creek and the Tanana River. This region, along the

Richardson Highway between Fairbanks and Delta Junction, has been covered with wind blown aeolian sediment creating excellent stratigraphic integrity at the site (Holmes 1996, Yesner 1996).

History: C. E. Holmes' discovery and Holmes and D. McAllisters' test excavation of the Broken Mammoth site in 1989 led to joint excavations in 1990,

1991, 1992 and 1993 by the University of Alaska, Anchorage and the Alaska

Office of History and Archaeology. After a five-year hiatus, the University of

Alaska Anchorage excavations resumed in 1998, 2000 and 2002. The site received its name from the broken fragments of mammoth ivory originally discovered there (Holmes 1996).

96 Integrity: Despite eight seasons of excavations, the site continues to add

information to our understanding of early Alaskan prehistory. An estimated 650

square meters remains intact. Approximately 75% of the site was removed by

pre-excavation gravel operations and 25% of the currently existing site remains

to be excavated. Artifacts in significant amounts likely exist in the areas east and

west of the excavated region. A section of unexcavated area remains in the

center of the site although there is evidence of disturbance by gravel operations

in part of that area (Yesner 2003 personal communication).

Early occupations at Broken Mammoth have excellent organic

preservation in stratified contexts, buried beneath wind blown glacial silts, from the Tanana Valley (Yesner 1996, 2000). Over 10,000 faunal elements have

been recovered from the Broken Mammoth site and strata dated to the early

Holocene and late Pleistocene periods yielded 70% of the total amount of faunal remains, due to environmental conditions allowing for greater preservation in the ear!y !evels (Yesner 1996).

Further evidence indicated an increasingly efficient economy and lithic resource use during the terminal Pleistocene, where there was general increase in activity and more frequent and "deeper" fire hearths with distinctive "toss zones" and larger mammal fauna represented. A "tent-like" structure, similar to structures at Walker Road, suggested "longer term residence" patterns at the site

(Yesner 2001).

97 Most recently, rock-quarrying activities have resumed on the terrace containing Broken Mammoth, Mead and Veasey sites. Broken Mammoth is located on state land, and is possibly in great danger of destruction by present quarrying activities both directly and indirectly via erosion.

Significance: The Broken Mammoth site has provided some of the earliest known, well-documented evidence of American Indians in Alaska.

Broken Mammoth remains one of the key type-sites for the state's earliest inhabitants. Important faunal remains recovered from CZ3 and CZ4 included a variety of birds, including ptarmigan and waterfowl (duck, geese and tundra swan), small mammals (rodent, marmot, and beaver), carnivores (fox and wolf), and large game (bison, caribou, and mountain sheep). Evidence of salmon in early occupations indicates a small amount of fishing activity. The great diversity in subsistence provides evidence regarding early Alaskan economic activities and resource use (Yesner 1996, 2000, 2001).

Another major significant discovery at the Broken Mammoth site are the obsidian artifacts traced to Batza Tena and the Wrangle Mountains found in the earliest components there. Similar finds supporting a widespread distribution of obsidian in Interior Alaska are found at VValker Road (Hamilton and Goebel

1999:184 citing personal communication with John Cook). These finds could indicate important trade networks during this early period.

98 Artifacts and Features: The two earliest components at the site included

artifacts and features from CZ 3: bifacial projectile points, knives, scrapers,

cores, hammer stones, choppers, anvils, bone needles or clothing fasteners,

large hearths, hearthstones, work areas and a possible tent structure (Yesner

1996,2000,2001). Diagnostic artifacts from Cultural Zone 3 included "two

basally thinned, edge-ground "Paleoindian" projectile points"... The bifacial

artifacts, along with unifacial microblade technology, both recovered from CZ 3

are generally associated with Denali Complex assemblages (Yesner 1996).

Further microblade evidence came in a slot carved into a mammoth ivory

fragment. The slot contained a "chert microchip" (Yesner 2000, 2001).

Cultural Zone 3, occupied on a seasonal basis, contained evidence of a

population with more efficient economic use of resources than their

predecessors. Ventifacts and river cobbles made up a smaller amount (30%) of

lithic raw material from that occupation. The majority of raw material from CZ 3

originated from a greater distance than material in CZ 4. Landmark Gap quarries

near Tangle Lakes were the source of the material quarry indicating technology

that is more efficient. It comprised 60% of the total lithics from CZ 3 occupations

(Yesner 2001).

Cultural Zone 4, on the other hand, contained mostly unifacial scraper technology and a few bifacial tools. General conclusions associate occupations from Cultural Zone 3 with the Denali Complex and Cultural Zone 4 with the

99 slightly earlier Nenana Complex (Yesner 2000, Yesner 1996). The latest interpretations reveal a clear distinction between Cultural Zones 3 and 4. The earlier occupations in Cultural Zone 4 contained artifacts rendered from lithic raw material immediately available. The majority of which were obtained from "dunal sands and deposits directly underlying the site" (Yesner 2001). Tools were readily available from the smashed fragments from quartz ventifacts. This behavior produced a full 60% of the lithic resources discovered in the CZ-4 occupations. A remaining 30% of the lithics from CZ-4 were artifacts produced from river cobbles also acquired locally (Yesner 2001). However, a few obsidian artifacts found in CZ-4 may partly contradict this evidence.

Part of what makes the Broken Mammoth site unique is the wide variety of faunal remains recovered from the site making this site rare when compared to the rest of Alaska. The faunal evidence prOVides evidence of seasonal use in the area, suggesting late fall or winter occupations at the site (Yesner 1996).

Faunal remains from CZ 3 and CZ 4 differ. Moose and caribou were used more frequently in CZ-3.ln addition there were greater amounts "of snowshoe hare, arctic fox, marmot and other small mammals" in CZ 3. CZ 4 had more wapiti than CZ 3. Salmonid fish were utilized more than birds in CZ 3 in comparison with CZ 4 where birds contributed 60% of the total faunal assemblage (Yesner 1996).

100 Description: Nine separate Cultural Zones (CZ) were identified in four

geologic sequences A, 8, C and 0 (A is the basal unit & 0 is the upper most

unit). Multiple uncalibrated 14C samples have reliably dated each cultural

occupation. The stratigraphic sequence appears below.

Table 7.1: Broken Mammoth (Holmes 1996:Fig 6-5) level Description .. ~J~~~.J2. __ g~ ..j_A, J.I?!.._9.r.!.9?. _ _ __ ._..______.__ .______. r-§_tra~~g___ §.t.~rjJ~ ~_~r.!EL~9.Q!§!jr.!J.!Jg_.Q.9. ..g_~_!!~!.~! .. ~9..!J~_~ _ _.._... . _. _ _ §~at~__ 3, 4A, 48 and 4C Strata A Sterile sand containing no Cultural Zones

Cultural Zones 1A, 18 and 2 contained nine samples ranging between

2040:t.65 and 7700:t.80. Occupations in CZ-3 yielded five 14C dates: 9310:t.165,

9690.:t960, 10,270.:t11 0, 10,790.:t230 and 10,290.:t70AMs . Although throughout the majority of the site a layer of sterile sand separates Cultural Zones 3 and 4, apparent mixing between samples from 3 and 4A produced two dates of

11 ,040.:t80AMS and 11 ,060.:t90AMS (Holmes 1996).

There were three separate early occupations. CZ-4A yielded a date of

11,040.:t260. CZ 48 contained four dates: 11 ,280.:t190, 11 ,420.:t70AMS,

11 ,500.:t80AMS and11 ,51 0.:t120 and 4C contained two dates of 11 ,770.:t21 °and

11,770.:t220. One final sample from 4C, a fragment of ivory raw material dated to

15,830.:t70AMS , is considered "old ivory" (Holmes 1996).

101 Table 7.2: Broken Mammoth (Hamilton et a11999, Yesner et al1992) CZ -em RCYBP

This date on bone is likely not accurate, CZ-4A was a paleosol with little evidence of human habitation (Yesner 2003 personal communication). 102 Name: Carlo Creek (Med)

Number: HEA-0031

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: DOE-S (Bowers and Mason 1992)

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: (-8500 rcybp) (Bowers 1978)

Complex: non-diagnostic

Environment: The site is located at mile 223.5 on the Parks highway in the Central Alaskan Range on a bluff overlooking Carlo Creek, an eastern tributary of the Nenana River (Bowers 1978).

History: Hamilton and Thorson discovered Carlo Creek in 1975 along the road between Cantwell and Healy. Eroding from the cut bank were lithic and faunal materials. Later that summer Holmes returned to the site for initial evaluation and registration with the AHRS. Field excavations began the summer of 1976 and continued the following year (Bowers 1978, Bowers and Mason

1992).

Significance: The site has been determined eligible for the National

Register for more than one of the criteria necessary. It satisfied Criterion D based on its potential to provide further important data to prehistory as it has

103 already done (Bowers and Mason 1992). This data concerns the economies of early Alaskan subsistence patterns.

Carlo Creek is a rare early Alaskan site, although the Iithics from its oldest component were non-diagnostic, they most likely are associated with the Nenana complex. Component II contained bifacial tools, blades and blade like flakes

(Hamilton and Goebel 1999) and are reminiscent of the Denali tool assemblages; however, it lacked the diagnostic core and blade artifacts.

Integrity: During the 1976 and 1977 excavations, an estimated 45 cubic meters of overburden were removed from the site, ranging in depth from 1.5 to 3 meters (Bowers 1978). This significant amount of soil deposition demonstrates a high degree of integrity that aided in excellent preservation at the site.

Furthermore, after excavations were completed in 1977, the site was back filled and re-vegetated (Bowers 1978). The site was not completely excavated and has the potential to contribute further information about the early Holocene, especially with regard to faunal remains related to subsistence patterns and bone tool technology (Bowers and Mason 1992). An unknown amount of cultural deposits remains the lowest components of the site.

Artifacts and Features: Component I, the lowermost occupation, revealed two fire hearth features. Charcoal samples from these features returned radiocarbon dates of 8400:t.200, 8690:t.330 and 10,040:t.435 rcybp. Soil

104 humic acid at this level returned a date of 5120±265 rcybp, but this date was considered to be from contamination (Bowers and Mason 1992).

Lithic artifacts from Component I include: 3 complete bifaces, retouched flakes (one large), tabular quarried argillite, and over 4000 pressure flakes and waste flakes. Several of the bifaces displayed use wear. It is significant to note that core and blade technology was not found in Component I (Bowers 1978).

In addition, Carlo Creek has added significance based on the faunal remains scattered around two fire hearth areas in Component I including

"Rangifer sp., Ovis dalli and eitel/us sp". Cut marks were found on many of the larger mammal remains and the long bones were broken in a manner that suggested marrow was being consumed (Bowers 1978). Bowers (1978:6) has reported the minimum number of individuals (MNI) at the site consisted of a single caribou and a single sheep, 8 to 12 ground squirrels and several unidentified "charred large mammal cranial fragments".

The rNO fire hearth features from Component I are believed to be from the same occupation event and were spaced -5 meters apart. The artifacts recovered from both hearths were similar in nature and they were stratigraphically in the same level. In addition, there was a third feature described as a "possible heat treatment pit", and the first known case of heat treating lithics for improved workability in Alaska (Bowers 1978). Component II was apparently a very brief occupation event, consisting of waste flakes.

105 According to Bowers (1978:4), Component II was completely excavated. This occupation is believed to date to -6700.:t750 rcybp (Bowers and Mason 1992) indicating a Late Denali association.

Description: The site stratigraphy was divided into 4 Units, Unit 1 was basal gravel deposited by glacial outwash and was roughly 8 meters in thickness.

Unit 2 is "floodplain silt and fine sand" and is -3 meters in depth. Unit 3 overlies

Unit 2 comprised of "4 meters of bedded fluvial sands" (Bowers 1978). Unit 4, the uppermost sedimentary unit, is -30 cm thick and is reworked alluvium, mostly eolian in nature (Bowers 1978).

Two cultural zones were designated Component I and II. Component I, the lowest stratigraphically, was 'consistently found to occur within a 5 cm zone above Unit 2 or at the base of the Unit 3 strata in an area of approximately 12 x 5 meters in size' (Bowers 1978). The deposits in lower reaches of Unit 3 quickly buried the first occupations under the fluvial deposits. Unit 3 geologic stratum was described as a complex sequence of "finely laminated silt, fine sand, and clay" (Bowers 1978). Component I lies on top of a weak paleosol located at the contact area of Units 2 and 3 (Bowers and Mason 1992).

Table 7.3: Carlo Creek (Bowers 1918) Stratigraphy RCYBP Description Component -cm ···Unii·3·····Unit 4 ..·······..·..·······....···· ···S·4·00±200··············6700+750 .. ···.. ··· ·..Fic)odpii:iinReworked ..alluvialsiTt"&-·iineeolian..sancj"....·...... ·-cC..rII....·..·..·...... ··....·..·..·...... ·300·30 ...... ··.... 8690.:!:330 10,040+435 ·..Unit'2· ··..··..·..·..· = ··Bedde·(j..fl..uviai·..sa·j1·ci's ·· ··· _ ·..400 · .. ·..unirr..··· · ·· ·..BasarG·ra·ver ·..··..·..··..·· ·86'0· · ..

106 Name: Chuck Lake (Med)

Number: CRG-00237

Region: Southeast

NHR Designation: None

Repository: unknown

Land Ownership: USFS, Tongass

Basal Dates: -8200 rcybp

Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade

Environment: The Chuck Lake site is located on Heceta Island south of

Chuck Lake. Heceta Island lies to the south of Sea Otter Sound, to the east of

Iphigenia Bay and to the north of the Gulf of Esquibel. More generally, the island

is northwest of Prince of Wales Island across the Tonowek Bay. The island, covered with low mountains, as is typical the Northwest Coast, a rain forest environment. The soil is boggy and poorly drained, typical of the Tongass

National Forest (Ackerman 1985). During the VVisconsin glaciation, the

Cordilleran glaciation capped the island with over 1000 m of ice. Glacial retreat in southeastern Alaska began approximately 14,000 rcybp with ice dissipating completely from Heceta Island by 11,500 rcybp (Ackerman 1985).

History: Robert Ackerman discovered the site while conducting survey for the Tongass National Forest on Heceta Island (Ackerman 1985).

107 Significance: This is the one of the earliest coastal site documenting a

mostly marine subsistence pattern (Ackerman 1996a:132). The core and blade

technoiogy resembled those in Component 2 at the GHB2 site and Component I

at the Hidden Falls site. Namu, in British Columbia, has an associated

technology (Ackerman 1985).

Chuck Lake is significant because the faunal assemblage was primarily

maritime consisting of sea lion, fish and mollusks. Small numbers of caribou,

wolf and beaver were found at Chuck Lake, as were several species of bird. The

earliest component represented a shift in economic patterns during changing

environmental conditions of the Early Holocene. Locality 1 was dated between

8200 and 7300 rcybp, but the maritime subsistence pattern continued at the site

well into the Holocene (Ackerman 1985).

Integrity: Ackerman (1985) designated six localities scattered on either

shore of Chuck Creek, which flows north into Chuck Lake. A Forest Service

access road or trail cut through three of these !ocalities (1,4 and 6). Two of the

localities (1 and 2) are bordered by a Forest Service tree harvest region (Unit

561-3) and the other localities (3-6) are immediately outside the harvest plot

(Ackerman 1985). Those sites within the harvest areas may be at risk from

ground erosion because of the loss of vegetation.

Artifacts and Features: Of the six localities, L2 was the only one not found to contain evidence of core and blade technology. It was also the only

108 locality not containing lithic debris. Locality 1 yielded 572 artifacts from a shell midden context. It contained a large deposit of mostly mollusk shell and other small faunal remains (Ackerman 1985). The entire collection from all three localities consisted of 610 lithic artifacts recovered with 90.16% directly related to a split pebble micro core and blade technology. Of those, there were 472 were waste flakes, 9 microblade cores, 3 cobble flaked macroblade cores, 11 microblade performs, and 58 complete and broken microblades. Other artifacts included 2 hammerstones, 3 whetstones, a modified spall and 2 anvils. The lithic raw material for these artifacts consisted of argillite, obsidian, marble, chert and quartz. A fragment of a bone-barbed harpoon (40.4 mm in length and 13.2 mm at its greatest width) was the only bone artifact recovered from L1 (Ackerman

1985).

Description: The stratigraphy at the Chuck Lake site contained Level 1 through Level 6 (not Localities). Level 1 was forest litter and was yellow/red in color (5YR 4/6). !t consisted of mostly wood and root material. Level 2 was a black silty loam (1 OYR 2/1) and included charcoal flecks and to a lesser extent wood and root material. Level 3 was the deposit of mollusk shell and other fauna! remains inclUding sea urchin. It's Munsel color was difficult to pin point but fell between 10YR 7/1 and 7.5R 5/2. Level 4 was a thin layer of sandy gravel described as gray/brown (10YR 5/2). L5 was weathered limestone, a dark brown

109 deposit of silty loam (10YR 3/3). Level 6 was limestone bedrock (Ackerman

1985).

Five non-AMS radiocarbon dates were recovered from three of the six localities included three on shell and two on carbon. Those samples from L1 returned dates of 8220.:t.125 rcybp taken from charcoal, 8180.:t.130 rcybp taken from shell and a sample of charcoal from the top of the midden dated to

7360.:t.270 rcybp. Locality 3 was also a shell midden dated by a shell fragment to

5240.:t.90 rcybp. Shell dated to 5140.:t.90 rcybp dated Locality 2. Based on stratigraphy, sample integrity and associated artifacts it was suggested that

Locality 1 was deposited continuously between approximately 8200 - 7300 rcybp

(Ackerman 1985).

Table 7.4: Chuck lake Horizontal Provenience (Ackerman 1985)

....~gg.?!j!y. } .!.~.~.Q..t??Q..,(!9.P')! ~.??g,;!;;.1 ..??.!...~.~ .. ~g.:!;;.~ ..~.Q §.~~!.1 ~.~.9..9~.~ . ....~g.~.?!.!.!y. ? !?.!.?.g.~ ..§.!.!! ~g?...~ .. Locality 3 5140+90 Shell Midden

Table 7.5: Chuck lake locality 1 Vertical Strati~raphy (Ackerman 1985) level RCYBP Description ....~.~.Y..~!.. ..~ F.g.~~.~.! .. !..\!!~r.' y.~.!.!9.~ ..r~.9 ...... ~.~X.~!.. ..? .7..~.§g,;!;;?.7..9. __ !?..!.?.~~ ..~.U.!Y. !g~~ .. Level 3 8220+125, 8180+130 Mollusk shell, sea urchin, other fauna ...... ,...... •••••••••••••••••••••t'l'r'W...... •1'I'ft'f ...... ~.~.Y..~L.4 ~.?n.9.Y. .. £lE?Y.~! 9.E?.y.!~r9..~D . ....~.~y.~! ? ~~.~.~.~.!9.~~! 9.?E.~..~!.g~.Q ~!.!.!y. t9.?.~ .. Level 6 Limestone bedrock

110 Name: Delta River Overlook (Med)

Number: XMH-00297

Region: interior

NHR Designation: DOE-K

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Owner: DOD

Basal Dates: 8555.:t380 rcybp

Complex: Denali (Holmes 2000)

Environment: The Delta River flows north out of the Alaska Range northern foothills and into the Tanana River. The region is filled with outwash fans, moraines, lowlands, foothills and to the south "rugged mountains with valley glaciers" (Holmes 1979). Bottomland spruce-poplar forest characterized the immediate vegetation (1979:6). The site occupies a steep bluff, now US Army

Observation Point 10 at Fort Greely, along the east edge of the Delta River at an elevation of -1650 feet (Holmes 1979). Lifted from the Delta River, eolian loess is continuously deposited on the site and surrounding uplands.

History: The first written reports were published by Holmes (1979) and

Leehan (1980) in hard to locate militarj reports. The original evaluation in 1978 found a handful artifacts with insufficient time to conduct test excavations.

Despite this, a few artifacts and charcoal from 10 cm above the lowest of two components were recovered (Holmes 1979).

111 Significance: The site likely has potential evidence of Denali occupations from the Early Holocene from -8.5 kya and is in a region where deeply stratified sites are hard to find and in danger of being destroyed. XMH-297, heavily used by US forces conducting artillery training, lies at the edge of a military bombing field. Because of its deeply stratified nature (Holmes 1979) it was one of the most significant sites found during Holmes' initial survey at Fort Greely.

The Delta River Overlook site and other small Denali work areas in the region represent a larger economic system in the Tanana River region (Holmes

2000). They were likely subsistence staging areas, like a "spike" radiating out from more substantial home base sites like Broken Mammoth and Swan Point on the North side of the Tanana River (Holmes 2000).

Artifacts and Features: Initial discovery of the site revealed, "five small translucent gray chert flakes, one basalt flake, a unifacially retouched translucent gray chert flake, and a small basalt biface fragment" from the lower occupations

-4 meters below the original surface. Also recovered was the charcoal sample that returned the date of 85552:380 rcybp from a stratigraphic layer 10 em above the lowest Cultural Component I containing artifacts (Holmes 1979:68).

Unfortunately, little information could be located with the actual artifact assemblage described and pictured in the 1979 report. None appear to be diagnostic (Holmes 1979:106) however they are suspected to be Denali complex

112 artifacts (Holmes 2000). Further evidence related to the tool assemblage is necessary to firmly establish this site as a Denali Complex site.

Integrity: This is a stratified site in aeolian loess and sand/silt deposition with excellent separation between culture zones. Holmes et al (Holmes and

Bacon 1982) describes the stratigraphy as being originally 5 meters thick, but eroded down to approximately half that in some areas of the site. The lower half is silt and sand deposits overlying glacial outwash gravel, the upper sand is more uniformly parallel beds. Although military use of the area as an observation point and bluff erosion have placed the site in danger of destruction, portions of it have likely remained intact at lower levels. US Army Research Alaska (USARAK) showed no interest in mitigating the damage.

Description: The stratigraphy consisted of six distinct cultural zones, nine original paleosols and two layers of tephra. Loess 1, deposited directly on top glacial outwash, was the lowest recorded stratum. The top of Loess 1, at the transition to Paleosol 1, dated to 8555±38C rcybp. Samples from the top of

Paleosol 1 and the bottom of Loess 2 returned a date 7190±200 rcybp. Cultural

Zone 1 lies at the top half of Loess 1 situated well below Paleosol 1.

Cultural Zone 2 is located just above Tephra Layer 1, which separates L2 and L3, precisely between Paleosol 2 and Paleosol 3. Dates from the top of P1

(7190±200 rcybp) and from the bottom of P3 (6675.:t175 rcybp) provide a window of time for dating the occupation (Holmes and Bacon 1982). Later occupations

113 occurred as follows: CZ 3 was located in L4 at the base of P4. Samples from

CZ4 returned a date of 3980:t150 rcybp. CZ4 occurred in L5, just below Tephra

2. Tephra Layer 2 separates L5 and L6 and occurs a total depth below the original surface of nearly 3 meters or approximately 50 em below the present surface. Paleosol 7 lies just above the Tephra 2 deposit. The final radiocarbon date, from near the bison bone in L6, returned a radiocarbon date of 2280:t145 rcybp. Bison remains were recovered from the site and this is significant because, in Alaska, few sites have yielded such data (Holmes and Bacon 1982), especially dating to the mid-late Holocene period.

Table 7.6: Delta River Overlook (Holmes 1979, Holmes & Bacon 1982) Stratigraphy Cultural Zone .... em RCYBP ....~g.~~~ §. ".9..::?? " ?.?..~.9.;!;.1,.~.?. .. .r~y..I?..P.".(~.PP§:r2 . ... T.§:.P.~.f.~ ?" ??. ". ....~.9..~~~ ? " g?. ~ ".??.~.Q " ~.~.~.9.;!;.1"?9. .. r.~y..1?..P. ,, ..

::I;~~~~4:::::=:::~:~:~:~:~~:::::::::::::::: ::::¢.?::~:::b.§.~~::2.fp.+~::~::::::::' 4~:~:$.j:::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Paleosol 3 81-97 6675,±175 rcybp ...... ".."""" "...... " (I?.9.~9..~J.. " .. Loess 3 CZ 2 81-119 ••••_ _ _ , n , ....E.~J.§:g.~.9.! ?.!.T..~.P..~.r?.!"J " !1..~=.1 ..3~ 4.; "~ ""." "." ,, . Loess 2 134-140 ...... " - ...... P..9..I.§:g.~g.'...J __ 1.~.9.=.~ ..~? ?.1.~.9.;!;?..9..9. ...r~y..I?..P. ..(!.9.p) .. Loess 1 top 1/2 150-175 8555.±380 rcybp (top) CZ 1

114 Name: Donnelly Ridge (Med)

Number: XMH-00005

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: DXS

Repository: N/A

Land Ownership: Department of Defense

Basal Dates: N/A

Complex: Denali (West 1967)

Environment: The Donnelly Ridge site is located in the Northern Foothills of the Alaska Range on a north-south trending ridge at 788 meters above sea level near Donnelly Dome, a prominent geological feature along the eastern edge of the Delta River -40 km south of its confluence with the Tanana River near

Delta Junction in the Interior region of Alaska. Most of the vegetation cover near the site and in the surrounding region is low laying tundra shrub (West 1996a).

History: Michael Brady initially discovered Sites along the Donnelly Ridge in 1963 as artifacts had been exposed in wind blowouts. The Donnelly Ridge site was completely (100%) excavated in 1964 (West 1996a: 303).

Significance: The Donnel!y Ridge site was included in the Donnelly

Archaeological District and was a key type site in the development of the Denali complex (West 1967). West (1996:305) described the lithic technology of the

Denali complex as "one of the most complex and efficient devices to have

115 developed in the realm of lithic technology" and a product of a rugged Ice Age

environment. Today, the site's significance centers on its impact in the history

and development of our knowledge of Alaska prehistory, especially the concept

of the Denali complex and Donnelly burins. However, the site lacks definitive

proof of its age, because it is a near - surface site with little soil deposition or

stratigraphy and no datable organic material had been preserved.

Integrity: Archaeological excavation completely removed all cultural

material present; therefore, it retains little in the way of site structural integrity

(West 1967).

Artifacts and Features: The site produced 1513 artifacts, over 1/3 were utilized, mostly comprised of core and blade artifacts typical of Denali complex sites. West described the core styles as wedge-shaped with single facets (1996:

303). Characteristic burin spalls are associated byproducts of the wedge-shaped core and blade technology generated when a fresh platform-striking surface made for blade removal. These distinct by-products ';,'Jere made ,,",hen the "spall then hinged up about one-fourth to one-third of the distance back from the face.

A stop notch on the top at that point ensured the termination of the core tablet spall there and prevented the entire core top from being carried away" (\Nest

1996a: 303). A "side-blow" notch created another distinctive by product of the technology called a termination flake. Other artifacts from the site included burins, end scrapers, bifaces, and large blades (West 1996a).

116 Name: Gallagher Flint Station (No Rank)

Number: PSM-00050

Region: interior

NHR Designation: NHL (Bowers 1983)

Repository: N/A

Land Ownership: "State per B.King 5/12/93 memo" (AHRS 1997)

Basal Dates: 6960:t.90AMS, 10,540±150

Complexes: Paleoarctic, Northern Fluted Point (Ferguson 1997b)

Environment: Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL) is nearby a cluster of early sites including Putu-Bedwell and Hill Top near the North Ridge of the Brooks Range (Bever 2001 b, Gal 1980). More specifically Gallagher Flint

Station is located west of the upper Sagavanirktok River "situated on a large ice contact kame formed during the Antler Valley stage of the Itkillik glaciation, a

[LGM] event" (Dixon 1975:68).

HistC)l"'j: The site was discovered by BLM archaeologists (Gal 1980) and excavated by E. James Dixon, Jr. in 1970,1971 and again in 1974 (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999:175), when an early microblade component was identified as possibly dating beyond 10,000 rcybp (Dixon 1975). The NHL was nominated on

nd June 2 , 1978 (AHRS 1997).

Bowers (1983) undertook an extensive restoration project at the site where he of backfilled previously excavated units and transplanted vegetation to

117 minimize the erosion of in situ artifacts. Blades, microblades, core fragments and

flakes were discovered in the backfill and were reburied near the datum for

Locality I, in plastic bags with a US penny dated to 1983. Specific site

boundaries were enlarged to accurately encompassed the artifact distributions

Bowers (1983:11) made recommendations for procedures to properly complete final analyzes of the materials previously recovered.

Significance: A lengthy series of occupations have deposited cultural material spanning 10,500 to 970 rcybp and although preservation is generally poor, evidence of pottery, wood and bone occur in addition to a large quantity of

Iithics (Dixon 1975, Bowers 1983). The site was primarily used as a quarry site and it represents evidence pertaining to the topic "expanding the American

3 Source: Bowers 1983 Table 1 page 5. 118 economy" (NPS 2003b) because of its association with the production of lithic tools.

Integrity: "[Three] localities were originally distinguished on the basis of vertical stratigraphy, spatial relationships, typological comparison and radiocarbon chronology" (Dixon 1975:68). Additional research revealed between

10 to 13 separate localities (Bowers 1983).

Ferguson (1997b) has questioned the relationship of the sample dated to

10,540±150 rcybp. He suggests it originated from "shallow and poorly defined deposits" at a reported depth of 25cm. That depth is at odds with the field notes which reported that only two carbon samples were taken, neither from more than

10-15 em below the surface. The core and blade material from Locality 1, collected relatively close to the surface, was not from the same level as the 14C sample. The few artifacts from "low in the stratigraphy" were likely the result of secondary deposition (Ferguson 1997b).

Artifacts and Features: "Locality I contains percussion-flaked cores, blades, platform flakes, unifacially retouched artifacts and waste flakes. Burins and bifacially chipped stone artifacts are lacking.... these artifacts were [from] calcareous mudstone" (Dixon 1975:68). Locality IA was a small cluster that contained "bifacial projectiles a drill and waste flakes" made from a fine-grained chert (Dixon 1975:68). Locality IA was a component superimposed in the southeastern region of Locality I dated to 2620±175 rcybp. The artifacts included

119 "two bifacial point fragments and a drill, all of green-gray chert" (Dixon 1975:69).

Locality I contained core and blade technology but it did not contain bifaces or

burins. It did produce "120 core and core fragments" which included tabular,

conical and wedge shaped styles (Dixon 1975:69).

Artifacts from Locality II included "burins and bifacially chipped artifacts

distributed around two hearths. Fine grade cherts are common and pressure

flaking is characteristic of most of the specimens" (Dixon 1975:68).

Tentative conclusions (Bowers 1983) regarding technologic classification

of the artifacts from each locality suggests only a single Paleoarctic occupation

(Locality I) occurred at the site, one Northern Archaic occupation (Locality III) and

five definitive Arctic Small Tool tradition localities (lA, II, IV, VII, VIII). Locality V

contained a mixture of all the technologies and VI, IX-XIII where unidentifiable

(Bowers 1983).

Description: "Localities I and IA are located in the northwest quadrant of

the site and Locality II in the southeast quadrant. Locality I! is approximately 100

feet (30.5m) from I and IA and is on the opposite side of the kame" (Dixon

1975:68). There were as many as 13 clusters of artifacts on the southern

surface of the kame (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Twelve radiocarbon samples were taken from 6 of these localities and all date between 3200 and 1000 rcybp

(Hamilton and Goebel 1999:175). Eleven of the thirteen main clusters have

revealed non-diagnostic artifacts. Only two localities had dates beyond 8000 yrs

120 rcybp. One with six samples that ranged between 11,000-2500 rcybp (Hamilton

and Goebel 1999:175). Hamilton & Goebel (1999:176) cited D. E. Ferguson

(1997b) who claimed the 1O,540±.150 year old sample was from stratigraphically

lower than the main occupation layer. They claim the 6960±.90AMS date was more accurate for the site (Ferguson 1997b, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:175 Ferguson

1997a) but the >10,000 rcybp date from Locality I cannot be completely ruled out.

Table 7.8: Gallagher Localities (Ferguson 1997a, Hamilton & Goebel 1999) Horizontal Stratigraphy RCYBP Vertical Level ....~g.9..?E!y. !...... §.§'?.Q';;;.~.9.~~~1....1 ..9..1..?..4..9..*..1..?..Q...... ~~y.~.!...? ...... ~g.9..?!..i.!y. !.A ???.Q,;;;J..?.§ ~.~y.~.!..J .. Locality II 1660+140,2920+155,3280+155 Levell

Table 7.9: Stratigraphy at all Three Gallagher Localities4 Stratigraphy Characteristics Locale RCYBP -inches Levell Surface organic L lA, L 2 2620±.175, ~3 inches ...... ~?..?..9.,;;;.~ ..9..?. ..(~P..9.E?.9..!.9.L ..,, .. ,·..t:~:: .. ·~·· ..··..··..··········..·,·..~i~~·~· ..~9.·~·~·~··· ...... ·..I..,·h···]········..····..·..···....··I·..~·B:~4~;1~·~6·· ..···.. ····'1··t~;af~={~if~j)···· .. I

4 Source: Dixon 1975, Ferguson 1997a, Hamilton and Goebel 1999 121 Name: Ground Hog Bay 2 (High)

Number: JUN-00037

Region: Southeast

NHR Designation: NRXCL

Repository: Washington State University land Owner: US Fish and Wildlife

Basal Dates: 9, 130.:t130 rcybp

Complex: Denali (variant) (Ackerman 1974, Matson and Coupland 1995)

Environment: The site is on a terrace along the shore of Ground Hog

Bay, located in the northern reaches of Icy Strait (Ackerman 1974:3). Icy Strait is located south of Skagway and west of Juneau (Ackerman 1971: Fig. 1). It is an area of deep fiord-like waterways bounded by rapidly shelving beaches and steep cliffs. The mainland to the north, dominated by an extension of the Chilkat

Range, rises up to 1500 meters. In front of the terrace are several small islands surrounded by shallow seas (Ackerman 1971).

During the Pleistocene, glaciers covered the Chilkat Mountains. Today, remnant mountain valley glaciers remain (Ackerman 1971). The region was initially deglaciated approximately 11,000 rcybp when a rise in sea level submerged the site under -15 meters of seawater. Isostatic rebound was measured in 1971 when the site was -14 meters above sea level. This process left beach ridge markers where the sea made contact with land during different

122 intervals of the rebounding process. Erosion during the terminal Pleistocene left signatures on Soil Zone IV (Ackerman 1980).

History: The site was the second discovered by R. Ackerman in his 1965 survey for the National Park Service in Glacier Bay National Monument and the surrounding regions (Ackerman 1974:1). During the evaluation, 179 stone artifacts and 45 organic artifacts were recovered, including a microblade core and a single microblade (Ackerman 1971). After the site's initial discovery and evaluation, Ackerman (1974) conducted excavations in 1971 and 1973, establishing the great antiquity of early Alaskans on the Southeast Alaskan coast

(Matson and Coupland 1995).

Significance: Ackerman (1996a) described GHB2, Hidden Falls and the

Namu (BC) sites as the first to establish maritime subsistence lifeways on the

Northern Northwest coast of North America. The GHB2 site contained mUltiple components representing three cultural phases demonstrating Denali migrations into the region (Ackerman 1996a).

Artifacts and Features: At Ground Hog Bay, two of three phases dated beyond 8000 rcybp. The middle component contained microblade core and blade technology with occupations between 4180±65 and 8880±125 rcybp.

Radiocarbon dates from the earliest component, containing bifacial projectile points, were dated between 9130.:t130 and 10,180.:t800 rcybp (AHRS 1997).

Ackerman suggested that the microblade technology likely dated between 5000

123 and 9000 rcybp. The unique microblade technology, with some use of obsidian, could be associated with the end of the "Denali complex continuum" based solely on artifact typology. The core and blades were similar, but not identical, to

Denali core and blade technology in the interior (Ackerman 1974, Matson and

Coupland 1995).

The earliest Component 1/1 dated to the Terminal Pleistocene/Early

Holocene and contained scattered artifact clusters and fire hearths. The early occupations on the beach ridges produced two dates; 10, 180±800 and a second more reliable date of 9, 130±130 rcybp associated with obsidian bifacial fragments (Ackerman 1974:3). Artifacts from Component /II occupations consisted of two percussion flaked obsidian bifacial fragments, a water rolled chert scraper, and five argillite flakes (Ackerman 1980).

Component /I was separated from Component III by a thin layer of sterile yellowish clay (Ackerman 1980). Component /I was the middle and most extensive occupation, showing little stratigraphic separation into distinct cultural zones. Recovered from it were fire-cracked rock and hearth features including charcoal, burned bone, cobbles, and a lithic assemblage found in the sandy loam with microbiade and macroblade core and blades, flakes, choppers, scrapers, utilized flakes, bifacial fragments and detritus, a technology believed to be a

Denali complex variant (Ackerman 1974, Matson and Coupland 1995).

124 Charcoal, sampled from the top and bottom of the excavation, yielded dates of

3750±100 rcybp and 8230±130 rcybp. (Ackerman 1974:3-4).

Component I from Soil Zone II represented a break in the long continuum of occupations represented by the microblade using peoples in Component II and it had no association with the Denali groups. It contained a plank shelter with decorative beads and toggling harpoon heads. This component was dated between 2500 and 400 rcybp (Ackerman 1980).

Integrity: In 1965, a six-meter trench was excavated in the region down slope from the terrace (Ackerman 1971). Although parts of the earliest occupations were disturbed during the construction activities of later inhabitants, there were areas left unaffected by later postholes. In addition, a thin layer of sterile gravel separated Component III from Component II (Ackerman 1974:2).

Description: Six geologic levels (Soil Zones I-VI) contained three cultural components. Average excavation depths measured to 75 em to a basal gravel designated Zone VI. Cultural Component i, in Soii Zone ii, was enciosed in gravels and forest loam. Cultural Component II was assigned to Soil Zone IV described as course pebbles and small cobbles, a lag concentrate, with finer sediments (Ackerman 1996b). Ackerman (1971) described the lowest levels as yellowish clay with small pebbles and large boulders, likely glacial till. Artifacts from the lowest Zones V and VI were "rolled", a common disturbance found in water worn artifacts (Ackerman 1971). Soil Zone V contained Cultural

125 Component III and was described as "beach sands and gravels" in a layer of clay

(Ackerman 1980). A detailed stratigraphic profile, including 27 radiocarbon dates, accurately dated the three cultural components and site abandonment

(Ackerman 1996c).

Table 7.10: Ground Hog Bay 2 (Ackerman 199Gb: Fig 9-5 and text). Stratigraphy Component RCYBP Sediment Soil Zone I Duff ···SoW·Zo·ne..·jj·..· ··..·-c..i···..··_··..··..·..··..··.. ···1··35±50:···1·55:t85·;,·····,··..··,··· ·..G'rav·eis..&..Forest"Co·am ···· 235±60,345±85 455±85, 570±90, ...... _.._ _...... ~9.!?;t~.?.1 .. ~}9;!;,?g . SZ Ilia 1525±85,1960!65, Dark brown humus SZ IIlb 2240±450, 2300±445, Charcoal lens SZ IIlc 2575±75,2970!90, Gravel ...§??..!.1.1.9 _._._ _._._._..}?.?.9~.?.9..L~.?.!?.9~.1g.O' !?.r.9..~~.. ~!. I~ . Soil Zone IV C II 4155±95, 4180!65, Dark brown loam with cobbles 5360±90, 5770!95, 6755±110,7545±185, 8230+130 8880+125 :::§£!L~9.:~i:V.::::::::::: ~~:=::=:~::=:=:=:=:::::. . ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::Y~!E?~!:~6.::¢.:!~y.::~Ii~~!:i~;:j)f.C:::::::::::::::::::: :~:::::::::::::: Soil Zone VI C III 9130±130,9220±80, 10,180+800 Basal Gravel

126 Name: Healy Lake Village (Med)

Number: XBD-20

Region: Interior

Land Ownership: Native Allotment

NHR Designation: NRXCL

Repository: University of Alaska Fairbanks

Dates: L10-10,500.:t280, L9-9401.:t528, L8-11,090.:t170, L7-11,550.:t50 AMS, L6-

11 410+60AMS L5-5000+60AMS L4-8960+150 L3-3350+50AMS L2-4460+60AMS '-' -' -' -' -'

900.:t90 to modern (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Complex: Nenana, Denali, Athapaskan

Environment: The site is located on a bench protruding into Healy Lake from its eastern edge, approximately 55 kilometers east of Delta Junction or'" 70 kilometers east of the Broken Mammoth site in the Tanana River Valley (Cook

1996).

History: Test excavations at the site began in 1966 by Robert McKennan,

John Cook, William Workman, and AD. Shinkwin. The tests revealed great potential for recovery of early archaeological materials, and seasonal excavations began the following summer, continuing through 1972. The site became the subject of Cook's PhD dissertation at the University of Wisconsin

(Cook 1969).

127 The site has significance in the history of Alaskan archaeological theory because of the discovery of the diagnostic Chindadn projectile point and the development of the Chindadn complex (Cook 1969, 1996: 327). The Chindadn complex was later incorporated into the Nenana complex following the discovery of Dry Creek, Moose Creek, Panguingue Creek and Walker Road (Goebel et al

1991, Hoffecker 2001) containing the technology in the Nenana River Valley.

Significance: The earliest occupations at the site lie beneath a later

Athapaskan village (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). The tool assemblage suggested a home base occupation and subsistence strategies similar to other early sites in the region. The artifact assemblage suggested possible connections between the early Chindadn complex and modern Athapaskans

(Cook 1975:128-129). However, there was a gap in the stratigraphic sequence spanning -4000 rcybp, rendering a direct connection between the lower and upper assemblages difficult. The lack of artifacts from the middle Holocene has been suggested to be due to the "lateral migration of the Tanana River" (Ager

1975:63), causing Healy Lake to run dry and the occupants to leave the area.

This suggestion is supported by core samples which indicate that a 4000 year dry period took place beginning approximately 8000 rcybp and ending approximately 4000 rcybp (Ager 1975, Hamilton 1973).

Artifacts and Features: Simple flakes, microblades, wedge-shaped microblade cores and bipolar cores were recovered. The diagnostic artifacts

128 recovered were the "Chindadn" tear-shaped projectile points; other projectile points were lanceolate in style. Included in the Chindadn assemblage were unifacial and bifacial side-scrapers; and end-scrapers; angle, dihedral, and transverse burins; a "notched tool"; gravers; and oval, triangular, and lanceolate bifacial preforms. The large assemblage of scrapers and preforms were in strong association with burnt earth, burnt bone, and waterfowl fauna in a hearth or hearth smear consistent with typical Chindadn occupations (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999).

Integrity: The soil column was approximately 75 em thick, but ranged from 50 to 100cm tick, and was generally unstratified. Cryoturbation and rodent burrows decreased the site's structural integrity. Despite these disturbances, below the organic layer (10 em thick) four soil horizons (A2, B2, A2b, B2b) were distinguished (Cook 1969, 1996). The C-horizon had been divided into 2 non distinct layers characterized by a gradual transition from C1 into C2 (Cook 1969).

PiOblems with stratigraphic disturbance lead to the excavation of the site in 5cm arbitrary levels; however, because the site was positioned on a sloping lakeshore, and each unit was excavated arbitrarily, the excavated levels did not correlate between units (Cook 1996), adding to a confusing sequence of artifacts and radiocarbon samples depicted below in Table 7.11.

Description: Three "cultural stages" were identified through artifact assemblages and radiocarbon dating taken from the surface downward,

129 identified cultural stages included Cl-1 (attributed to the so-called Athapaskan tradition), Cl-2 described as "transitional" and Cl-3 associated with the

Chindadn complex. Due to the lack of stratigraphic integrity, the site was excavated in 5 em arbitrary levels to a maximum depth of 50cm. The

Athapaskan tradition occupations, confined to L1I were stratigraphically above the transition zone in L4 and the Chindadn occupations dispersed from L6 through L10. FOrty-two radiocarbon dates were recovered from the site, including 16 AMS samples (Cook 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999). The three radiocarbon samples from the Athapaskan L1 occupation ranged in date from modern to 900:t.90 rcybp. Four samples submitted from L-4 returned dates of

2150:t.180, 3020:t.50, 401 0:t.11 0 and 8960:t.150. Two samples from L5 , one modern and one 5000:t.60AMS, indicate the confusing nature of the stratigraphy and excavation techniques (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Levels 6 through 10 contained the diagnostic Chindadn artifacts in disturbed context. Radiocarbon samples ranged in age from approximately 5000 to over 11000 rcybp however these were not in stratigraphic sequence indicating disturbance (Cook 1996).

130 Table 7.11: Heal lake Villa e Site (Cook 1996, Hamilton at aI1999:188) level RCYBP - em Com onent L 1 Modern, 455:t130, 900:t90 0-5 Athapaskan ••·•···•·•····•·····•···•·······•···..· ·· ·A\\)\s ··..·..··· ..• ·· ·;r./;/fS· ·· · ··..···· · .. L 2 4460:t60 - 380:t50 6 samples 5-10 ·· ··..· ·· · A\\)\s ··.. ·····..·.. fi\\)\5 ··.. ···· . L 3 3350:t50, 2660:t100, 1790:t50 10-15 ...... ·..·· fi\\)\S· ····· ...... ~ 4...... +150, 4010:t110, 3020:t50 ,2150:t180 t?::?q ~.f..?Q.~.!!!.

131 Name: Hidden Falls (Low)

Number: SIT-00119

Region: Southeast

NHR Designation: DOE-K (Clark, G. 1978)

Repository: N/A

Land Ownership: US Forest Service, Tongass

Basal Dates: -9500 rcybp (Davis 1990)

Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade tradition (Ackerman 1996a)

Environment: The site is located -200 km south of the Ground Hog Bay 2

site (Davis 1989, Matson and Coupland 1995). Stanley Davis (1980)

characterized the region as steep fjords with high mountains, dense forest and

glaciers reaching the water's edge. The site is located in Southeast Alaska

approximately 25 miles from Sitka along the outer edge of the Northwest coast of

North America. It lies in a "low saddle on a small point jutting into Kasnyku Bay with a freshwater lagoon to the west and Chatham Strait to the east" (Davis

1980).

History: The recent history of the site began in 1978 when artifacts were

unearthed during the development of a salmon hatchery. It suffered a great amount of destruction upon its discovery, as a bulldozer plowed it through.

Excavations began shortly after in an attempt to salvage what remained (Davis

1980, Davis (ed) 1989).

132 Significance: This site has already been determined eligible based on

Criteria D of the National Register (Clark 1978) because it yielded information

important to prehistory. It was the second site excavated in Southeastern Alaska

that established Early Americans in the region ~10,000 rcybp (Clark 1978, Davis

1980). Data recovered from between 1,000 and 4,500 rcybp provided

information from a period, which is little understood (Davis (ed) 1989). The site

contained an impressive assemblage of core and blade technology in the lowest

component of the site (Davis (ed) 1989, Matson and Coupland 1995). Ackerman

(1996) included the Hidden Falls site, GHB2 and the Namu site in British

Columbia as the earliest human occupations on the Northwest Coast of North

America (Ackerman 1996). Although both microblades and ground stone

artifacts were found, there was "no evidence of a transition from the microblade technology to a ground stone-and-bone industry" (Davis 1996).

Integrity: The site was well preserved in stratified sediments. A road cut associated with the construction of a fish hatchery destroyed the center portion of the site (Davis 1980, Davis (ed) 1989). Excavations, on either side of the road cut revealed the deeply stratified occupations at Hidden Falls. The obsidian artifacts in C-I, although slightly mixed, displayed no evidence of edge-wear or rounding typically associated with glacial action. The earliest cultural deposits

(C-1) in stratigraphic Zones I, H1 and G were well documented by 14C

133 sequencing with fourteen dates between 7175±155 and 10,345±95 rcybp (Davis

(ed) 1989, Davis 1996).

Artifacts and Features: There were five components documented. The

latest in time was an historic sawmill. Beneath the mill was prehistoric

Component III, located in Zones C and D, where two fire hearth features dated to

1370±70 rcybp. Artifacts found in association with the hearths were not

diagnostic but included a stirrup-handled maul fragment, stone abraders, ground

stone and waste flakes (Davis, S. (ed) 1989).

Component III, found in Zone D, contained additional artifacts and features, mostly concentrated in a reddish brown lens as thick as 20cm.

Features from this lens included shell midden and rock accumulations. Artifacts from the lens-included ground slate knives and projectile points, adzes, abraders,

bone points, tooth pendants, shell beads and waste flakes (Davis 1989). Davis

(1989:42) provided a date between 2,300 and 1,300 rcybp and suggested the occupation events were intermittent, representing periods of abandonment and

re-occupation possibly related to seasonal use.

Other evidence from Component III included numerous faunal remains, in part due to the number of shellfish and the increased levels of calcium carbonate.

Fish represented the majority (over 67%) of the total bone weight; whale was also significant subsistence resource (9%). Dog represented roughly half of the

134 land animal remains. In general, the dietary practices appeared to be extremely diverse, including both large and small animals and birds (Davis (ed) 1989).

Component II had less preservation due to lesser amounts of shell and the occupation was small, believed to be a short-term event making dietary conclusions from the data difficult. Davis (1989:44) estimated C-II dated between 3200 and 4600 rcybp. He described the artifacts as a "saw-and-snap slate technology" (1989:44). It included used flakes, ground stone projectile points, stone beads, labrets and ground adzes (1989:44). Faunal remains included large amounts of whale. Additional sea mammals, other than whale, nearly equaled the number of land mammals. In contrast, supplementary sea resources comprised only 3% and included mostly unidentifiable fish. Bird utilization appeared in smaller numbers (Davis (ed) 1989).

The earliest occupation was Component I discovered first in Zone G due to mixing with the lower levels of Component II. They could be distinguished easily based on soil characteristics and artifact types (1989:44). Artifacts from

Component I continued through Zone Hi. Those deposits included ground stone and bone tools, split cobble, microblade core and blade, blade-like flakes, a primary spall, an unifacial blade or point, burins, side scrapers, core scrapers, notched scrapers, abrader, an incised stone, choppers, hammerstones, unifacial tools, and waste flakes or debitage. Over 600 artifacts were recovered and 414 waste flakes (Davis 1996, Davis (ed) 1989). Of the fourteen-microblade cores,

135 nine were complete. Seven of the cores (3 obsidian, 1 quartzite, 3 other) were classifiable into two stylistic categories, wedge-shaped on flakes (2) and split pebble (5) (Davis (ed) 1989).

Description: Stanley Davis (1989:41) described four cultural and ten geologic stratigraphic layers designated A through J2 beginning with the surface.

Zone A, modern topsoil, was a 01-02 horizon covered with Sitka Spruce and

Western Hemlock saplings. The historic sawmill component of the site was located in the Zone A horizon. At the base of Zone A was Component III, the latest of the prehistoric occupations.

Stratigraphic Zone 8, described as a 02 organic horizon, had a Munsel chart color determination of 5 YR 2.5/1, moist (Davis (ed) 1989). Zone 8 was water saturated and capped two addition cultural components, C and D. Davis

(1989:42) described his confusion while assessing the strata. Zone C, although appearing as a distinct cultural zone, formed through hydraulics and root action.

Zone D ranged in thickness between 20 em and a full meter in places dissipating along site margins. It was comprised of silt and sand matrix with a with a Munsel color of dark gray, 7.5 YR 2.5/0 moist with flecks of charcoal throughout. Larger granite fragments or cobbies were aiso present.

Zone E was a paleosol 3 to 20 em thick and contained up to 60 % organic matter making it a dark brown or black in color with a moist Munsel reading of 2.5

YR 3/3 (Davis (ed) 1989). Three sub zones E1, E2 and E3 divided the layer.

136 Component III, found in layer E2, dated between 3000 and 2,500 rcybp. It included features of shell lenses and artifacts similar to those described above in

C-1I1 (Davis 1989:43).

Zone F was thicker in deposition ranging up two 150 cm and was dark reddish brown in color. It was comprised of granite gravels mixed with charcoal and other organic materials. Zone F contained the cultural horizon designated

Component II. Preservation from Zone F was poor because of lesser levels of shell (Davis (ed) 1989).

The bottom levels of Zone F were slightly intermixed with the upper levels of Zone G. Zone G, a transitional horizon, was between Zones F and I. The cultural material was mixed in Zone F. Component I began to occur in Zone G described as the "upper level of the glacial deposits" and as a transition into Zone

H1 (Davis (ed) 1989). Zone H1 was course sand and boulders. Zone I was described as being -75 cm in Area B of the excavation with a Munsel color of 7.5

YR 3/3. The stratum was an organic lens paleosol comprised of twigs, wood fragments, roots, needles and cones from Mountain Hemlock in a matrix of course sand. Zone I held the Component I cultural material dated by radiocarbon as the earliest occupations of beginning -10,400 rcybp and ending -8,000 rcybp when it was abandoned due to an early Holocene glacial advance. The most convincing deposits in Component I was a "possible hearth feature" which returned a date of -9200 rcybp (Davis (ed) 1989).

137 Table 7.12: Hidden Falls (Davis (ed) 1989 pgs. 42-44) Strata RCYBP Description Component Cm thick ...~gD.~ ..~ !Y.1g9.~E.~ !~.P~gJ.!.. !j.!~!~.r.!g ...... Zone B ON...... Water saturated C III , . ...?9.D.~ 9 t:!.Y~E.§.~.!.!g.~ §.:.. r.9.g~ ~9.~~.9.!.! '" g..!.!.! .. Zone 0 1370+70 Silt-sand matrix/charcoal C III 20-100 ...... "'"' , . ... f9..~.~ ~..1...... p..~!..~.9.~.9.! ?.Q.!~ 9.t9§D.i.~ ~.:?.Q .. ...f9.D.~ ~.? .!D.!!!.§.!...Q~g.!:!.p.~!!.~~ f !.!..! .. Zone E3 2500-3000 Paleosol ...... _ ,. . ...f9.D.~ F...... R.~9.9..!.~b ~.r.9.!Y.~.! gE.~y.~!.. 9. !.! ?:..1..~g .. ... f9.n.~ ~ ::::.~.9.g.Q Ir.~D.~!.!.~9.D~!.! g!.§g!.§.1....9.~.P.2~!!:? g !...... f9.n.~ !j.1 ::::.~?.9..Q !.:\~!.§!!.9D !!.!!..! ~9..~.r.~~ ~.§.Q.9. g...I. !j.~§E!b .. Zone I -10,400 Organic lens, twigs, sand CI >75

138 Name: Hill Top (Low)

Number: N/A

Region: N/A

NHR Designation: None

Repository: N/A

Land Ownership: N/A

Basal Dates: 10,360 rcybp (Bever 2001a:101)

Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001 :94 Bever 2000, 2001a)

Environment: Hill Top is located in a cluster of early sites along the North

Ridge of the Brooks Range including the Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL) and Putu-Bedwell (Bever 2001 b, Gal 1980). It is -250 km from Mesa and "a few miles below the confluence of Atigun River and Sagavanirktok Rivers. Like the

Mesa site, it occupies the top of a prominent geologic feature (Bever 2001a).

History: Initial testing of the site began in 1970 and continued in 1973

(Bever 2001 a).

Significance: The Hill Top site has provided information on the economic and hunting lifeways of early Alaskan using Mesa technology in the Brooks

Range. Bever (2000, 2001a and 2001b) and Ackerman (2001) have documented the Mesa sites, including Hill Top, and it remains one of the best defined Paleoindian complexes in Alaska.

139 integrity: Many of the flakes recovered from the original investigations were given a single catalog number and more than 1300 artifacts are missing entirely (Bever 2001 a), Site integrity was difficult to ascertain during this research.

Artifacts and Features: The site contained Mesa style projectile points and waste flakes. Artifacts consistent with repairing and rehafting activities included large amounts of projectile point fragments and "tools manufactured from the byproducts of a bifacial technology" (Bever 2001a:104).

Description: The area was 150 m2 concentrated in two localities designated east and west. The majority of artifacts originated in the western locality where two radiocarbon samples were recovered from the highest concentration of artifacts (Bever 2001a).

140 Name: Hog Island (High)

Number: UNL-115

Region: Aleutians

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: Museum of the Aleutians

Land Ownership: Ounalashka Corp

Basal Dates: 80502:80, 7950±90 (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :12)

Tradition: Anangula Core & Blade

Environment: Hog Island is located in Unalaska Bay northwest of Dutch

Harbor and Amaknax Island. The site lie between two radio towers on the southeastern side of the island (Veltre et al 1984).

History: The traditional name for the island is Ukaadax and at least three archaeological sites exist there (Veltre et al1984). Richard Knecht conducted additional archaeological survey and testing in one of the blowouts from which core and blade material was eroding. He returned to the site, again in 1999, to conduct follow up investigations (Dumond and Knecht 2001).

Significance: As one of the earliest occupations known from the

Aleutians, Hog Island is significant as evidence related to the initial peopling of that part of Alaska. It is especially significant because it contains evidence of a living structure (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :27), a rarity in early Alaskan sites.

141 Integrity: Surveys by Knecht noted further erosion of core and blade artifacts from blowouts (Dumond and Knecht 2001). The site was located

U[w]ithin the Dutch Harbor Naval Operating Base and Ft. Mears NHL (UNL-120)" but the UNL-115 site (Hog Island) does not contribute to that NHL designation.

Military activity on Hog Island has affected several of the sites; although wind eroded blowouts have had a greater impact on UNL-115.

Artifacts and Features:

There seems little doubt that the primary affinity of the people here... is to a population such as that of the... contemporary Anangula Blade... [dated] from some centuries before 8,000 [rcybp]. [The] five consistent determinations apparently most clearly from occupation surfaces in shallow depressions interpreted as houses... and calculated on the conventional radiocarbon half-life of 5568 years, yield a weighted mean age of 8002:!:.92 years (Dumond and Knecht 2001 :27).

Blades and flakes observed in a number of large, shallow blowouts (among 3-4 large radio antennas), which extend across much of the isiand's width. in '1997, Knecht, Dumond, and Dickson excavated three 2m x 2m test units and found a 10cm thick cultural layer, which yielded blades, microblades, microblade cores, burins, ocher grinders, and debitage... This is the second Anangula tradition site so far known" (AHRS 1997).

Dumond and Knecht (2001) published artifact descriptions and that inventory is paraphrased in the following: There were nine flaked cores and core preparation flakes including platform, ridged, core side and side-struck flakes.

Numerous blade segments were recovered both without retouch (369) and retouched (101). There were transverse burins (18), flake burins (10) and burin spalls (37) as well as miscellaneous scrapers (17) and end scrapers (7). There

142 were also found several pumice abraders (4), and an ochre grinding stone (1). It is important to note that, as was the case at the Anangula type-site, there were no biface implements at Hog Island (Dumond and Knecht 2001).

Description: The first stratigraphic level was only 5 to 10 em consisting of wind-eroded pyroclastic debris originating from Makushin Volcano (Dumond and

Knecht 2001: 10). The second stratigraphic level, described as "silt-like" matrix four-eight em thick, was red in nature but contained some sand sized pumice mixed in from the first layer. In this layer Dumond and Knecht (2001) note light charcoal stains and fragmentary blades. Below this was a sterile layer, described as blue-gray in color, upon a brown-gray bed of tephra. The cultural horizon at Hog Island was located in a blowout 10 cm below the surface

(Dumond and Knecht 2001).

143 Name: Koggiung (Low)

Number: NAK-00018

Region: Alaska Peninsula

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Oregon, Eugene

Land Ownership: US Government, Native Claim

Basal Dates: 7475:!:60, 7765:!:95, 7895:!:90 rcybp (Dumond 1981)

Complex: Koggiung (Dumond 1981)

Environment: The site is located in the Northern Alaska Peninsula

(Yesner 1998). "At Graveyard Point, on the east shore of Kvichak Bay, approx.

16km north of the mouth of Naknek River" (AH RS 1997). The site is located in the middle of a runway used by the cannery at the mouth of the Kvichak River

(Dumond 1981).

History: "During the winter of 1973-74 I, [Don Dumond], was informed by

Karen Wood VVorkman, then Alaska State Archaeologist, that fisherman had reported the finding of side-notched projectile points on a runway at a cannery near the mouth of the Kvichak River, at a place known as Koggiung."

Paraphrasing Dumond continued; the site has had a lengthy history with local antiquarians who have often taken artifacts from there (Dumond 1981).

144 Significance: The level of significance for Koggiung is low, local antiquarians heavily impacted the site and no artifacts are reported to remain

(Dumond 1981).

Integrity: "This heavily disturbed site is located at the north end of the abandoned airstrip, and east of the eroding cannery graveyard. Originally reported as a site with side-notched projectile points, investigations in 1974 and

1975 also produced evidence of a core and blade component" (AHRS 1997). As described, the area has often been a favorite for antiquarians and follow-up reports indicated no other artifacts remained (Dumond 1981).

Artifacts and Features: Dumond (1981) refers to the earliest occupation the Koggiung Phase, an early core and blade technology. Associated with this earliest component were 1114 total artifacts, including one hundred blades.

Paraphrasing Dumond (1981), the Koggiung assemblage included utilized blades, and blades with facets, burinized blades, non-utilized blades and blade cores (3). There were numerous flakes and a single end scraper, also core rejuvenation flakes (10). There was a single biface fragment associated with that early component. The later Graveyard phase represented the second component at the site, separated horizontally, and positioned in the stratigraphic level that was just above the Koggiung Phase occupation. It contained bifacial notched projectile points (Dumond 1981).

145 In addition to stone artifacts, "at least two and possibly as many as four temporary campfires" were located (Dumond 1981).

146 Name: Lime Hills, Cave 1 (Med)

Basal Dates: 15,690:t140, 13, 130:t180, and 9530:t60 rcybp

Complex: Denali (Ackerman, R. 2001 :94)

Landowner: Private?

Environment: The cave is found on the east side of the Lime Hills and is

.... 18 meters long by 2.5 meters high and 6.4 meters wide. The site is located between the Swift and Stony Rivers, upper tributaries of the Kuskokwim River, a short distance from Lime Village (Ackerman 1996c).

History: Dr. T. Bundtzen located the site while conducting geologic studies in the area in 1992. Ackerman began excavations in the summer of 1993

(Ackerman 1996c).

Significance: The site had excellent preservation with bison bones, displaying no sign of human modification, dated to 27,950:t560 rcybp. Caribou bones with possible "butchery cut-marks" (Ackerman 1996c) returned a date of

15,690:t140 rcybp and additional caribou remains, also possibly modified by humans dated to 13, 130:t180 rcybp (Ackerman 1996c). The organic artifacts found at Lime Hills Caves are among the oldest documented in Alaska. Organic artifacts are rare from this early period and provide valuable evidence regarding non-lithic technological artifacts that rarely preserve.

147 Integrity: Cave-ins have continuously added sediment to the floor of the

caves which has stratigraphy, in good context, to a depth of over a meter. See

figure 10-6 by Ackerman (1996c) for this stratigraphic profile.

Artifacts and Features: Ackerman (1996c) located a stone adze, worked

antler, and the fragments of caribou in the initial test excavation near the south

entrance of the cave. In the main section of the cave, just inside the entry, the

stratigraphy was deeper. Additional faunal remains were uncovered, including a

Bison astragalus and a possibly utilized caribou metapodial from a depth of 115

em (Ackerman 1996c:470).

A fragment of a "broad bone point or knife" was located 58 em below

surface. Also, higher in the stratigraphy, in the central portion of the cave, were

remains of several species of bird. Below this was an "antler arrow head with a

beveled tang and narrow grooves on opposing faces for the insertion of

microblades" (Ackerman 1996c:470). A single microblade fragment was

discovered while processing charcoal for 14C samples. The sample dated to

9530:t60 (Ackerman 1996c:470).

Description: Two cultural components, an upper and lower, were defined

in the stratigraphy. The upper component included antler, bone and stone

artifacts and the lower was mostly faunal (Ackerman 1996c). A microblade fragment was recovered from charcoal in the laboratory. The antler projectile

point was also associated with an area directly above the 9530:t60 layer and was

148 similar in style and date to artifacts from Level III at Trail Creek Caves (Ackerman

1996c).

149 Name: Lisburne (Med)

Number: KIR-096

Region: Brooks Range

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Ownership: Bureau of Land Management

Dates: 8000 rcybp (AHRS 1997) 3470j:50 rcybp

Complex: Paleoarctic, Paleoindian, Arctic Small Tool, Northern Archaic

Environment: The Lisburne site is located 322km (200 miles) south of

Barrow, 80.5km (50 miles) northeast of Howard Pass on a bedrock bluff, with a

360 0 view, in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range at an elevation of 556.8 meters (1826.83 feet). It is situated on the eastern bank of the Iteriak Creek, an eastern tributary of the Etivluk River and is roughly 10km down stream of the

Mesa site, (Bowers 1982).

local vegetation in the region includes alpine tundra, dwarf birch, narrow leaf Labrador tea, cloudberry, moss and lichen. In the nearby drainage there is lush willow groves, while in the meadows there are cotton grass tussocks, monkshood and marigold (Bowers 1982).

History: The site was discovered and evaluation began in 1978 by USGS and BLM archeologists (Bowers 1979). Systematic shovel testing was preformed on a 4-foot interval (1.2m) grid system designed to systematically test 5% of the

150 site and define locale boundaries. Block excavations were centered on areas containing cultural deposits (Bowers 1982).

Significance: The site was use by prehistoric hunters as a lithic workshop, hunting overlook and lithic raw material quarry site (Bowers, P. 1979).

Area 22, one of two Paleoindian components, contained fluted and Mesa style projectile points with blood residue. DNA analysis from the fluted point indicated sheep and bear, or possibly just bear-if it ate the sheep (Bowers 1999). The

Mesa point also contained DNA residue, possibly mammoth and sheep (Bowers

1999, Loy and Dixon 1998)! If the evidence stands, it is the smoking gun establishing mammoth procurement in Alaska, and the site's priority should be raised from Medium to High, despite the lack of extensive radiocarbon data.

Integrity: Four separate cultural zones were identified A through D.

Culture Zone A was "the largest and most important locality within the site" and consisted of several designated activity areas. Locality A was reported to cover over 2787.09m2 (30,000 feet2), Locality B, 3251.61 m2 (35,000 feee) (Bowers

1979, 1982). A strong case a Paleoarctic tradition intrusion into Area 22, suggested that Paleoindian tools found there were contemporaneous with Mesa

(Bm,vers 1982). Based on the sampling methods described (Bowers 1982), significant portions of the site remain intact, thereby preserving much of the site's structural integrity_

151 Artifacts and Features: More than 47,000 artifacts were recovered from the Lisburne site. Approximately 98% were unused waste flakes suggesting primary reduction activities took place there. Most of the raw materials originated from a nearby quarry area or from cobbles in Iteriak Creek but non-local Batza

Tena obsidian was found in the form of waste flakes and microblades (Bowers

1982).

The two Paleoindian components contained fluted projectile points similar to those found at the Putu, Girls Hill, Kugurok River, Utukok, Batza Tena and the

Nakvakruak sites. One of two features associated with Area 22 consisted of fire cracked and reddened rocks (Bowers 1982:107). A soil sample from the 1970's contained a fleck of charcoal that was dated to 3470.:!::SOAMS rcybp (Bowers 1999).

The late Holocene date led to conclusions that the microblades found in Area 22 were intrusive into the Paleoindian component. In reality, the date and artifacts could be accurate and the occupation Late Paleoarctic. Further research is recommended.

Description: Multiple occupation events represented in twenty-seven activity areas (Bowers 1979). Two were Paleoindian, Areas 9 & 22, with some intrusive Paleoarctic artifacts (Bowers 1999).

The generalized stratigraphy at Lisburne reached a depth of 10 inches

(-2S.4cm) beginning with the organic topsoil (-S.1cm) capping the A horizon

(-10.2cm). The A horizon, dark gravelly loam, ranged in depth and was

152 periodically interrupted by the basal C horizon, decomposed chert and limestone

bedrock, through frost heaves. The B horizon appeared as inconsistent patches

of silty clay loam generally 6 to 8 cm in thickness (Bowers 1982:adapted from

Table 1 and Figure 4).

153 Name: Mead (High)

Region: Interior

Number: XBD-00071

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Owner: Private

Basal Dates: CZ 4-11 ,6002:80AMS, CZ 3-10,4602:11 OAMS, CZ 2-9220, CZ 1

14302:60

Complex: Nenana, Denali

Environment: The Mead site occupies the same bench as the Broken

Mammoth and Veasey sites, both considered Late Pleistocene sites (Yesner personal communication, VanderHoek personal communication, Holmes personal communication). They lie at the western edge above the Shaw Creek

Flats and are within 1.3 kilometers of one another.

History: Its original discovery resulted from construction activities for the

Richardson Highway (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). T. Pewe (1983) mapped the site in the 1960s when the first mammoth tusk fragment was discovered (Pewe and Reger 1983). Test excavations were conducted in the 1970s and then again in 1991 during construction on the Mead family house (Yesner 2000).

Significance: The significance of the Mead site has been determined by its association with other Terminal Pleistocene occupations in region, described as the Shaw Creek Flat sites (Mead, Broken Mammoth, Swan Point and the

154 Veasey site) (Yesner 2000). These are the oldest well-dated occupations in

Alaska (with the exception of the Veasey site which remains to be investigated).

The Shaw Creek sites have collectively contributed a variety of faunal and other data contributing to our understanding of the economic diversity in early Alaskan diets. Swan Point and Mead, by themselves, have yielded over 1,000 bone fragments (Yesner 1996).

Integrity: The site preserved at the base of two meters of loess under similar conditions as the other Shaw Creek Flats sites, where two cultural horizons in stratigraphic context were located near the basal gravel and dated to the Holocene Pleistocene boundary. Other occupations occur higher in the profile (Fig. 3 in (Yesner 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Artifacts and Features: The site was at first paleontological containing the remains of a mammoth, continued to produce mammoth tusk fragments when discovered by Pewe (Yesner 2000). Artifacts from Culture Zone 4 (CZ-4) included a projectile point made from proboscidean tusk (mammoth or mastodon); lithic waste flakes, biface fragments and a scraper. The occupation was reliably dated to -11,600 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:167-168).

Culture Zone 3 (CZ-3) was located above GZ-4 and dated between

-10,400 and 10,700 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:166). That occupation contained Denali complex artifacts. Both CZ 3 and CZ 4 contained well-

155 preserved faunal remains similar to those at Broken Mammoth but those remain unstudied (Yesner 2003 person communication).

Description: The geologic sequence, beginning with the basal levels, are described here as geologic Unit A at a depth of approximately 190 to 200cm below surface. Unit B ranged roughly around 50cm below surface where Unit C, the uppermost unit, terminated. The organic topsoil, characterized as sod and peat, ranged in depth from 0 to 10 em.

There are four cultural zones at the site. A total of eleven radiocarbon dates have been sampled, five were AMS and two were considered problematic

(*) CZ-1 revealed a date of 1430:t.60, CZ-2 4050:t.160, 6070:t.170, and

9220:t.370*. Three samples were submitted from CZ-3 7620:t.100*, 10,410:t.80AMS and 10,460:t.11 OAMS. A single sample between CZ-3 and CZ-4 returned a date of

10,760:t.170. CZ-4 has been dated by three samples 11 ,560:t.80 AMS , 11 ,600:t.80AMS and 17,370:t.90 AMS . The final date of >17,000 was taken from a fragment considered to be "o!d ivory", the likes of which often erode along the Tanana

River banks (Yesner 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Table 7.13: Mead. (Hamilton & Goebel 1999, Yesner 1996) Culture Zone RCYBP Complex ....Q:?::J J.4..~.9.!§.9. . CZ-2 4050+160, 6070+170, and 9220+370* ...... ~ _ l'ft'I'l\ ..mn . CZ-3 7620:t.100*, 10,41 0:t.80 AMS , 10,41 0:t.80 AMS , Denali 10,460+110 ...... , ~ , , ,...... Transition 10,760+170'"'"" , . CZ-4 11,560+80 AMS , 11,600+80 AMS and 17,370+90 AMS Nenana

156 Name: Mesa (High)

Number: KIR-102

Region: Brooks Range

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks land Ownership: United States Bureau of Land Management

Dates: -9,700-10,300 rcybp (Kunz et al 2003:19)

Complex: Mesa and some Paleoarctic tradition

Environment: The Mesa site is located on a bedrock knob rising 60 meters above the surrounding tundra along Iteriak Creek, a tributary of the

Colville River (Kunz and Reanier 1995). The Colville is the major drainage for the western Arctic Slope. The region is characterized as northern tundra with poplar thickets and shrubs mostly along tributaries; marshy muskeg covers permafrost in lowlands. Benches and ridges, once used as outlooks, rise above the tributaries in the Arctic Foothills of the Brooks Range providing ideal hunting posts for Early Americans (Kunz and Reanier 1995, 1996).

The Iteriak tributary was likely not glaciated at any point during the past

500,000 years with an ecosystem capable of providing plant and animal resources during prehistory (Kunz and Reanier 1996).

History: Mesa was discovered in 1978 during oil and gas related exploration. Test excavations took place in 1979 and 1980. Full excavations began in 1989 and continued between 1991 and 1999 (Kunz and Reanier 1994,

157 1996, Kunz et al 2003). "Most of the surface artifacts found at the site were

collected from [Locality A]" (Kunz et al 2003). Locality A had 100.5 grid squares

2 in four distinct activity areas equaling 1608 square feet (149.9 m ) excavated.

Locality Saddle had 23.5 grid squares removed from an area of 376 square feet

2 (34.9 m ) in size. Locality B had 56.5 grid squares removed totaling 904 square

2 feet (84 m ); and finally, the East Ridge location yielded a single block excavation

numbering 21 grid squares with 336 square feet (31.2) of material removed

(Kunz et al 2003:14).

Significance: Mesa quickly became a sensation among early American

researchers and the American public, appearing on the front page of the New

York Times (Wilford 1993), Chicago Tribune (Katz 1993), Anchorage Daily News

(Loy 1993) and in the Washington Post (Rensberger 1993). There were AMS

14C dates from a single hearth feature, which originally suggested occupations

before 11000 rcybp, although those dates are now disputed (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999). Agate Basin (Frison 1978) technology found in the Great Plains

shared similarities with Mesa and lead to claims that the Mesa complex

represented an ancestral technology to the Paleoindians in the lower United

States (Kunz and Reanier 1995,1996).

Evidence from the site suggested that early hunting outlook and retooling activities took place there. Broken projectile point bases discarded in favor of

newly fashioned tools were recovered. The production of preforms and bifaces

158 occurred at quarry sites away from the overlook (Kunz and Reanier 1994, 1995,

1996). Lithic raw material was obtained from locally available outcrops and stream cobbles. Similar activities have been described from interior early

Alaskan sites as an indication of people unfamiliar with local resources (Yesner

2001).

The Mesa complex, defined by Michael Bever (2001 a), includes artifacts from the Lisburne site, the Hilltop site, and the TES-012, and MIS-131 sites. The complex also includes the Spein Mountain site in Southwestern Alaska

(Ackerman 1996,2001). Bever (2001a) suspected that Tuluaq Hill could also be a Mesa complex site.

Integrity: Mesa has soil deposition 5 to 35 em deep (Kunz and Reanier

1994, 1996). Cryoturbation and mixing of strata have played a role in site formation (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Despite these disturbances, radiocarbon samples from the base of excavations atop the bedrock foundation indicate early occupations from 9,700 and 11,700 rcybp. Based on Kunz's initial strategy for excavation (see O'harra 1994), it is assumed some cultural material remains in situ at the Mesa site.

Artifacts and Features: Despite shal!ow stratigraphy and arctic frost conditions, 40 fire hearths were identified (Kunz et al 2003). Highly diagnostic artifacts include resharpened Agate Basin-like projectile points, "fluted", basal notched projectiles, large bifaces, end scrapers and spurred gravers (Kunz and

159 Reanier 1995, 1996). The assemblage and its location suggest hunting overlook activities. The majority of artifacts discovered were projectile points (154 complete and fragments) (Kunz et al 2003), with preforms or bifacial blanks numbering 80% of the total artifacts. Other artifacts included hammerstones and anvils, waste flakes (from tool reworking) and hematite (Kunz and Reanier 1996).

"All but two of the scrapers are associated with the only one [of the] hearths and that hearth appears to have food preparation activities associated with it" (Kunz et aI2003).

In addition to Paleoindian technologies at the Mesa site, there is an unrelated component consisting of microblades, wedge-shaped microblade cores and four examples of bifacial tool making found with Locality A. A total of 130 microblades were recovered and "at least 707 artifacts and detritus pieces can be assigned to the microblade component" (Kunz et al 2003:38). Four examples of bifacial tool making were found with one containing four flutes removed from each end and meeting in the middle on both faces of the artifact (Kunz et al

2003:35). Also associated with the component, was an apparent disk pendent or atlatl weight, described as a "skate-board wheel" (Kunz et al 2003:35).

Description: Radiocarbon analysis includes 51 samples submitted from

28 of the fire hearths (Kunz et al 2003). A date of 7620.:t95 has been disregarded after comparing the suspicious date to an archived sample

(10,060.:t70) taken from the same hearth feature (Kunz et aI2003:19). Hamilton

160 and Goebel (1999) reviewed 27 of the radiocarbon data and agreed thatthe

7600 date was an error. The 26 remaining dates ranged sequentially between

9730.:t80 AMS and 11,660.:t80AMs , although, only three samples returned dates in excess of 10,300 rcybp, two were >11,000 rcybp and are believed to be from hearths containing "old wood". The third oldest sample returned a of

10,980.:t280AMS was also rejected. Based on the remaining 14C dates, it is most likely that the Paleoindian occupations at Mesa occurred between 9,900 and

10,100 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:176).

Kunz et al (2003:19) also considered the >11,000 suspicious because they originated from a single hearth. That heart was associated with a Mesa style projectile point and numerous waste flakes. Kunz et al (2003: 19) considered only the 44 AMS dates and estimate the Paleoindian component dates between 9700 and 10,300 rcybp.

The mesa was divided into four prominent geologic sections labeled

Localities A, B, the Saddle and the East Ridge. The stratigraphy at Locale A was generally no deeper than 10 cm and vegetated with lichen and moss. Locale B, approximately -950m2 in size, was found in the northeastern section of the mesa, -30m northeast of Locale A. In Locale B, the vegetation grew dense and surface finds were low (Kunz and Reanier 1995:32). The Saddle (-760m2 in size) is situated between Localities A and B with soil deposition of -30 cm with

161 2 an artifact cluster measuring -75m . Finally, the East Ridge was divided from

Locale B by an outcrop with poorly developed soil (Kunz and Reanier 1995).

162 Name: Moose Creek (Med)

Number: FAI-00206

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks landowner: State of Alaska

Dates: Component I 11,190 .± 60 AMS (Pearson 1999)

Complex: Nenana, Denali

Environment: Moose Creek is a tributary of the Nenana River near

Walker Road in interior Alaska, generally southwest of Fairbanks. The view from the site looks out across the Nenana River toward the south and west (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et aI1985).

History: J. Hoffecker and Waythomas discovered the site in 1978. Field operations began the following year and uncovered 15 additional square meters of the site. Further work continued in the 1980's when four more meters were excavated (Hoffecker 1996). George Pearson continued excavations in 1996 bringing the total square meters excavated to just over 20 (Hamilton and Goebel

1999).

Significance: The Moose Creek site has been associated with the

Nenana complex based tentatively on the stratigraphy, time of occupation and a lack of core and blade technology but also because it is located in close proximity

163 to the Walker Road and Dry Creek sites. It is a lithic retooling and outlook occupation dated slightly older than 11,000 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Bigelow et al (1990) suggested that the lowest component was technologically

Denali rather than Nenana and recommends further investigation before attributing it to the Nenana Complex.

Integrity: Moose Creek is similar to other early sites in the Nenana Valley in that faunal preservation was poor (Hoffecker 1996). Pearson's (1996) return to

Moose Creek recovered a diagnostic Nenana Chindadn projectile point deeply stratified in aeolian loess atop a glacial outwash rock foundation. He found cultural occupations sealed beneath several paleosols providing some mixing of levels (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:162). Stratigraphic deposition from the ground surface to the gravel base was approximately 1.8 meters (Hoffecker 1996).

Artifacts and Features: The artifacts from the site tended to cluster in groups of 1 meter or less in diameter. From Component I, -2250 artifacts

(mostly lithic) were recovered during the initial excavation of the site (Hoffecker

1996). Pearson's 1996 excavations contributed a hearth feature and a single

Chindadn, sub-triangular, projectile point and multiple side-scrapers to the evidence from Component!. Core and blade technology was lacking in the earliest occupation (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker 1996).

Component 1/ produced a definable Denali Complex occupation. Artifacts recovered included a cluster of microblades and a transverse burin (Hamilton

164 and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker 1996). These artifacts were associated with an ovate biface and 12 waste flakes found previously by Hoffecker (1996:365).

Hoffecker also recovered the basal portions of two lanceolate projectile points from the lower Component I. The slight stratigraphic mixing caused Hoffecker to reconsider the Nenana classification (Hoffecker 1996).

Description: Two components were located in situ between 55 and 150 em below surface. Component I lies -15cm below Component II (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999). Hoffecker collect four soil organics from the lower paleosol complex, in stratigraphic order they were 8940.:t270, 8160.:t260, 11 ,730.:t250,

10640.:t28°(Hoffecker 1996). The samples from unidentifiable organics may date the soil but do not precisely date the occupation. A later date from the hearth associated with Component I discovered by Pearson was located slightly below the previous excavations of Hoffecker dated to 11, 190.:t60AMS (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999:162).

Pearson (1995) made the case for four identifiable artifact assemblages associated with the site. He suggested Component I was associated with a fire hearth and Chindadn technology. Component II was associated with the microb!ades, lanceolate projectile points and bifacial fragments associated with

Early Holocene Denali Complex occupations. Component Ill, a Northern Archaic occupation, and Component IV dated to the Middle Holocene. The picture of

165 Moose Creek occupations reproduces the stratigraphic findings at the Dry Creek site (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:163, Pearson, G. 1999).

Table 7.14: Moose Creek5 Stratiqraphv Component RCYBP -depth em Component ... T9.f.?~g.i.!.. .-..-...... ::::§...... $..!!.~y. ..§.§.Q.9...... ::::J.Q ...... g~f.!.~~ ..9.f..9.§f.!.!~~ Q...!Y...... il.:MS ::::.1.?:??. ~§.~~ tlg.l9.9.l?,.f.1~ .. Sand C III 5680+50 -35-60 Late Denali :::p.~:!~~~:9.C::~::::::::::::::::::: ::f::i:!::::~~::::::::::~::::::~~:: ::I9.:~:Q9.£§9.~~::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::~::::::::: ::::§.~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::Q~r.i?iC::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Loess 8160::t260, 8940::t270, -55-65 10640+280,11730+250* ::.~~~~~~~I;,:;::::.::::::.:::::::: :.~~!.:~~~::~.:~~~::.:~..:.. ~ :::!::!:.~::~~~~~:=:.:.:~~~:~~~::~:.:.::::: :.:~¥.~~:.:::: ..:::.:::.:.. ::::::::>.~~~.~.~:~:.:::.:::::::.::::::.:::::.:::.:.:. Basal gravel >75

Table 7.15: Moose Creek Calibrated (Pearson 1999:Table 2) Component Complex Calibrated RCYBP ....9.9.r.n.p..9.~.'?I!.~ !.'..! ~~.!'? P~.~.?.I.L ?~.~?.:.?~ ..~..1 .. ... gg.r.n.P..9.Q.'?Q.! !.!.. .P.~.n.?.!.L 1..?!.?.1..~.:.1 .. ?..!.~J..§ .. Component I Nenana 13,170-13,097

5Source: Hamilton & Goebel 1999:160 & 186, Hoffecker 1988, Pearson 1999, Powers & Hoffecker 1989 166 Name: Nukluk Mountain (Low)

Number: 8TH-00069 & 8TH-00070

Region: Southwest

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: Washington State University

Land Ownership: USFW

Basai Dates: N/A

Complex: Denali

Environment: The site is located approximately 8 km west of the Kisaralik River on a hill approximately 1.2 km northwest of the summit of Nukluk Mountain at an elevation of 751 feet (AHRS 1997).

History: Robert Ackerman discovered the site in 1979 while conducting survey in the area. Portions of both localities 8TH-69 and 8TH-70 were surface collected

(Ackerman, R. 1996c).

Significance: Nukluk Mountain is a characteristic Denali complex occupation.

Nukluk Mountain in some ways shares its significant with the nearby Spein Mountain site because the two represent two contemporaneous technologies in the same territory.

Integrity: The site was deflating on the top of a ridge. Although the occupation was mostly Denali technology, with a single projectile point that does not typically occur in Denali assemblages. 8ecause of the lack of stratigraphy and preservation, there was no datable material recovered (Ackerman 1996c).

Artifacts and Features: The artifacts included wedge-shaped microblade core technology characteristic of the Denali complex. There was also an asymmetric

167 microblade core, burin, bifacial projectile point bases, biface, scrapers, and a cobble core (Ackerman 1996c: Fig. 10-3 pg 463).

Description: Presently, lichen, moss and some shrubs dominate the site.

Aeolian silt or sand comprises a shallow matrix cover on shattered regolith (Ackerman

1996c).

168 Name: Oiled Blade (Med) Pending Research

Number: UNL-000318

Region: N/A

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: Museum of the Aleutians

Land Ownership: Ounalaska

Basal Dates: 8400-7900 calibrated years before present

Tradition: Anangula Core and Blade

Environment: The site is located on Hog Island approximately 100 meters from the Hog Island site, near Dutch Harbor in the Aleutian chain (Knecht and

Davis 2001).

History: The site, recently excavated by Knecht and Davis (2001), is currently pending analysis.

Significance: Anangula core and blade sites are rare, with less than five sites located so far, including the Oiled Blade site (Knecht and Davis 2001). it contains artifacts left by the earliest known inhabitants of the Aleutian chain.

Artifacts and Features: The artifacts, large unifacial blades, were consistent with other Anangula core and blade tradition assemblages (Knecht and Davis 2001).

Description: Unavailable

169 Name: On Your Knees Cave (High)

Number: PET-00408

Region: Southeast

NHR Designation: NONE land Ownership: USFS Tongass

Repository: N/A

Basal Dates: -9200 rcybp

Complex: Northwest Coast Microblade

Environment: The site is located on Prince of Wales Island where sea level elevations during the time of occupation (-9,000 and 9,500 rcybp) were 4 to

6 m above modern level, indicating that the island was not connected with the mainland (Dixon 1999).

History: Timothy Heaton, a paleontologist originally discovered the remains in 1996 (Dixon 1999, Fifield 1996). Excavations continued in 1997 and

1998 (Dixon 1999).

Significance: The site is significant for the rich archaeological, paleontological and paleoclimatic data stored in its sediments, and because it

contained H •••the oldest reliably dated human remains ever found in Alaska"

(Fifield 1996:5 quoting E.J. Dixon). Dentition analysis indicated two periods of nutritional stress during the individual's >20-year life. The C13 isotope analysis

170 indicated the bones were from the same individual and that his diet consisted almost entirely of marine animals (Dixon 1999:118).

"This site is significant because this is the first firm association of human physical remains with distinctive early microblades in Alaska or the Pacific

Northwest" (Dixon 1999:119). In addition, there was evidence from the site supporting trade routes for exotic lithic material and circumstantial evidence for the use of watercraft, because the cave was on an island during the time of occupation (Dixon 1999).

Integrity: The stratigraphic deposits contained "fine, water-saturated silts" with excellent preservation qualities (Fifield 1996).

Artifacts and Features: The human remains consisted of two lower mandible fragments with a nearly complete set of teeth, four vertebra, fragments of the right pelvis and two ribs. The subject was an adult male, estimated to have been in his early 20s at the time of death. Artifacts recovered included

"obsidian microblades, bifaces and other too!s" found in the same stratigraphic level. The artifacts are characteristic of the Northwest Coast Microblade tradition

(Dixon 1999).

Description: The bones discovered just inside the entry to the cave were deposited in a layer "fine, water-saturated silts" (Fifield 1996). Three charcoal samples returned dates of 9,21 0.:t50AMS, 9, 150.:t50AMS and 8,760.:t50AMS rcybp.

Corrections based on other samples from the region suggest that the marine and

171 atmospheric carbon reservoir contains a difference of -600 rcybp. By subtracting

600 years from the dates on the skeletal material (9,730.:t60AMS and 9,880.:t50 AMS),

Dixon (1999) has estimated the age to -9200 rcybp, consistent with two of the three charcoal determinations (Dixon 1999).

Table 7.16: On Your Knees Cave (Dixon 1999) AMS RCYBP Description Tradition 9,210+50,9,150+50,8,760+50 Charcoal NW Microblade ...... rr:r...... nm...... mT:...... "...... -._....._...... _....._....._.._....._.- 9,730+60,9,880+50 Human Remains NW Microblade

172 Name: Owl Ridge (Med)

Number: FAI-00091

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Land Owner: US Bureau of Land Management

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Dates: C 1- 11,3402:150, C 11- 93252:305 (Hoffecker et al 1996)

Complex: Denali, Nenana (Hamilton and Goebel 1999)

Environment: The site is located on a glacial fluvial plain created during the Healy Glacial period (Hoffecker et al 1996) located on the east bank of the

Teklanika River one valley to the west of the Nenana River (Hamilton and Goebel

1999, Phippen 1988).

History: D. Plaskett and R. Thorson discovered the site in 1976 and excavated a single test pit. The following year R. Powers and T. Brink continued excavations at the site. In 1978 T. Brink, R. Thorston and J. Hoffecker et al conducted field operations during the North Alaska Range Early Man Project

(Hoffecker 1980). Between 1982 and 1984, continued excavations by P.

Phippen (1988) added 26 square meters to a total of approximately 30 square meters of excavated units and assigned the lowest component to the Nenana complex.

173 Significance: Component! and Component II (C-I, C-II) date to the Early

Holocene-Late Pleistocene periods. Although the earliest occupation contained

a small collection of non-diagnostic artifacts, it was tentatively placed in the

Nenana complex based on stratigraphic similarities with other Nenana sites in the region and radiocarbon determinations (Hoffecker et al 1996:355). The site also contained a possible tent like structure associated with the Denali occupation in C-II (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et a11996, Phippen

1988). Evidence of housing structures is extremely rare in early Alaskan sites with less than five known possible instances discovered during this research.

Integrity: A series of occupations buried in aeolian loess with eight stratigraphic units between bedrock and the surface (Hoffecker et a11996: Fig. 7

11). At its deepest, the complete soil formation was 1.2 meters providing excellent stratigraphic chronology at the site with three archaeological components: C-I (11,340 - 9060), C-II (9325-7230), and C-III (930-7035)

(Hoffecker et al 1996).

Artifacts and Features: The C-III assemblage included three cobble tools, three flakes, a single utilized flake, two large bifaces, a "flake knife", a burin, a hammerstones, and over 700 waste flakes (Hoffecker et al 1996,

Phippen 1988).

Denali complex artifacts were associated with C-II containing a single utilized flake, three debitage fragments, ovate-biface, a blade fragment, a "su b-

174 triangular" biface and nine "cobbles" were found associated with an apparent

"tent ring" feature (Hoffecker et al 1996, Phippen 1988).

C-I contained two Clusters (A and B). Cluster A contained lithic debitage,

two retouched tools and charcoal samples. Cluster B also contained two tools, a

small amount of utilized flakes, lithic debitage, a single hammerstone, a fragment

of red ocher and samples of charcoal. The collection from C-I was non-

diagnostic tentatively attributed the Nenana Complex based on stratigraphy and

radiocarbon determinations (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Hoffecker et al1996).

Description: The geologic profile described in Phippen's (1988) MA thesis documents eight separate units beginning with Strata Level 8, surface topsoil organics (ca. 12cm below surface), Level 7 silt/sand (12 to 20cm below datum), Level 6 silt/sand (ca. 20 to 50cm below surface) and Level 5 sand/schist

(ca 50 to 72cm below sUrface). C-II contained silt-sand and paleosols in the upper regions of Level 4 (72 to 87 em below surface). Level 3 contained sand (-

87 to 95cm below surface). Leve! 2 contained C-l (11,300 rcybp) in a layer of silt

(roughly 90-95 to 110 em below surface). The C-I occupation lay at the transition between Level 2 and Level 1 (the gravel foundation roughly 120cm below

"'urfa....",\ (~,.,,,,h,,,',,,f a' 1QQ1 Hamil+,.,n anrl ~O",h",1 1QQQ) "'" ., ""''''''}\,,-",''''''''"'''''''''''''''''''''" I '''''''OJ,' .• Itl\"V'J II ...... '-' ""'t",n.... IV...,_.

C-1I1 contained three radiocarbon dates at the transition of Levels 5 and 6

(1480.:t110*, 6900.:t265, and 7035.:t380). C-II in the center of Level 4 produced five total dates. A date of 2470.:t120* was dismissed by the researchers as

175 problematic three more dates were obtained by submitting organic rich silt

(7230±100, 7660±100, 8130±140) (Hoffecker et aI1996:354). The final radiocarbon sample (9325±305) from C-II dates the peat associated with the possible tent ring structure.

Three samples submitted from the lowest component returned two dates that were considered misleading 9060±41 0 and 2380±90* and likely brought to lower levels from above. The date of occupation for C-I was based on the date

11 ,340±150 rcybp (Hoffecker et al 1996).

Additional samples taken from upper levels included 930±50 from the transition of Strata 7 to Strata 6 and a sample taken from the middle of Level 6 dated to 4400±70 (Hoffecker et al 1996, Phippen 1988).

Table i.li: Owl Ridge (Hoffecker et ai 1996:354 Fig. 7-11) Level Component RCYBP Complex Description - cm ··L··7"········L 8 ..· ·93·0+50 ·· ··..···· ·s·iiilsan·(j·Topsoil ..···· 121·2:::20 _· ..L..i3 ·· 44·00+7·0..··..·..···· ·· ····..··.. s'iit~sa·ii·(j ..fo·rest" ..· ·50 ·..··.. :::t.:t:~:::::: :::~~:~~~~~~:~ ~~~~=~~.~::::~:~:~~=.~I9·* :::~~a~~J~~:~~:i:~:::::::: ::~~=::: ~. .::=::::::::.:::.:":":::.::.:".:.:::. .. ..·..· j ..:: L4 C·II 7230.:t100, 7660.:t100, 8130.:t140, Denali Silt, paleosol 72 2470+120* ·..[..3 ·· ~ ·· ·~·I~~;~;, 90· ··

:{~?:::::::::::: :::~;:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::~~:~~~;~:~::~:~~~:~:~~~~~::~~~::~~~~;.~~~::::::~ ::::~~~::~::~::~. Basal ora·vei....·....··...... ···~~·iP.L·~

176 Name: Panguingue Creek (Med)

Number: HEA-000137

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Owner: State of Alaska

AMS AMS AMS Basal Dates: C-I 8170+120_ , 9836+62_ J 10 1 180+130_ J C-II 8 , 500 - 7 , 500

Complex: Nenana?, Denali (Goebel et a11988)

Environment: The site is located less than 5 km Northwest of Healy, AK

in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range along Panguingue Creek, a tributary

of the Nenana River (Goebel and Bigelow 1996). The sites above the Nenana

River drainage on a ridgeline uplifted by Pleistocene glacial till and alluvium deposits an area characterized, today, as a transition zone from spruce forest to

herbaceous tundra (Hoffecker 1988).

History: Discovered in 1976 by T. Smith and j. Hoffecker and was first tested in 1977 and again 1985. In 1991, large-scale excavations expanded the excavated area from 25 metes2 to 100 meters2 (Goebel and Bigelow 1996).

Significance: Panguingue Creek is an extensive, weii-stratified site with two Denali complex occupations vertically separated by -15-20 em. Although the stratigraphy sequence is similar to other sites containing Nenana and Denali complex deposits, the lowest component has not yielded diagnostic Nenana

177 tools. Despite this, the Component II deposits contained evidence of economic

and subsistence strategies of early Alaskans using Denali complex technology.

Integrity: The site was preserved on a Pleistocene river terrace overlain

by aeolian sand and silts to a depth over 1.8 meters. The stratigraphic profile

correlates to soil formations documented across the river at the Walker Road and

Moose Creek sites (Powers and Hoffecker 1989:269 Fig. 3). Additional links

correlations link Panguingue Creek Component II with a paleosol at Dry Creek

and with Component II at the Little Panguingue Creek site. The stratigraphic

correlations between the Nenana valley sites enhance the integrity for each of

the properties.

Artifacts and Features: Component II contained two separate activity

areas including a fire hearth with numerous fragments of burnt bone (Goebel and

Bigelow 1996) and lithic evidence including cores (9 total, 7 wedge shaped),

microblades (>150), burin spalls (10), and waste flakes (>5000). The formal tools (60) were characteristic of the Denali complex and included lanceolate projectiles (5), lenticular bifacial knives (2), parallel-flaked bifacial knives (2), side scrapers (7), end scrapers (5), burins (5), reworked flakes (16), chopping tools

(2), hammerstones (2) and anvil stones (2) (Goebel and Bigelow 1996 citing

Powers 1986).

The uppermost Component III contained waste flakes (20), end scrapers

(2) and a side scraper. Component I (lower most), contained a sub-prismatic

178 blade/flake core, waste flakes, transverse scrapers (2) and lanceolate projectiles

(2) (Goebel and Bigelow 1996). C-I and C-1I1 did not contain enough diagnostic artifacts for determining a classification.

Description: The base of the stratigraphic profile began with glacial outwash deposited during the Healy glacial retreat (Hoffecker et al 1996,

Wahrhaftig 1958) capped with 10 em of aeolian silt dated to 13,535j:400/-380 rcybp (Goebel and Bigelow 1996) demonstrating the approximate time the region became glacier free and vegetation began to emerge.

The next stratigraphic deposit was comprised of wind blown sand -1 Oem thick and horizontal interruptions characteristic of water over-wash episodes

(Goebel and Bigelow 1996). The next layer (-10 em) is silt loam, capped by -30 em of granules and pebbles with Palesol I and Palesol II within the stratum. The lowermost occupation, C-I contained in Paleosol II, dated to 9951j:56 based on radiocarbon averages. The next stratigraphic layer (30 em thick) contains

Component II found in Paleosol 3 and dated by five radiocarbon samples averaged to 7711 j:97. The modern soil horizon contained two samples that averaged 5250j:54 (Goebel and Bigelow 1996) indicating a stable surface in the region for the latter half of the Holocene.

Geoarchaeology in the Nenana Valley has provided a climatic view from

17,000 rcybp to present. The first occupations at the site (-9k to 10k rcybp) were deposited during the Post Carlo Advance and the second occupations during the

179 Thermal Optimum, a period of intense windy conditions (Powers and Hoffecker

1989) also referred to as Milankovitch Thermal Maximum.

Table 7.18: Panguingue Creek 1 Soil Complex Comp RCYBP Paleosol - CM

...... Modern " , 5-10 . Silt loam Unknown C III 4150.:!:95,5620.:!:65 P IV 10-15 ·..·H·u·m'i'c· ······..· ···..·.. ··o,ena'i'j' · C..·j..j· ·, ..··..7'1·30:f'1·s6;··7430:t2'76ms· ·,..p..'i'j'j" , 1'5·:·1·7· · 7595.:!:405, 7850.:!:180, ...... , _ , ~.?Q9.;t?.9..9. .. Silt! loam 17-20 ...... ~ , ,.. , , , , , ,, " . ....~.?.!!.9.Y. §J!!.. , 1\MS 1\M~ ?.9..:.~.Q . Humic 0 Unknown CI 8170.:!:120 AMS9836:!:.62 P II 30-40 horizon Nenana? 10, 180.:!:130 , ...... _ ~ , . ...§.?n.9.Y. §.~!L , 4.9..:.?9. . Aeolian 55-75 ...... " .. , " ,.. , , " " ,.," " .. Sand 75 ·"'Coess=g·ravej· , ·1·3~·535:t4'6'6j~·3·80'· ..··..··..·..··..··..· 1·0'0..·..··..

1 Sources: Goebel et a11996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Powers et al1989 180 Name: Phipps (Med)

Number: XMH-00111

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NHS-Tangle Lakes Archaeological District

Repository: N/A

Land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: 10,150±265 rcybp

Complex: Denali

History: "West originally located Denali core and blade material in sandy blowouts on a low ridge about 1500' Southwest of the Denali Highway. In situ material was excavated, to a depth of as much as 15cm, within a 4m x 4m area"

(AHRS 1997).

Significance: This site contains a single occupation Denali complex tool assemblage of core and blade technology. It is included as a contributing property in the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District and is one of a few sites reported to contain in situ artifacts from that region (AHRS 1997).

Integrity: An undetermined amount of cultural material is reported to remain in burled contexis (V'''est et al 1996) "but is threatened by the proximity of a trash dump and by the continued erosion of the unfilled excavations (AHRS

1997).

181 Artifacts and Features: Characteristic Denali complex artifacts recovered included core and blade technology and lanceolate projectile points (AHRS

1997).

Description: The stratigraphy of the Phipps site has been well documented through a sequence of radiocarbon determinations (West et al

1996) beginning with the surface topsoil to a maximum depth of -50 cm. Soil formations beneath the 0 horizon began at a depth of -20 cm with the A1 - A2 transition. The B Horizon was 10 to 30 cm thick. Radiocarbon analysis from soil organics in the A1b horizon returned a date of 6,268 rcybp at a depth between 29 and 32 cm. Bb was the lowest of three buried soils. The Denali artifacts were found scattered in all three soil formations, but the main concentration occurred at a depth of -32-37 cm. Averaged radiocarbon dates from this occupation were

10,190 rcybp. A sample taken from unoccupied strata 50 cm in depth returned a date of 11,015 rcybp (West et ai, 1996: 382).

182 Name: Putu-Bedwell (Med)

Number: PSM-00027a/PSM-00027b

Region: Brooks Range

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Ownership: US Bureau of Land Management

AMS AMs Dates: Bedwell: 10,490±70 Putu: SZ 2-8810±60 , 5700±190 SZ 1-650±100.

Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001 :94, Bever 2000)

Environment: Putu and Bedwell, considered two separate loci within a single site, were discovered a few kilometers below the confluence of Atigun

River. Loci S-13A (Bedwell) is located on the hillcrest generally to the south of

Loci S-13B (Putu) found on a lower terrace (AHRS 1997). Like many early

Alaskan sites, Putu-Bedwell occupies a level bench 215 meters above the valley providing a strategic view of the region (Reanier 1996). Putu-Bedwell is located near other early sites found near the North Ridge of the Brooks Range including the Gallagher Flint Station (already an NHL) and Hill Top (Bever 2001b, Gal

1980).

History: Discovered in 1970 by Herbert ,ll..!exander, the Putu-Bedwe!! localities were lumped together as one archeological site, PSM-27a and PSM

27b (Reanier 1996). It was the first site to produced radiocarbon dates presumably associated with fluted projectile point technology (Alexander 1974,

183 Reanier 1995). Excavations began in 1970 and continued through 1973.

Alexander published on the site four years later (Alexander 1974, Reanier 1996).

Significance: Data from Putu-Bedwell may provide further information

regarding Paleoindian occupations in the Brooks Range region and may resolve

major theoretical principals regarding the prehistory of Alaska and the peopling of

the New World.

Fluted Paleoindian technology believed to date in Alaska between 6100

and 8450 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999) and increasingly considered a Late

Paleoindian phenomenon. The significance of Putu is that it is one of several

sites near the Brooks Range region (Batza Tena, Lisburne and Mesa) with

similar basally thinned projectile points deposited in a hunting outlook situation.

However, the association of artifacts with the early radiocarbon samples continue to be questioned (Bever 2001 b: 155). Because of this, Putu-Bedwell is significant as an intermediate Paleoindian site between the earlier Mesa technology and later occupations at Gallagher Flint Station, Girls Hill and the fluted points from

Batza Tena.

Integrity: The stratigraphy at Putu is shallow and disturbed by cryoturbation and rodent activity. The sediments are roughly 60 em in depth VJith artifacts generally 2 to 8 cm above the bedrock foundation near the base of loess deposits (Reanier 1995, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

184 Artifacts and Features: Two fluted projectile points (one obsidian), three

lanceolate projectile points and one triangular point were found in addition to

large bifacial blanks, spurred gravers, end scrapers and side scrapers. The

lanceolate projectile points, one found in association with a fire hearth, are similar to those found at the Mesa site. Putu also contained microblades and cores but they are not typologically similar to any of the microblade technologies known in

Alaska (Reanier 1996).

Description: Alexander submitted organic material associated with the fluted projectile points for 14e dating. The sample returned a date of 11 ,470±500

rcybp, a date largely discredited (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Reanier 1994).

Excavations at the site recorded three "stratigraphic zones" (SZ-1, SZ-2, and SZ

3), (measurements converted into metric). SZ-I began at the ground surface and reached a depth from 7.62 to 15.24 em. A late prehistoric occupation was located in SZ-I, including a fire hearth. SZ-II ranged from a depth of 22.8 to 50.8 em below the ground surface and contained the Paleoindian fluted point technology associated the lower fire hearth (Reanier 1996). SZ-1I1 was culturally sterile gravel and bedrock.

Five radiocarbon samples are purported to define the age of each of the stratigraphic zone. The fire hearth in SZ-I was near the surface and revealed a date of 650±1 00. Samples from SZ-II returned dates of 5700±190, 6090±430,

8450±.130 and 8810±.60AMS (Reanier 1996, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:Appendix).

185 A fourth sample dated to 11 ,470.±:500AMS and was originally believed to be

associated the lower hearth, Feature 9. However, laboratory notes maintain it

came from the gravel of 8Z-111 (Reanier 1994, 1996). The inconsistency has

raised controversy with respect to this early date. At the earliest, a date of

approximately 10,500 rcybp is consistent with the 10,490.±:70AMS radiocarbon

determination from the Bedwell locality. Bedwell's association with the Putu locality remains uncertain.

Table 7.19: Putu Locality (Hamilton et a11999, Reanier 1996) Stratigraphy Description RCYBP -cm ... ?;9.D.~ ! §..~..~?g~:~.~.!?.~~.!f~g~! t!.~..~!!.~ ??9..:!:1..9..9. ? . Zone II Hearth, fluted points 5700.±:190, 6090.±:430, 5-40 ...... _ .- .- ~4.?.9..:!:.1}.9.! ~.~..1..9;;!;;?..9.~~.~ . Zone III Bedrock & gravel 11,470+500AMS 20-40

186 Name: Slate Creek Site (Low) Potential for future information exists.

Number: HEA-00129

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NON E

Repository: University of Fairbanks

Land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: unknown

Complex: Denali (Powers and Hoffecker 1989)

Environment: "Maxwell locates the site about 750m to the ENE of

Hoffecker's map location...on the northwestern side of Slate Creek, approx.

850m WSW of the Parks Highway crossing, approx. 16.3km NNW of Healy"

(AHRS 1997).

History: The site was discovered in the late 1970's and early 1980's during the Early Man surveys sponsored by the National Park Service and

National Geographic Society (Hoffecker et al 1985).

Significance: "This site possesses at least two components, one of which may be mid-Holocene or earlier in age" (AH RS 1997).

(Powers and Hoffecker 1989:272) and likely contains similar Denali and possible

Nenana occupations in good context (AHRS 1997). Scientific potential for the

187 Slate Creek and Usibelli sites remain unknown, although, anticipation is high for information significant to the Nenana and Denali technological debate.

Artifacts and Features: The collection consisted of an "isolated microblade find". The stratigraphy is similar to other Nenana and Denali sites nearby (Powers and Hoffecker 1989).

188 Name: Spein Mountain (High)

Number: BTH-00062, BTH-63, BTH-64, and BTH-65

Region: Southwest

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: Washington State University

Land Owner: US Fish and Wildlife Service

Dates: 10,050.:t90AMS

Complex: Mesa (Ackerman 2001, Bever 2001a)

Environment: The site is 60 kilometers east of Bethel, surrounded mostly by marsh and tundra on a ridgeline 1000 to 1250 feet above sea level, along the

Kisaralik River, a southern tributary of the Kuskokwim River. During the time of occupation, the local environment dominated by Poacea (grass) which comprised

86.8% of pollen sample recovered from a pit feature (Ackerman 1996c:456-60).

History: The site was located in 1979 by Robert Ackerman, James

Gallison, and Lance Rennie. Ackerman returned to the site in 1992 and excavated forty-one, one meter units (Ackerman 2001).

Significance: Spein Mountain is the only known Mesa complex site outside of the Brooks Range. In addition to being contemporaneous with the

Mesa type site, Spein Mountain is more or less contemporaneous with many of the Denali complex sites including the nearby Nukluk Mountain site (Ackerman

1996c:458-60, Ackerman 2001). Therefore, it may provide valuable information

189 about the interactions of two Early Holocene technologies in Southwestern

Alaska, in addition to providing evidence related to the expansion of Mesa

technology out of the Brooks Range.

Artifacts and Features: Of the 4,299 artifacts recovered, 190 were tools,

including lanceolate, pentagonal, and leaf-shaped projectile points. Other lithics

included ovate and preform bifaces, flake gravers, knives, scrapers, abraders, a

single notched flake spall, choppers, hammerstones, and waste flakes

(paraphrasing Ackerman 1996c:457-458).

"Aside from flakes... the most common tool type was a lanceolate to ovate

projectile point with sides tapering slightly to a straight to slightly rounded base.

Complete and nearly complete projectile points... were recovered from six

squares and were fairly dispersed throughout the excavated area. Several had a small portion of the tip missing... as a result of use" (Ackerman 2001 :86).

There was also a pit feature lined along its edges and filled in the bottom with lithic waste flakes, burnt bone and much pollen and organic material

(Ackerman 1996c:457). "The pit was an oval-shaped (85x130 cm) depression with a floor 43-45 cm below the ground surface" (Ackerman 2001 :91). "Fine pieces of charcoal and calcine bone" found in a filtered sample indicate its use as a fire hearth which dated 10,050.:t.90AMS rcybp (Ackerman 2001 :91).

Integrity: The ridge was covered by 15 to 25 cm of loess on top of shattered basalt deposits. Stratigraphy was present with "two or three" soil

190 horizons. However, there has been a continuous downhill creep of soil and

freeze-thaw disturbance of the stratigraphic integrity (Ackerman 1996c:456-57).

Description: Four localities (BTH- 62, 63, 64 and 65) were documented

in the foothills of Spein Mountain. "Areas 062 and 065... did not have the volume

of lithic debris that we encountered at 063" (Ackerman 2001 :85). Only a few

items were collected from exposed areas on the surface of the four localities.

Excavations were only conducted at area 63, although bifacial fragments from

projectile points from the surface of 64 matched those recovered in Area 63

(Ackerman 2001 :85).

The stratigraphic column begins at the surface with a vegetation mat 3 to

6 em in depth covering a layer of "dark brown sandy, slit loam" 15-20 em thick

(Ackerman 2001 :84). Below this, the basal layer consisted of shattered regolith.

The artifacts were mixed but tended to cluster in the upper regions of the sandy silt loam with some found in the top vegetation mat (Ackerman 2001 :84, See also

Ackerman 1996c:456-57).

Ackerman (2001 :85 Fig 3) subdivided Area 63 in three zones, and considered all three contemporaneous. Zone A was the most extensive excavation area with 73 meters2 in the southeastern portion of the site. This was the same area surface collected in 1979. Zone B was randomly sampled, with seven meters2 excavated. In Zone C, the western portion, five units were excavated in both the vegetated and deflated areas (Ackerman 2001).

191 Name: Swan Point (High)

Number: XBD-00156

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: CZ 4-11,660 .:t 70, CZ 3-10,230.:t80, CZ 2 7400.:t80, CZ 1B

1750.:t80

Complex: Denali, Nenana, Pre-Nenana?

Environment: The paleo-environment described by Holmes (2000) was open woodland containing dwarf-birch, willow shrub and tundra, between 11,800 and 10,300 rcybp, becoming forested with spruce and alder between 9000 and

9500 rcybp.

History: Richard VanderHoek and Tom Dilley discovered Swan Point in

1991 on top a bench above Shaw Creek several kilometers northeast of Broken

Mammoth. The site earned its name from the Trumpeter Swans heard from the overlook (VanderHoek 2002 personal communication).

Significance: S\A/an Point is an important interior site because it establishes the earliest use of wedge-shaped core and blade technology typically associated with the Denali complex in Alaska (Hamilton and Goebel 1999,

Holmes 2000, 2003) although the tools at Swan Point are more similar to Dyuktai

192 than Denali. Swan Point is also one of few sites in Alaska suggesting that

humans and mammoth may have coexisted (Holmes 2000) and the two earliest occupations may have been contemporaneous with the earliest deposits at the

Broken Mammoth site (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Holmes et aI1996).

Integrity: Swan Point was stratified beneath aeolian loess deposition approximately one meter deep, half that found at Broken Mammoth. The loess covered a foundation of irregular solid bedrock and provided some degree of preservation (Holmes et al 1996, VanderHoek 2002 personal communication).

However, the overall preservation of fauna was not as great as that at Broken

Mammoth due to the lesser amount of loess accumulation (Holmes et al 1996,

Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Artifacts and Features: Artifacts from the historic period included tin cans, cartridges and a knife fragment. Prehistoric artifacts from Middle to Late

Holocene occupations included ground stone fragments, scrapers, microblades and microb!ade cores (tabu!ar and subconica!), lanceolate projectile points, and a flake spur graver. The lanceolate projectile points were characterized as having converging bases with heavy grinding along some of the edges. Faunal evidence from the Middle Holocene included ~J1oose remains (Holmes et a!

1996).

Artifacts from Cultural Zone 3 (Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene), included lanceolate projectile points (convex and straight bases), triangular projectile

193 points, points reworked into spur gravers, choppers and hammer stones. The

"most distinct hearth features observed" (Holmes et al 1996) occurred in these

occupations described as "discontinuous hearth like charcoal smears at a depth

of 55 cm" (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Cultural Zone 4 (Terminal Pleistocene) contained; ivory tools worked from

mammoth tusk fragments, microblades, microblade cores, microblade core

preparation flakes (ski spalls), blades, dihedral burins, red ochre, choppers, and

hammerstones. Faunal evidence included goose and large cervid faunal

remains in association with burnt Populus (Holmes et ai 1996).

Description: The geologic stratigraphy is one meter thick with

intermittent paleosols. Approximately 90 cm below surface is "pebbly" colluvium capped by the 83 horizon 30 to 82 cm below surface with wind blown loess. The

82 horizon is approximately 8 to 35 cm below surface. The modern forested soil at the surface began to develop 5000 rcybp and ranges from approximately 5 to

10 em in depth (Holmes et al 1996 Fig 6-8, Hamilton and Goebel 1999 Fig 4).

Table 7.20: Swan Point (Hamilton and Goebel 1999) Description - depth in cm ....f9.r.~~.!~9 ;s.9!.I...~.~!.: ?.9.Q.Q...r.~Y~E .9.:::.1..9...... 82 & 83 _Horizons 8-35 . ...::.p..~.~.~!.Y. .. g9.!.!.~.Y.!.~.~.~:. 3; 0;-..8 ;2;.; 1 Sand 90-100

The Cultural Zones (CZ) were labeled 1A, 18,2,3 and 4. CZ-1A was an historic occupation. CZ-18 dated to between 1220.±70 and 1750.±80 and

194 occurred approximately 8 to 15 cm below surface. CZ-2 dates to 7400±.80 by a

single radiocarbon sample recovered from approximately 33 cm below surface.

CZ-3 contained one sample recovered from 50-55 cm below surface and dated

to 10,230±.80AMS rcybp. Three samples from one of the earliest occupations at the

site (CZ-4a), obtained from a depth of 80 cm below surface produced dates of

11,660±.70AMS, 11 ,660±.60AMS and a fragment of mammoth tusk that was

dated to 12,060±.60AMS rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Holmes et a11996:Fig

6-8). A horizontally separate cluster (CZ-4b) contained the majority of

microblades and yielded four impressive dates averaged to 12, 160±.65, which

broke the long held 12,000 rcybp barrier in Alaska (Holmes and Class 2003).

Table 7.21: Swan Point6 CZ RCYBP Complex - em ..J.A f.j.i.~.!~Ei~ _ ~.~.~gP.~§l.~_ .9..::.~ . is i220+70, i570+70, i670+60, i750+80 Athabascan 8--15 ...... _ _ .- - . 2 7400 +80 Late Denali 33 ...... """ "" , " . 3 10,230+80 Denali 50-55 ...... - _ _ _ - . .. ~.~ 1J.!.?§.9.:!:?9..!.JJ..!.§?..9.;t§.9..LJ..?.!.9..§9.;t§.9. .. (!.l:!.~.~) N.~.~.~.r:t.§l ~9. . 4b 12,040+40,12,060+70,12,110+50,12,360+60 Pre-Nenana 80

6 Sources: Holmes & Class 2003, Hamilton & Goebel 1999, Holmes et al1996 195 Name: Trail Creek Caves (Med)

Number: BEN-00001

Region: Seward Peninsula

NHR Designation: NRXCL

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Ownership: USNPS, BELA

Basal Dates: 9070.±,250 rcybp (Hamilton & Goebel 1999, West 1996b)

Complex: Denali, unknown

Environment: The site was found "near the head of Trail Creek, about

20km north of Imuruk Lake" (AHRS 1997), in a region described as "Trail Creek

Caves" located along the south east side of the ridge in the region of the NE

Seward Peninsula (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). Thirteen of the caves were sufficient in size for human use (Hamilton and Goebel 1999, Schaaf 1988).

History: The first recorded visit to the cave was in 1928 when T. Moto and

A. Karum sought shelter there and found the first reported artifacts (Larsen 1968,

West 1996b). Later, D. Hopkins conducted investigations of the region in 1948 and H. Larsen continued the effort in 1949 and again in 1950. Eleven of the thirteen caves determined inhabitable by humans were tested in 1985 by the

National Park Service (Schaaf 1988, Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Significance: The Trail Creek Caves site is significant because of the discovery of rare organic artifacts primarily associated with inland caribou

196 hunting. The artifacts are similar to traditional Western Thule and Ipiutak or

Choris people. Also recovered were microblades and longitudinally grooved

organic projectiles resembling those used by the Denbigh Flint complex (AHRS

1997).

Integrity: Cave 2 and Cave 9 were the only two of the inhabitable caves that contained archeological evidence. The nature of the stratigraphy and the

nature of the excavation techniques led to confusion when faunal remains dated to 13 and 15 kya. The confusion centered on pre-human fauna remains and the likely hood that older bone deposits where not associated with human activity.

The evidence for Pleistocene use of the cave by humans continues to be criticized and Hamilton and Goebel (1999: 179) believe the earliest human artifacts date to -9100 rcybp.

Artifacts and Features: Faunal remains included a mammoth scapula

(11,360:t.280 rcybp) from the floor of Cave B a fragment of mammoth vertebra

(14,270.:t950 rcybp) from just above the floor of Cave B (Hamilton and Goebel

1999). Unit IV of Cave 9 contained a bison calcaneus and from the same provenience, a horse scapula dated to 15,750:t.350 rcybp (Hamilton and Goebel

1999).

Description: Cave 2 was 21.4 meters long with stratigraphy 60 to 140 cm in depth (Larsen 1968, West 1996b). Beginning atthe cave surface, Unit I has been characterized as "black, loose-texture, sandy humus". Unit II, characterized

197 as "brown, loose-texture, stony soil or silt" beginning at a depth of -30 cm below

surface. Unit II was as thick as 50 cm and contained artifact remains. The Unit

III stratum, between zero and 40cm thick, described as "micaceous sandy silt"

and angular rocks. The Unit IV layer contained paleontological specimens just

inside the entrance and was described as "sticky, silty, clay" (Hamilton and

Goebel 1999).

Historic and Denbigh artifacts were found in Units I and II. Units III and IV fused together in some areas of the cave. Artifacts from Unit III included

"microblades and slotted antler spearheads" (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

Faunal remains from Unit IV included mountain sheep, elk, caribou, horse and

bison. Horse and bison found outside the entry of Cave 9 represent Pleistocene fauna (Hamilton and Goebel 1999). In all seven antler points and four microblades were recovered. They are the only known occurrence of slotted bone points and microblades in eastern Beringia with the exception of the Lime

Hills Cave I site (\/Vest 1996b).

Larsen (1968) believed that a section the bison calcaneus dated

13,070.:t.280 had been broken in a manner consistent with human action, although his claim continues to be heavily criticized (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

198 Table 7.22: Trail Creek Caves1 Unit Description Artifact RCYBP -em thick ... ~.~.19g~ r.n.9.~rn9.~b, ..'!..~~~.t.>r.?.~ ~.4.1.??9.,;!;,@.?9...... ~D!.t1 ~!.?g~..§.9D.9..¥..!J.~.~.~§ 9.:::?.9...... ~!:1.!~...I.L...... i ~r.9.~f.l ~.~9.n~y...§.!!.t ,,, .Q~.?.9. . Unit III cave 2 sandy silt microblade slotted spear large angular rocks point 0-40 caribou bone 9070+150 ·..Uni'f··iV'·c·ave..g· ·s·ficky..·sl·ity..·Ci'ay ·bl·son..c·ai·can·e·u·s·'· ·· ·..T3';o70:t2·s'O .. ·· ·..25~T1·5 · horse scapula 15,750+350

1 Sources: Larsen 1968, Hamilton and Goebel 1999:179 & 191 199 Name: Tuluaq Hill (High)

Region: Brooks Range

Number: DEl-00360

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: National Park Service - WEAR land Owner: National Park Service - WEAR

Basal Dates: 11200.:!:40, 11180.:!:80, 1111 0.:!:80, 7950.:!:40 rcybp (Rasic 2002)

Tradition: Paleoindian

Environment: Tuluaq Hill is located in Noatak National Park and Preserve of the Western Brooks Range (Delong Mountains). The site is located on a hill rising 259 meters above Wrench Creek, a tributary of the Kelly River (Rasic

2000). The surrounding region is difficult terrain including tussock (cotton grass) and tundra with permafrost below the surface. There is generally very little sediment deposition on top of the bedrock foundation.

Betll'Jeen 13,500 and 11,800 rcybp vegetation was rapidly reclaiming areas recently deglaciation in the Brooks Range (Hamilton 1982:700). A soil sample taken from an organic paleosol in a nearby cut bank at Tuluaq Hill indicated the environment vias capable of supporting animal and plant species at approximately 13,000 rcybp (Rasic 2000:22).

History: The site was discovered in 1998 during archaeological survey along Wrench Creek, Noatak National Park. Upon its discovery, the crew

200 excavated a single test pit and conducted extensive surface collections with

further excavations continuing the following summer. To date, 30% m2 have

been excavated (Rasic 2000). Bob Gal and Jeff Rasic with the National Park

Service are currently defining this group of early Alaskans utilized herds of caribou that continue to migrate in the region (Rasic 2000, 2002).

Significance: The region has significance to the Early Americans Theme

Study because of its location near the Pleistocene Bering Land Bridge. Tuluaq

Hill, in the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene periods, was as a hunting overlook and lithic retooling area with repeated visits over a limited amount of time by two different technological groups separated by at least 3000 rcybp. The oldest of the identifiable technology includes Paleoindian style projectile points; however, a more specific classification is pending further research. The site is significant to prehistory because it represents economic activities and resource utilization by some of the earliest Alaskans (Rasic 2000, 2002).

Integrity: The stratigraphy atop Tu!uaq Hill was shallow, making stratigraphic interpretation difficult; however, four stratigraphic units were described (Rasic 2000:35). The site was used repeatedly during two relatively constrained periods \A/ith litt!e admixture bet\AJeen different lithic components making horizontal separation possible and compensating for the lack of easily definable stratigraphy (Rasic 2000).

201 Artifacts and Features: Projectile points associated with the Paleoindian tradition and similar to those found at Tuluaq dated between 9,500 and 10,000

rcybp at the Irwin Sluiceway and NR-5 sites (Rasic 2000:59). At Tuluaq fifty-five

of "[t]he large lanceolate-shaped points exhibit thick biconvex cross sections,

rounded bases, edge-ground proximal margins, and robust collateral pressure finishing" (Rasic and Gal 2000:66). Additional artifacts included a fluted point,

"thick elongate unifacial tools (n=5), unifacial endscrapers (n=3), gravers, and a variety of retouched or utilized flakes" (Rasic and Gal 2000:66).

Charcoal identified as poplar or willow obtained from discrete oxidized clusters and found in association with chipped waste flakes produced "AMS dates of 7950±40, 11,180±80, and 11 ,200±40 yr BP" (Rasic and Gal 2000:76).

An additional date of 11,11 0±80 rcybp was of uncertain association with the artifacts (Rasic and Gal 2000:76). The radiocarbon dates are described in detail from five of clusters defined as Features A, B, C, D, and E.

Feature A was as a stone lined pit approximately 110 cm in diameter and

35 cm deep, including the stone lining. It is located along the north side of the hill and below the hill's crest. Rasic (2000) suggested it was a meat cache, based on ethnographic data from similar features. Jl\ckerman (2001 :91) described a similar feature containing burnt bone and evidence of fire at the Spein Mountain site. Feature B contained the sample of uncertain association. Feature C was a

"bowl shaped oxidized patch of sediment" (Rasic 2000:55) containing fire

202 cracked waste flakes and dated from willow or poplar wood (7950±40 rcybp)

found in the bowl's matrix. Feature 0 (15 cm and was 4cm deep) contained

obvious clumps of charcoal and waste flakes some of which exhibited heat fractures. The charcoal returned a date of 11 ,200±40AMS (Rasic 2000:57).

Feature 0 was not completely excavated leaving a portion of it intact. Feature E was characterized as a flake pit 37 cm deep possibly formed at the based of a

natural slope but could be due to human activity (Rasic 2000).

Description: The Tuluaq Hill site is located in close proximity to an outcrop of quality lithic chert resources DEL-236 (Rasic 2000). The association of flake artifacts with the three >11,000 rcybp determinations is legitimate

however the association with Paleoindian projectile points is not certain. Based on typology, Rasic (2001 :62-62) estimates the oblanceolate projectile points date to approximately 10,000 rcybp.

203 Name: Ugashik Narrows (Med)

Number: UGA-00001

Region: Alaska Peninsula

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Oregon Museum of Anthropology

Land Ownership: US Gov/Native Claim

Basal Dates: 8995±295

Complex: Denali - Anangula?

Environment: The site was located 1.5 km south of the Pilot Point cannery on Ugashik Bay near a line of alder and willow shrub approximately 200 meters long on the eastern shore of the narrows where two Ugashik lakes nearly join. Approximately 150 meters of the site is along a grass-covered bluff, extending past the bluff to the east (Henn 1978).

History: Winfield Henn (1978) conducted survey in the Ugashik Narrows region beginning in 1974 and 1975, which led to tW'defining the Narrows phase.

Henn (1978) located 30 prehistoric sites along the Ugashik River drainage and shoreline of Ugashik Bay.

Significance: Ugashik Narrows was the only site found in the area with an early Holocene component. The artifacts are similar to the classic Denali complex, making Ugashik Narrows significant based on the early migration of peoples into the Alaska Peninsula from the Interior. The earliest technology

204 contains the largest blades known from Denali sites and transverse burins typical of Anangula in the Aleutians. The assemblage contains large blades, similar to those from Anangula although including bifaces, possibly representing a technologic transition as early Alaskans began to migrate into the Aleutian chain.

SUbsequent use of the area left an archaeological record spanning the last 9000 years (Henn 1978, AHRS 1997).

Integrity: This was the most extensive site found in the Ugashik Lake region with "58 house-like" depressions. Excavations included a single stratigraphic trench and several test units. Thirty-six meters2 were excavated

(Dumond 1975) leaving much of the large site intact (Henn 1978).

Artifacts and Features: The artifacts from the Ugashik Narrows Phase were date to the early Holocene. The artifact assemblage from Component F included the diagnostic transverse burins on flakes and the wedge shaped core and blade technology typically associated with the Denali complex as described by Don Dumond (1975:3). !t included 'wedge-shaped microblade cores (8), microcore rejuvenation flakes (3), microblades (-600), blades (6), core bifaces

(16), blade cores (11), utilized flakes (numerous), end-scraper (1), transverse

fragments (numerous), wedge-shaped blade cores (2), flake unifaces (2), small point fragments (2), and large "haphazard" cores (2)' (Dumond 1975:3).

205 "The most frequent micro core in the collection is the wedge-shaped

variety... These were most commonly fashioned by bifacially flaking a thick flake to form a keel. Rejuvenation of the core for further removal of microblades...

This core variety produced microblades which themselves were never modified

beyond edge retouch and snapping" (Henn 1978).

Description: A trench was excavated across the length of the site,

revealing extensive occupations and natural geomorphic processes. Five components (A-F) were described with two components (0 and C) associated with the same technological phase (Dumond 1975, Henn 1978).

The stratification began with surface vegetation, then a layer of sod - 10 cm thick, next was Stratum I - a dark brown layer of sand and midden. Stratum I was variable in its distribution throughout the site, absent in some areas but as thick as 60 cm in others. Then, there was a level of brown-green sand, originally misidentified as Ash I. This was followed by Stratum II, a "reddish-brown soil" from 15 to 35 em in thickness separated at its base by a thin black organic horizon believed to be the main occupation surface. Below the organic horizon, the earliest assemblage was found in Stratum III, described as compact light brown soil, much !ike loess. The upper levels of this contained artifacts from the

Hill Top Phase (lila) and Stratum Illb contained the Narrows Phase artifacts.

Stratum III was deposited on top of glacial outwash (Henn 1978).

206 Table 1.23: Ugashik Narrows (Dumond 1915. Henn 1978), Stratum Camp Phase RCYBP -em thick Surface F Historic 10 '..i ·..'"....,"',.."..,,', .. ,,' "...... ,'E:""..,"", .. ""R'i'ver..'.."'''''"...... '''3'35+EiC)''''''"...... ,..·....,....,.. "·.. "".. ,,·,,·,',,·..·,, ..,,· .. ,,'',,·...... ""....""...", ... "".. ·"o~Eio'''''·,,· ..'' .. ''''' '' ..·..· ... 'Ii' ".."...... "...... ".....·..···..6=6" ..".... "'Lakes'''''''''''''''''' ·"930~75~· ..1·b'5·5±66;..·1·5·3·5£80·; ..1·66·5£86;·· ..··....·....f5~35 ..·..·.. ··..·· ·.. ··..,.. 1885+90,2110+95 :::nI§.::::::::::::::::::::::::::: '::::::::::::::$.::::::::::::: ":BHCf.9:P.:::::::::::::: :::~:§~9.~§9.;:::~:$.:t§.~§9.;:::~:~?§.f~Q;:::~:4:$.:QI?§.::::::::: 3Ft9.i:::::::::::::::::::::::::::. !lIb A Narrows 76752:.260,84252:.115,89952:.295 0-1O?

207 Name: Usibelli Site (Med) (Potential to Provide Further Data)

Number: HEA- 00128

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: N/A

Complex: Nenana, Denali (Hoffecker 1980:16).

Environment: The site is "approximately 2.35km east of [the] Nenana

River, approx. 3km north of the confluence of Lignite Creek, approx. 8.4km north of Healy. Maxwell locates the site about 750m to the ENE of Hoffecker's map location... on the northwestern side of Slate Creek, approx. 850m WSW of the

Parks Highway crossing, approx. 16.3km NNW of Healy" (AHRS 1997 abbreviations original).

History: The site was discovered during the Early Man project (Hoffecker et al (eds) 1985).

Significance: "This site may contain as many as three components, the lowest of which seems likely to be of terminal Pleistocene age (AHRS 1997).

Such documentation suggests this site could contain information relevant to the ongoing theoretical debate regarding Nenana and Denali technological

208 populations (Powers and Hoffecker 1989). As a result, it is eligible for nomination to the NR based on the potential for future research.

Integrity: The site appeared stratified, much like other confirmed Nenana

Complex sites in the region (Powers and Hoffecker 1989). Three cultural components found with the basal component produced a characteristic Chindadn projectile technologically associated with the Nenana Complex (Hoffecker

1980:16).

Artifacts and Features: "The Usibelli site may contain as many as three components, the lowest of which seems likely to be of terminal Pleistocene age.

A small triangular point recovered from this level bears a strong typological resemblance to the small bifacial point and point fragments on Component I at

Dry Creek" (Hoffecker 1980:16). However, a 14C sample from 23-32cm deep produced a date of 31952:295 (GX-13013) (AHRS 1997).

Description: Artifacts recovered from what is believed to be three components. The upper most region containing artifacts was at the base of the organic topsoil. Two deeper components were found between 20 and 40 cm in depth buried in silt. Basal gravel is reported from a depth of approximately 40 cm

(Hoffecker 1980:15 Figure 3). To date, Hoffecker has only tested the site and excavations have not been undertaken.

209 Table 7.24: Usibeiii Site Hoffecker 1980: ada ted from Fi 3 a e 15 Strati ra h Com onents Com lex -de th in em ... Q.r..g.?n..i~ ...1..!.1 ? ? . Silt II 20 ...... , " ? .. Silt I Nenana? 30 r..s·as·ai·..G·rav·ei.. ··················..·..·rsterife···· 1" ·····..·..···· · ······· ··················1 40············· ·· ····· ··· ··1

210 Name: Walker Road (High)

Number: HEA-00130

Region: Interior

NHR Designation: NONE

Repository: University of Alaska, Fairbanks

Land Ownership: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: 11 ,300:t120AMS

Complex: Nenana, Denali? (unknown)

Environment: The Walker Road site is located near Healy, AK in the foothills north of the Alaska Range along an overlook of the Cindy-James Creek

at it's confluence with the Nenana River in Interior Alaska (Goebel et al 1996).

History: Walker Road, discovered in 1980 by Hoffecker and Wilson, was first excavated by Powers and Hoffecker in 1984. Further excavations took place

between 1985 and 1990 resulting in nearly 200 excavated square meters

(Goebel et al 1991, Goebel et al 1996).

Significance: Walker Road is one of four sites that have come to define the Nenana complex characterized by the diagnostic teardrop shaped Chindadn

projectile point. The four sites (\Na!ker Road, Dry Creek, Ow! Ridge and Moose

Creek) are often described as the most likely antecedent to Clovis groups further to the south which emerged during the terminal Pleistocene (Goebel et al1991).

211 Obsidian artifacts, traced to Batza Tena and Wrangle Mountains, were

found in the earliest occupations at Walker Road and Broken Mammoth and

couid provide further information regarding Pleistocene lithic acquisition and wide

spread economic activities (Hamilton and Goebel 1999:184 citing personal

communication with John Cook).

Integrity: Much of the original integrity of the earliest occupations at

Walker Road remain in place and were subjected to only slight freeze thaw activity (Goebel et al 1996). Paleocomplex I dated by a single sample to

8720±.250 was described from loess Layer 4 at a depth of approximately 50 cm

below surface. Artifacts from this occupation were non-diagnostic (Powers and

Hoffecker 1989:269 Fig. 4). Paleocomplex II was found at a depth of

approximately 80cm below the surface and contained the Nenana complex artifacts associated with four 14C dates (11,01 0±.23°,11,170±.180, 11 ,300±120,

11 ,820±200) (Goebel et al 1996).

Artifacts and Features: Activity Area 1 (AA-1), one of the larger event areas, contained unidentifiable burnt bone, anvil stones, red ocher. The collection of lithic tools included scrapers (end & side), gravers, cobbles, rewor!<.ed flakes and blades; also over 1000 fragments of lithic debitage were recovered. Hearth Feature I was associated with this activity area (Goebel et al

1996).

212 AA-2 contained a "bowl shaped hearth" (Feature II) from which wood, traces of red ocher and burnt bone were present. Lithics from AA-2 include anvil stone, cobbles, many end scrapers, side scrapers, wedges, planes and

Chindadn projectile points. The lithic debitage numbered over 2000 items. The majority of activities in this component involved fine retooling of end scrapers

(Goebel et al 1996). AA-2 levels contained no evidence of microblade use

(Goebel et al 1991).

AA-3 was a single tool-manufacturing event; several of the tools made here were identified in other Activity Areas. The brown chert raw material was obtained locally (Goebel et al 1996). AA-4 was also a small occupation associated with tool maintence/manufacturing. The artifacts recovered included hammerstones, pressure flakes, cores and fragments of cores, reworked flakes, a "retoucher", debitage, end and side scrapers (Goebel et al1996). In total, there were approximately 15 tools and associated debitage believed to be left from the manufacture of a single Chindadn projectile (Goebel et al 1996).

Description: The geologic stratigraphy included two Paleosols (I and II)

(Goebel et al 1991) and the present topsoil. Six layers of wind blown loess episodes separated these and sealed the occupations. T\'/O cultural zones 'vvere identified the lower Component I. Component II has been dated to the early

Holocene at 8720.:!:250 and is associated with Denali technology (Goebel et al

1991, Goebel et al 1996).

213 Component I was associated with the Nenana complex and dated to the

late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. It included two areas of lithic debris

and unidentifiable burnt bone in association with hearths, areas of lithic

refinement, retooling, repair and discarding (Goebel et al 1996). The earliest

date from hearth Feature 1 in "basalloess" is considered problematic by the

investigator (11 ,820:t200*). Two additional dates from hearth Feature I returned

dates of 11,01 0:t120AMS and 11, 170:t180AMs. Samples from hearth Feature II

resulted in a date of 11 ,300:t120AMS (Goebel et al 1996) placing the earliest

Nenana occupation for Walker Road between 11,000-11,300 rcybp. Component

II was not as straightforward and included the sporadic samples 3816:t70AMs ,

4414:t95 and 8720:t250AMS (Goebel et al 1991, Goebel et al 1996).

Lithic raw material from Component I originated from a local source, cobbles from the nearby Nenana River. Obsidian was present (0.4%), and was the only non-local lithic resource at the site (Goebel et al 1996). This pattern is consistent with evidence from Broken Mammoth (Yesner 1996) suggesting that early occupants used local materials first, before gaining local knowledge of more efficient lithic resources in the region (Hamilton and Goebel 1999).

214 Name: Whitmore Ridge (Med)

Number: XMH-00072

NHR Designation: NHS -Tangle Lakes Archaeological District

Region: Interior

Land Owner: State of Alaska

Basal Dates: 10,360:!:60, 1o,270:!:70, 9830:!:60, 9600:!:140, 9890:!:70, 5480:!:300,

5080:!:130, 3800:!:180* (West, Robinson and West 1996)

Complex: Denali (West, Robinson and West 1996)

Environment: "This site is located on the crest of a north-south trending esker ridge" (AHRS 1997) "...truncated just to the south by Rock Creek. It is on the face of this truncation that the fossil beaver dam is exposed. The site lies about 600 m west of Butcher's Pond" (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).

Significance: Whitmore Ridge was one of Fred West's (1967,1975) original type-sites for the Denali complex. It is already a contributing site in the

Tangle Lakes Archaeological District. It is "one of the most important and productive sites within the Tangle Lakes Archaeological District" (AHRS 1997).

Integrity: The artifacts at Whitmore ridge were found in situ, buried shallowly in early Holocene deposits. Although wind erosion and deflation was reported along the ridge, three site locales were defined within an area of approximately 40 meters (West, Robinson and West 1996).

215 Artifacts and Features: "Excavations conducted by West yielded wedge shaped cores, conical cores, knives, projectile points, bifaces, scrapers, and burins" (AHRS 1997). Locus 1 was the least extensive artifact cluster, consisting of wedge shaped microblade cores and associated byproducts. West et al

(1996:386) describes "fine-grained lustrous chert" as the material type in Locus

1. Locus 2 was located 15 meters south of Locus 1 and 8 meters north of Locus

3. Conoidal blade core, biface fragments and a burin. "The conoidal cores are predominately of a black marine chert with a few specimens of red sardo The technology is quite unlike that seen in Denali" (West, Robinson and West

1996:386).

Locus 3 was a dense area of debris and waste flakes, "mostly large flakes indicative of bifacial thinning". The material type was mostly comprised of argillite (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).

Description: Three clusters of artifacts were scattered "continuously over

40 meters" (West et aI1996). West et al (1996) describe the artifacts in situ within the buried soil (Lower Holocene Podzol). "On this high exposed ridge the soil column is quite shallow and in a few places, the double soil is either absent or cannot be definitively identified" (West, Robinson and West 1996:386).

216