:.J THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THE EARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY -, by Brian T. Wygal Final Edition A THESIS Presented to the Department of Anthropology and the College of Arts and Sciences University of Alaska Anchorage in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology December 2003 1 l I THE EARLIEST ALASKANS AND THE 1 EARLIEST AMERICANS THEME STUDY 1 by_ 1 Brian T. Wygal 1 THESIS 1 1 1 j W~er4Jd~ William Workman, PhD 1 1 ACCEPTE . ) J December 2003 J ARLIS ~" J AlaskaReso~rces Library & Information Service Library Building, Suite 111 "/,. 3211 Providence Drive J Anchora@:e, AK 99508-4614" J Acknowledgments My graduate committee at the University of Alaska, Anchorage has been of special importance during the past two and a half years. Dr. William Workman's suggestions, directions to publications, and knowledge of Arctic archaeology provided indispensable insight to this research. Dr. Owen Mason also provided me with hard-to-find publications, and the understanding that geology, ecology, and site formation processes are fundamental when discussing archaeology. I must also thank Robert Gal with the Western Arctic National Parklands for providing his expertise on Paleoindian archaeology, lithic technology, and analysis, as well as laboratory and field methods. His project, the spatial and lithic analysis of the Last Day site, provided me with essential introductions to the software and techniques used in archaeological analysis. Dr. Becky Saleeby's efforts, from the beginning, have been most supportive. She provided me with the support and motivation to study Early Alaskans without restriction. Becky was responsible for taking on the Earliest Americans Theme Study in Alaska and securing funding from the National Council for Preservation Education and the National Park Service for my internships under her supervision. Becky was also responsible for introducing me to Dr. David Yesner, whose work first inspired my desire to study Paleoindian archaeology during my o LO f"-. o f"-. f"-. o o o LO LO f"-. M M undergraduate years. David Yesner has been a true friend and mentor, studying under his advisement has been an honor, and his example and influence shall remain with me for my entire c..areer. Finally, I must extend the utmost appreciation and gratitude to Kathryn Krasinski, whose unlimited tenacity and work ethic provided much needed inspiration in the final phases of this stage in the earliest Alaskan project. Her countless revisions and constructive criticism contributed immensely to the final drafts of this thesis. Although many people, including my graduate committee, have provided suggestions and knowledge, and directed me toward many publications and ideas, the opinions and thoughts I have written in this thesis are entirely my own. The positions included mayor may not reflect that of anyone of these individuals. ii Abstract A Theme Study considers the significance of cultlJral properties under a common theme deemed nationally significant. The National Park Service has been working to nominate archaeological properties to the National Register of Historic Places based on the Earliest Americans Theme Study, as mandated by the United States Senate in 1995. Alaska plays a vital role in developing this theme since groups must have migrated throughout the state during the peopling of the Western Hemisphere. As a contribution to this important Theme Study, this thesis involves the development of methods used to assess the current body of literature pertaining to Early Alaskan sites dated to between 8,000 and 12,000 radiocarbon years before present (rcybp). It reviews the current state of Alaskan Paleoindian Cultural Resource documentation and provides information necessary for the development of a multiple property nomination capable of assessing the differing degrees of integrity and significance of these early sites. iii Table of Contents Chapter Page I. Introduction 1 II. The Earliest Americans Theme Study 6 Ill. The Earliest Alaskans 10 A. Geographic Focus 16 B. The State of Early Alaskan Cultural Resources 20 C. Alaskan Site Categories and Methods of Analyses 22 IV. Pleistocene/Early Holocene Environments and Archaeology in Alaska 29 A. Paleo-environment of the Pleistocene and Holocene 29 B. Early Alaskan Archaeological Classifications 36 C. Early Alaskan Component Frequencies 47 D. An Alternate Approach: Primary Mode of Lithic Production 48 E. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations for Early Alaskan Sites 52 V. Spatial Integrity of Ancient Surface Sites: A Case Study at Last Day 56 VI. Results and Conclusion 66 Notations 70 References Cited 71-88 Appendix 89-216 iv Tables and Figures Page Table 3.1 Summary of Early Alaskan Sites 11-12 Table 3.2 Summary of Site Rankings 15 Figure 3.3 Early Alaskan Sites 16 Figure 3.4 Northem Distribution of Early Sites 18 Figure 3.5 Interior Distribution of Early Sites 19 Table 3.6 National Register Designation Codes 20 Figure 3.7 National Register Designations for Early Alaskan Sites 21 Table 3.8 Early Alaska Site Categories 23 Figure 4.1 Alaska Paleoglaciation 32 Figure 4.2 Beringia Digital Elevation Model 33 Table 4.3 Early Alaska Technological Classifications 37 Table 4.4 Mesa Complex Sites 42 Figure 4.5 Early Alaska Component Frequency 48 Figure 4.6 Percentages of Early Alaskan Components 48 Table 4.7 Early Alaskan Technologic Classifications 49 Figure 4.8 Mode of Production in Early Alaskan Components 51 Table 4.9 Radiocarbon Determinations and Calibrated Years 54 Figure 4.10 Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations 55 Figure 5.1 Spatial Integrity at the Last Day Site 59 Figure 5.2 Artifact Types in Cluster A at Last Day 60 Figure 5.3 Blade Width verses Thickness 63 Figure 5.4 Last Day (XHP-497) Lithic Artifacts 65 Table 6.1 Brooks Range 69 Table 6.2 Seward Peninsula 69 Table 6.3 Interior 69 Table 6.4 Southeast 69 Table 6.5 Southwest and Alaska Peninsula 69 Table 6.6 Aleutians 69 v Tables and Figures (continued) Page Table 7.1 Broken Mammoth 101 Table 7.2 Broken Mammoth 102 Table 7.3 Cario Creek 107 Table 7.4 Chuck Lake Horizontal Provenience 110 Table 7.5 Chuck Lake Locality 1 Vertical Stratigraphy 110 Table 7.6 Delta River Overlook 115 Table 7.7 Excavated Areas at Gallagher Flint Station 118 Table 7.8 Gallagher Localities 121 Table 7.9 Stratigraphy at all Three Gallagher Localities 121 Table 7.10 Ground Hog Bay 2 126 Table 7.11 Healy Lake Village Site 131 Table 7.12 Hidden Falls 138 Table 7.13 Mead 156 Table 7.14 Moose Creek 166 Table 7.15 Moose Creek Calibrated 166 Table 7.16 On Your Knees Cave 172 Table 7.17 Owl Ridge 177 Table 7.18 Panguingue Creek 180 Table 7.19 Putu Locality 186 Table 7.20 Swan Point 194 Table 7.21 Swan Point 195 Table 7.22 Trail Creek Caves 199 Table 7.23 Ugashik Narrows 207 Table 7.24 Usibelli Site 210 I would like to extend special thanks to my parents, Robert and Karen Wygal, and my family who have offered infinite support and enduring patience during my academic pursuits. These accomplishments would certainly not have been possible without their assistance and support and, as a result, I would like to dedicate this thesis to them. vii I. Introduction The nomination of archaeological sites to US National Landmark status has been a part of federal policy since the 1930's. As a part of that continuing effort and to re-invigorate the National Historic Landmark program, the United States Senate mandated the Earliest Americans Theme Study as a national endeavor in 1995. The "Earliest Americans" was selected as a theme based on the importance of the peopling of the Americas as a broad theoretical issue for both professional archaeologists and the American public (Grumet 1995). In the summer of 2000, the National Park Service Alaska Support Office initiated research on early Alaskan cultural resources as a contribution to the theme study. This thesis is a culmination of that research and a review of Alaska's cultural resource management documentation and policies pertinent to the cultural preservation of early Alaskan sites. The information provided here establishes the necessity for future work and the development of a Multiple Property Nomination document. Following federal guidelines, early Alaskan archaeological resources are considered those that date between 8,000 and 12,000 radiocarbon years before present (rcybp), an arbitrary span of time representing the Terminal Pleistocene­ Early Holocene transition in Alaska. A literature search, standardized by several categories of data based on aspects of scientific significance, integrity, and control over accurate dating methodology, has identified 47 early Alaskan sites for consideration. Those sites form the framework and establish the context for the comparison of individual sites. Thirty-four well-documented early Alaskan sites were judged to possess "High", "Medium," or "Low" levels of integrity and scientific significance, respectively, within this context. These ranks determine the SUitability of cultural properties (archaeological sites) for nomination to the National Register of Historic Places (NR) and the designation of National Historic Landmarks (NHL). The remaining 13 sites are discussed further in Chapter III. Why is the nomination of sites necessary for cultural resource management in Alaska? The purpose of the NR is to "serve as a planning document alerting Federal agencies to the existence of historic properties that may come under their jurisdiction" (Neumann and Sanford 2001). It is a list referred to by agencies and decision makers regarding compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. This involves not only checking the NR to determine if a property has already been listed, but also requires determining potential impacts by agency undertakings or actions associated with federal money on any cultural properties, documented or not.