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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 I I I I 75-26,610

LAUBENFELS, Mary Jean, 1926- A STUDY OF THE THEME OF WAR IN SELECTED LITERATURE FOR JUNIOR HIGH READERS (1940-1975).

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1975 Education, secondary

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

© Copyright By

Mary Jean Laubenfels

1975 A STUDY OF THE THEME OF WAR IN SELECTED LITERATURE

FOR JUNIOR HIGH READERS (1940-1975)

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Mary Jean Laubenfels, B.A., M.A.

******

The Ohio State University

1975

Reading Committee: Approved By

Wilfred Eberhart Frank Zidonis 7 Adviser Robert B. Sutton College of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This w riter would lik e to express her profound appreciation to a ll persons who have provided encouragement and assistance during the past ten years at The Ohio State University.

To Professor Wilfred Eberhart, my major adviser, goes deep gratitude for the inspiration and guidance he has offered during the writing of this thesis. Very special thanks for their patience and understanding also go to the members of my doctoral committee:

Professor Robert Sutton, Anthony Riccio, and Frank Zidonis.

To the late Professor Francis Lee Utley, humanist, scholar, and friend, I owe a debt whicti I hope to be able to repay by making

some contributions to the field of linguistics in which he served as * such an inspiring example. VITA

May 13, 1926 ...... Born - Los Angeles, California

1948 ...... B.A., Stanford University, California

1949-1953 ...... Teacher, New York City Schools

1954-1959 ...... Teacher of English, Spanish and Social Studies, Tecumseh High School, Clark County, Ohio

1959-1961 ...... Teacher of English and Spanish, Creole Petroleum Corporation, Maracaibo, Venezuela

1962-1965 ...... Teacher and counselor, Hamilton Township High School, Columbus, Ohio

1965 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1965-1968 ...... Teaching associate, College of Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1968-1972 ...... Teacher of English as a Second Language, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1972-1974 ...... Curriculum Writer and Media Specialist, Center for -Vocational, Technical Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

PUBLICATIONS

Early Childhood Education. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Association, 1972.

iv Ethnic Studies. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Association, 1971.

Media Approach to Learning. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Association, 1972.

Ohio Folklore. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Association, 1972.

Social Studies Instruction. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Education Association, 1971.

T itle Three Makes a Difference: In Reading and Language Arts. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Department of Education, 1974.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: English Education, Professor Wilfred Eberhart

Studies in Comparative Education, Professor Robert B. Sutton

Studies in Guidance and Counseling, Professor Anthony Riccio

Studies in Linguistics, Professor Francis Lee Utley

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... i i i

VITA...... iv

Chapter

I. RELEVANT LITERATURE FOR JUNIOR HIGH READERS...... , . . . 1

I I . STUDENT'S ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR AND PEACE...... 22

I I I . HOW WAR IS DEPICTED IN LITERATURE...... 51

• IV. JUVENILE FICTION ON THE THEME OF WORLD WAR I I ...... 71

V. RECENT CONFLICTS AS PORTRAYED IN CHILDREN'SBOOKS ...... 103

V I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 119

APPENDIX...... 133

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 163

v i CHAPTER I

RELEVANT LITERATURE FOR JUNIOR HIGH READERS

During the three decades that have elapsed since the end of

World War II a veritable flood of adult literature has appeared dealing with the serious domestic and international problems that plague affluent America. These selections, particularly the fictional and biographical items, often enjoy immediate and wide­ spread popularity: a popularity based far too frequently on the topical nature of their subject matter or on sensationalism of treatment, rather than on lasting literary merit. Most of these works are included in public library collections, and, to a lesser extent, in high school lib ra rie s. Thus, they frequently fa ll into the hands of adolescent readers who are v ita lly interested in the problems depicted, since they and their peers are idealistic in their * hopes of repairing the damage done by older generations and restor­ ing our ailing society.

For the older adolescent, in the eleventh or twelfth grade, who has attained the emotional maturity, the wide experiential background, and the high level reading s k ills necessary to handle the adult themes and the stylistic difficulties inherent in many of our best books dealing with social problems the challenge

1 2 presented is rewarding. One has only to look at the circulation figures of high school lib raries for many of the popular adult best­ sellers to see that teenagers are concerned about the very urgent problems of racism, crime and war as they affect America. However, for most junior high readers and for many culturally deprived older adolescents in our blighted urban schools, such books are out of the question, for they present insurmountable reading d iffic u ltie s .

Since v irtu a lly all youngsters in our highly industrialized society have access to the mass media of communication, they cannot remain unaware of such societal ills as racial s trife , burgeoning crime and violence, and war atrocities for long. So i t is at this early adolescent period when they are most id ealistic about "making a difference" that these young readers should be introduced to superior lite ra ry works depicting current socio-economic problems, selections suited to their own level of maturity and experience.

I f these readings are carefully chosen and followed by teacher- student discussions they should help to dispel some of the fear and confusion caused by inadequate and inaccurate newspaper and television presentations.

Students in Grades seven through nine are just beginning to examine the books which they read and have, therefore, very l i t t l e concern with the scholar's analytical questions or the c ritic 's discussions of quality. More important to them is the immediate experience of reading. I f the book is especially meaningful, they become completely engrossed in the characters and events. They may

identify to ta lly with the young fictional hero. Since the primary 3 emphasis in junior high school reading should be on the pleasure which i t brings, teachers and librarians working with young teens should be aware of the vast potential of the junior novel. Many of these transition selections, dealing with the interests and concerns of adolescents, have figured prominently in individualized reading programs, especially those for the slow or reluctant reader. Rarely, however, have they been seen as appropriate material for all-class study, probably because of English teachers' convictions that they must maintain lite ra ry standards by introducing students to the

"classics" of our cultural heritage. While this attitude may be valid for academically oriented senior high readers, there are almost no classic adult novels which are suitable for the bulk of junior high school pupils.

Research has shown that students can learn about the workings of literature and literary types from a study of junior novels.

Nathan Blount investigated the effects of selected adult novels and selected novels on student-held concepts of the ideal novel. Three classes of ninth-grade students and three classes of tenth-grade students in a Florida public school who participated in his study were divided into two groups, one reading and discussing a junior novel every two weeks for a six-week period and the other reading three adult novels during the same time span. The discussion of the junior novels centered both on the human values illu strated and the craft of the novelist. 4

The inferences made as a result of this investi­ gation were that, for this population, (a) the junior novel was at least as effective as, i f , indeed, not more effective than, the adult novel in bringing the students' perception of the ideal novel into agree­ ment with the experts'perception of the ideal novel and (b) certain factors which inhere in the novel (its form, its content of ideas) seem more important determiners of impact of the novel than do factors which inhere in the reader himself (sex, scholastic ability) or in the situation in which the novel is read.l

Much criticism has been directed at junior novels for the stereotyped plots and characters they frequently contain. Up until recently the bulk of them featured sports heroes for boys and

"plain Janes" who became Cinderellas for g irls . Recently, however, a number of works of real lite ra ry quality have appeard. As with adult materials, junior novels range from poor to excellent, with all degrees of quality in between. As Professor G. Robert Carl sen has said:

The best of the teenage books are seriously crafted, written by competent and dedicated writers who use subtlety in characterization, logical de­ velopment in their plot lines, and significant themes that are important to the growing te e n a g e2 r .

For the slow or reluctant reader who is too old for children's books and too unskilled or inexperienced for adult fare the junior novel provides shorter length, a less demanding vocabulary, and an

^Nathan S. Blount, "The Effect of Selected Junior Novels and Selected Adult Novels on Student Attitudes Toward the 'Ideal' Novel," Journal of Educational Research, 59 (December, 1965), p. 182.

^G. Robert Carl sen, Books and the Teenage Reader (New York: Bantam Press, 1967), p. 58. 5 emphasis on dialogue and action. For all teenagers i t serves a need- one that real life today has difficulty in fulfilling. Heroes in contemporary society are often ephemeral and have frequently been found to have feet of clay. Adolescents need heroes to show them the qualities of endurance, hard work, independence, involvement, commitment and creativity. All these qualities can be found in abundance in many recent junior novels which face up to the fears, p itfa lls , and preoccupations of adolescence with remarkable honesty and s k ill.

The vast increase in the publication of books for adolescents each year is evidence of the place of this genre in the lives of teenagers. Given the chance to read freely, junior high students will generally choose junior novels, and they will rank them as the

"best" they have read and their "favorite" books. As Dwight Burton has pointed out:

Studies of reading interests indicate that the junior novel is widely read; apparently it fulfills an important function in the lite ra ry education as well as the personal development of the adolescent.3

The extent to which a child's attitudes and values are affected by his reading is a topic of controversy. Educators have been concerned with the question since the end of the First World

War, when the need for interracial, international, and interreligious understanding became apparent i f future wars were to be prevented.

^Dwight Burton, Literature Study in the High School (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, Inc., 1964)', p. 61. 6

In October of 1967 participants at the "Conference on Children's Books as a Means of Promoting International Understanding" met at the Danish

Unesco School near Copenhagen. There they formalized their agreement that good children's fic tio n -s u b je c t to the same standards as all

lite ra tu re — is essential to improving understanding among people and

can be used with great educational effectiveness. They urged Unesco

to encourage further study of the effect of children's fiction on

attitudes.^ Many professional journal articles proclaiming the need

for overcoming prejudice and resolving various social problems

through an appropriate program of reading and discussion have appeared

recently. Children's authors and publishers have responded by pro­

ducing juvenile books of high quality dealing with varied races,

nationalities, and religions, having as their theme the importance of

sympathy, kindness and understanding between people all over the

world.

Bibliotherapy, the attempt to promote mental and emotional

health by using reading materials to f u l f i l l needs, relieve pressures

or aid personal development, is based on the b e lief that litera tu re

can affect not only children's attitudes, but also their behavior.

Cianciolo reported on a 1965 study by the University of Chicago made

to determine i f reading and identification can have a deep-seated

effect on children. Data was gathered through focused interviews,

story projective technique, and sociometric technique. The results

^Leona Daniels, "The 34th Man: How Well Is Jewish Minority Culture Represented in Children's Fiction?" School Library Journal, 16 (February, 1970), p. 38. 7 reported were:

(1) Effects are contributory but they alone do not produce dynamic changes.

(2) Experiences and/or values in the reading must be appropriate to the developmental level of the reader.

(3) D ifferent socio-economic levels and cultural groups respond to different values.

(4) Responses depend on the needs and receptivity of the chi Id. 5

One possible explanation for a lack of ready evidence of results is that changes in behavior and reading interest are slow. Whether a program is designed for one student or an entire classroom, i t is an extremely personal approach because the child can select from the readings suggested those that attract or appear meaningful to him.

The process of id entification , catharsis and insight can then con­ tribute to a change in the child's attitude toward himself, the world around him, and perhaps, to a change in his behavior.

Since ideas about the affective potential of children's ¥ books are widely held, it is surprising to find that objective studies of the affective qualities of lite ra tu re on youngsters are few, open to question, and sometimes contradictory. One such study was made by Fehl Shirley in two public high schools of Tucson, Arizona. The

420 pupils involved were asked to report any changes in concepts, attitudes and behavior that they had noted as a result of reading.

5Patricia J. Cianciolo, "Children's Literature Can Affect Coping Behavior," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 43 (May, 1965), p. 903. 8

A content analysis was made of the responses to student question­ naires, and major areas in which the readers were influenced emerged:

self-image, philosophy of l if e , attitudes toward cultural groups,

social problems, sensitivity to people, political science, and miscellaneous. A few illu s tra tiv e comments from students follow:

Cultural Groups — (Blood Brother by E lliott Arnold) "As I read this book, I started rooting for the Indians, and then I realized something: to favor the Indians was to turn against 'my people,' whites. This book brought to focus that there is more than one side to a coin."

(Black Like Me by John Howard G riffin ) "Before I read Black Like Me I was more or less indifferent to other peopled problems. This book opened my eyes to the injustice and misery everywhere and made me want to do something about i t . Since I read i t , I've talked to many people about their views and I'v e even changed a few."

Social Problems - - (The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane) "I f e lt the tearing of the soul that war can bring about. I fear war, even though i t was written about the Civil War."

Political Science — (None Dare Call I t Treason by John Stormer) "This book made me aware of the threat of Communism in this country and in the world, and afterwards I wanted to join a youth p o litical group and I did."

(Advise and Consent by Allen Drury) "Advise and Consent punctured a lot of my idealistic picture of the U.S. Government—showed the corruption and corrupted of Washington even though i t was fic tio n —made me in ter­ ested in politics. Since then, I read the whole newspaper, not just the comics, sports, and women's sections."®

%ehl Shirley, "The Influence of Reading on Adolescents," Wilson Library B u lletin, 43 (November, 1968), pp. 257-58. 9

The above comments reveal that not only were the attitudes and opinions of these adolescents changed by the reading of contro­ versial books, but also in several cases more mature, socially aware behavior was the direct outcome of such reading. It is inter­ esting to note that in the area of cultural groups, reported

influences regarding Negroes were predominant, despite the fact that

the socially disadvantaged of Southern Arizona are overwhelmingly

Mexicans and Indians. In fa c t, more readings were reported on

Negroes than on any other topic in the entire study. Since integra­

tion and c iv il rights issues were prominent in the news at the time

of the study (1965-1966), the many influences reported appear to

support Berelson's belief that "the cru ciality and the parallel

association of printed material with an important current event

strengthen the influence of print on opinions."7 In the area of

social problems the emphasis of the readings was on war. This also

suggests the association of readings with current events, since the

Vietnam war was in the news at that time. In the area of po litical

science the majority of the readings were on Communism and our

government. Here again, the subject of Communism was a c ritic a l

current event, and the recent presidential campaign stimulated reading

about government o ffic ia ls and issues. Of the 420 students, only

sixteen reported no personal influence traceable to reading. Of

7Bernard Berelson, "The Public Library, Book Reading, and Political Behavior," Library Quarterly, 15 (October, 1945), p. 298. 10

1,184 different influences reported, forty-five percent were new concepts, forty percent new attitudes and fiftee n percent behavioral responses. Also significant were the following findings:

(1) No difference in influence between fiction and non-fiction.

(2) A positive relation existing between the number of total influences and the intelligence, vocabu­ la ry , and comprehension levels of the subject. The better readers were more apt to be influenced by books.

(3) Students were more influenced by voluntary reading than by assigned readings.®

Shirley's findings are significant for teachers and re­ searchers. Only fifte e n percent of the reading influences resulted in a behavioral change, the type most obvious and easily measurable.

The great number of reported changes occurred in the cognitive areas of concepts and attitudes. Perhaps these w ill result in changes in behavior eventually, but the changes w ill be gradual and subtle and not easily attributable to the influence of a specific book. The book mentioned most frequently by students, Black Like Me (forty- three citations) is a significant one. In a study of the relation­ ship of needs and interests to reading, G. Robert Carl sen stated that adolescents lik e to know introspectiveTy how i t would feel to assume particular roles in society; they want to identify with the inner feelings of characters.^ Perhaps this book, written in the first

®Fehl Shirley, "Influence of Reading on Concepts, Attitudes, and Behavior," Journal of Reading, 12 (February, 1969), p. 413.

9G. Robert Carl sen, "Behind Reading Interests," English Journal, 43 (January, 1954), pp. 7-8. 11 person, helped readers identify with the internal reactions of the narrator, in addition to provoking interest because of the timeliness of the racial issue.

The students in Shirley's study revealed what was v ita l to them by their choice of books--frequently not what was prescribed for them. This was well expressed by an especially percpetive subject:

I t seems that many books that are d ifferen t enough to make a lasting impression are too contro­ versial to be read in school and many people miss the most valuable reading in this way . 10

Among the few studies concerned with the impact of reading on students' attitudes and values are two dealing specifically with the problem of children's prejudices and reading. Jackson (1944) investigated the effects of reading upon attitudes toward the Negro held by Southern white children of junior high age. Working with two groups matched with respect to sex, intelligence, chronological age, and socio-economic status, she read a story favorable to Negroes with the experimental group while the control group did no reading.

Both groups were given pre- and post-test attitu din al scales to determine the effects of the story. A greater trend toward a liberal attitude was shown by the experimental group based on post-test scores. However, when the scale was repeated two weeks later pre­ viously noted gains had been lo s t.^ In order to understand the

lOFehl Shirley, "The Influence of Reading on Adolescents," op. c i t . , p. 260. ^Evalene P. Jackson, "Effects of Reading Upon Attitudes Toward the Negro Race," Library Quarterly, 14 (October, 1944), p. 54. 12 reasons for this rapid loss i t would be wise to examine the influence of the home, community, and peer group in reinforcing or opposing the original attitude.

Fisher (1965) tested the hypothesis that reading material favorable to American Indians would change the attitude of fifth-grade children. He gave an attitude test to all pupils as a pre-test and post-test. One group read six selected stories; a second read the stories and also discussed them; a third had no contact with the stories at all. The results showed that reading of stories about

American Indians produced attitude changes that were significantly greater than those when no reading was done. Reading of stories plus discussions produced more significant attitude changes favorable toward Indians than did reading without d is c u s s io n J 2 Since few homes and communities in this country have direct contact with

Indians it is unlikely that pupils' initial attitudes were influenced by parental or peer bias. A great many unfavorable attitudes toward

Indians are generated”by television and movies. Fisher's study seems to show that in itia l attitudes can be improved through the use of selected readings and a well-planned discussion program. This leads to speculation as to whether or not a reading-discussion program can overcome and correct other unfavorable attitudes derived from TV and movies. May H ill Arbuthnot expresses her optimism that reading can effectively challenge TV for the youngsters' attention in this way:

^ E ric A. Kimmel, "Can Children's Books Change Children's Values?" Educational Leadership, 28 (November, 1970), p. 214. 13

If we can induct children into a genuine enjoy­ ment of books, we can guide them to stories in which they will discover pictures of noble maturity and of children growing and changing into more competent and more lovable human beings at every stage of de­ velopment. Reading an absorbing story is a continual process of identification. The child sees himself as Tom Sawyer or Caddie Woodlawn or whoever his current hero may be. Then, because even fluent, rapid reading is a slower, steadier process than the interrupted, piecemeal presentation of television with its station identifications and endless commercials, the hero image in a book has a chance to make a deeper, more lasting impression. Books are a bright hope i f we can find the right book for a child at the right tim e.13

In today's s trife -to rn world i t is important to know whether reading can be effective in building attitudes conducive to peaceful living with our world neighbors. Two studies which show the potential of fictional material for changing adolescents' attitudes toward war are those of Ruth Hirschman and Ann Barnes.

Dr. Hirschman, prior to World War I I , made a systematic study of 367 junior history students in six California high schools.^ Her purposes were to determine whether a teacher-planned study of war could influence the attitude of students toward war, and whether realistic anti-war fiction could have a like effect. In addition to the regular history text each student in the experimental group read

^May H ill Arbuthnot, "Developing Life Values Through Reading," Elementary English, 43 (January, 1966), pp. 10-11.

^Ruth Hirschman,'The Effect of School and Other Selected Factors upon the Attitudes of High School Students Toward War." (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1937), p. 61. 14 at least one from a group of nine anti-war novels. During the pro­ gram frequent tests of attitude were made, including the use of the

Thurstone-Peterson Attitude Toward War Scale. Comparisons of the experimental and control groups offer relia b le evidence that the teaching of even a single unit on war using reading materials that combine emotional power and concrete presentation can increase students' opposition to war. Hirschman also discovered that I.Q. was not a factor in attitude toward war, since her subjects of lower

I.Q .'s were as competent in stating the main ideas in anti-war books as those of high I.Q.

Ann Barnes, a junior high school English teacher in Lafayette,

Indiana, became concerned over the attitudes of her ninth-grade students toward atomic warfare. Prior to in-depth reading of the novel Hiroshima, some class members expressed no attitudes concerning the topic at all. Those who did have attitudes felt that:

( 1) the atomic bomb was good because i t ended the war; ✓ (2) the "Japs" deserved the dropping of the bomb; and

(3) the Americans were ju s tifie d in dropping the bomb and would be ju s tifie d in dropping i t in Vietnam.15

After some questions by the teacher which forced them to examine these attitudes, the students concluded that their attitudes were without support, and that they needed more information on the

l^Ann C. Barnes, "Attitudes: Positive Changes Through the Study of Literature," The Clearing House, 47 (September, 1972), p. 25. 15 subject. Following the reading of Hiroshima, classes viewed two films and watched a television program. One of the films was on conflicts of the cold war; the other showed the effect of the bomb on the

Japanese people. The TV program showed Japanese lif e both today and right after the bomb was dropped. In the discussion which ensued such changed attitudes as the following were expressed:

(1) the dropping of the bomb had caused many more conflicts than i t had solved;

(2) the people who suffered from the bomb were not associated directly with the war;

(3) instead of stopping the war and in itia tin g peace, the Americans had caused more conflicts, hate, suffering, and sickness;

(4) the students weren't as proud of the United States' power and superiority as they were at the beginning of the study.16

The all-class discussion which followed intensive reading of Hiroshima and viewing of the media programs was essential to effecting attitudinal change, as was the role-playing technique used.

With this experience,'Barnes realized the extraordinary opportunity that the English teacher has to shape students' attitudes and values through the teaching of lite ra tu re . She discovered, in addition, that not only can the lite ra tu re which students read influence their attitudes, but also that students' attitudes, in turn, have an in­ fluence on what they read. This influence exerts itself on a reader's perception, understanding, and retention.

16Ibid,., p. 27. 16

Children's interests in reading are not innate or inherent.

They are developed largely through social conditioning. The teacher can only help, through judicious guidance, to develop permanent tastes, attitudes and interests in reading. Planning for this should be within the framework of the child's acquired social needs, and the developmental growth patterns that he manifests.

Many studies of youngsters' reading interests have been made.

Of particular importance to junior high teachers is that done by

George W. Norvell in 1950 and up-dated and revised in 1973. More than 50,000 students in grades seven through twelve and 625 teachers

in all types of communities and all sizes of schools in New York

State participated. Tabulated individual opinions numbered 1,590,000.

A separate summary of a ll data for grades seven to nine was made. A major result of this investigation is the provision of interest

scores for 1700 selections commonly studied in grades seven through

twelve. The data suggest that for pupils in secondary schools

content and not reading d iffic u lty is a major determinant of reading

interest. From the standpoint of instructional procedures and

results it appears that the assignment of suitable selections for

study is much more influential than the teaching methods employed.I7

Results indicate that the year-to-year changes in children's reading

interests between grades eight and eleven are usually gradual and

small, and that a literary selection well linked in a particular

^7George W. Norvell, The Reading Interests of Young People (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1973), pp. 17-18. 17 grade w ill usually be enjoyed two or three grades above or below. A comparison of interests by sex showed biographies equally well liked, essays not enjoyed, science selections preferred by boys, and girls enjoying boys books, while boys'reject girls' books.

The junior high school years bring the peak in amount of reading done, especially in grades seven and eight. There is a marked decline in grade nine, as increased social, academic and athletic responsibilities take their toll. Not only do junior high pupils read more than their older counterparts, but their reading interests are much wider. Specialized interests begin to .appear at age 14.

All research studies agree that the major interest is fic tio n , mostly juvenile, with a dawning interest in adult fiction. Girls read more than boys, but their interests are more homogeneous. Boys read juvenile books longer, generally turning to adult fiction (usually the true lif e adventure story) a year to two later than g irls .

Intelligence exerts a strong influence on reading, with bright children reading an average of three or four times as many books as do children of average intelligence. In addition, they read books of better quality.

Since i t would be impossible to analyze a ll the areas of social problem literature popular with adolescent readers, this dissertation will concentrate on juvenile books on the theme of most

1»A1 ice R. Wickens, "Reading Interests: Grades 7 Through 9," from Developing Permanent Interest in Reading, Helen M. Robinson, Ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 60-64. 18 v ita l concern to mankind today: war as a solution to intergroup conflicts. Although war has performed some important social functions in organized societies, today its elimination has become a requirement fo r human survival because i t has become so destructive that i t has lost whatever positive social values i t may once have possessed. I f war is to be rejected as an unthinkable and untenable reaction to group conflicts and h o s tilitie s , then i t is v ital that the present generation of school children be informed as to the vast tragedy and suffering it has caused. An effective way for our sheltered youngsters to understand the effects of war on others is through exposure to superior literary selections which realistically depict war's devastation. Although there are available many excellent adult war novels which are essentially protests, most of these present a serious problem for use with adolescents— the language used and the type of experience frequently portrayed.

In recent years, research has revealed that the early adolescent period from eleven to thirteen is the optimum time to study social concepts such as war and peace; fortunately, a number of superior fictional selections have been written especially for this age group. The best of these emphasize the terror, suffering and hardship modern war brings to combatants and civilians alike, while avoiding the eroticism and profanity which make many adult selections unacceptable to parents and to teachers and librarians who work with junior high school pupils.

The aim of this dissertation is to examine the literature on the theme of war written especially for the junior high school reader 19 during the period from 1940-1975, to analyze the characteristics of the ea rlier material on World War I I , and to compare and contrast recent publications treating current conflicts. While emphasis will be on fictional material, some true-life accounts will also be examined, since so many of the most moving and re a lis tic selections are the result of their authors' personal wartime experience.

In this chapter an attempt has been made to explore the characteristics of the junior novel which make it an ideal vehicle for conveying human relations concepts to adolescents. In addition, the extent to which reading can affect values, attitudes and sub­ sequent behavior has been discussed. And, fin a lly , the reading interests of boys and g irls of junior high age have been examined b rie fly .

Chapter I I w ill survey the results of more than th irty years of research on students' attitudes toward war and peace and their knowledge in these areas. Although this thesis w ill not attempt a fu ll, comprehensive survey of research related to children and war several cross-national studies w ill be described to provide some understanding of how a nation's experiences with war affect the attitudes of its youth.

Chapter I I I w ill examine b rie fly the attitudes that earlier writers took toward war and w ill discuss significant changes that have occurred in recent war fiction written for adults. Here also early juvenile selections that conditioned youngsters for World

War I I w ill be examined. 20

The fourth chapter will analyze in detail a selected group of recent juvenile novels and personal accounts of World War I I chosen for their lite ra ry merit and potential for convincing our sheltered youth that no one escapes unscathed when war devastates a land. In addition to the stirring fictional tales of youthful heroism in battle by outstanding American writers for adolescents like John Tunis,

Stephen Meader, Robb White, and Frank Bonham, fine re a lis tic accounts by foreign authors who u tiliz e their own tragic experiences as victims of war w ill dispel any romantic illusions teenagers may hold about war. Since many of the authors to be discussed are quite p ro lific i t is impossible to examine all of their lite ra ry output in depth. For this reason certain selections which are of special relevance today and those of value to the broadest spectrum of students w ill be treated in some d e tail. Whenever possible, background information w ill be provided on the authors' experiences which have helped to shape the attitudes and values they reveal in their books for young people.

Chapter V w ill examine juvenile fictio n on the theme of recent conflicts which have occurred since the end of World War I I . In­ cluded w ill be material depicting the Communist takeover of war-

weakened states, and the tragic c iv il wars caused by religious, ethnic, and cultural differences in several parts of the globe today.

Attempts w ill be made to compare the attitudes toward war shown in

this current material with that revealed by writers who used the

theme of World War I I . 21

The final chapter of conclusions w ill summarize current trends in human relations materials for adolescents and attempt to predict what the future holds in this field. The Appendix following this chapter w ill contain an annotated bibliography of books on the theme of war and conflict recommended for adolescent readers. Familiarity with the best of these selections can help teenagers to see the universality of problems of intergroup relations, which differ in degree but not in kind among modern nations. I t is hoped that they will also be able to see the imperative need for international cooperation i f tensions are ever to be lessened and conflicts resolved. CHAPTER I I

STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR AND PEACE

In the preamble to the Constitution of the United Nations

Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization are found these words:

Since wars begin in the minds of men, i t is in the minds of men that the defense of peace must be constructed. Ignorance of each other's ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world through which th eir d if­ ferences have all too often broken into war.l

Thoughtful educators are conscious of a heavy task which the times have imposed upon them. That task is to see that the young people of this generation acquire world understanding—that is, a sympathetic acquaintance and a feeling of kinship with the peoples of other lands. As teachers in increasing numbers seek ways by which t to accomplish this end they are beset by doubts which often thwart their efforts. Many of them feel that a teacher's function is to organize and present material, not to shape attitudes. If a teacher espouses world understanding, he may be called by some people a

propagandist. There is a further feeling that emphasis on a world outlook somehow lessens pupils' allegiance to their own country.

^Gertrude D. Novokovsky, "Radio—A Medium Toward World Friendship," Progressive Education, 25 (A p ril, 1948), p. 105.

22 23

Too often teaching about foreign nations takes the superficial form of stressing the bizarre, picturesque, and colorful, instead of the accurate, everyday, realistic features of a country. This tendency may further students' ideas of foreigners as "strange" and "different" and make i t impossible for them to recognize the basic sim ilarities between a ll peoples.

Dr. Leonard Kenworthy, noted social studies educator, suggests six attitudes and important ideas about other countries which should be developed by the time youngsters begin high school:

(1) First of all, children should learn that they liv e in a world of different kinds of people.

(2) Second, children should learn that people are affected by th eir environment and by the ways of living and thinking of their parents and other adults.-

(3) Third, children should learn that countries are very much like people and are affected by their size, location, history, and beliefs. (They should learn, however, of the vast d if­ ferences between people within any one nation).

(4) Fourth, children should learn about the in­ creasing interdependence of countries and peoples.

(5) Fifth, children should learn that we need to communicate with people of other countries.

( 6 ) Last, children should learn that there are conflicts between countries, but that people in a ll parts of the world are trying to learn to liv e peacefully together in the world community .2

2Leonard S. Kenworthy, "Studying Other Countries and Peoples in the Elementary School,"in Teaching World Understanding, Ralph C. Preston, ed. {New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955), pp. 20-22. 24

Instead of striving for international understanding, our schools have had a history of inculcating extreme nationalistic attitudes, a prime ingredient in the causes of war. It is signifi­ cant that the federal government's involvement in education has usually occurred during a war or national emergency. The many federal acts affecting education passed during wartime periods from the Civil

War through the Vietnam Conflict support the assertion that the

American school system has been and is viewed by legislators as a powerful m ilitary weapon. Rather than maintaining the school as a haven of c ritic a l reflection and an emissary of peace, educators have generally responded willingly and supportively to those in authority who focused on the role of the school as a prime mechanism for m ilitary preparedness. Ruth El son's thorough study of more than a thousand of the most popular textbooks used in our public schools during the past century caused her to conclude "that history through­ out these books consists primarily of warfare, a reflection of much of the historiography-of the period." She further stated that "From

school book descriptions one would draw the conclusion that war is a

natural and normal relationship between nations; it is dreadful but

inevitable. And its horror is full of interest." More specifically,

El son reports finding in the schoolbooks that "American participation

in past wars is not only approved but depicted in glorious terms.

The opponents of the United States in any war are the aggressors."

She further points out that the schoolbooks lauded fighting for one's

country: '" It is pleasant and glorious to die for one's country' is 25

3 a sentiment found in most books.'

I t is not only our textbooks that have been guilty of incul­ cating nationalistic and m ilitaristic attitudes. In a study conducted prior to World War I I , Helen Martin analyzed popular children's trade books representing seventeen different countries for their emphasis on nationalism. She classified words with connotations favoring nationalism as "we" symbols and those favoring internationalism as

"they" symbols. The unpopularity of the U.S. title s abroad was easily explained by the fact that they contained twice as many nationalist symbols (fourteen percent) as did British and European titles (seven percent). Martin further checked the popularity indexes of the title s containing the most references to warfare and fighting with the interest of each nation in militarism (as indicated by its annual expenditure for national defense). Her results support the hypothesis that the title s most concerned with warfare are most popular in countries with high expenditures for defense. They also argue against long-run popularity in foreign countries of any children's book strongly nationalistic in nature. Findings establish the tendency for books heavy with nationalist emphasis to be written under the influence of national tensions or in countries (such as the

U.S.A.) that are relatively more nationalistic because of a geographi­ cal isolation which discourages international sympathies. Thus, i t appears that the economic and political tensions of a nation affect

^Ruth M. Elson, Guardians of Tradition (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1964), p. 334. 26 the production of children's litera tu re both qualitatively and quantitatively.^

At a conference of leading educators and m ilitary specialists held during the Korean Conflict i t was concluded that American democracy and Russian and Chinese communism were in mortal conflict and that peace could be achieved only i f America and her allies were m ilitarily superior. Participants spelled out what role the schools should play:

The role of education in building m ilitary pre­ paredness is immediately apparent when one examines the nature of modern war. The in tricate machines of modern war—je t fighters, bomber and cargo planes, bombsights, rockets, guided missiles, submarines, torpedoes, carriers, radar, e tc .--can be neither bu ilt nor used by an uneducated people. Certainly these weapons cannot be improved, nor can new ones be either invented or produced, except as men and women are educated to these tasks. And the more complicated the machine, the lengthier must be the period of education i f one is to understand the underlying principles of the machine well enough to improve on i t . Obviously, education must undergird the technology of warfare, or we shall be le ft behind'~ln any race for victory.5 * Even a brief survey of the litera tu re of the last fifteen years provides clearcut evidence that significant changes have occurred in people's attitudes toward war, as concerns have deepened about violence and aggressiveness, ethnocentric conflicts, mutual

^Helen Martin, "Nationalism in Children's Literature," The Library Quarterly, 6 (October, 1936), p. 418.

5Charles Sanford, Harold Hand, and Willard Spaulding, The Schools and National Security (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., T O O , p.' 3'5.------27 distrust and alienation. Many adults who work with children are painfully examining the society we liv e in and committing themselves to assisting in creation of a better one. The issues about which parents and teachers and writers concerned themselves during and immediately after World War I I were relative ly well-defined, and public opinion was almost unanimous in supporting the actions taken by government and m ilitary leaders. Today, what is right and what is wrong cannot be demonstrated beyond doubt. Every parent and every teacher must face up to highly personal ambivalent attitudes toward war.

Because of the controversial nature of much of the material dealing with contemporary international tensions many teachers have preferred to focu on conflicts long past. Several studies which endeavored to assess youngsters' attitudes and knowledge concerning problems of peace and war found widespread general ignorance of current conflicts and attempts to resolve them, but considerable knowledge of less emotionally charged topics such as causes of our

War of Independence, pioneer methods of dealing with hostile Indians, and maintenance of peaceful borders between the United States and

Canada. Actual discussion of current wars and related issues does not seem to occur very often in the elementary and junior high schools. Researchers found teachers avoiding such matters, either because of a desire to shield children from anxiety or because of reluctance to engender community objections and polarization. While these reasons may appear acceptable on the surface, they are quite unrealistic in view of the widespread exposure to scenes of war and 28 violence presented daily by the mass media. Today's child knows about war; the talk and the effects of i t are all around him. Every news program for the past ten years has shown m atter-of-fact scenes of strafed and burning Vietnamese villages, Arab te rro rist attacks on Israeli border towns, and IRA gunmen fleeing British troops in

Belfast streets. Teachers' reluctance to treat current conflicts may well mask th eir own uncertain commitments to the myths of war and a desire to postpone instructional responsibilities for peace until the upper grades.

For more than thirty years, investigators have been finding that children have more current information about war than adults assume, and that wide individual differences exist both in interest exhibited and information possessed. Many studies have revealed that although even the youngest children expressed well-defined attitudes toward war, the majority of students of all ages lacked the factual knowledge upon which attitudes should be based.

In their classic study "War and Children" Anna Freud and

Dorothy Burlingame sought to assess the impact of World War I I , especially the bombing, on English pre-school children. They dis­ cussed such disorders as physical and emotional disturbances and juvenile delinquency resulting from wartime stress. Perhaps their most significant finding was that home and family disintegration during evacuation appeared to produce more disturbing effects than the sight of military destruction.^

6 Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingame, War and Children (New York: Ernst W illard, 1943), p. 84-85. 29

Within one generation from 1948 to 1973, Israel and her neighboring countries have been involved in four major wars.

Although much has been written about these wars in regard to strate­ gies used, men k ille d , tanks lost and airplanes downed, l i t t l e attention has been paid to the group that is perhaps most affected by the war--young children. Richard Goldman interviewed kindergarten children in two middle-class schools of Haifa during the second week of the 1973 war. These youngsters had experienced seven a ir raid alerts over a week's time. He asked two categories of questions:

( 1) direct factual knowledge of the war ( i . e . , "Who is Moshe Dayan?", "What is a Phantom?")

(2) interpretation of the war (i.e., Why do people fig h t wars? How do you feel when the siren sound?)'

These four and fiv e year olds showed considerable knowledge of the

personalities and materials involved. Over half of them reported

listening regularly to war news on TV and radio. On questions of

geography and distance replies were vague, because of the in ab ility ✓ of children of this age to visualize areas outside their own circum­

scribed environment. In reply to the question "When do you think the war w ill end?" the youngsters' responses "tomorrow" (twenty-five

percent), "a few days" (twenty-five percent) and "very long" (twenty-

fiv e percent) indicate the hazy time concepts of this age group. To

^Richard Goldman, "Israeli Pre-School Children During Wartime Stress: Their Knowledge and Interpretation of the 1973 War," Social Education, 38 (A p ril, 1974), p. 368. 30 affective questions such as "Who is winning?" only one child answered

"the enemies." All others personalized their responses, "we," "my soldiers," "our side." When asked why people fight wars children's responses were related to "their war in progress" and included such comments as "Because the Arabs came," "The Syrians try to bomb us,"

Q and "Because they don't like us and want to take our whole country ."0

These children, wise beyond th eir years in knowledge of warfare, share behaviors with adults throughout the world who have l i t t l e d iffic u lty stating reasons for conflict situations, but have much difficulty in suggesting ways to end or prevent conflicts. One astute child suggested to prevent wars, "Get people away from one another."

Another pessimist opined that "Wars w ill end when everyone dies."

When asked i f they would want Arab pupils in their kindergarten, a ll of the children responded in the negative, some adding comments such as "They'll k ill us," and "They want to throw us into the sea ."9 I t has been found that the variable that has the strongest effect on children in a war situation is the extent of emotional upset dis­ played by significant adults in their lives. The relative confidence, understanding, and lack of maladjustment shown by these Israeli youngsters reflects credit on their parents and teachers who have somehow enabled them to feel secure and involved in spite of con­ stant pressures from outside.

8Ib id . , p. 369.

9Ib id ., p. 370. 31

Belfast's "children of violence" have been described by David and Philip Thompson. In the Catholic sectors of that city many primary age children have taken to the streets, acting as "sentries" for IRA gunmen and as an attack force which, with stones and Molotov cock­ tails, keeps the British Army at bay while their elders flee. After sleepless nights filled with tactical meetings and sudden house searches, most children are too fatigued to attend school. Those who do are too disturbed to learn. In paintings and drawings of their neighborhood seven and eight year olds from two area schools showed the current conflict in eighty-three of ninety works. The girls drawings depicted the British patrol cars, the relocation vans, barbed wire barricades, black flags of mourning, peace doves in win­ dows and the boarded-up doors of burned-out houses. The boys showed

the action itself; gunfire vividly portrayed, with IRA men killing

British soldiers.^ a doctor serving the area spoke of the dramatic

rise in use of tranquilizers, increase in asthma, and the many anxiety-

related complaints of-children, such as fainting, dizziness, rashes,

and lethargy. The following poem by an eight-year-old Belfast girl

sums up the feelings of the child victims of this endless conflict;

I wish there was Peace in Belfast. Silent and quiet and nothing to fear. Everyone good and no one bad, Then I'm sure God w ill be very glad. Maybe i f someone spoke to rioters and soldiers too, Then Peace would come to Ireland, and the whole world too.

10David and Philip Thompson, "Belfast's Children of Violence," Ramparts, 12, (October, 1973), p. 43. 32

I pray there w ill be peace, someday soon, And the internees w ill be released And come to their homes of peace.H

Many recent surveys of children's knowledge of and attitudes toward war have been influenced by Piaget's classic studies of the development of political and social ideas in children. Working with over 200 children between five and fifteen years old in Geneva,

Switzerland, he investigated the cognitive and affective attitudes associated with loyalty to the homeland and initial contacts with other countries, on the assumption that these might be at the root of

subsequent international maladjustments. He.hypothesized thus:

The child begins with the assumption that the immediate attitudes arising out of his own special surroundings and activities are the only ones possible: this state of mind, which we shall term the unconscious egocentricity (both cognitive and affective) of the child is at first a stumbling- block both to the understanding of his own country and to the development of objective relationships with other countriesJ2

Piaget found that not until relatively late (ten to eleven years of age) did the,notion of country become a re a lity and take on

the idea of homeland in his subjects' minds. Their preference for

their own nation was at f ir s t based on a single emotional fa c to r -

family loyalty and tradition. Gradually (by eleven or twelve)

their motivations had changed and were more or less adjusted to

TTlb id ., p. 44.

12jean Piaget and Anne-Marie Weil, "The Development in Children of the Idea of the Homeland and of Relations with Other Countries," in Learning About P o litics, Roberta Si gel, ed. (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 19. 33

certain collective ideals of the national community. His subjects'

ideas of other countries developed in exactly the same way as those

concerning their own. Their original egocentric attitudes gave way

to an acceptance of the ideas or traditions of th eir immediate

environment, especially those of the family. Here, he found, the

children's reactions toward other nationalities had been guided into

the most varied channels, according to whether th eir social environ- ments had been understanding, c r itic a l, or even censorious of

foreigners. Paiget concluded:

In discarding his fugitive subjective judg­ ments, and replacing them by the judgments of his environment, the child is , in a sense, taking a step forward, since he is projecting his mind into a system of relationships which broaden i t and give i t increased fle x ib ility . But two courses then lie open to him: acquiescence (with its posi­ tive and negative aspects) and reciprocity, which requires independence of judgment in those concerned.13

Only in his oldest subjects, those of junior high age, did

Piaget find intellectual and ethical "reciprocity," which is, < essentially, the faculty for social awareness and international

understanding. From his study he drew two main conclusions:

One is that the child's discovery of his home­ land and understanding of other countries is a process of transition from egocentricity to reci­ procity. The other is that this gradual develop­ ment is lia b le to constant setbacks, usually through the re-emergence of egocentricity on a broader or sociocentric plane, at each new stage in this development, or as each new conflict

13Ib id ., p. 25. 34

arises. Accordingly, the main problem is not to determine what must or must not be inculcated in the child; it is to discover how to develop that reciprocity in thought and action which is v ita l to the attainment of impartiality and affective understanding.14

Hess and Torney, as part of an important study of the develop­ ment of political attitudes in American children, surveyed 17,000 public school pupils, grades two through eight to see how they acquired national allegiance. From the earliest age th eir subjects were convinced that America was the best country. Most children considered communism a threat to our country, in spite of the fact that many of them had l i t t l e specific information on communism as a political ideology. Children associated the word "democracy" with our nation and valued i t highly. However, a more complete definition of democracy was one of the last conceptual elements to appear. The authors stated:

Although definitions of democracy receive sub­ stantial attention in the school curriculum starting at grade three, children apparently are not ready (in the sense of developmental-cognitive maturity) to absorb this instruction. The attitudes children develop before the sixth grade are typically general­ ized judgments of good (America and democracy) and bad (communism) J 5

Hess and Torney's findings bear out those of Piaget cited

e a rlie r. They observed that although the positive character of

14Ib id ., p. 30.

ISRobert Hess and Judith Torney, The Development of P olitical Attitudes in Children (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967), pp. 25-26. 35 national loyalty is usually established at an early age in the United

States, there appear to be three stages in the way the nation is con­ ceptualized. These are:

(1) The in itia l stage (primary grades). Here national symbols such as the flag and Statue of lib erty are crucial points of focus for attachment. Since the child's in itia l iden­ tific a tio n with his country is supported by so little specific information, symbols provide tangible objects toward which feel­ ings of attachment can be socialized.

(2) The intermediate phase (middle grades). Now the concept of the nation acquires cognitive substance, including abstract qualities and~ ideological content^ Concrete objects and symbols become less important. There is an increase across the age range in ideological components of national pride.

(3) The final phase (junior high age). In this third phase, our country is seen as part of a larger, organized system of countries. The child's view gains a perspective which includes many other nations and our relatio n ­ ships to themJ6

Dr. Ralph C. Preston, working in New York City in 1940, carried out a study designed to answer questions which had been raised regarding the fe a s ib ility of dealing with complex social problems in the elementary grades. He investigated the expressed knowledge and attitudes of 581 fourth through ninth grade students toward the wars then current in Europe. His subjects were enrolled in three private and two public schools in the metropolitan area. The group was con­ siderably above the national average with respect to intelligence

16Ibid., pp. 28-30. 36 and socio-economic status. All subjects were administered a true- false test of 100 items, taken from high frequency war headlines from The New York Times in the four months preceding the testing.

Following th is, teachers selected at random 100 students of varying ability who were given in-depth interviews on topics covered by the test. Data were also sought concerning the effect of the awareness of social violence upon the emotional security of children. Preston's findings can be summarized as follows:

The children investigated were by and large well aware of h o s tilitie s and equipped with some informa­ tion regarding the leaders, principal events, and the resultant effects of the wars upon life here and abroad. At the same time, many children missed easy questions that required specific or documented know­ ledge. There is, in sum, evidence that children are captivated by and tend to inform themselves regarding the dramatic, whether i t be the war its e lf (the long- lingering, relatively unpublicized Chinese-Japanese war was hardly ever referred to); a war personality such as H itle r as opposed to Daladier; a war event such as the destruction of ships as opposed to the execution of the British-Turkish agreement; a change such as that brought about by evacuations and black­ outs as opposed to lower living standards; a worried parent as opposed to a general rise in prices; or the strength of an army as opposed to the accessibility of oil and coal.17

Preston found further that concern and competence in dealing with a war situation w ill more lik e ly be shown by boys than by g irls , by older children than by younger, and by pupils with a high I.Q. than those with low a b ility . Many children were quick to express attitudes or partisanship, with boys especially positive in this

l^Ralph C. Preston, Children's Reactions to a Contemporary War Situation (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1942), pp. 83-84. 37 regard and in concern about the outcome of the wars. Anxiety was confined to children over age twelve who were of Jewish origin. The press and radio were sources of war information to most children, but systematic use of either medium was not common and was found almost entirely when it did exist, among children above twelve. Boys' greater interest in the wars was shown by their reported greater use of mass media to gain information.

The majority of Preston's subjects looked upon war as arising from desire for material gain. Almost none of the younger children and only about one-third of the oldest group were aware of the potential influence of propaganda in wartime. Half of the children referred to war as an inevitable phenomenon, while a fourth of them spoke of i t as an extremely simple a ffa ir that might readily be abolished through the exercise of reason. Such reactions were especially common among the younger age groups. Older children were more inclined than younger children, and boys more than g irls , to make proposals of a world government. Knowledge of definite peace techniques was shown primarily by older pupils.

Preston's findings in the above study caused him to conclude that

A rather large proportion of children under about thirteen years appear to lack a spontaneous attraction toward, preoccupation with, and capacity for mastering the intricacies involved in a war situation. The results of this study bear out findings in other studies that suggest that children are perhaps precipitated too early into difficult, abstract, and complex concepts in connection with social studies in the elementary school. I t is not possible to define a precise age level or stage of 38

growth when the normal child is "ready" for such abstract social concepts. At about the thirteen- year level, however, contemporary wars as a topic for study would appear appropriate and educative, since at approximately this time relevant knowledge and interest have been shown to become widespread and detailed. An eagerness to discuss such problems is accompanied by spontaneously acquired information and understanding of a relative ly mature nature. Romantic, unrealistic social concepts are less in evidence at about this period, and a su fficien tly re a lis tic acquaintance with human affairs seems to have been developed to lend real meaning to the subject.18

In 1943, after we had entered World War I I , Hannah Lindahl undertook a study of ten to twelve year old children to see how their thinking was affected by the war. She found the majority of her sub­ jects interested in current war topics; seventy-seven percent attended war movies, fifty-tw o percent reported reading war nev/s, and seventy- 1Q five percent said they thought about the war frequently. 1

Peter Cooper, working with approximately 300 English and 100

Japanese school children, aged seven through sixteen, sought to study the children's stages of thought about war and peace from a frame-work ✓ similar to that of Piaget's developmental levels. For this, he used open-ended questionnaires and interviews. By the age of seven or eight his subjects had a good idea of what "War" and "Peace" are.

The younger children emphasized concrete images ( i . e . , guns, ships, planes, etc.) rather than the participants (countries, soldiers, etc.).

With age came a recognition of the consequences and the actions of

181^., pp. 91-92. 19Hannah M. Lindahl, "What are Children Thinking About the War?" Progressive Education, 20 (M a y ,!943), p. 110. 39 war. The older child showed an increase in emotional response, a

negative view of aggression and a deeper realization that he himself might well be a victim (eight-year-olds think they have a f if t y per­

cent chance of surviving a nuclear war, while fifteen-year-olds give

themselves a fifteen percent chance; eight-year-olds think one-third

of their schoolmates will survive, while fifteen-year-olds estimate

that only one percent will survive).^®

All of the older British students considered England right

and Japan v/rong during World War I I . The younger children were not

so firm . Many fewer images were suggested for Peace than for War,

a fact indicating that ideas about i t are not so well developed.

Younger children viewed it as a respite or end to fighting or as

friendship, while older children saw it as reconciliation from war,

avoiding war, and sustaining international goodwill. In the minds

of the older English subjects war appeared ju s tifie d in the face of

unprovoked aggression. I t seems that with increased age comes a

recognition of aggressive motives, accompanied by an acceptance of

ju s tific a tio n (or re ta lia tio n ). While seventy percent of the eight-

year-olds saw n£ ju s tific a tio n , only ten percent of fifteen-year olds

concurred. The youngest children saw war as most ju stified by a

threat to their immediate family; by age fifteen the threat to England

replaced family as most important. Children under twelve thought

there would be nuclear war by 1980, the older ones, with more knowledge

20peterCooper, "The Development ofthe Concept of War," Journal of Peace Research, 2 (1965), p. 4. 40 of nuclear power, did not believe i t would occur. In contrast to the boys in Cooper's Study, the g irls were not interested in guns, planes, and other weapons; they were more concerned with dying and k illin g .

They were less quick to give unqualified support to England and condemn Japan. Fewer of them believed that war is ju s tifia b le and necessary; although they showed themselves as more belligerent than boys in the case of a threat to the family.

Although Cooper found basic developmental sim ilarities between English and Japanese children, some variations were noted.

The Japanese children evidenced more concrete concern for objects of war until age fourteen and less concern for fighting, killing, and dying than did their English counterparts. Older Japanese children were more aware of current events and international relations. They appeared more internationally-minded and more anti-war than the

British teenagers. In terms of peace, the Japanese subjects con­ ceived of i t as sociability iri the early years and international associations and alliances in the la te r years, with the ideas of respite and reconciliation from war as paramount.^

Trond Alvik's 1968 study supports Cooper’s views that pre­ adolescence (ages eleven to thirteen) is-a c ritic a lly important time in the development of attitudes about war. His subjects, 114

Norwegian school children ages eight, ten, and twelve, equally divided as to high and low socio-economic status, were studied to

21Ib id ., p. 9. 41 see i f the differences in understanding of war they revealed were related to age and socio-economic status. Alvik found, as did in­ vestigators in Sweden and West Germany, that children tend to have fewer ideas about peace as an active process than they do about war.

In defining both, they concentrated on concrete aspects ( i. e ., "war"

= weapons, fighting, killing, dying; "peace" = respite and in­ activity), rather than the more "abstract" aspects, such as war as a conflict situation and peace as something to be actively secured and maintained. 6 The abstract aspects of the terms were grasped more readily by older students of high socio-economic status, who also reported greater utilization of parents as a source of information.

Television was found to be a strong force for a ll as a source of in ­ formation about concrete aspects of war. On the basis of his findings

Alvik suggested that educators present youngsters with learning situations in which they can apply their expanding mental capacities to peace as an active concept.

One would naturally assume that young people in a country which recently experienced years of costly warfare followed by defeat would have particularly strong feelings about war and peace. Magnus

Haavelsrud's 1970 study "Views on War and Peace Among Students in

West Berlin Public Schools" bears out this assumption. His subjects were 565 West Berlin public school students ages ten, twelve, fifteen

22Trond Alvik, "The Development of Views on Conflict, War and Peace Among School Children," Journal of Peace Research, 5 (1968), p. 195. 42 and seventeen. The related variables which he analyzed were:

(1) age, interest in p o litic s, and knowledge about World War I I

(2) socio-economic background

(3) I.Q.

(4) sex

(5) moral judgment regarding participating countries in World War I I .23

With increasing age Haavelsrud's subjects became more consistent, gave more meaningful associations for "war," "peace," "prevention of war"

and "causes of war," and were more concerned with the negative effects of war on people. Older subjects showed a slightly more favorable

attitude toward starting a war when threatened and a firmer belief in man's evil nature. In the d iffic u lt question of who was right in

World War I I , seventy-six percent of the students chose the A llie s , while only seven percent chose the Axis. Eighty-one and six-tenths

percent of the former and only two and four-tenths percent of the

latter were able to furnish consistent rationales for their decisions.

Older g irls with higher socio-economic status gave more meaningful

connotations to the terms provided. The subjects least concerned with

the effects of war on people were the younger, less in tellig en t boys

from a lower socio-economic background. Older subjects defined

"peace" more as "coexistence" and less as "cessation of war." Overall,

the reaction to threat, whether to family, city, or country, was

23Magnus Haavelsrud, "Views on War and Peace Among Students in West Berlin Public Schools," Journal of Peace Research, 7 (1970), pp. 119-120. 43 against going to war. The conviction that there is something in

people that cuases war was expressed by ninety percent of the sub­ jects. Few of them thought that war would occur within five years,

but many f e lt that i t was probable within 100 years. For their

reasons why they f e lt war was not imminent many cited the dangerous

effects of nuclear weapons and the fact that the last war is still

remembered, and referred to the lessons of history.

In his 1970 study of the development of international aware­

ness in children Harry R. Targ examined the political orientation of

245 American youngsters ages nine to twelve. He found that at a

relatively early age his subjects began to develop orientations to

international p o litic s. Those over nine had some awareness of

national and international institutions and processes and were often

able to evaluate them, make predictions derived from them, and pre­

scribe foreign policies for their nations. His subjects showed

clearcut preferences for their own country and disdain for certain

other countries by the age of eleven or twelve. Findings were

similar to those in Piaget's, Jahoda's, and Cooper's studies; the

adult p o litic al culture began to affect the child's choice of "good"

and "bad" nations at this c ritic a l age.' The Soviet Union and China

became objects of fear and dislike, while Canada was continuously

seen as good. The subjects increasingly saw war as "bad but legal";

m ilitary alliances were termed "aggressive and good." The children

seemed to be developing a conception of international re a lity that

justified war, military policies, and nationalism and this necessitated 44 somewhat pessimistic expectations for the future and somewhat re­ strained internationalist prescriptions for United States foreign policy. Results of the survey caused Targ to conclude:

To the extent that reciprocity and the under­ standing of international behavior are feasible for twelve to fourteen year old children, new educa­ tional tools are needed to challenge the common assumptions that children receive from their social and political institutions.24

Lawrence Wrightsman in 1963 attempted to assess the effects of parental attitudes and behaviors in regard to nuclear war on their children. To do this he administered questionnaires to seventy-two white, mostly middle-class boys in the seventh and eighth grades in a Tennessee school, and a month la te r, to their parents. Questions for students included those on possibility of war (in one year, in fiv e years, in ten years, in next twenty years), who would start and who would win a war, how one would feel about m ilitary service in war­ time, and how much one worried about the possibilities of war. Parents' questionnaires contained some of the same questions--those dealing

r with the possibilities of war at varying times and the extent one worries about future wars. Additional questions for parents dealt with the need for fa llo u t shelters and the extent to which the family talked about war. Boys in Wrightsman's sample were in agreement on many of the questions. Very few felt that America would initiate a nuclear war, fewer f e lt that Russia would win, and only two replied

that they would be happy i f we got into a war with Russia. No one

2 ^ H a r r y R. Targ, "Children's Developing Orientations to International P olitics," Journal of Peace Research, 7 (1970), p. 97. 45 expected war within a year, but thirty-one percent expected i t within five years, and seventy percent expected i t within twenty years. The extent of worry about future war revealed wide individual differences, with twenty percent admitting that they worried about war "a lo t," while only seven percent stated that they "never" worried about i t .

The majority (seventy-three percent) responded that they worried

"some." To test his hypothesis, Wrightsman compared parents' re­ sponses with those of their sons. As expected, parents who reported worrying "a lot" about war tended to have boys who worried a lo t, while parents who were unconcerned tended to have sons who expressed the same attitudes. Parents who f e lt that war was imminent tended to have children who reported worrying about war "a lot" or "all the time," while parents who did not expect war within ten years had sons worried

"never" or "very l i t t l e . " Families who reported discussing war more frequently were more likely to have children who feared war. In discussing the great sim ilarity between parents' and children's re­ sponses revealed by hfs study the author stated:

The commonality between parents' and children's attitudes is due not only to the inculcation of the child by his parents--but also, probably, due to papers allowed in the home, the television news com­ mentators the parents choose to have the family watch, and the adult-age friends who visit the family. Thus, in effect, the parents ’manage the news' unconsciously by exposing the child to a selected type of attitude.25

In an address given at Bank Street College of Education in 1971

25|_awrence Wrightsman, "Parental Attitudes and Behaviors as Determinants of Children's Responses to the Threat of Nuclear War," in Learning About P o litic s , Roberta Si gel, ed. (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 146. 46

Sibylle K. Escalona reported her findings on the impact of the Indo­ china war upon children's personality development. She had conducted a questionnaire-study in the early 60's, in which children (from the age of four up to adolescence) were asked what they thought the world would be lik e by the time they grew up. No mention of war or weapons was made by the researcher; Of the total sample, more than seventy percent spontaneously mentioned nuclear weapons and destructive war as a likely possibility. A relatively large proportion (including even primary pupils) expressed pessimism about the future; many spoke of a f i f t y - f i f t y chance of survival. Only a small group expressed hope that their dreams for a positive future might materalize.^6

Howard Tolley's recent study Children and War: Political

Socialization to International Conflict is certainly the most exten­ sive and provocative investigation of what children know and how they feel about war. This work presents the responses to an original questionnaire survey of 2,677 children aged seven to fiftee n years conducted from January through March, 1971. The study examines four aspects of socialization to international conflict:

(1) How and when children acquire attitudes toward war

(2) What attitudes children have about a specific conflict--Vietnam—and how and when these were acquired

(3) How much factual knowledge children have about the Vietnam war

26^onna |_aWj "Children and War," Changing Education, 5 (Summer, 1973), p. 14. 47

(4) What the primary sources are of children's in­ formation about the w a r.27

Children interact with so many individuals and institutions in the course of growing up that no single influence adequately explains their political beliefs. Five major variables or agents of socialization have been most frequently cited as the foremost influences which, singly and in combination determine the child's social conduct and political convictions. The five, family, school, church, media, and community, were thoroughly investigated by Tolley as he tested these seven major research hypotheses:

(1) By the time they reach adolescence, children have formed definite opinions about war and peace. Those attitudes, whether related to the Vietnam conflict or war in general, pre­ sumably correspond to the views expressed by American adults.

(2) Children learn attitudes about war and Vietnam before they fu lly understand the facts.

(3) Experience w ith m ilita ry routines fosters an acceptance of both war and p atrio tic values. Children of career military personnel and boys attending m ilitary academies presumably hold national values in high esteem and also know morn about the war in Vietnam.

(4) Boys approve war more than g irls and also know more about a contemporary m ilita ry c o n flict.

( 5) Black children oppose the Vietnam war more than whites.

(6 ) There is a positive correlation between income and opposition to United States involvement in Vietnam.

^Howard Tolley, J r., Children and War (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1973), pp. 3-4. 48

(7) Disapproval of the Vietnam war has seriously undermined the idealization of the President that was widespread a decade ago.28

Tolley's findings showed children's views of the Indo-China war tobe indistinguishable from those of the adult public. Half of his subjects and fifty-nine percent of adults covered in the 1970

Gallup Poll f e lt that the United States had made a mistake in Vietnam; both groups favored immediate withdrawal. Age and race were found to influence children's attitudes toward the Vietnam war far more than sex. Younger children and whites in general showed much greater support for our m ilita ry policies and for the President than did older children and blacks. While third graders generally approved the war, each succeeding grade demonstrated progressively less support, until eighth graders were decidedly negative. Almost half of the third graders sanctioned use of atomic weapons in contrast to just ten per­ cent of the eighth graders. The attitudes of boys and girls were remarkably sim ilar. On some questions a few more boys expressed approval of war, but the differences were not significant. In con­ tras t, boys showed more factual knowledge of the war. They indicated more interest, and thus acquired information more rapidly. By junior high age the boys did significantly better on the Vietnam Fact Test.

The similarity of attitudes is perhaps explained by the fuct that both boys and g irls had been exposed to widespread TV coverage of the conflict, and thus shared the attitudes cultivated by that medium.

Those who reported watching TV news and reading a daily paper scored

28Ibid., pp. 16-17. 49 much higher on the factual test than those who did not. Thus, media exercised a profound impact on amount and quality of information.

On attitude, however, Tolley found parental influence of most impor­ tance:

There was a strong, predictable, positive re­ lationship between children's views of American policy in Viet Nam and the perceived opinions of th eir parents. The perceived association between views of parents and child is consistent and far stronger than the relationship between the reported attitudes of teachers, friends or siblings and the child's o p i n io n .29

Black opposition to the Vietnam war was found to be espe­ c ia lly strong, among both middle class and lower class youngsters.

Only the very youngest showed any support; thereafter, acceptance declined dramatically with age. Among those children the index for personal involvement was high, with many more of them reporting re la ­ tives or friends fighting, wounded or killed in Vietnam. In contrast to their strong anti-war attitudes, blacks showed the least accurate factual knowledge of the conflict. It seemed that their high per-

r sonal involvement had not motivated them to inform themselves about the war.

The type of school attended was an important influence on children's attitudes. More children at all grade levels who attended public and parochial schools and m ilitary academies showed relative ly strong support of the war. Students at private schools showed low support, with Quaker school pupils especially non-supportive. There were few attitudinal differences between Catholic and Protestant

29lb id . , p. 75. 50 children, but Jewish and Quaker youngsters differed greatly in extent of anti-war feelings.

Children from the highest socio-economic level expressed the greatest opposition to the conflict, along with lower-status blacks.

Most support came from those youngsters described as middle-class.

Findings from m ilitary families were surprising: contrary to expecta­ tions, they did not show any more support for the war than did youngsters from c iv ilia n fam ilies.

The steady increase in test scores from grades three to eight demonstrates that age more than any other factor, determines what children know about this conflict or about war in general. For the most part, children reflect contemporary public opinion, so that attempts to create new attitudes in school can never completely change their outlook. Parents and the media exert enough influence to frustrate a teacher's efforts to inculcate contrary views. If growing up entails an acceptance of adult values, and if adults generally accept war as necessary, then children w ill too. CHAPTER I I I

HOW WAR IS DEPICTED IN LITERATURE

Since war has been an important and spectacular part of the historical process, i t is not surprising that i t has been one of the great themes of lite ra tu re . Undoubtedly, the celebration of war in song and story has been one of the influences which have given martial glory a prime place in the psychology of national pride. A change in the attitude of writers toward war may therefore be taken as one of significance in the campaign to eliminate war from the world.

The e a rlie r tales of war tended to stress its romance and adventure rather than its tragedy. Authors usually shared the ambivalence toward war common to the minds of most people. This ambivalence, to a great extent, characterizes the fictio n that dealt

#* with war during the past century, and at the same time obstructs efforts to keep the peace. War was e x p lic itly approved in the serious

British literature of the Victorian Age on three grounds:

(1) F irs t, i t provided a solution for the i l l s , individual and social, of the industrial re­ volution^ It gave the individual an oppor­ tunity for action, and drew off the evil humors of the body p o litic by a kind of national bloodletting.

(2) Second, in war is manifested the unity of a nation, the solidarity of a race. This 52

philosophy, rooted in Hegel, was perhaps best exemplified in the life of Frederick the Great.

(3) Third, war was the best nurse of individual character, whether in the function of command­ ing or that of obeying, and war was indispens­ able for the selection of those fitted in the highest degree' to lead and govern^

Ruskin, in his lecture on war, "The Crown of Wild Olive," told the cadets at the British M ilitary Academy that his work as an artist and theirs as makers of war were allied:

A ll the pure and noble arts of peace are founded on war; no great art ever yet rose on earth, but among a nation of soldiers. . .When I tell you that war is the foundation of all the arts, I mean also that it is the foundation of all the high virtues and faculties of men. 2

Ruskin shows himself inconsistent in regard to the subject of war.

While admitting that it is a cause of vast suffering and should cease among civilized nations, he questions whether it w ill be possible to find any alternative method for selecting the fittest to rule:

I know certainly that the most beautiful characters yet developed among men have been formed in war; that all great nations have been warrior nations.. .The historical facts are, broadly speak­ ing, none but s o ld ie rs , or persons with a s o ld ie rly faculty, have ever yet shown themselves fit to be beings; and that no other men are so gentle, so just, or so clear sighted.3

iRobert M. Lovett, "Literature and War," in Educating for Peace, The National Council of Teachers of English Monograph #9, I. T. Jacobs and J. DeBoer, eds. (New York: Appleton-Century Company, 1940), pp. 13-14.

2Ibid., p. 14.

3IbicL , p. 15. 53

W illiam James, the renowned p a c ifis t, had an unusual faculty for entering into the aesthetic and ethical point of view of his opponents. In his opinion, to argue as if military-mindedness were entirely reprehensible was both wrong and a waste of time. He re­ commended providing a moral equivalent for war that draws upon the virtues of the military-minded. These virtues, according to James the marks of the traditional man of character, include "intrepidity, toughness without callousness, a strong sense of duty and honor, a capacity for commitment to ideas and proper authority, and an ability to delay satisfaction of appetite in pursuit of a worthy objective."^

James recognized the strength of those opposed to his view and chose not to discredit them, but to enlist them in his own cause of peace.

In contrast to the admiration for the warrior just noted,

Bernard Shaw's estimate of m ilitary life as a nurturer of character reveals a d iffe r e n t mind and temper. In his preface to a 1936 work he says:

The s o ld ie r is an anachronism of which we must get rid. Among people who are proof against the suggestions of romantic fiction there can no longer be any question of the fact that m ilitary service produces moral im b e c ility , fe ro c ity , and cowardice, and that the defense of nations must be undertaken by the civil enterprise of men enjoying all the rights and liberties of citizenship, and trained by the exacting discipline of democratic freedom and responsibility.

In regard to the m ilitary officer, Shaw continues in the same vein:

4John P. S isk, "War F ic tio n s ," Commentary, 56 (August, 1973), p. 58. 54

The work of organizing and commanding bodies of men, which builds up the character and resource of the large class of civilians who live by it, only demoralizes the m ilita ry o ffic e r , because his orders, however disastrous or offen sive, must be obeyed w ith­ out regard to consequences.5

The f i r s t World War marked a great change in w rite rs ' handling of the theme of war. Excessive nationalism, under the guise of patriotism, was treated with disillusionment in the war books of every country. Much of the war literature is the result of personal exper­ ience. While the c o n flic t was on, Henri Barbusse wrote Under F ire from the French trenches, which was followed by the German Erich

Remarque's A ll Quiet on the Western Fron t. American war books of d is tin c tio n include Mary Lee's iro n ic I t ' s a Great War, Ernest

Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms, Engelbrecht and Hanighen's Merchants of Death and Humphrey Cobb's Paths of G lory. The la s t is a perfect illustration of the modern ironical view of war, according to which, to atone for the failure of their commanding general, three brave

French soldiers are by lot selected and shot. t While Hemingway is seen by many readers as an unqualified hater of war, his works and his own l i f e present an in terestin g example of the ambivalence toward war noted earlier. In 1931 he published a letter in which he stated that it is demagogues and dictators playing on the patriotism of the people who make war, and in which he repre­ sents World War II as "being prepared and brought closer each day with

^Lovett, 02.. c it. , p. 15.

^Ibid. , p. 16. 55 the premeditation of a long-planned murder." A few years later, as editor of the anthology Men at War, he goes on record as "hating war and hating a ll the p o litic ia n s whose mismanagement, g u llib ilit y , cupidity, selfishness and ambition brought on this present war and made it inevitable."^ However, he has the hero of his own contribution to that anthology describe his battle experience in Spain during the

Civil War as the happiest time he ever had in his life . One suspects th at Hemingway may have been speaking fo r him self.

In A Farewell to Arms the following dialogue occurs:

'I believe we should get the war over,' I said. 'It would not finish it if one side stopped fighting. I t would only be worse i f we stopped fig h tin g .' ' I t could not be worse,' Passini said respectfully. _ 'There is nothing worse than war.' 'Defeat is worse.'°

Since Hemingway's spokesman was convinced th at defeat was the worst thing that could happen he vowed to fight a hundred years if necessary, no matter whom he had to fight. A friend and biographer fa m ilia r with Hemingway's adventures as a correspondent in World War

II described him thus, '

Nothing could keep Ernest from enjoying the war in France. He admitted to loving combat. The k illin g of an enemy appealed to his sense of manhood, espe­ cially if he himself were in danger at the time.9

^Sisk, o£. c it., p. 58.

8Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929), pp. 49-50.

%isk, oj3. c it . , p. 59. 56

Recent w riters have strongly emphasized the horror and human waste of war, the insignificance of the individual in the face of it,

the hollowness of its rhetoric, and its fu tility in terms of its

stated objectives. Upon examining the underlying motives for the

change in treatment of the theme of war a fte r World War I Lovett found

three outstanding ones:

(1) The sheer horror of modern combat, which has ceased, as Ruskin lamented, to be a gentle and noble passage of arms between knights trained and armed for the highest form of sport and has become a gruesome industry of slaughter with all the mechanical and chemical resources of science.

(2) Distrust of the leaders, and the profiteers whom they serve. One theme of constant recurrence in recent literature of war is the tragic contrast between people of importance, who remain in safety, with increasing power, prestige, and profit, and the boys whom they blithely send to death, drugged with lie s .

(3) The fact that today war is not limited in its operation to a m ilitary class, even one ex­ panded by conscription, but involves the whole civilian population in-slow-death by starvation or sudden death by bombs and gas.10

The tremendous increase in destructive po ten tial of the nuclear weapons unleashed during World War II made responsible people every­ where aware of the absolute, imperative need to elim inate war i f mankind is to survive at all. Writers of recent war fiction have

emphasized the nightmare q u a litie s of te rro r and hardship, as they

also portray the exalted heroism of men who rise to the near impos­

sible. Naturally, many of the most mature war novels are essentially

l°Lovett, oj3. c it . , p. 16-18. 57 protests, seeking causes for the barbaric events occurring among so- called civilized peoples. Bitter denunciation of the capitalistic system or thoughtful probing of the neuroses of Twentieth Century society characterizes the hard-hitting anti-war novels of such contemporary authors as Norman M ailer, James Jones, Irwin Shaw and

John Hersey.

Norman Mailer's firs t full-length work of fiction, The Naked and the Dead (1948), has been acclaimed by critics as the best novel written about World War II. Its author served as a combat soldier in the Pacific, so that, as he confesses in a revealing auto­ biographical piece, "When I came out I could write the war novel of

World War 1 1 .1,1 ^ The re s u lt was a long angry book based on the reactions of the members of an American platoon to their part in the invasion and occupation of a Japanese-held island, in 1944. The action is divided into three dramatic stories: the landing on the island; a Japanese counter-attack by n ig h t; and a daring maneuver of the platoon behind enemy lin e s . The b a ttle scenes are so v iv id as to suggest Tolstoy's War and Peace; the common soldiers as clearly visualized as Tolstoy's peasants. Mailer shows an unusual ability to handle subtle socio-cultural distinctions; he portrays officers and enlisted men with equal accuracy, and depicts characters of wide ethnic, geographical and political diversity in a cool and effortless narative style, quickened here and there by a mild, understated humor.

^Sisk, £2.. c it. , p. 61. 58

James Jones in 1951 produced From Here to E te rn ity , hailed by many critics as the most realistic and forceful novel describing life in the army. Its setting is Hawaii in the last months before Pearl

Harbor, and its protagonists are two ordinary soldiers--a private and a sergeant and the women they loved. Offensive to many readers who thought it too brutal, it faces squarely the agonies of our time and contains several sensational situations and much gross language. Its author has been criticized for weak treatment of the romantic episodes and poor characterizations of the women in the novel. In 1962, Jones’ second war novel, The Thin Red Line, appeared. Describing the

Gaudalcanal campaign from the point o f view of "Charlie" company, the novel has no hero, except a wide and varied cross-section of American military men. It has been criticized for those same qualities which characterized Jones' earlier novel: profane and gross language, physical "vu garity," unrelenting naturalism, and a "low view" of

human behavior. It has, however, provided mature readers with another

epic chronicle of the average American citizen undergoing the inferno

of modern w arfare.

Irwin Shaw's highly acclaimed firs t novel, The Young Lions

(1948), analyzes some of the neuroses of society through examination of three diverse m ilitary protagonists. The fortunes of Noah, a gentle and sensitive Jewish recruit, Michael, an older draftee with

a show business background, and Christian, a Nazi soldier, are traced from 1938 u n til 1945, when a ll three meet in a Bavarian fo re s t. There

Noah is killed by Christian, who, in turn, is killed by Michael. 59

Between the two dates, the lives of all three young men and their parts in the war are described. The novel is so liberally sprinkled with adventurous dramatic climaxes that most of the drab, monotonous drudgery of everyday soldiering has been omitted. Shaw's picture of the war from the German point of view is engrossing, though, since it is purely speculation, it is lacking in the realism evidenced in the treatment of the American viewpoint.

John Hersey, in his concern with the theme of good and evil, has written several novels that focus on the effects of World War II on both combatants and innocent c itiz e n s . Since most of his selec­ tions. are relatively short and contain little of the objectionable m aterial so often found in other ad ult f ic tio n , they have figured prominently on secondary school reading lists. As a serious writer of contemporary h is to ric a l fic tio n , Hersey is keenly aware o f the main problem that students face in reading this genre--the relationship between h is to ry , h is to ric a l fa c ts , and fic tio n . He has commented cogently on this relationship:

Palpable facts are mortal. Like certain moths and flying ants, they lay their eggs and die over­ night. The important 'flashes' and 'bulletins' are already forgotten by the time yesterday morning's newspaper is used to lin e the trash can to receive today's coffee grounds. The things we remember for longer periods are emotions and impressions and illusions and images and characters: the elements of fictionJ2

T2John Hersey, "The Novel of Contemporary H isto ry," A tla n tic Monthly, 184 (November, 1949), p. 80. Hersey is implying that historical fiction is. fiction, not history or journalism; its responsibilities are to fiction. Further, he implies that good historical fiction is timeless rather than timely, and its essential concern is not for events but for people, for the truth of human character, which is unchanging—the constant in human exper­ ience. Novels such as A Bell for Adano which received a Pulitzer Prize in 1945, Hiroshima and The War Lover show Hersey's concern for the integrity of the human character. A small Italian town just after

World War II is the setting for A Bell for Adano. There the American m ilitary government officer assigned to administrative duties exper­ iences all the frustrations and cultural conflicts inherent in such a delicate situation. In Hiroshima Hersey draws no explicit morals.

Instead, he has compiled his'picture by following the fortunes of six inhabitants of the doomed city who survived. The vast mounds of dead are seen only vaguely in the background. Their tragedy, as well as the tragedy of all other innocent victims of wars throughout history, is suggested by the stories of the six "living-dead" who represent them. The War Lover is the study of a man who grows too fond of war.

In i t , Buzz Morrow, a loud-mouthed p ilo t , is seen through the eyes of his co-pilot, Charles Boman, the narrator, who is at firs t admiring but finally disillusioned. The novel makes the point that wars exist because there are men lik e Buzz who revel in them, which is one way o f saying that they are an expression of what Freud called "the death urge." Much of the technical detail of the twenty-three bombing raids

in Germany carried out by Hersey's fictional Flying Fortress crew is 61 meaningless to the layman, and thus an encumbrance to the novel.

Although his characterizations here are not as effectively done as in some of his e a r lie r se lec tio n s, he has succeeded in lin kin g two la rg e - scale maladies, war and neurosis.

Humor, a seeming incongruity in connection w ith as grim a subject as war, has been an important element in contemporary war fiction and personal accounts. Its importance is evidenced by the success o f World War I I selections lik e See Here, P riv ate Hargrove,

No Time for Sergeants and Mr. Roberts, which were not only widely read, but also made into popular films. More recently, the mass media success o f an ti-w ar comedy lik e Dr. Strange!ove, Hogan's Heroes and

M*A*S*H indicates that satire is s till considered an effective and acceptable form of dissent. . It is possible and comforting to think of such comic treatments o f war as d eflatio n s o f its high sounding and empty rhetoric, firmly on the side of peace. They are, inasmuch as they serve the very vital purpose of providing at least a momentary escape from the brutal fact of war and of convincing the reader that t war is only a brief violent means to peace and a return to laughter.

Nevertheless, war comedy is also quite capable of ending up on the side of war. By concentrating its satiric force against bureaucratic red tape and employing a level of comic hyperbole so unbelievable as to be fantastic (i.e ., Dr. Strange!ove and M*A*S*H) it loses its effectiveness as a vehicle for peace. By abstracting the horrors from war and emphasizing the humor inherent in shared complicity against

"the establishment" (whether it be the Pentagon, the Gestapo, or a

psychotic destroyer commander) authors have sometimes portrayed war as 62

having redeeming features—as being not only endurable, but also in

certain respects, enjoyable.

In addition, the freedom from responsibility and lack of

normal peacetime moral restraints which is evident in most war fiction may make m ilitary life in wartime seem quite attractive to impression­

able adolescent males. Certainly, the depiction of female characters

in both serious war fiction and in the most popular humorous selec­

tions is enough to arrouse righteous indignation in concerned teachers

and to add fuel to the fires of Women's Lib advocates. Although w rite rs as diverse as Aristophanes and Ruskin have proposed various ways by which women could use their influence to stop wars, the role

of women in contemporary war fiction has been quite different. They

have generally been given an insignificant or secondary place, regarded merely as camp followers or as part of the "spoils which traditionally

belong to the victor." In much of the war comedy sexual burlesque is

a major ingredient, with opportunistic females trying (with general

success) to subvert the erstwhile dedicated soldier from his leg iti­

mate m ilitary function. Patriotism, dignity and competence are not

often attributed to these literary anti-heroines who exploit the war­

time situation for their own aggrandizement. This lack of positive

female characters suitable as role models may be partially responsible

for the fact that war fiction is generally unpopular with high school

g ir ls .

It is only natural that publishers reflect the times in which

we are living and publish books for children and young people influenced 63 by prevailing adult views. Prior to World War II very few selections had appeared which depicted modern warfare and its results in a manner comprehensible to youngsters. With the advent of the war in Europe, however, authors began to produce juvenile books designed to interpret the conflict on the level of children's understanding.

Frances Thomas, in a master's thesis done at Western Reserve

University in 1951, studied the extent to which World War II was used as the subject of children's books during the decade 1940 to 1950.^

She included both fiction and non-fiction, intended for readers between the ages of six and fifteen, which were reviewed in Book Review Digest and The American Library Association Booklists. According to her findings a total of 250 books were written for children about the war during that period, ranging from three books in 1940 to four in 1950.

Of these, 188 were fiction, divided into thirty-eight categories. The effect of war on the United States was the theme of twenty-six books.

Refugee children, the majority of them English youngsters evacuated to this country for the duration, was the subject of thirteen selections.

A total of fifty-five books treated the war in other countries, mainly

England, nine; Russia, seven; Holland, seven; the Phi 11 ipines, five;

France, five; Norway, three; and Greece,' Poland and Africa each tw o.^

^Frances Thomas, "The Extent to Which World War II Entered the Field of Children's Literature During the Period 1939-1950," (unpublished master's thesis, Western Reserve University, 1951), p. iv.

^ Ibid., p. 48. 64

The great majority of the fictional selections were written for boys and girls of twelve to fifteen. The war adventure type of story intended for adolescent boys predominates, but there were also many military-career novels written for girls of junior high age

(i.e ., W.A.F. , W.A.A.C. , army and navy nurse). For both boys and girls there were novels and true-life accounts of the wartime and immediate post-war experiences of both soldiers and children whose lives had been disrupted by the war. Most of the non-fiction selec­ tions were for boys from twelve to fifteen, and were junior biographies of individual war heroes, or collective biographies of many famous marines, aviators, war correspondents, etc. Others were informational books on training and duties in various branches of the m ilitary, or dealt with aircraft, tanks, firearms, submarines, or other materials

used in the war. The few non-fiction books for girls included bio­ graphies of heroic nurses, and service women and tru e-life accounts

of girl victims of the war. For younger children there were a number of fictional accounts of dogs who served heroically in the war.

For the period 1939 to 1950, 5,823 books for children were

reviewed in the Book Review Digests. Out of these the 250 on World

War II constitute about four percent of books on the war. From this

Thomas concluded:

This figure is a small one, so that the infer­ ence must be th at the extent o f World War I I in ch ild ren 's lite r a tu r e is s lig h t. However, th is may be a satisfactory condition, for many types of books are needed for children other than those which are written because of timely interest. It is good to 65

know that other subjects held their own during this time of great world upheaval.15

Although World War II began in 1939 the effect of the conflict on children's book publishers was not fe lt immediately. The number of selections with a war theme increased slowly, reaching a peak in 1944, when sixty-seven books were published. Thereafter, a gradual decrease was noted during each of the years until 1950. The fact that many of these books were of only mediocre quality and were designed to serve a temporary interest or need can be seen by the fact that most of them are out of print today. A very few, primarily those by authors popular with youngsters before the war, have survived and remained widely read through the years.

An excellent example of the personal narrative book of this period is Dirk Van Der Heide's My Sister and I: The Diary of a Dutch

Boy Refugee, for twelve to fifteen year old readers. In it the young author records his experiences in the blitzkrieg in Holland and the subsequent Nazi occupation. He and his sister escape to England and * finally come to America with other refugee children. It gives a good picture of modern warfare as seen through the eyes of a child. When i t was published in 1941, i t was considered to be the most moving document which had y e t come out of the w arJ®

Two other Dutch authors who contributed a great deal to children's understanding of Holland's struggle during the war are Dola

15Ib id ., p. 51.

16lbid. , p. 55. 66

DeJong and Henrietta Van der Haas. DeJong, widely acclaimed for her

books for pre-adolescents, wrote The Level Land in 1943. Describing

the invasion of Holland through the eyes of a typical Dutch family,

she wrote one of the most convincing stories of war for young people

during the war years. It was followed in 1947 by Return to the Level

Land, which depicts the struggle of the Dutch people to return to a

normal life after the war. Van der Haas contributed two outstanding

stories for junior high readers, Orange on Top (1945) and Victorious

Island (1947). Both show the p a rt played by Dutch children working with the Underground during the Nazi occupation.

Many of the best children's books on war which were published

in the early forties were by English authors. Their most frequent theme was the pain of separation from home and family and the courage needed

to face evacuation to a strange land. One of the most prolific writers

on this theme is Kitty Barne, who produced a new selection for youngsters during each o f the war years. Typical of her work are

We‘ 11 Meet in England (1 9 4 3 ), which describes the t h r illin g escape to

England of two Norwegian children w ith an e ld e rly English s a ilo r , and

In the Same Boat (1945 ), a fic tio n a l account of the friendship between

an English and a Polish girl whose ship is torpedoed. The picture of

understanding and cooperation between children of d iffe re n t countries

makes the book worthwhile. Some of the best-known British authors for

children turned to war themes at that time. Two of them include

Pamela Travers and Noel Streatfield, both of whom wrote for the pre­

adolescent reader. In I Go By Sea, I Go By Land (1941) Travers tells 67 simply and amusingly in diary form the adventures of ten-year-old

Sabrina who was sent to America for the duration of the war. Streatfield, in Stranger in Primrose Lane (1941), describes the pursuit and capture of a German spy by an alert group of English children. Another exciting spy story is Mary Treadgold's Left T ill Called For (1941), an account of two British children accidentally left behind when a Channel Island

is evacuated during the war. The story tells how they supply important

information to their Secret Service.

As part of its plan to return to normal peacetime living after years of occupation France opened a children's library in Paris with

United States aid in 1945. The gifted librarian in charge was Claire

Huchet, descendant of a long line of story tellers from Brittany. Now, married to an American and ah outstanding contributor to international children's literature, Claire Huchet Bishop tells how her first war

story evolved in 1947:

Pancakes--Paris ju s t happened. A 10-year-old American boy who made pancakes fo r me, the hardships suffered by French children during the seven years of war, an immense desire to try desperately to make the well-fed and warmly comfortable Americans realize what it was like in France where I had just spent a bitter winter, all added up to this book, Pancakes— P aris. 17

Marie McSwigan, another g ifte d w rite r fo r e a rly adolescents,

usually based her war stories on actual happenings. On June 28, 1940

a Norwegian freighter reached Baltimore with a cargo of gold bullion

^Stanley J. Kunitz and Howard Haycroft, eds., The Junior Book of Authors (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1951), p. 39. 68 worth $9,000,000. The gold, it was learned, had been slipped past

Nazi sentries by Norwegian children who pulled it on their sleds to the freighter hidden in one of the many coastal fiords. The few facts disclosed about this event served as the basis for McSwigan's story

Snow Treasure (1942), which had gone into its thirteenth printing by

1953 and was on it s way to becoming a c h ild re n 's c la s s ic . Juan o f

Manila (1947) by the same author, tells the true story of a Filipino boy who, during the Japanese occupation of Manila, found a way to broadcast secret messages in defiance of the JapaneseJ®

Three of the writers of junior novels most popular with adolescent boys before the war turned their talents to wartime themes during the early forties. Howard Pease, Stephen Meader and Felix

Riesenberg are known for stories of lusty adventure, often including mystery. Each features teen-age male protagonists who are usually placed more or less on their own in precarious situations. Although adults play constructive and important roles, parents are generally conveniently absent. Romance is not allowed to interfere with the young heroes' quest for adventure. Pease is at his best in the modern sea mystery sto ries in which the veteran seaman, J a rv is , and the younger Todd Moran are usually the major characters. In Heart of

Danger (1946), the two frien ds obtained important information from a

German traitor, outwitted the Gestapo and collaborated with the underground. The author's m ilitary service during World War I and sea experience on many cargo vessels provided him w ith the background

^Thomas, oj3. c it . , p. 79. 69 materials for his adventure tales. Meader wrote Shadow in the Pines and Sea Snake during the war years. In the latter, a young American boy finds himself a prisoner aboard a German submarine during World

War II. By playing dumb, he gleans much information which is helpful to his country after his escape. The captain of the sub is not a

Nazi; the gunner who befriends the boy is depicted as a loyal German who refuses to shoot survivors in cold blood. Meader stresses an important theme—that individual or ethnic differences in people are not important in their relationships. A skilled craftsman, with a simple but deft style, he has consistently combined wel1-wrought, suspenseful plots with better-than-average characterization and an emphasis on p o sitive values. His books serve as excellent "bridges" to adult historical novels. ' Riesenberg's exciting stories of deep- sea treasure hunting and savage operations have long been popular w ith ju n io r high boys. The South P a c ific during wartime is the setting for The Phantom Freighter (1944), a convincing spy story based upon knowledge and experience, and Man on the R aft (1945), which depicts the secret mission of a Liberty ship to Japanese-infiltrated islands.

Junior novels written by American authors especially for adolescent girls during wartime often focused on a m ilitary career.

They stressed courage and patriotism, just as did the career fiction for boys, and served a real need in showing teen-age girls that women too could play a significant part in winning the war. One of the most prolific authors of these career novels is Elizabeth Lansing, 70 creator of pilot Nancy Naylor and navy nurse Ann Bartlett. Her hero­

ines, who range the battle fronts from Sicily to the South Pacific, are

torpedoed near Iceland, involved with Nazi spies in South America,

captured on Bataan and engaged in the evacuation of wounded at Salerno.

Her stories are characterized by authentic backgrounds, exciting

adventures, and emphasis on the heroism and resourcefulness of our

fighting men and women. While most of the career novels focused on

nursing, a few treated women serving in the varied branches of our

armed forces. During the war years they filled an important function

as recruitment materials. Since the training procedures and duties

they depict rc idly became obsolete, most of these books are out of

print today. /

CHAPTER IV

JUVENILE FICTION ON THE THEME OF WORLD WAR I I

Young people of today show an awareness o f interpersonal and intergroup conflicts that is reflected in their reading interests.

The librarians in the Young Teens Divisions of New York City's public libraries confirm the trend of an absorbing interest at a younger age in fictional and nonfictional accounts of violence and war. Sixth and seventh graders are requesting war books while the eighth graders are seeking material on H itlerJ In order to keep up with this demand, many publishers are reprinting juvenile books on the theme of war which were w ritte n in the fo rtie s and f i f t i e s . Other companies are bringing out English translations of war fiction or personal accounts by popular foreign authors, -many of whom experienced the horrors of war at first hand. Today's children know a great deal about war, ✓ since the talk and the effects of it are constantly before them in the mass media. Many of them have fathers or other relatives who p articip ate d in World War I I or the Korean War, w hile others have brothers, relatives or friends who served in the Vietnam conflict.

Thus, they are ready for more depth and realism in their reading. They can accept the war story in which the hero gets killed or the rein-

1Miriam Braverman, "Songmy: The Human Imperative," Library Journal, 95 (January 15, 1970), p. 211.

71 72 forcements fail to arrive, since they know that this often occurs in real l i f e .

A great many of our most capable juvenile authors turned to themes of war during and immediately after World War II. One of these was Newbery Award winner Armstrong Sperry, who wrote Hull

Down for Action in 1945. In it the exciting adventures of Jeff Anders, the youthful skipper of a pearling vessel, and his comrades during the ea rly months of the war w ith Japan are depicted against the South

Seas background Sperry knows so w e ll. Many popular w rite rs of adventure stories for adolescent boys utilized their own m ilitary experiences during wartime in the selections they subsequently wrote.

One of these is Rutherford Montgomery, author of Warhawk Patrol and

Thunderboats, Hoi in 1945. He describes the painstaking personal research he did to achieve authenticity in the following words:

This interest in airplanes came from my serving in the A ir Corps o f the Army. One of my r..ost recent books is about the B-47 Stratojet bomber. Before I wrote it, I was the guest of the Strategic Air Command fo r four weeks and flew with a bomberc r e w .2

Another favorite with teen-age boys, Henry Gregor Felson, the hot-rod expert, found that his wartime experiences enlarged his horizons and enriched his writing. He served two and one-half years in the Marine Corps, during the last year as a roving overseas editor for Leatherneck Magazine. His junior novels Submarine Sailor

(1943), Some Follow the Sea (1944) and Flying Correspondent (1947)

^Muriel Fuller, ed., More Junior Authors (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1963), p. 155. 73 reflect his experiences. The last named is an account of a reporter fo r a Marine publication who is captured by the Japanese and sub­ sequently saved-by the atomic bomb.^

One of the best of the authors for mature adolescents is

Navy Commander Robb White. He was born in the Philippines where his father was a missionary. After a peripatetic boyhood, he graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy, then retired to an island in the West

Indies to write. Recalled to active duty during the war, he served four years in the Pacific theater and came out in 1945 with eight service medals. Several of his books have been chosen as Junior

Literary Guild selections for older boys and two of them have been made into films. Of these, the perenially popular Up Periscope (1956) te lls the story of Ken, a young submariner embarking on a treacherous mission in Pacific waters where he must land unaided on an island and iind and decipher the enemy code. As he faces a new emotion— fear—Ken learns the meaning of discipline, duty and courage.

To three generations of teenage boys the name of John Tunis has been synonomous with the ultimate in sports writing. With his early novels, characterized by realism and a keen sense of social values, he weaned the great population of sports-obsessed adolescents away from the sports series pulp fiction. Tunis is consistently and frankly didactic, promulgating a broad liberalism based upon his own

^Frances Thomas, "The Extent to Which World War I I Entered the Field of Children's Literature During the Period 1939-1950," (unpublished master's thesis, Western Reserve University, 1951), p. 79. 74

conception of the "AmericanD r e a m .He gives his readers plenty of fast action sports, thrillingly and authentically detailed, but at the same time delves into issues of deeper social concern—political corruption, poverty, race problems. Since Tunis believes in the basic goodness of people, there are few villains in his stories (only an occasional corrupt o fficial). He invests his heroes with the

Lincolnian traits of courage, honesty, humility and loyalty, but there are few memorable characters in his novels. The plots of his ea rly novels are re p e titio u s and commonplace, but they feature human disappointments and fa ilu re s as w ell as success and in variab le fin a l victory. Tunis, now an octogenarian, served in the A.E.F. in France during World War I . A fte r the war he worked as a sports w rite r fo r

New York newspapers, covering important events on both sides of the

Atlantic. In 1946 he published a novel with a World War II setting,

The Kid Comes Back, a sequel to the popular Kid from Tom pkinsville.

In it Roy Tucker, "the Kid," is injured in a crash landing, captured by the Nazis, freed by the Maquis, and finally sent home for several operations and a long period of convalescence before he can go back into the lin e-u p of the Brooklyn Dodgers. How he conquers his fe a r provides an exciting climax to the story.5

The most memorable o f Tunis' ju n io r novels are the two which

^William Jay Jacobs, "John R. Tunis: A Commitment to Values," Horn Book, 43 (February, 1967), p. 49.

5Thomas, op.. c it ., p. 77. 75 were w ritte n most recen tly and which depart most ra d ic a lly from his stereotyped sports form at. The f i r s t , Silence Over Dunkerque (1 9 6 2 ), contains no sports action, and features an adolescent female pro­ ta g o n ist, something unheard of in the male chauvinist world of Tunis fans. It is a dramatic story of the English retreat across France and subsequent evacuation at Dunkerque. A British sergeant stranded in enemy territory is hidden by a twelve year old French girl who guides him to the coast where his twin sons are helping in the rescue operations. Since "equal time" is given to male and female protag­ onists this selection is an excellent choice for a seventh or eighth grade a ll-c la s s study of a novel with a war theme.

Tunis prefaced his latest book His Enemy, His Friend (1967) with the revealing statement, "This is a book about the conscience of man." And indeed i t is ! That man happens to be young Baron Hans

Von Kleinschrodt, assigned to four years of occupation duty at

Nogent-Plage on the Normandy coa.it because of his ability to get along with the townspeople..■ When a sniper shoots the German commander, Von

Kleinschrodt has to execute six villagers in reprisal, the day before

D-Day. In a war crimes court he is sentenced to ten years at hard labor, although he had not given the order to shoot his friends.

Twenty years later he returns to France to play in the International

Soccer Championship and to face the French who s till regard him as "the

Butcher of Nogent-Plage."

The book is divided into three parts. Each one covers only one day in time; together they span twenty years. In Part I, Tunis 76 carefully creates his man to reveal the conscience he spoke of. His total creation is a believable man of integrity, interacting with life according to his deepest convictions.® To secure reader identifica­ tion with his protagonist Tunis makes clear that Hans is not a Nazi.

He is detached from the war. An athlete above all else, he rises above petty national loyalties and relates to other sportsmen on the basis of mutual interests and respect. In contrast to Hans, a credible character of warmth and depth of feeling loved by all the villagers whose town he occupies, stands the stereotyped figure of the Nazi Hauptmann. Portrayed as ph ysically u n fit, obsessed with discipline and bureaucracy, and envious of Hans' popularity with the troops and the townspeople, the Hauptmann is created to give optimum contrast to Hans.

Part II, which consists of only six pages, functions as a statement of time and serves to set forth the theme that war makes enemies of men who, under ordinary circumstances, would be frien d s.

During the trial scene Tunis resorts to didacticism as he has Hans state the need for conscience to take precedence when it is in conflict with interests of the state. The prophetic statement Hans addresses to the American correspondents is particularly appropriate for the period in which the book was written:

'You Americans, even you Americans who were victorious and therefore think such a thing is im­ possible, someday you may also murder, torture,

^Loretta C larke, "His Enemy, His Friend: A Novel o f Global Conscience," The English Journal, 62 (May, 1973), p. 730. 77

drop bombs, and k ill innocent people in the name of some cause or in the belief that you are somehow defending your country while fighting in a foreign land, as we did.'7

Part III, entitled "Soldier from the Wars Returning," merges the war between France and Germany of Part I and the t r ia l o f Part

II, where Hans was labelled the Butcher of Nogent-Plage, in the international game between the two countries. The war is very much a part of the game for the players as well as for the spectators, as

Hans, the German goalkeeper, faces the French ace, Jean-Paul Varin, son of the hostage schoolteacher executed twenty years earlier. In this part of the novel Tunis is at his best as he describes the fast- paced action of the soccer match. The conclusion is somewhat strained when the six German players lose their way and end up in Nogent-Plage in the same cellar the hostages had occupied before the execution.

Credibility is further strained when Varin returns at the height of the mob's fury, reasons with' them, and manages to rescue the Germans from their burning prison. The ending, however, forgoes coincidence ✓ and strain, as the village madman repays Hans for the town’s suffering by sending a rifle bullet through his head.

Tunis expressed his own "Credo" in a 1951 article exhorting teachers and writers to be militant in the cause of peace. In it he explained the moving experience which impelled him to write these two war novels for young people:

Friend (New York: William Morrow a 80 anxiously seeking their children, the old people abandoned because they move too slow ly. They meet the most innocent and defenseless of all human beings. Long before they finish DeJong's story his readers discover th a t people communicate understanding and compassion without common language; that sharing with another helps one bear one's own burdens; th a t even the most vulnerable of creatures can show love; and that the hope of reunion with one's family can provide the strength to overcome obstacles in the way.^

A contemporary author of junior novels who is especially popular with disadvantaged urban teen-agers is Frank Bonham, author of three books with World War II settings. His own army service during that period plus the painstaking research for which he is known have enabled him to provide extraordinary authenticity in details and settings. Author of thirty-five novels, dozens of articles and count­ less TV scripts for adventure series such as "Wells Fargo" and "Death

Valley Days," Bonham now writes exclusively for adolescents. His work with juvenile delinquents has given him much contact with minority group youth whom he portrays w ith compassion in r e a lis tic novels on themes o f current social problems.12 i n Burma R ifle s Bonham has created a memorable protagonist, eighteen-year-old Jerry Harada, a

Japanese-American college student who enlists in the Army at the time

11 Rebecca Lukens, "War Is for Children," P.T.A. Magazine, 67 (October, 1972), p. 22.

12Doris DeMontreville and Donna H ill, eds., Third Book of Junior Authors (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1972) , p. 42. 81 of Pearl Harbor to prove his loyalty to this country. Volunteering for service with M errill's Marauders, Jerry is assigned to especially hazardous duty, deciphering coded messages behind the Japanese lin e s . Always in the back of his mind is the thought of the special torture that the enemy reserves for captured spies of Japanese descent. Bonham cites in his epilogue the countless examples of loyalty and heroism he encountered in Army archives as he researched the service records of Nisei soldiers in World War II.

In another w e ll-w ritte n novel fo r boys, Bonham examines the war in Europe. The Ghost Front (1968) is the story of Tom and Andy

Croft, twins who enlist at the age of eighteen, are separated in train­ ing camp and sent, separately, to the Ardennes fro n t. Tom had always been the leader, the strong one, but by the time Andy met him again, the f i r s t tremendous th ru st of the B a ttle of the Bulge had toughened both of them, and Andy knew th a t never again would he lean on his brother. Bonham employed his useful careful research in preparing his s e ttin g ; a ll d e ta ils were drawn from o f fic ia l government reports and personal narratives. The grim aspects of Army life are not spared. Within the limits imposed by the junior novel, Bonham has been r e a lis t ic . Although men from a ll eth n ic and social backgrounds are thrown together, no cultural conflicts are observed. Neither is there any questioning of the morality or justification of war itself.

This too is realistic, considering the framework of public opinion in 1944. In order to show us the different experiences and reactions to combat of each twin Bonham employs the technique of alternating 82 chapters. This is effective, in that it permits his readers to see clearly that, although the battles and participants may vary, the basic reactions of men under stress are similar. The fact that

Bonham's novels generally feature older protagonists (seventeen to nineteen), yet are written at a relatively low reading level (sixth to eighth grade) makes them especially valuable for high school teachers seeking reading material of high interest for disabled or reluctant readers at the secondary level.

Another author who draws upon his m ilitary experiences when writing for teenagers is John Clagett. After graduation from

Annapolis in 1940, Clagett was immediately assigned to the Pacific aboard a carrier. Transferred to PT boats in 1941, he was wounded at

Guadalcanal as captain of PT 111. After long hospitalization he re­ turned to sea aboard a cruiser. After the war he served in Norway as

Vice Consul, then received a Ph.D. from Yale. A teacher and writer, he has done stories and articles for national magazines, a naval history and a number-of adult novels, but he prefers writing exciting and instructive books for boys. One of his best is Surprise Attack!!, the thrilling story of the Battle of Leyte Gulf. In it he depicts the greatest naval battle of World War II, as the admirals saw it and as fiv e fic tio n a l young men from diverse backgrounds experienced i t . The five callow boys who entered boot camp emerged from the blazing crucible of b a ttle as seasoned men. Their experiences might have been those of any of the thousands of men who, like Clagett, actually fought in th is key b a ttle . 83

An unusual background provided Curtis Casewit with the exper­ iences he described in Mountain Troopers. German-born and educated in Italy, Casewit joined the British army during World War II as an interpreter and did intelligence work in Italy. The result of all this is his fictionalized account of the Tenth Mountain Division, one o f the most unusual units in the U.S. Army. Its men, many of them former ski champions and mountaineers, were rigorously trained for a special kind of combat. They were taught the techniques of warfare in deep mountain snows, learned to backpack equipment into rugged terrain and to scale cliffs with the dexterity of Alpine guides. When they went at last into combat, in the mountains of Italy in 1944, they were able to break through the German "Gothic Lines," rout Marshall

K esselring’ s forces and speed the end o f the war in Europe. Drawing on interviews with veterans of the Tenth Division, numerous visits to

Italian battlefields and his own experience as a skier and climber,

Casewit produced an accurate and ex citin g account of these rugged men.

Another prolific writer popular with teen-age boys is Gordon

Shirreffs, who served as a captain with the U.S. Army during World

War II. In recent years he has written T.V. plays, movie scripts and magazine articles for adults and a number of junior novels with a war­ time s e ttin g . Several of these have been awarded prizes and have been chosen as Junior Literary Guild selections for older boys. During the s ix tie s he published The Cold Seas Beyond, Torpedoes Away, The Bolo

Battalion, The Enemy Seas, and The Hostile Beaches, all of which give realistic portrayals of naval combat in the South Pacific. The Hostile 84

Beaches takes place e a rly in the Solomons campaign when many Japanese subs roamed those waters. The destroyer Mac Ronan, w ith her two s is te r ships, engages and sinks three o f them, only to h it an enemy mine a few minutes la t e r . And so Signalman Bob Dunbar and his buddy Gary

Lunt, Gunner's Mate, find themselves awaiting reassignment in the fe tid , insect-ridden, swampy, quasi-abandoned naval base nicknamed

Foofoofarongo. After destroyer duty the boys are at firs t scornful of the PT boat to which they are assigned. Of course, boat and boys acquit themselves well in the bitter fighting that follows, as they relentlessly pursue enemy supply barges.

James Forman, a New York lawyer turned author during the sixties, gives young people a different perspective of conflict in his realistic anti-war novels. Trips to post-war Greece inspired The

Skies of Crete, depicting the Nazi occupation of that island. The grim, well-written story portrays two teen-agers, one who glorifies war and one who has experienced its terror and horror, as they learn the true meaning o f heroism. Forman's la te r books reveal his growing in te re s t in events within Nazi German from 1939-1945. He describes the motiva­ tion behind his writing in the following words:

From a frie n d 's te llin g me of his boyhood as a flak gunner during World War II came the bones of Horses of Anger. The fa tten in g process resulted in The T ra ito rs , as w e ll, and in p a rt, My Enemy, My Brother. I f there is a common theme in the books 1've written and in those yet unhatched, it is the individual responding to the more savage impositions of the larger world—prejudice, war--with the salvation of some dignity and love. If nothing 85

more can be said for such a theme, it is at least inexhaustible.13

The Traitors, set in a small Bavarian town from 1938-1945,

describes the bitter division over Nazi ideology within the same

fa m ily . Pastor Eichorn sees his congregation adopting the Nazi cause

and his only son become a Nazi fanatic. His foundling son Paul, six­

teen, f r a i l and s e n s itiv e , sees the German war machine crumbling.

Emboldened to act, he hides a Jewish friend, then joins a small group

of traitors who conspire to save the town when the fleeing Nazis plan

to destroy it as a deterrent to the advancing Allies.

Ceremony of Innocence, Forman's most mature novel, is based on

the tragic history of real people. Hans Scholl and his sister Sophie were students a t Munich U niversity in 1942. Although loyal Germans,

they were sickened by their dawning realization of Nazi atrocities.

They and their closest medical student friends knew the danger of

printing anti-Nazi material, yet conscience forced them to act. Finally

the Gestapo caught them and the in e v ita b le happened. The story opens * with Hans and Sophie in prison, awaiting the guillotine, and goes back

through flashbacks to trace the events leading up to this day. For

older boys and g irls with enough h is to ric a l background to make them meaningful, Forman's well-crafted novels bring home a sense of life

under the Nazi regime, and help to dispel the sadistic and blustering

Nazi image given Germans by our film s and T.V.

^De Montrevilleand H ill, ojd. cit. , p. 15. 86

Among the many foreign-born authors who have enriched the field of juvenile literature, Margot Benary-Isbert stands out. Born in

Frankfurt-on-Main, she began writing at the age of ten or eleven.

During the d ifficu lt years from 1933 to 1945 she was forbidden to pub­ lish, as she refused to join the Nazi writers guild. She continued to write, however, and read the results to her family in the bomb shelters where they spent so much time. At the war's end she fled the Russian

Zone of Germany and moved to Rowen Farm near Kassel in West Germany.

There she lived for six years in two tiny rooms constantly writing childrens books, "because," as she explained, "German youth were so much in need o f encouragement and h o p e ."^ In 1952 Mrs. Benary-Isbert came to America, and the following year her firs t book The Ark was published here. It was followed the next year by a sequel, Rowan Farm.

Both of these novels for adolescent girls depict a resourceful German family—probably the Benary-Isberts themselves—trying to rebuild their lives in the rubble of post-war Germany. The theme of both is the importance of courage 'and the necessity for faith.

Following her own family's experience of moving to America

Mrs. Benary-Isbert wrote The Long Way Home, in which the problems of adjustment to American life by modern immigrants are dramatized in the experiences of a young refugee from East Germany and his friends.

Of the many British authors who wrote for young people both during and after the war, Carnegie Medal winner Hester Burton stands

^Fuller, 0 £. c it. , p. 15. 87 out. Her lively historical novels have thrilled young readers on both sides of the A tla n tic . In explaining her commitment to histo ry she wri te s :

Looking back on the ch ild ren 's books I have written, I recognize that they are all of a piece with my life. I have chosen to write historical novels, I am sure, not only because o f the sense o f history I acquired at Oxford, but also because an historical theme lends itself to the fast-paced stories, packed with incident, which I enjoyed so much as a child. As a writer, too, I am less shy of exploring the heights and depths of emotion fe lt by my characters if those characters lived long ago. In a curious way, history gives me a sense of re­ lease.

For one brief period, we too, found ourselves caught up in the pages of history. The summer months of 1940-Dunkirk, the Battle of Britain, the firs t bombing of London--were the most rousing and s e lf-fo rg e ttin g months I have ever known. P a rtly it was the peril we were all in; partly it was the voice of Churchill coming to us over the radio. What I le a rn t in those summer months has opened wide for me an understanding of other people living at other times who have also had to face seemingly hopeless odds. I have trie d to recapture the amazing feelin g of 1940 in In Spite o f A ll T e rro r. This story is in no sense autobiographical, but— like a great many of my other books--is the result of a patient and careful putting together of inci­ dents that really happened at that tim e J 5

The novel described above has succeeded in capturing England's

"finest hour" and preserving it for thenext generation of her youth.

Its protagonist, Liz Hawtin, was among the many London youngsters sent to live with families in the countryside because of constant air attacks. Three or four million soldiers were locked in mortal combat

l^De Montreville and H ill, op. c it . , p. 54. 88 in Europe, with England fighting alone to hold off the German aggres­ sors—"in spite of all terror," as Churchill stirringly expressed it.

Liz, a typical product of a working-class family, at first had trouble adjusting to life in the home of the Oxford don to which she was assigned. But with patience and understanding on the family's part, her attitudes and behavior changed, and she gradually became at home. When her adopted family's small yacht was called into service by the government to help evacuate the soldiers trapped on the beach at Dunkirk, all Liz's courage was needed. The dangerous crossing by hundreds of small boats loaded with soldiers, under devastating enemy fire, is unforgettably described, as is the disastrous bombing of

London in October of 1940.

A talented newcomer to the field of British juvenile fiction is J ill Paton Walsh, author of two popular junior novels, The Dolphin

Crossing and Fireweed, which give a moving and candid picture of

British stamina in wartime. Fireweed is the personal narrative of a fifteen-year-old evacuee to Wales who runs away from his foster home and returns to London, by now in the fiery grip of the blitz. Home­ less, he meets a teen-age girl who has been rescued from a torpedoed shop en route to Canada, and the two roam the streets amid the daily death and destruction. At last adult authorities take over, return the girl to her wealthy family, and leave the lonely and anguished boy with indelible memories. The book suffers from some of the same flaws found in many American selections which deal with the adolescent culture. Some of the adult characterizations are never satisfactorily 89 realized or explained. But more important is the fact that the war, no mere background, is part and parcel of the story; and the author uses historical detail selectively and imaginatively. Throughout most of the book she lets her young protagonist describe with almost casual restraint the siege of the great city and the patience, humor, exhaustion, silent suffering and bravery of its people.

Ian Serraillier is a British author who generally writes stories of legend, folklore or fantasy for children. He used a war theme, however, in The Silver Sword (1959), his best known book, which was published in this country recently under the title Escape from Warsaw (1972). The novel has been translated into many langu­ ages and also serialized on T.V. and radio. Serraillier explains his motivation for writing it: -

I wrote the book out of a concern for the fate of the thousands of refugee children stranded in Europe, and before embarking on it I studied many case histories as well as the background. In one or two pi aces...I drew on personal experiences. On the whole, I don't make much use of direct personal ex­ perience in my w riting.16

The dramatic story tells of the four Balicki children and their trek across Europe in search of parents who have been taken by the Germans.

Life during wartime brings them sorrow,, evil and desperation. Yet, throughout it all they have the will to live again as human beings.

Wartime Poland is the setting, also, for T ill the Break of Day by Newbery Award Winner Maia Wojciechowska. In this selection for

16Ibid. , p. 257. 90 junior high girls she has again captured, with rare sensitivity, the turbulent and private emotions of the adolescent. Here she describes her own experiences in a moving and dramatic account of life during

World War II, starting with her family's escape from Poland after the German invasion in 1939. As refugees in France she and her brother waged their own underground war against both the Nazis and the collaborating French, stealing bicycles, sabotaging equipment and caching weapons for a planned offensive. The rebelious twelve-year- old who sees the war as an insult to her Polish nationalism and an example of ad ult f o lly , must somehow fin d the way to m aturity in a time of confusion when nothing is certain and independence is both necessary and dangerous.

A relative newcomer to the field of juvenile fiction is

Finnish-born, Canadian journalist Eva-Lis Wuorio, whose books have been published in a dozen languages. As a freelance correspondent in

Europe and A frica she became fa m ilia r w ith the backgrounds she employed in her booksJ7 Her stint in wartime Poland set the mood and provided the facts for Code: Polonaise (1971). It tells the story of a band of young Polish patriots who move carefully among the maze of ruins which is Nazi-occupied Warsaw. Each sound, each person who passes could mean deportation or death. From m ilitary records and Polish govern­ ment documents, Wuorio gleaned the true story of these young resisters: the underground newspaper which they published a t great r is k , th e ir

17Ib id ., p. 306. 91 desperate f lig h t across occupied Europe in search of help. Chopin's

"Polonaise," outlawed by the Nazis, was sung by these youth as a symbol of their defiance and courage.

Polish-born author Esther Rudomin Hautzig has made signifi­ cant contributions to our juvenile literature since she arrived as a refugee in 1948. Her personal account The Endless Steppe; Growing up in Siberia has received several important awards and been widely acclaimed by both critics and teen-age readers. She describes the traumatic period which is covered in the book in her characteris­ t ic a lly unassuming way:

Mine was a perfect childhood in every way, until the Second World War broke out. In 1941 the Russians, who had by then occupied Vilna, deported us to Siberia as capitalists and 'enemies of the people.' After some five and a half difficult years in Rubtsovsk, where I nevertheless went to school, found friends and even laughter, we were allowed to return to Poland.*8

After she had graduated from Hunter College and married a concert pianist whom she had met en route to America, Mrs. Hautzig began to write for young people. A lecture by Adlai Stevenson on his impres­ sions of Soviet progress in Siberia induced her to write the statesman and tell him of her wartime experiences there. The following reply from him was the spark which generated The Endless Steppe:

Your account of your arrival in Rubtsovsk and its primitive life is deeply moving and I suspect had many counterparts on the frontiers only yester­ day. I think you should write a book about life on the fro n tie r o f the Soviet Union during those tryin g war days. It would be a more useful contribution to

18Ibid., p. 122. 92

our understanding than my pieces—and better lite ra ­ tu re . 19

After countless rejections by leading publishers who considered the low-keyed narrative too tame for adult readers, the book, begun in

1959, was finally published as a juvenile selection in 1968. It recounts the experiences of the Rudomin family, assigned as slave laborers in the gypsum mines, as they struggled valiantly for shelter, fuel, food and clothing--the things we take for granted. Among the hostile surroundings and the many brutalized people she met Esther was always able to find elements of beauty, solace and affection.

Her struggle for an education against overwhelming odds and her glow­ ing descriptions of the village school, some outstanding teachers, and the effect of some of the great writers and their books on her are truly inspiring. Of the same stuff that Ann Frank was made of,

Esther Hautzig—one of the few who came back—has given us a magnifi­ cent story of the triumph of the human spirit.

After Hitler made his fatal decision to invade Russia, thereby •» assuring fa lte rin g England o f the support o f Soviet m ilita ry m ight, a number of books appeared for children depicting the courage and patriotism of the new allies. Some of them were by Russian or other

Slavic refugees, persons only too familiar with the fighting spirit they portrayed. After the conflict, with the advent of the Cold War of the fifties , most of these books went out of print, and existing

19Esther Hautzig, "The Endless Steppe—For Children Only?" Horn Book, 46 (October, 1970), p. 462. 93 copies did not enjoy wide circulation. In recent years, however, the desire for detente and increased contact with the Soviet Union has brought about a resurgence of interest in our wartime ally. This interest has been reflected by several children's books guaranteed to evoke respect and admiration for Russian youth's contribution to our common struggle against Fascism. Two of the best of these are Shurik by Kyra P. Wayne and Boris by Dutch jo u rn a lis t Jaap te r Haar.

Kyra Petrovskaya Wayne, the daughter of a Russian prince, is a former star of Russian stage and screen, a concert musician, lec­ turer and writer who is now married to an American physician and living in California. As a teenager, she was drafted into nurses training with the outbreak of war with Germany. In the years that followed, she was a hospital nurse in Leningrad, a field nurse at the front lines on icy Lake Ladoga, part of an entertainment troupe for combat soldiers and a sniper in advance of the front lines. After being wounded twice, she received three medals for heroism and was discharged as a

Red Army lieutenant. 'Shurik recounts her own experiences as a nurse during the siege of Leningrad. That firs t bitter winter she rescued a small boy from the rubble of a shell crater. The tenderness and interdependence of their relationship, as well as the heroism of the boy who led forty patients to safety during a hospital fire are movingly portrayed. Events of the siege and history of the time saturate this eyewitness account and w ill become real for readers as w ill the unmistakably Russian atmosphere and the well-drawn characters.

Jaap te r Haar, whose books fo r young people have been trans­ lated into ten languages, won the prize for Holland's best juvenile 94 book in 1966 with Boris. A translation was published in paperback edition here in 1970. Its author was subsequently invited to tour this country under State Department auspices and Russia as a guest of 20 the Soviet Writers' Union. The story takes place during the siege of Leningrad. Twelve-year-old Boris and his friend Nadia, foraging for buried potatoes in frozen no-man's land, are captured by a group of German soldiers who share their meager rations with the starving children and risk their own lives to return them safely to the

Russian lines. Despite the continuing horrors of the siege and the death of Nadia the encounter changes Boris' attitude toward the hated

Germans.

There has been a recent revival of interest in the part played by the courageous peoples of Norway and Denmark in opposing Nazi domination. Many of the participants in the drama have been reluctant to reveal their individual acts of heroism, either from modesty or from a natural tendency to repress the many painful memories associated with that period. During the sixties and seventies several outstanding authors have produced personal accounts and ju v e n ile fiction portraying the Resistance Movement in Scandinavia. All of them stress the vital part played by young people in the struggle against tyranny during those stirring years. Among the best of these selections are Wuorio's To Fight in Silence, Nathaniel Benchley's

Bright Candles, Werstein's That Denmark Might Live, Sommerfelt's

20ciare Kinsman and Mary Ann Tennenhouse, eds., Contemporary Authors. Vol. 37/40 (Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1973), p. 493. 95

Miriam, and E lliott Arnold's A Kind of Secret Weapon. All of them are appropriate for students of junior high age and, with the expception of Miriam , would be enjoyed equally by boys and g ir ls .

Norwegian ch ild ren 's author Aimee Sommerfelt is known and loved by youngsters in the more than twenty-five countries where her books have been published. Six of her works have received the national award fo r ch ildren 's lite r a tu r e in Norway and many of them have re­ ceived prizes in this country. Mrs. Sommerfelt described her family's wartime experiences in the following words:

The war broke out. During the campaign which swept the country from one end to the other my husband was engaged to organize the broadcasting news fo r the army. And when the campaign was over he came to London with the government. Events forced him to remain in England where he became engaged in several fields, for instance as one of the founders of UNESCO.

The children and I remained in Norway. We saw the persecution of Norwegian p a trio ts , and the ch ild ren , though s t i l l young, joined ille g a l groups and had many narrow escapes. Liberation came at last with American and English t r o o p s .21 * Many of these experiences are portrayed in Miriam, her realistic story o f a Jewish teen-ager's attempts to survive in occupied Norway. As

anti-Semitism grows, the cruelty, loss and danger are made bearable

only by the loyalty of a handful of trusted friends.

E lliott Arnold, author of the best sellers for adults Flight

from Ashi.ya and A Night of Watching, has also written many popular

2lAnne Commire, e d ., Something About the Author, V o l. 5 (Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1973), pp. 174-5. 96 juvenile selections. In A Kind of Secret Weapon he vividly describes the w inter of 1943 in Nazi-run Denmark. Young Peter Anderson discovers that his parents are Resistance members, putting out an underground paper. He becomes involved in helping them and learns much about patriotism, love and sacrifice. After his father's capture and execu­ tion by the Germans, he and his mother are forced to flee to England.

Peter matures slowly under stress in this thought-provoking and unsentimental story.

Among the many exciting tales of the efforts of French young people in behalf of the liberation of their country those of French authors C la ire Huchet Bishop, C olette V iv ie r, Claude Berri and Paul

Berna stand out. Berna's They D id n 't Come Back was w ritte n in response to questions his two young sons asked him about the war: to show them that war is not a game and the bitterest reminders of this are the scars that war leaves on the bodies and the minds of the survivors.

Berna is well q u a lifie d to describe those scars. His own fa th e r was k ille d in b a ttle in 1914, leaving behind a w ife and seven children of whom the eldest was only twelve. His memories of his mother remain v iv id :

The last vision I have of my mother is that of a smiling, emaciated woman, leaning over the balcony of a Parisian apartment building, with her arm raised to say goodbye. I never saw her again. This hap­ pened September 6, 1939: her seven children had taken the train to go to another war. Four returned.22

22De Montreville and H ill,0 £. c it. , p. 38. 97

Robin McKown is an American jo u rn a lis t whose volunteer work with a New York committee th a t helped widows and orphans of the French

Resistance led directly to her interest in juvenile fiction. She describes her post-war experience thus:

After World War II, I quit a pleasant job writ­ ing radio scrip ts and newspaper columns on books fo r the Book-of-the-Month Club and went to live in a small mining town in the north of France called Avion. I had this fixed idea of writing about these excep­ tionally brave and hardy mining people and their lives under Nazi occupation, a much too ambitious project since I'd never written a book before. What emerged some years later, were two teen-age books--Janine, which won the 1961 Child Study Association Award and was a Junior Literary Guild selection, and a boys' story Patriot of the Underground.23

Although admittedly written for boys, her second book, an adventure story of a group of youths who become saboteurs when the men of their mining community are taken by the Nazis as slave laborers, is also enjoyed by g ir ls . The feminine image is d e fin ite ly enhanced when the young protagonists discover,- somewhat to their chagrin, that the

Underground contact carrying out some of the most dangerous sabotage assignments is the demure older sister of one of the boys.

Only recently have c h ild re n 's authors from Germany been able to force themselves to take a long hard look at the militarism which set that nation on its tragic course, so that the next generation of

German youth w ill not make the same mistake. Among those producing valuable accounts of the war and its tragic aftermath are Josef Grund,

James Kruess, Karl Bruckner and Hans Peter Richter. All of their selections are now available in excellent English translations.

23ibid., p. 185. 98

Richter has given young readers two compelling first-person accounts of the day-to-day events and attitudes under the Third Reich in

Friedrich (1970) and I Was There (1972). The earlier book presents a deeply-moving story of the persecution of the Jews in Nazi Germany as it affected two families, one Jewish, the other gentile. Tersely recounted in chronological episodes by the boy (Richter himself) who lives in the apartment below his Jewish friend Friedrich Schneider, the story has documentary impact. The young narrator witnesses the growing hatred of the Jews, the threats, and finally the open persecu­ tion which eventually destroys the Schneider family, firs t mother, then father, then Friedrich, who is killed when denied entry to the

"Aryan" bomb shelter. The terrifying and tragic episodes are closely correlated with actual events, laws, decrees and regulations of

Nazi Germany, which appear chronologically in the appendix.

Wartime Italy has been the scene of some distinguished fiction which can be read to advantage by students at varying stages of maturity. For the pre-adolescent there are The Small War of Sergeant

Donkey by that perennial favorite of teen-age girls, Maureen Daly, and Sandro's Battle by British military historian David S. Daniell.

In addition to portraying courageous yoiing protagonists involved in exciting efforts to liberate their country, both selections feature appealing animals which aid their young masters in the struggle for freedom.

Eric Haugaard, a Danish-born American writer of historical fiction for youngsters served as an air gunner in the R.C.A.F. during 99

World War I I , and was decorated fo r bravery by King C hristian of

Denmark. The Little Fishes is his deeply moving story of three young

Ita lia n war orphans, as they search fo r food and sh elter in bombed-out

Naples. They are driven from the cave they c a ll home and wander aim­ lessly through the ravaged countryside fleeing from the invaders. The youngest of the children dies, but the two older ones are s till alive when the book ends w ith the Germans u r r e n d e r24 . Haugaard w isely resists the temptation to predict an unrealistically bright future for his "little fishes caught up in the net of war."

For adolescent g irls reading at an advanced level Giorgio

Bassini's The Garden of the Finzi-Contini can provide a rewarding experience. In it the author tells a slow-paced tale of Ferrara during the years from 1929-1943, centered around an a ris to c ra tic and reclusive fam ily of the small Jewish community. As the narrator recounts his I own contacts with the family, especially Micol, the spirited teenage daughter, one sees the growing repression and indignities perpetrated against the Jews by Mussolini in immitation of his mentor Hitler. The moving chronicle ends with the family's deportation to Germany in autumn 1943 to who knows what unknown grave.

Many w riters fo r adults have produced both factual and fic tio n a l accounts of the tragic results of Japan's wartime aggression. Among the most moving is Tokyo University Professor Arata Osada's Children of the A-Bomb, a collection of compositions written by school and

24Emerita S. Schulte, "Today's Literature for Today's Children," Elementary English, 49 (March, 1972), p. 360. 100 university students of Hiroshima. The young eye witnesses were four to sixteen years old at the time of the blast. Their vivid memoirs cast no blame at the makers of the bomb. They simply end w ith the fervent prayer that all nations tempted to resort to warfare w ill remember the tragic fate of Hiroshima, so that their loved ones' sacrifice will not

have been in vain.

Betty Jean L ifto n , who w ith her husband Robert has been most active in investigating the long-range effects of the atomic bomb, recently produced a factual account for junior high readers. Return to Hiroshima eloquently portrays in words and pictures the lingering effects of the firs t atomic bomb on survivors and families of victims.

Lifton's unsentimental text together with the stark black and white photographs provides a direct, shocking confrontation with the reali­ tie s of atomic war. The author presents the modern, s t e r ile , r e b u ilt city, the Peace Museum fu ll of poignant mementoes, and visits individual residents of Hiroshima to provide further evidence of the bomb's con­ tinuing r e a lity . The se lec tio n is valuable as background m aterial fo r adolescents before they begin some of the juvenile fiction treating

th is theme.

Among the recommended selections for twelve to fifteen year old readers are The Full Circle, by American Nisei author-ill ustrator

Yoshiko Uchida, Teru: A Tale of Yokohama by Lucy Crockett, and Day

of the Bomb by German writer Karl Bruckner. Uchida's novel is the

result of a post-war visit to Tokyo in search of her ethnic heritage.

In it she appealingly describes the painful wartime period from the 101 point of view of a teen-age Japanese g irl. Crockett tells the story of a twelve-year-old girl and other members of her family who rebuild their lives after the war’s end. Readjustment to new democratic ways and emphasis on equal rights for women focus attention on the effect of shifting values on the younger generation. Bruckner's Day of the

Bomb, originally published in German under the title Sadako Must Live, is a powerful story of several people who lived through the holocaust of Hiroshima. The tragedy is seen through the eyes of a boy and his little sister who survive the blast. Ten years later the lively teen­ age girl succumbs to unsuspected radiation sickness.

For older adolescent girls able to handle mature and sensitive fiction, Edita Morris has provided a grimly realistic picture of the suffering of Hiroshima's women. In The Flowers of Hiroshima a sympathetic American, fourteen years after the bomb, sees, but can not understand, its mark on one family. In the deeply moving sequel The

Seeds of Hiroshima, Morris tells the story of Yuka and Small Sister, two of the "tainted seeds" who survived the holocaust. No mere polemic, the book speaks to young people in a gentle, but powerful voice of courage and despair, of longing and fulfillm ent, of the fu tility of hate and ultimately, of the need for strength to meet one's destiny, to do what must be done.

Edita M orris' own words best describe the tremendous impact that war and its resultant suffering have had upon her career:

My l i f e as a w rite r and as a human being has been divided by the cataclysmic events that pre­ ceded, ty p ifie d and immediately succeeded World War II. Before the advent of Hitler I wrote much 102

light-hearted fictio n.. .Most of these writings were set in my native Sweden.

New experiences were to change my writing. I saw'Auschwitz. I saw Greece a fte r its C iv il War. I saw Hiroshima. My book, Charade, which te lls o f ex­ hausted children singing and acting their way through shattered Poland, was inspired by Auschwitz. My Greek experiences resulted in the short novel, The Toil and the Deed. My three lengthy stays in Hiroshima, each a revelation on a new level, were followed by the writing of The Flowers of Hiroshima, and now The Seeds of Hiroshima... It is Japan that has most influenced my writing, and Hiroshima that has caused me to dedi­ cate my writing to p e a c e .25

^Edita Morris, The Seeds of Hiroshima (New York: George Braziller, 1965), cover. CHAPTER V

RECENT CONFLICTS AS PORTRAYED

IN CHILDREN'S BOOKS

The feeling of relie f which spread over the war-weary world

in the summer of 1945 was reflected in the books produced by children's authors in the late forties. Many of them were the hitherto untold stories of the sacrifice and heroism shown by ordinary young people in the lands just freed from Axis terror. Others were intended to foster a spirit of magnanimity and compassion in youngsters of the victorious Allied nations. These selections deliberately set about to reverse the images of the former enemy depicted by wartime fiction.

German, Italian and Japanese youth were now portrayed as hapless victims of their elders' mistaken ideology. With fervid hopes of

reconciliation and a commitment to "One World," reflecting the general faith in the newly-formed United Nations, authors labored to convince youth everywhere that they must work together to rebuild our

shattered world. A single book, The Diary of Ann Frank, encapsulated the tragedy of all youth in wartime in its poignant portrayal of the suffering of one Jewish teenager in Holland. It became a symbol of the dedication of post-war youth to the ideas of peace, justice and brotherhood expressed by its martyred heroine. For a short time it seemed that Ann's death had not been in vain.

103 104

Soon, however, i t became apparent th at the tenuous peace was not destined to last. As the Nazi oppressors withdrew from the dis­ puted lands of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, they were replaced by Soviet "liberators" determined to stay and impose their ideology on the defenseless populace. As the world sat helplessly by and watched an Iron Curtain descend on Eastern Europe w riters began to tell the dramatic stories of those who dared resist. Selections by children's authors appeared depicting the struggle of youth to remain free in those lands falling under the Communist yoke.

One young survivor who told her own story was Christine

Arnothy, author of I Am Fifteen—and I Don't Want to Die. She and her family had lived through the Nazi invasion of Budapest—now they faced the Russians. After four years of struggling to keep alive,

C h ristin e escaped from Hungary in 1948. While liv in g in Belgium, she wrote her book from the diaries she had kept during the siege. Her true story of teenage heartbreak and heroism, reminiscent of Ann

Frank's, won the French Prix de Verites the year it was published.

Girls of Christine's age should have no trouble identifying with the young n a rrato r.

There have been other distinguished accounts of life in

Budapest during the f i f t i e s . These include Toward Morning by Seymour, of interest to both boy and girl readers, The Secret Transmitter by

Rynning-Tonnesen, for boys, and Dangerous Journey by Hungarian exile

Lazio Hamori. The last selection, published in Sweden where the author found refuge, is available here in translation. In it a boy of 105 twelve en route to a state-operated children's home, escapes to Sweden to join his parents after many dangers and adventures. So authentic a picture of life in an Iron Curtain country is seldom available in fic tio n fo r ch ildren . Hamori has shown w ith qu iet drama and sharp action how the urge toward freedom--greater even than the urge to live--grows in a police state.

Former jo u rn a lis t Marie McSwigan based her Junior L ite ra ry

Guild selection A ll Aboard fo r Freedom on newspaper accounts of the brave Czechs who commandeered a tra in and drove i t out of Communist te r r ito r y to freedom in West Germany. With her usual careful research, the author authenticated all details on railroading, interviewing engineers and switchmen and combing lib ra rie s and museums fo r d a ta J

Her courageous hero Franta, who leads the l i t t l e group, could be any of the thousands of Czeck escapees who have risked th e ir liv e s to seek a home and lib e r ty .

Two books for youngsters inspired by the presence of the

B erlin Wall are Through the Wall by Malkus and Night o f the Wall by

Goldthwait. The latter tells the story of West Berliner Hans, whose mother fails to return from an errand of mercy to East Berlin the night the w all goes up. The boy succeeds in crossing the wall and making his way to a relative's home. In the course of that night fourteen- year-old Hans outgrows boyhood as he learns for the firs t time how his father died and the true reason for his mother's visits to the other

^Muriel Fuller, ed., More Junior Authors (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1963), p. 152. 106 side. The author was sent to Germany after World War II to set up a displaced persons camp for Russian refugees, operated by the U.N.

Relief and Rehabilitation Association. Back in this country she lectured widely on refugee and immigration problems. When she visited the wall in 1963 she met the model fo r Hans' mother who inspired her to w rite the book.

The b itte r years in Greece following World War I I when brother was fighting brother are depicted in James Forman's realistic anti­ war novel, Ring the Judas Bell. Fifteen-year-old Nicholas and his cynical older sister are among the 30,000 children captured by the

Communist Andarte and taken to Albania. Nicholas overcomes the perils of cold, hunger and pursuit, and fortified by faith and high principles, succeeds in bringing eleven of the captives home.

Arlene Fukei has provided an answer to ch ild ren 's questions of what life was like in China during the Communist takeover in her novel

East to Freedom. Its heroine, sixteen year old Mei-lin and her finance, Ling-wen, face a series of crises as the Communists approach from the north. The book was born of first-hand experience in

Western China where its author served as a teacher and medical worker during those turbulent years.

One of the most moving examples of children's fiction with an an ti-w ar theme is Anne Holm's North to Freedom, o rig in a lly published in Denmark under the title David. It won the top Scandinavian prize for juvenile literature in 1963 and has since been made into a B.B.C. television series and a Universal film .^ Its setting is somewhere in

Eastern Europe, behind the Iron Curtain, where a twelve-year-old boy

possessing only a given name, David, has ju s t escaped from a prison

camp. He has never known any other l i f e than th at of the camp nor any

people other than prisoners and his captors, "them." As he journeys

through Ita ly and across Europe to Denmark, he gradually adjusts to

normal living. He finds God, learns to trust and love some of his

new friends, and frees himself from the dreaded "them" in mind as well

as in body. The final reunion with his mother adds an improbable

note, but even stranger tales than this have come out of Europe’s

prison camps.

The Korean war served as the subject of several interesting

pieces of juvenile fiction. A good introduction to the conflict is

av aila b le in the short story anthology Courage in Korea. Its e d ito r,

Albert Tibbetts, has also provided teen-age readers with superior

collections of short fiction representing other wars. The ten stories

portray men in foxholes, in rice paddies, in waist-deep mud, taking

a stand against Red invaders. Many of the authors served in Korea and

are well qualified to introduce its land and people to young Americans

of today.

Among the routine examples o f career fic tio n which depict the

training and duties of m ilitary personnel in Korea two selections

^Anne Commire, e d ., Something About the Author, Vol. I (D e tro it: Gale Research Company, 1974), p. 118. 108 stand out. Sabre P ilo t by Stephen Meader Is an excellen t choice fo r teenage boys considering service in the Air Force. In the account of

Kirk Owen, who trains to fly sabre jets, and flies against the

Communists in Korea Meader proved himself again as a superb story t e l l e r , meticulous in his facts and background s e ttin g . In his career which spans a h a lf century Meader has w ritte n stories which include almost every event in American history as well as special career, sports and adventure novels. His backgrounds range over a wide area and are always scrupulously authentic. His dialogue is realistic and often includes skillful use of dialect. Eloise Engle's Dawn Mission:

A F lig h t Nurse in Korea should appeal to g irls exploring th is career field. It portrays the maturation of J ill Saunders, U.S.A.F., who flew on mercy missions into Korea to pick up loads of wounded men of all the United Nations forces. The author, a navy doctor's wife who was a journalist in Gaum and Hawaii, prepared herself for the writing by trav elin g to Japan and Korea by the "air-evac" route, discussing problems and experiences with nurses, doctors, pilots and medical technicians all along the way.

Two superior selections for pre-adolescents which show vividly the effects of the conflict on Korean youngsters are Lucy Crockett's

Pong Choolie, You Rascal, a junior picaresque novel, and Roger

Clark's Ride the White Tiger. The latter is the story of twelve-year- old Lee, whose fa th e r was taken away by the North Korean Communists, as the occupied c ity of Seoul was draped with Red banners proclaiming

"Peace Has Come To Seoul." As the head of the household Lee had to 109 procure food on the Black Market, dig air-raid shelters and avoid the eyes of the enemy. He not only cared for his family, but also risked capture and torture by the enemy when he performed a vital in te lli­ gence mission fo r the South Korean and American forces. The powerful, poignant story of one youngster's reactions under stress takes on added meaning from the fact that Lee, the hero, is the adopted son of the

Korean veteran author and is also the illustrator of the story.

There has recently been a resurgence of interest in Jewish identity as depicted by popular writers of adult fiction such as

Herman Wouk, P h ilip Roth and Saul Bellow. And, since modern Jewish l i f e was shaped by the tragedy of the European upheaval of World War

II, which unified world Jewry and brought Zionism to its goal of a national refuge, the Nazi terror and the formation of Israel are a vital part of the portrait. While there are many distinguished selections for young people depicting Jewish suffering under the

Nazis, there are relatively few which accurately portray the dramatic story of Israel's quarter century of struggle for existence in

P alestine.

Leona Daniels in a definitive study of Jewish culture as re­ presented in juvenile fiction suggests some of the benefits to be gained from use of th is m aterial:

After the Holocaust, when the world settled down to new social and political awareness, the par­ tition of Israel offered wonderful new material for reading on all levels. Where Israel is the locale, the chauvinistic pioneer spirit lends itself to an awareness of social and p o litic a l problems and a dedication to basic values. Many Israeli stories contain an anti-Arab bias...The implications of 110

prejudice, taken out of the familiar and relocated across the sea in a strange exotic culture, tend to refocus the problems to serve as an excellent teach­ ing to o l.3

Among the selections depicting the realities of life in present-day

Israel which Daniels recommends there is just one by an Israeli ch ild ren 's w rite r. Path Beneath the Sea, translated from the Hebrew, has a special a u th e n tic ity because i t is indigenous to Is ra e l. I t has two plots. The firs t, with a theme of self-awareness, tells how the young hero flees his native Morocco and takes on a new name and identity in Israel. The second, with a theme of conflict, describes his exciting adventures as a frogman in the Israeli-Arab Six Day War.4

Among superior works on Israel by foreign authors which are av aila b le in English translation s Hamori's F lig h t to the Promised Land and Fedor-Tal's The Stone of Peace deserve attention. The latter subtly points out a moral much needed in today's world: A people are not truly free until they are at peace with their neighbors. Its hero

David, a Moroccan newcomer to the kibbutz, helps both Arabs and 1 Israelis gain a new respect for one another as, with the help of Ahmed, a young Arab, he uncovers a ring of thieves. In doing so, he fin a lly overcomes the h o s tility of the kibbutzniks toward his non-European background. The dramatic ta le , fu ll of the action , danger and suspense so popular with boy readers is heightened by interesting and well-

^Leona Daniels, "The 34th Man: How Well is Jewish Minority Culture Represented in Children's Fiction?" School Library Journal, 16, (February, 1970), p. 40.

4Ibid., p. 43. I l l rounded characterizations of both Arabs and Jews.

One of the few American writers of juvenile historical fiction who has shown continued interest in the Near East is Sally Watson, author of To Build a Land and The Mukhtar's Children. The former tells the story of young European Jews in a ch ild ren 's v illa g e during the days before the Arab-Israeli truce. Although the author shows her great admiration for the hardy Israeli pioneers, she is quite fa ir- minded in her treatment of Arab and English characters. In the latter, a newly established Is ra e li kibbutz near an Arab v illa g e is the scene of the tim ely and timeless c o n flic t between cultures old and new. When h o s tilitie s in e v ita b ly break out between the v illa g e of Bab-il-howa and the kibbutz, Mousa the Mukhtar is shocked to find that his twelve- year-old son Khalil is involved. When he takes the surprising step of sentencing the boy to labor at the kibbutz, he little realizes that his act is the beginning of the end for his beloved traditions. Watson has created an appealing female protagonist in Kahlil's twin sister,

Jasmin, who longs for education and often rebels against her father's ideas of female subservience--which he interprets as "Allah's w ill."

Both boys and g irls who are curious about the problems between Arabs and Israelis can gain insights into their seemingly irreconcilable differences through exposure to Watson's compassionate, authentic novels.

James Forman has provided an unforgettable reading experience for mature ninth and tenth graders in his powerful saga of a young

Jew's life--from the Warsaw ghetto, through concentration camps to 112

Palestine. In extremely vivid prose he introduces his young hero as the gates to the Polish camp swing open and the few dazed survivors stagger forth:

Daniel Baratz was healthy compared to the aver­ age survivor of a concentration camp. He was smaller than a boy of sixteen should be, and thin to the point of emaciation. His eyes were so sunken i t was impos­ sible to guess their color, and his black ragged cap of hair had been shaved with a razor...He curled up against a barrack wall in the sun, trying to remember, through an indifferent haze, a warm happy parlor and a piano. They came and went, the laughing figures, the music and the haze engulfed them again.5

The homeless boy is persuaded by three other young Polish refugees to join them in their trek across Europe to Israel and a kibbutz called

"Promise of the Future." To each of them that promise is something d ifferen t. To Dan, i t is simply the chance to live a quiet lif e in the peaceful countryside, in harmony with nature and fa r from the scars of war and violence. Upon a rriv a l, however, he finds himself caught up in the violent hatreds between the members of his kibbutz and the

Arabs in the nearby village. Torn between loyalty to his three * Polish companions and affection for a young Arab villager with whom he shares deep spiritual kinship, Dan watches in horror as the bloody fighting tears Palestine asunder. He learns that for the children of the Holocaust there is no hiding place.

Because of the complexities of ths interminable religious co nflict in Northern Ireland i t has been d iffic u lt for authors to depict i t in a manner understandable to young readers. So Joan

^Janies Forman, My Enemy, My Brother (New York: Hawthorn Books, l 969), p. 2. Lingard, author of six previous adult novels, has filled a definite need with her excellent trilogy on life in modern Ireland. Essentially a love story with a Romeo and Ju liet quality, the three novels which follow Protestant Sadie Jackson and Catholic Kevin McCoy through five turbulent years w ill appeal primarily to adolescent g irls . Her first book, The Tv/elfth Day of July (1972), grew out of Mrs. Lingard's own knowledge of, and love for the city of Belfast, and her strong convictions that the theme of prejudice is a vitally important one to present to children who so often in herit the intolerant views of their parents at a very young age. I t was followed in 1973 by Across the Barricades and Into E xile, which focus on the growing relation­ ship between Sadie and Kevin as they defy family trad itio n , marry and flee to London trying fu tily to escape th eir backgrounds. This realistic trilo g y about present-day Irish youth gives a balanced, sympathetic portrayal of family lif e on both sides in the Ulster dispute and is packed with scenes of action, both frightening and funny. Its theme is the same as that of countless selections depict­ ing conflicts at other times in history and in other parts of the globe--that war makes enemies of people who would otherwise be friends.

In showing the mindless f u t ilit y of prejudice, the novel not only provides insights into why the good people of Northern Ireland are fighting each other, but also has wider implications. The problems of its young hero and heroine are universal, though heightened by the b itte r fears and suspicions of their society, and might be those of • 114 many young couples starting lif e together anywhere in today's troubled world.

When looking for materials on the Vietnam War that can help to make i t comprehensible to junior high students, teachers are often frustrated. Although non-fiction selections useful for geographical or historical background abound, and biographies of m ilitary and p o litic al figures involved in the conflict exist, fictional accounts, even on an adult level are relatively few. Percy Deane Young, a journalist who covered the war for United Press International and has since written a book about how the Vietnam experience affected the men who fought there, explained in an a rtic le in a major journal that the majority of G .I.'s who related th eir experiences chose poetry or drama as their preferred artistic form. In his bibliography of creative effort inspired by the war he lists only a dozen fictional titles, all but two of them for adult readers.6 In an evaluation of bookson

Vietnam for young people, described by the editor of the publishing journal as "an angry and strongly partisan bibliography," Elizabeth

Welch listed no fiction whatsoever. Her rationale for the omission preceded her lis t:

Fiction is omitted. Few noteworthy authors have been able to fic tio n alize on a topic so close to us and about which so many people are sensitive. The reporters' accounts make more amazing reading than

Sercy Deane Young, "Nightmares in Print," Saturday Review, 55 (October 7, 1972), p. 56. 115

fictio n writers could possibly dream up.7

Most of Welch's selections are by newsmen who offer on-the-spot report­

ing or by politicians who offer voters their views on solutions. Almost

all of them are mature political tracts, suitable for advanced senior

high students. Only three or four are suitable for junior high level.

Among the few fictio n al selections that can be recommended

are two short novels for mature ninth or tenth grade boys: One Very

Hot Day, by David Halberstam, and War Year by Joe Haldeman.

Halberstam as a foreign s ta ff correspondent for the New York Times

covered Africa and Vietnam, where his reporting won him many prizes,

including the Pulitzer. His novel follows a company of Vietnamese foot

soldiers on a day's mission beneath a murderous sun, under a team of

officers with varying abilities and loyalties. The story is grippingly

told through the eyes of three man: Captain Beaupre, an aging pro who

has seen his best days both as soldier and man, West Pointer Lt.

Anderson, brave and thoroughly committed, and North Vietnamese Lt.

Thuong who has defected to fig h t the Communists but whose loyalties

are equivocal. A few vulgar scenes and four-letter words fit the

circumstances of the novel, but make i t inappropriate for younger

readers. For older teens, Halberstam has drawn a sharp vignette of

the war in Vietnam and has shown why i t is different from a ll wars

which have preceded i t . Hal deman's War Year depicts 1968 when more

than 400,000 Americans were fighting in South Vietnam. Among them

^Elizabeth Welch, "What Did You Write About the War, Daddy?" Wilson Library B u lletin , 46 (June, 1972), p. 912. 116 were many lik e John Farmer: eighteen years old, fresh out of high school, firs t time away from home, uncertain of his future, but even more uncertain of his present. John tells of his training; the processes by which a normal person is pushed into the mold of a combat soldier; of his comrades from every part of America; of his duties, often arbitrary, sometimes gruesome; and of his reactions under fir e .

Certain elements of John's combat tours are true of a ll wars, but others are strange and new: the impersonal, highly technical war machinery and the tragic remoteness--from the land, from the people, from the very reasons for the fighting its e lf. Researched on location,

Haldeman's novel is re a lis tic in language and outlook, and can offer older teens a glimpse of what the Vietnam experience entailed.

For younger adolescents, those p ro lific authors of teenage adventure fictio n for boys, William Butterworth and Joe Archibald,

have produced several uncontroversial selections on Vietnam. Archibald, of John Tunis' generation, and like Tunis addicted to sports fiction, served in the navy on^a sub-chaser in World War I . During the Second

World War he entertained m ilitary personnel at a ir and naval bases and

at military hospitals all over the world. In 1945 he served as field director of the Red Cross in the European theater of operations.

During the sixties he forsook sports to write several m ilitary career

novels for boys: of these Special Forces Trooper stands out. He

explains his philosophy of writing in the following words:

Material for young adult fiction has to be authentic, for even twelve to sixteen year olds can quickly check up on an author i f he fakes a back- 117

ground or violates the fundamentals or technicali­ ties of his subject. Before I wrote Special Forces Trooper I spent nearly three weeks at Fort Bragg, North Carolina with the Green Berets. I followed all phases of their training, even to attending Vietnamese language classes, and interviewed Green Berets that had recently returned from Vietnam. For research on army helicopters I went to Stead Air Force Base in Reno, Nevada, and flew in the choppers over the Sierras for two weeks. I'v e lived for awhile at all three service academies and have covered at least th irty a ir force bases in the U.S. In short, you go where the action is . 8

Archibald admits that he stresses character at every turn and tries

to inject a moral in every book—one that will stick in young

readers' minds. Butterworth, a combat correspondent with the X

U.S. Army Corps in Korea, has drawn on his service experiences in the

f many junior novels he has written depicting military life. Recent

works include Air Evac, Orders to Vietnam, Flying Army and The Medic.

Of particular interest is Stop and Search, an exciting and authentic

novel of small boat warfare o ff Vietnam.

Two w ell-w ritten stories for younger adolescents which stress

the suffering of Vietnamese children in wartime are Mary Dunn's The

Man in the Box and Gail Graham's Cross-Fire. The former is the touch­

ing story of a Montagnard boy whose father had been killed by the Viet

Cong. When he saw the American Green Beret facing the same fate, he

resolved to help him at all costs. The author does not avoid the fact

that war is ugly; but she shows that out of the ugliest things often

comes something beautiful. Her story, focusing on an isolated act of

®Commire, ojd. cit. , V. 3, pp. 12-13. 118 humanity involving two strangers interacting in the most unlikely place and under the most unfavorable conditions, is a memorable one.

Graham's short novel is about five young people caught up in a war in which they are innocent victims: a soldier, lost from his platoon, and four children ranging in age from a babe in arms to a girl of thirteen- the only survivors of a village raid. They have no common language but the language of war, in which they are enemies. They are unwittingly dependent, and drawn to each other through fear. Just as mutual respect and compassion begin to unite them, they are trag ically destroyed. The author lived and worked in Vietnam. Her account of her capture and subsequent escape from the Viet Cong was read into the

Congressional Record, and her articles on the conflict have appeard in many magazines. In Cross-Fire she has provided young readers with one of the most powerful and moving stories to come out of the war. CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The present c ritic a l situation has made a ll people, everywhere, conscious of the great crisis in human relations which the world faces today. While some nations are torn by c iv il s trife , others are embroiled in seemingly irreconcilable conflicts with neighbors. The rest of the world watches helplessly as international tensions grow, fearful of the possibility of a third world war. I t is these in ter­ national tensions that threaten to undermine a ll endeavors to develop world understanding, and, at this point, the implications for education become quite apparent. I t is in the schools of today that the citizens of tomorrow are being developed, but tomorrow's citizens must be more than citizens of Russia or Japan or the United States.

Their attitudes and loyalties must no longer be narrowly limited

r by nationalistic boundaries; they must, in a very lite ra l sense, have developed th eir global knowledge and understanding to the point where they can assume th eir rightful places as active members of a world citizen ry.

In general, then, the goal for modern education should be to give young people those experiences which w ill make them truly world-minded. Because of the obvious d iffic u ltie s in making these experiences equally available at f ir s t hand, the use of literatu re

119 120 is advanced as an effective means of presenting knowledge and improv­ ing atti-tcrdies toward other cultures.

A nation's lite ra tu re is very close to the minds and hearts of its people and becomes, inevitably, an index to their way of thinking. The objectives in the use of litera tu re to promote under­ standing and lessen tensions would be, f ir s t , to show that a ll people everywhere are a part of the total humanity of the world with, basically, the same fundamental needs and desires; and, secondly, to accept without prejudice the fact that customs and life styles vary widely.

Literature has the peculiar faculty of permitting the reader to share sympathetically, although vicariously , the experiences of others; i t makes possible certain generalizations about humanity's common needs and aspirations; i t appeals to the sensitivity of the reader because its approach is usually emotional as well as in te l­ lectual; i t helps the reader to recognize his prejudices, i t illu strates the contribution of all cultures to the total progress of c iv iliza tio n ; and i t shows that each person is important as an individual. Seemingly, then, literature offers endless possibili­ ties for increasing knowledge and appreciation of world neighbors and providing insights into the causes of present conflicts and tension which prevent international unity.

As the world has grown smaller in a physical sense, with the disappearance of long-recognized boundaries of space and time, personal relationships have expanded to the point where i t is no 121 longer possible for the individual to isolate himself from others.

I t must be recognized that, as the Chinese perceptively say, "All under Heaven are one family." But, with closer and closer contact between people of various cultures with diverse idiosyncrasies, misunderstandings and conflicts inevitably arise--conflicts which far too often end in suffering, violence and war.

I t is the opinion of this w riter that a study of recent wars and present c iv il and international conflicts as they are depicted in literature can be useful in helping young people to see the folly and fu tility of war as a means of resolving international differences.

For that reason this thesis has been concerned with the knowledge, attitudes and interests which adolescents at the c ritic a l junior high school age have about war and peace. I t has also been concerned with the quantity and quality of fictional material on that theme available to teachers today, and with the affective potential of that material for changing attitudes.

In the opening chapter, the characteristics of the twelve- to fifteen-year-old reader were examined and the possibilities of the junior novel for meeting his needs and concerns were explored.

It was found that the junior novel can-be at least as effective as the adult novel in teaching students about the workings of literatu re and lite ra ry types. In addition, i t enjoys the added advantage of wide popularity with the young people themselves. The c ritic a l question of whether children's attitudes and values are affected by their reading was examined here. Authors, librarians and teachers 122 have long been convinced that they are. Josette Frank speaks for them as she says:

We have always believed that lite ra tu re has the power to broaden and deepen human understanding. Especially we expect it to do this for our children and young people. We believe—in fact, we think we know—that reading w ill give our children greater insight into themselves and help them grow in appreciation of other people.1

The recent spate of books written in order to combat or remedy per­ sistent social ills would certainly seem to indicate a widespread be­ lie f in the power of the printed page to influence attitudes and values. Results of research are not entirely conclusive, however.

While some studies reported substantial attitudinal changes after the reading of significant books, others reported only slight or temporary changes. I t appears that the influence of the home, community and peer group are most vital in attitude formation and retention.

Children's reading interests, then, are not innate, as some have believed, but are developed through social conditioning. The junior high years were found^to be of v ital importance in developing reading tastes and ensuring a lifelong commitment to reading, since i t is at that time that volume of reading is greatest. I t is also the time when striking differences in interests and abilities due to the readers' sex and intelligence level make it difficult for the teacher to provide common reading experiences.

^Josette Frank, "Literature of Human Understanding," Readings About Children's Literature, edited by Evelyn R. Robinson (New York: McKay, 1966), p. 3l3. 123

In Chapter I I , children's development of specific attitudes toward war and peace was considered. Attitudes, which are such a necessary part of lif e and which have such an important function in determining both physical and emotional behavior, were found to be implanted early in lif e . They may result from an accumulation of experiences of a sim ilar nature, from dramatic incidents which make a profound impression, or from an adoption of the ready-made ideas of others. I f the attitudes so formed, however, are narrow, then prejudice may quite logically be expected. Since the actual exper­ iences in intercultural relations that most American adolescents have had is quite limited, the school can play a vital role in fostering tolerance by providing vicarious experiences of a positive nature and eliminating or minimizing those of a negative nature.

I t was found that our schools have long been fa ilin g to meet their responsibilities in this area of inculcating international understanding and respect. Both textbooks and children's trade books reveal gross chauvinism. In glorifying America and its m ilitary victories, they sometimes disparage nations with conflicting ideologies.

The public school system has been regarded as vital to m ilitary pre­ paredness, and i t is only when our recruits are assessed and found wanting in the knowledge or attitudes needed by soldiers that the schools are b itte rly indicted. Since wars long past arouse l i t t l e controversy or emotional involvement schools have tended to dwell on these rather than to risk the wrath of polarized communities by focusing on current co nflicts. For this reason, young people report 124

that they have received little information about war in school to c la rify the many confusing and conflicting impressions they receive daily from the mass media.

The principal findings of this chapter were that, although youngsters from the earliest ages on freely express attitudes and opinions about war, very few, even among the older ones, possess the

factual information to back them up. This is understandable in the

lig h t of Piaget's research on developmental levels. He concluded that

not until the mental age of twelve or thirteen did youngsters demon­

strate intellectual reciprocity, "the faculty for social awareness and

international understanding." Other studies cited in the chapter which substantiated Piaget's findings were those of Hess and Torney,

Cooper, Alvik, Haavalsrud and Preston. All of their research combine

to present a convincing rationale for introducing the study of con­

temporary wars at the seventh and eighth grade level when relevant

knowledge and interest are generally present.

The most extensive study of children's attitudes toward war was that done by Tolley on the Vietnam situation. He found children's

views of the conflict to be indistinguishable from those of the

adult public. While very young students tended to support the war and the administration, with increasing age they became more

critical. The attitudes of boys and girls were similar toward war,

since both had access to the same mass media, but older boys demon­

strated superior factual knowledge and more interest in the mechanics

of war. Girls consistently revealed more concern with the negative 125 effects of war on its victims. Two findings with important implications for education are: the most important influence on attitudes was parental opinion; and the media exercised the most profound impact on amount and quality of information and also a strong influence on attitudes of those children with uninformed or unconcerned parents.

Certainly the schools could play a more important part than they are now doing in furnishing accurate information to students and helping to build attitudes v ita l to peaceful coexistence.

In the third chapter of this thesis the ways in which war has been depicted in lite ra tu re were examined b rie fly . War, one of the great lite ra ry themes, has long been celebrated in song and story.

After the disillusioning experience of World War I , however, a change was apparent in the attitude of authors toward the subject. A cer­ tain ambivalence toward war was noted in authors who, like Hemingway, professed to abhor i t , yet actually were irre s is tib ly attracted to i t . War was defended by some of the great nineteenth century c ritic s and philosophers on the grounds that i t serves a useful social purpose. Even its severest c ritic s were forced to concede that the military possess many of the traditional virtues highly important to a c iv ilize d society.

Twentieth century authors, many of whom experienced war them­ selves, have tended to stress its horror and fu tility , rather than its romance and adventure. Reasons for the change in treatment are the change in the nature of war its e lf, distrust of national leaders and the vested interests which they serve, and the fact that war today 126

is not limited in its effect to the m ilita ris ts , but frequently brings death and destruction to the whole innocent c iv ilia n populace.

War humor, a seeming incongruity, was touched upon here. In the form of satire, humor has long been looked upon as an effective weapon against adversaries, whether they be bombastic Nazis, obsequious

Japs, or conniving Pentagon brass. However, by de-emphasizing the

horrors of war and focusing on the absurd or ridiculous incidents, war humorists may give impressionable and inexperienced young people

the idea that war is a laughing matter. In addition, the character­

is tic freedom from c iv ilia n restraints and peacetime morality depicted in both humorous and serious war fic tio n may give the adolescent male a feeling of attraction to military life at its worst.

Certainly, however, the p o rtrait of females in the man's world of war fic tio n is not one that can be recommended to provide that posi­

tive image needed by adolescent g irls .

This chapter concluded with a short analysis of juvenile books on the theme of war, particularly those produced during the early years of World War II. Many of these were frankly didactic in nature,

designed to help youngsters adjust to the exigencies of wartime

living or to engender attitudes: positive toward our allies and

negative toward the enemy. Others were career books with a m ilitary

theme, designed to help in recruiting the many nurses, pilots and

guard dogs that were needed for the war e ffo rt. The fact that most

of those wartime juvenile books failed to endure is proof of their

lack of permanent value. A few, primarily those by already established 127 juvenile authors or by young victims of the co n flict who produced a personal narrative, survived through the years. Several of them were reviewed b riefly in the chapter.

Chapter IV covers the fie ld of fic tio n and personal accounts of World War II written for teen-age readers. Since there is such a demand today for this material, much of it consists of reprints of books that were written in the forties and f if t ie s . Others are

English translations of some of the fine children's books by foreign authors, many of whom v/ere themselves victims of the conflict they portray. There are also many by popular American writers of juvenile fic tio n , most of whom served in the war themselves, and, therefore, are able to make it especially vivid for young readers.

Since not a ll books treating the war could be included, the writer tried to select those that w ill endure because they have a timeless and universal quality. Although they portray World War II, and do so with scrupulous geographical and historical accuracy, th eir message is valicj for any wartime period, in any part of the world.

Their protagonists, whether they be raw recruits facing the terror of f ir s t combat, or young refugees seeking lost parents, are the type of fictional heroes with whom young teens need and with whom they want to identify. The young heroes are depicted as cour­ ageous and resourceful; in fact, it is made clear that these qualities have insured their survival. They are also portrayed as compassionate.

Bitterness and cynicism are not stressed in these selections; instead 128 love and forgiveness prevail. While some of these fictional youngsters have bizarre adventures and accomplish almost unbelievable feats, they do not do so unaided. In direct contrast to the teenagers in most of the popular pseudo-realistic junior novels dealing with other social problems, the young people in these selections work side-by-side with significant adults whom they can admire and emulate. They contribute, within the lim its that th eir age and experience impose, to the com­ bined e ffo rt to which a ll were committed. In doing th eir part, they frequently rise above mere duty and approach the heroic.

Books included in this chapter are designed to meet a variety of reading needs. There are those for older boys that focus on m ilitary training and depict many vivid scenes of combat. There are those for older girls that treat the families at home, showing the different kind of courage needed to face the daily air raids, short­ ages and constant loneliness. There are those for the pre-adolescent, frequently featuring both boy and girl characters who work together to save the injured p ilo t in th eir barn. Reading levels are wide, ranging from f if t h or sixth grade to eleventh or tw elfth, since a ll these variations will be found in the typical eighth- or ninth-grade class.

The authors of the selections treated here are for the most part highly-acclaimed veterans of the juvenile book field. They include several Newbery and Carnegie Award winners and many recipients of other prizes. They are characterized by their insistence upon accuracy and authenticity. Most have drawn on their own personal 129 wartime experiences, which were varied and extensive. To assure further realism they often spent years doing painstaking research on the scene. Most important, all of them are committed to the goal of creating a world free of war for the next generation. By showing young readers what war was like for them they have contributed significantly to that goal.

Chapter V describes the major conflicts which have occurred since 1945, as they have been portrayed in juvenile books. H ostility began soon after the war ended, when many shattered nations traded one oppressor for another. The struggles of the peoples of Hungary,

Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Greece, and China against the

Communist forces are all shown in selections by authors who person­ a lly experienced what they w rite.

The Korean war is depicted by Korean veterans and by children's writers who became interested in the plight of the many young war refugees who wandered across the devastated land in search of families and friends.- It is also portrayed in some career fiction that offers valuable information on flight training and military nursing.

The Arab-Israeli conflict as seen by Is ra e li, American and other foreign authors is another topic here. The available selections all show great admiration for the pioneer spirit and courage of the Israelis, but they also usually present fair and accurate pictures of Arab and English characters, and give some idea of the problems of inter-group understanding within Jewish society. 130

Northern Ireland, with its tragic religious conflict, is shown in a valuable trilogy of junior novels by a Belfast author.

Although the last two books are more appropriate for older girls, the f ir s t one could be read profitably by younger boys and g irls .

The Vietnam co nflict as depicted in fic tio n is described in this chapter, with attention given to mature selections describ­ ing the reaction of men under stress of battle. Some selections for younger readers are also included. These depict the suffering of the child victims of the war, and are most timely today.

As recently as 1964 Dwight Burton, in his influential

Literature Study in the High Schools, stated, "Though war remains a major reading interest of adolescent boys, little has been done with o the topic in fiction written expressly for adolescents." During the decade following publication of his book a large number of selections appeared which not only depict war realistically but also emphasize its effect upon its youthful victims. These provide a valuable body of material with which to promote international under­ standing, since so many of them were written by displaced persons and p o litic al refugees who are themselves living testimony to war's disruption of home and family. The recent output of other countries in the field of juvenile selections dealing with war has been exten­ sive. A number published during the sixties have won awards in the

^Dwight L. Burton, Literature Study in the High Schools (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, In c., 1964), p. 44. 131 area of human relations and are now available in excellent transla­ tions. Only recently have juvenile writers from Germany, Italy and

Japan been able to force themselves to take a long and hard look at the militarism which set them on their tragic course, so that the next generation of their youth w ill not make the same mistake.

It is hoped that junior high teachers of both English and social science w ill find this study helpful when seeking material of current concern to youth for all-class reading and in-depth study, and for recommending supplementary selections to those thoughtful young readers especially troubled by the growing violence and aggres­ sion in our world.

Back in 1969 when the late U Thant was asked how long the human race could survive the multitudinous problems besetting i t , he gave the following reply:

I do not wish to seem overdramatic, but I can only conclude from the information that is available to me as secretary-general that the members of the United Nations have perhaps ten years le f t in which to subordinate their ancient quarrels and launch a global partnership to curb the arms race, to im­ prove the human environment, to defuse the popula­ tion explosion, and to supply the requisite momentum to development efforts. I f such a global partnership is not forged within the next decade, then I very much fear that the problems I have mentioned w ill have reached such staggering pro­ portions that they w ill be beyond our capacity to control.3

^William Boyer, "World Order Education: What Is It?" Phi Delta Kappan, 56 (A p ril, 1975), p. 526. 132

Teachers for tomorrow must strive to develop a global consciousness

and a respect for all human life. In a world that cannot survive

another major war and has lost its ability to isolate small wars,

no other education is appropriate for our children. APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RECOMMENDED TITLES

Ambrose, Kenneth. The Story of Peter Cronheim. Due'll, Sloan and Pearce, 1962. (b. and g. 7-9)

The Cronheim family, stunned by the Nazi persecution of Jews, sends son Peter to England. Candid in its account of Nazi anti-Semitism, the book makes it clear that many Germans did not sympathize.

Angelo, Valenti. The Marble Fountain. Viking Press, 1951. (b. and g. 5-7)

Portrays family life in Italy at the end of World War II. Features a teen-age boy and his younger brother.

Archibald, Joe. Special Forces Trooper. McKay, 1967. (b. 9-up)

Stan Russat, West Point dropout, volunteers for Vietnam ready to k ill a few for his dead buddy Nick and wearing a chip on his shoulder against West Point officers. He goes through training and maneuvers (described in d e ta il), k ills more than a few and captures many VC prisoners.

_ . Windmill P ilo t. McKay, 1963. (b. 7-9)

Young Lieutenant Walt Sprague leaves jets to fly h e li­ copters to the angry disappointment of his father, "Old Thunderhead." Mastering helicopter piloting calls for s k ill and judgment on Walt's part.

Armstrong, Richard. Ship A fire . John Day Company, 1960. (b. 7-9)

As the British oil tanker, Cape Wrath, is shelled and set a fire by a German U-boat, the cry "abandon ship" rings out. At this point a story of courage and ingenuity be­ gins which is even more surprising than the action aboard the tanker as a young apprentice pits his seamanship against the ocean for the lives of the survivors.

*Arnold, Elliott. A Kind of Secret Weapon. Scribner's, 1969. (b. and 9. 7-9)

(The annotations include information on suggested grade level, and indi­ cate whether the t i t l e is more suitable for boys or g irls or can be used effectively with both. The asterisk (*) denotes works which have been described in the body of the paper and, thus, are not annotated here.)

134 135

*Arnothy, Christine. I Am Fifteen--and I Don't Want To Die. Dutton, 1956. (g. 7-up) Tr. French.

Balderson, Margaret. When Jays Fly to Barbmo. Oxford, 1968. (g. 7-9)

A fourteen-year-old g irl's attempts to uncover the secret of her heritage are complicated by the German invasion of Norway in 1940.

*Barne, K itty. In the Same Boat. Dodd, 1945. (g. 5-7)

*______. We'll Meet in England. Dodd, 1943. (b. and g. 5-7)

*Bassini, Giorgio. The Garden of the Finzi-Contini. Atheneum Pubs., 1965. (g. 9-up) Tr. Ita lia n .

Beach, Edward L. Run Silent, Run Deep. Holt, 1955. (b. 9-up)

The author, a submarine captain himself, speaks through the book's central character, anAnnapolis officer on war patrol in the Pacific withhis first fleet submarine command.

*Benary-Isbert, Margot. The Ark. Harcourt, 1953. (g. 7-9) Tr. German.

______. Castle on the Border. Harcourt, 1956. (g. 9-up) Tr. German.

A war-gutted castle in Germany is the setting for this story of seventeen-year-old Leni, who, orphaned by the war and yearning to be an actress, gains maturity as she learns once more to care for others.

______. Dangerous Spring. Harcourt, 1961. (g. 9-up) Tr. German.

This story of a doctor's family in Germany during the last days of World War I I and the beginning of the American operation involves the bittersweet sacrifices of all the characters, and the radiant love of Karin, the doctor's seventeen-year-old daughter.

*______. The Long Way Home. Harcourt, 1959. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. German.

*______. Rowan Farm. Harcourt, 1954. (g. 7-9) Tr. German.

Benchley, Nathaniel. Bright Candles. Harper and Row, 1974. (b. and 9. 7-9)

Jens Hansen is a school boy in occupied Denmark who proceeds from scrawling slogans on walls to organized 136

sabotage and fin a lly arrest and escape into the half- life of a fugitive. Jens tells his story as a much older man, factually precise, yet somewhat rueful about his heroic role in a struggle that was after all more dignified and noble than most.

*Berna, Paul. They Didn't Come Back. Pantheon Books, 1970. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. French.

Bernhardsen, Christian. Fight in the Mountains. Harcourt, 1968. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. Danish.

Unsentimentally unsparing in its depiction of wartime horror, this novel makes personal bereavement, Nazi- directed blood lu st, the cathartic nature of revenge, and ultim ately, the self-destructiveness in hatred devastatingly clear through the gripping story of a young Norwegian partisan.

B erri, Claude. The Two of Us. Morrow, 1968. (b. and g. 9-up) Tr. French.

A young Parisian Jewish boy is sent to the French countryside to liv e with an old farmer during World War I I . The two develop an intense and touching relationship which is threatened only by the unthinking anti-Semitism of the old man who is ignorant of the boy's origins.

*Bishop, Claire Huchet. Pancakes-Paris. Viking Press, 1947. (b. and g. 5-7)

______. Twenty and Ten. Viking Press, 1952. (b. and g. 5-7)

Twenty French children in a mountain refuge under the care of Sister Gabriel, are asked to share th eir scant food and quarters with ten Jewish children who must be hidden from the Nazis. Re­ cognizing the parallel of this situation and that of their favorite dramatization of the Flight into Egypt helps them to avoid detection.

*Bonham, Frank. Burma R ifles. Crowell, 1960. (b. 8-10)

. The Ghost Front. Dutton, 1968. (b. 8-10) 137

______. Mar Beneath the Sea. Crowell, 1962. (b. 8-10)

The story of young Keith Stocker, a courageous boy who becomes a man as he engages in the nerve-taxing adventures enacted aboard the sub "Mako" during World War I I .

Bonnell, Dorothy. Passport to Freedom. J. Messner, 1967. (g. 7-9)

Sally Schmidt, an American exchange student at the Sorbonne in 1940, is unable to leave Nazi-occupied Paris after her passport is stolen.

B ric k h ill, Paul. The Great Escape. Norton, 1950. (b. 9-up)

A first-hand account of the planned mass escape of British and American airmen from Stalag Tuft I I I during World War I I . The author returned twice to Germany after the war to f i l l in the d etails, in­ cluding the German side of the a ffa ir as recorded in captured documents.

*Bruckner, Karl. The Day of the Bomb. Van Nostrand, 1963. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. German.

*Burton, Hester. In Spite of All Terror. Collins-World, 1969. (g. 7-9)

Butterworth, William E. Stop and Search: A Novel of Small Boat Warfare Off Vietnam. L ittle , Brown and Company, 1969. (b. 7-9)

Eddie Czernik,trained as a marine biologist on a naval ROTC scholarship, suddenly finds himself in Vietnam at the wheel of an armed th irty -fo o t riv e r- patrol boat. His unpleasant job is to stop and search Vietnamese junks and sampans suspected of running ammunition or supplies for the Viet Cong.

*Casewit, Curtis. Mountain Troopers. Crowell, 1972. (b. 7-9)

Cassiday, Bruce. Guerrilla Scout. Macmillan, 1965. (b. 7-9)

A Los Angeles-born Ita lia n boy loses both parents in an American bombing raid over Mandolfo, Ita ly . Despite his ensuing bitterness, he helps an American p ilo t shot down behind German lines. On their way to the Allied Command, they join an Ita lia n Partisan group whose raid on a German ob­ servation post is trag ically unsuccessful. 138

Chamberlain, William. Combat General. John Day, 1963. (b. 7-9)

This story of fro n t-lin e action between American and German armored units shows the detailed knowledge of men at war and th eir machines which General Chamberlain acquired personally in several combat theaters around the world.

______. Matt Quarterhill, Rifleman. John Day, 1965. (b. 7-9)

Matt need not have been involved in bloody combat with the Japs at Leyte in World War I I . He was an "army brat" with an appointment to West Point that would have kept him safe for the rest of the war. But he would have none of that. Instead, he volunteered for combat duty in the toughest fig h t­ ing in the Pacific, and he got what he asked fo r.

*Clagett, John. Surprise Attack!I J. Messner, 1968. (b. 7-9)

*Clark, Roger W. Ride the White Tiger. L ittle , Brown, 1959. (b. and g. 6-8)

Clarke, John. Black Soldier. Doubleday, 1968. (b. 7-12)

This story of George Bunty, who volunteers for the army during World War I I , takes him through basic training in an all-Black unit and on to Alabama and his first experience in racial discrimination. Upon arrival overseas, he's assigned to a "service unit," since Blacks aren't allowed in "fighting units." On June 6, 1944, D-Day, he lands on Omaha Beach and drives his way forward to the fro n t, at last in a combat unit. This Doubleday Signal easy reading-mature interest-level novelette was written especially for Negro boys facing entry into the armed forces. With a fourth to f if th grade reading difficulty and a senior high school interest level, i t should f i l l a d efin ite need;

Cooper, Susan. Dawn of Fear. Harcourt, 1970. (b. and g. 5-7)

A perceptive story of a young English boy's gradual awakening to an awareness of the adult world and the re a lity of war. 139

Cowan, Lore. Children of the Resistance. Meredith Press, 1969. (b. and g. 7-9)

Based on careful research with names changed for protection, these are the amazing true stories of boys and g irls who played active and often hazard­ ous roles in the underground resistance against the Nazis during World War I I .

Crockett, Lucy H. Pong Choolie, You Rascal. Holt, 1951. (b. and g. 6-8)

At twelve, Pong Choolie is a loyal little Communist in North Korea until his beliefs are shaken when he sees his home and family destroyed by Red soldiers. After positive contact with American troops, the boy chooses his own path, back to South Korea, where in spite of hunger and disease there is s t ill hope for freedom from Communism.

______. Teru: A Tale of Yokohama. Holt, 1950. (g. 7-9)

*Daly, Maureen. The Small War of Sergeant Donkey. Dodd, 1966. (b. and g. 6-8)

*Daniel, David S. Sandro's B attle. Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1962. (b. and g. 6-8')

David, Janina. A Touch of Earth: A Wartime Childhood. Orion Press, 1969 (g. 7-9)

Janina, saved from the Warsaw holocaust by a German- Catholic family, could only be protected by conver­ sion from Judiasm. This caused searing anxiety within a girl trained in two conflicting religions.

Davis, Russell. Marine at War. L ittle , Brown, 1961. (b. 7-10)

A true account of the author's service in the F irst Marine Regiment from 1944-1946, through two major and several minor campaigns in the Pacific. Written in answer to his sons' questions about war.

Degens, T. Transport 7-41-R. Viking Press, 1974. (g. 6-8)

A thirteen-year-old g irl describes her journey from the Russian sector of defeated Germany to Cologne on a transport carrying returning refugees in 1946. On one level an authentic tale of sheer adventure; on 140

another, a macabre, humorous, and powerful story of the damage war and misguided patriotism can do to the human s p irit.

*DeJong, Dola. The Level Land. Scribner's, 1943. (b. and g. 5-7)

* . Return to the Level Land. Scribner's, 1947. (b. and q. 5-71

*DeJong, Meindert. The House of Sixty Fathers. Harper and Row, 1956. (b. and g. 5-7)

Del C astillo, Michel. A Child of Our Time. Knopf, 1965. (b. and g. 9-up) Tr. French.

A young Spanish refugee in France is mistaken for Jewish and sent to a Nazi concentration camp, to remain there until liberated by the Allies. Al­ though many of the camp's inmates degenerate under the bestial conditions, the young hero and others act nobly and heroically. Once free, the boy re­ turns to Spain and attempts to adjust to even worse conditions in the post-Civil-War era.

Dodson, Kenneth. Away All Boats. L ittle , Brown, 1954. (b. 9-up)

This is a novelized history of World War II island- hopping in the Pacific, as experienced aboard the attack-transport Belinda. After numerous landings the Belinda is knocked out by a kamikaze at Okinawa.

DuBoise, Theodore. Heroes in Plenty. Doubleday, 1945. (b. and g. 7-9)

Story of an English boy returning home from America. On the way his ship is torpedoed, he is captured by the Nazis, and after many adventures, finally arrives home a year later.

*Dunn, Mary Lois. The Man in the Box: A Story from Vietnam. McGraw- H ill, 1968:: (b. and g. 7-9")

Ecke, Wolfang. Flight Toward Home. Macmillan, 1970. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. German.

Related with the directness and sim plicity of a documentary, the book recounts a young orphan boy's attempts during and a fte r World War I I to escape from East Germany to his grandmother in West Germany. 141

E llis , Leo. Niqhts of Danqer. Funk and Waqnalls, 1964. (b. and g. 7-9)

American-born Lee Cole and his widowed mother are living in the French village of Vollon, under German occupation army rule. Lee takes his f ir s t step toward maturity when he decides to translate the BBC news broadcasts for the French Underground. From then on he knows only "nights of danger."

*Engle, Eloise. Dawn Mission: A Flight Nurse in Korea. John Day Company, 1962. (g. 7-9)

Facos, James. The Silver Lady. Atheneum Pubs., 1972. (b. 9-up)

This story of a U.S.A.F. bomber crew in England dur­ ing World War I I focuses on the relationship between b a ll-tu rre t gunner Wyatt, a New England Quaker, and right-waist armorer Hagen, a product of the Boston slums. After both men experience a brush with death, readers realize their essential similarity.

*Feder-Tal, Karah. The Stone of Peace. Abelard-Schuman, 1961. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Dutch.

*Felsen, Henry Gregor. Flying Correspondent. Dutton, 1947. (b. 7-S)

______. Navy Diver. Dutton, 1942. (b. 7-9)

Exciting plot and good characterization distinguish this account of the training and duties of the Navy's frogmen. The hero's best friend on the farm had been a Japanese; thus he was torn by conflicting loyalties during the wartime c ris is .

______. Some Follow the Sea. Dutton, 1944. (b. 7-9)

This exciting story of Chris Hollister, who enlists in the merchant marine when the navy turns him down, gives a realistic picture of the lives and problems of men in this service.

______. Struggle Is Our Brother. Dutton, 1943. (b. 7-9)

Tells of the experiences of a Russian boy and his uncle who remain in th eir Ukranian village a fte r its capture by the Germans and take part in guerrilla warfare. 142

______. Submarine S ailo r. Dutton, 1943. (b. 7-9)

Depicts eleven weeks of exciting adventure aboard the fictio nal American sub, "Stingbull." Clevel Hawkins takes an American agent to Japan, and although he has to scuttle his own ship, brings in a Jap submarine.

Forester, C. S. The Good Shepherd. L ittle , Brown, 1955. (b. 9-up)

On an A tlantic convoy in 1942 Captain Krause of the destroyer Keeling has just four ship- with which to protect the thirty-seven merchantmen in his charge. The captain's personal struggle, plus his efforts to do an almost impossible,job are depicted during forty-eight desperate hours.

______. The Man in the Yellow Raft. Little, Brown, 1969. (b. 9-up]

These eight stories of men who served with the U.S. Navy during World War I I show th eir courage and clear thinking amid great danger and the ever­ present threat of death. They contain a ll the excitement that Forester fans have come to expect and,in addition, display the author's special love of the sea and his impressive knowledge of seaman­ ship and advanced naval warfare.

Ford, Robert E. Sergeant Sutton. Hawthorn, 1970. (b. 9-up)

During World War I I , B ill Sutton was shipped out after boot camp to an unknown Pacific Island group with an ill-matched problem u n it. There he endured the ten­ sions and terror of combat and survived to become a hard-bitten leatherneck and eventually a Marine hero and legend.

*Forman, James. Ceremony of Innocence. Hawthorn, 1970. (b. and g. 9-up)

______. Horses of Anger.

The story of German Hans Amann and three former classmates who react d ifferen tly to the Nazi philo sophy so relentlessly d rille d into them. During the six-year-war each of them changes, and Hans himself grows to the point where he can accept and even welcome the German defeat as the end of a nightmare and the hope of a new l if e . 143

. My Enemy, M.y Brother. Hawthorn, 1969. (b. and g. 9-up)

. Ring the Judas B e ll. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1965. (b. and g. 7-9)

. The Skies of Crete. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1963. (b. 7-9)

. The Traitors. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1968. (b. 7-9)

*Frank, Ann. The Diary of a Young G ir l. Doubleday, 1952. (g. 7-12)

Fry, Varian. Assignment: Rescue. Scholastic Book Services, 1968. (b. and g. 9-up)

Originally published by Random House (1945) under the t i t l e Surrender on Demand, this is the r e a l-life ad­ venture story of how Fry smuggled anti-Nazi refugees out of the Vichy France during the early days of World War I I . As suspenseful as any spy novel, i t contains accurate documentation of Nazi practices in Western Europe.

*Fukei, Arlene. East to Freedom. Westminster Press, 1964. (g. 7-9)

Gallagher, Thomas M. Assault in Norway: Sabotaging the Nazi Nuclear Bomb. Harcourt, 1974. (b. 9-up)

After their successful conquest of Norway and the establishment of a puppet government, the Nazis b u ilt a plant in the mountains west of Oslo to manufacture "heavy water," the essential ingredient of the nuclear bomb. This is the true story of the four Norwegian exiles trained as a commando unit by the British who destroyed the fa c ility against a l­ most impossible odds for success and escape.

Gardam, Jane. A Long Way from Verona. Macmillan, 1971. (g. 5-7)

A young g irl aspiring to be a w riter recounts her experiences growing up in England during World War II.

Gleitsman, Hertha. Katrina. Scribner's, 1945. (g. 6-8)

One adventure follows another when courageous Katrina of Luxembourg becomes involved with the Resistance movement. 144

______. Niko's Mountains. Scribner's, 1946. (b. and g. 6-8)

The story of Niko, a French-American boy whose father disappeared during the war and whose mother was deranged by grief. Niko's bitterness is gradu-' a lly overcome when he goes to liv e with a happy family in Switzerland.

______. Pierre Keeps Watch. Scribner's, 1944. (b. and g. 5-7)

The story of a thirteen-year-old French shepherd boy who saves the animals from the Nazis.

Glemser, Bernard. Radar Commandos. Scholastic Book Services, 1972. (b. 6-8)

A paperback reissue of the original Winston 1953 publication about a fifteen-year-old French boy who spies on Nazi" radar base. When the French under­ ground realizes the importance of his discovery, they a le rt the B ritish , who send commandos to destroy the base with the boy's help.

Golding, Louis. Mr. Emmanuel. Popular Library, 1970. (b. and g. 9-up)

A young Jewish refugee at school in England is greatly depressed because he no longer hears from his mother in Germany. In an attempt to help the boy, Mr. Emmanuel, an elderly Jew, goes to Germany where he fa lls into a Nazi trap. He later escapes and returns to England with a kindly story to cover the real fate of the bpy's mother.

*Goldwait, Priscilla. Night of the Wal1. Putnam, 1964. (b. and g. 7-9)

*Graham, Gail. Cross-Fire: A Vietnam Novel. Pantheon Books, 1972. (b. and g. 7-9)

Gregor, Manfred. The Bridge. Random House, 1960. (b. 9-up) Tr. German.

The story of four German schoolboys, ages fourteen to fifte e n , who were called to active duty during the last desperate days of the war. Alone, they were ordered to defend a bridge against advancing Allied troops. Narrated by the one survivor (Gregor himself) when he returns to the site fifteen years la te r. Av/ard-winning film based on i t . 145

Gronowicz, Antoni. Bolek. Nelson, 1942. (b. and g. 5-7) Tr. Polish.

When the Nazis attack Warsaw, Bolek, who has been visitin g there, escapes to America to continue his music studies. Good picture of the staunch character of the Poles under stress.

______. Four From the Old Town. Scribner's, 1944. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Polish.

The story of the experiences of four friends of Lwow, Poland. One dies to avenge his family, and the others join the Underground and help to free the c ity.

Grund, Josef. Never to be Free. L ittle , Brown, 1970. (b. 7-10) Tr. German.

The story of a dozen sixteen-year-old boys who en­ lis t in the German army toward the end of World War I I and are sent to serve in an a n tiairc ra ft gun em­ placement to release more experienced soldiers for the front lines. Shows gradual disillusionment with the Fuhrer and the Nazi party.

*Haar, Jaap Ter. Boris. Delacorte Press, 1970. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Dutch.

*Halberstam, David. One Very Hot Day. Houghton M ifflin , 1968. (b. 9-up)

*Haldeman, Joe. War Years. Holt, 1972. (b. 7-up)

*Hamori, Lazio. Dangerous Journey. Harcourt, 1962. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Swedish.

______. Flight to the Promised Land. Harcourt, 1963. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Swedish.

The story, which is set in 1948, is based on the actual experience of a Yemenite boy of twelve who fled to Israe l.

Hardy, William M. Submarine Wolfpack. Dodd, 1961. (b. 7-9)

The wolfpack of three American subs had been guarding the approaches to Luzon S tra it for a week, waiting for its prey. On the morning of June 25, 1944, a fa in t smudge of smoke on the horizon signaled that 146

the wait was over: contact with the Japanese convoy had been made. With photographic realism, the reader sees how three diverse commanders meet the same chal­ lenge below the depths of the sea.

Harkins, Philip. Bomber P ilo t. Harcourt, 1944. (b. 7-9)

This is the story of Aviation Cadet A1 Hudson, who received his commission and became p ilo t of a Flying Fortress. Valuable not only for its drama­ tic story, but also because it tells prospective airmen what they want to know--what flying feels lik e , and what happens in combat.

Hart, Carolyn, G. No Easy Answers. Scholastic Book Services, 1972. (b. and g. 9-up)

Bart Hastings knew that his family at the army base would consider him a radical i f they found out that he was part of the anti-war demonstration downtown. But he believed the Vietnam War was wrong, even though his only brother had been killed by the Viet Cong. After encounters with both "Radical Right" and "Leftist" elements, Bart realized that there were "no easy answers."

Hatano, Isoko. Mother and Son: The Wartime Correspondence. Houghton M iff1in, 1962. (b. and g. 9-up) Tr. Japanese

A collection of notes and letters exchanged between a Japanese mother and her son as he grew from fifteen to eighteen during the war years 1943-1946. r *Haugaard, Eric. The L ittle Fishes. Houghton M ifflin , 1967. (b. and g. 6-8)

*Hautzig, Esther. The Endless Steppe. Crowell, 1968. (g. 7-up)

*Heide, Dirk van der. My Sister and I: The Diary of a Dutch Boy Refugee. Harcourt, 1941. (b. and g. 7-9)

Heiman, Grover. Jet Tanker. Holt, 1961. (b. 7-9)

In this exciting adventure a young p ilo t in the Strategic Air Command must prove himself to members of his crew and to his superiors. 147

Hilton, Irene. Enemy in the Sky. Westminster Press, 1964. (b. and g. 5-7)

Story of London schoolchildren too young to fight who serve on the home front. Evacuated to the countryside, they expose a spy and sabotage ring and capture a downed German p ilo t.

*Holm, Anne. North to Freedom. Harcourt, 1965. (b. and g. 6-8) Tr. Danish.

Household, Geoffrey. Doom's Caravan. L ittle , Brown, 1971. (b. and g. 9-up)

Set in the Middle East during World War I I , the story begins with a fran tic search for Captain Oliver Enwin, a trusted British intelligence officer who has myster­ iously disappeared. As the hunt spreads through the back streets of Cairo and Damascus, a conspiracy is uncovered so huge in scope i t could well decide the fate of the war--and only Enwin can prevent it.

Howarth, David. We Die Alone. Macmillan, 1955. (b. 7-9)

The true story of Jan Baalsrud, the sole survivor of a group of tv/elve Norwegian saboteurs who in 1943 sailed to Norway in a fishing boat fitted with hidden armament. Their orders were to destroy the great German a irfie ld near the Arctic Ocean. The author was the commander of the secret British navy base from which the men sailed.

Icenhower, Joseph B. Submarine Rendezvous. Winston, 1957. (b. 7-9)

After missing the last boat leaving Manila in the early days of World War I I , Ben Scott and Dr. Benson trek across Luzon to the tip of Mindanao one jump ahead of the enemy.

Ily in , Boris. Green Boundary. Houghton M ifflin , 1949. (g. 9-up) Tr. Russian.

A love story of a Russian-American and a Russian g irl during the Cold War. I t explores the mental attitudes of displaced persons and escapees from Russia. 148

Joffo, Joseph. A Bag of Marbles. Houghton M ifflin , 1974. (b. and g. 9-upJ^ Tr. French.

The author describes his experiences as a Franco- Jewish boy, ten years old at the time of World War II. He and his twelve-year-old brother were taken out of school, set free from all adult rules, and sent o ff to liv e by th eir wits during the German occupation of France.

Karmel-Wolfe, Henia. The Baders of Jacob Street. Lippincott, 1970. (g. 7-9)

The novel is set at the beginning of World War I I in Krakov, Poland, where the author lived as a young g ir l. Out of her experiences in those dark years she has written a powerful testimony to the human s p irit and the w ill to survive against impossible odds.

Kerr, Judith. When Hitler Stole Pink Rabbit. Coward, 1972. (g. 5-7)

The author, born in Berlin, the daughter of a dis­ tinguished Jewish w riter, le ft Germany in 1933 to escape the Nazis. The family spent three years in Switzerland and France, before settling in England. This moving fictio nal account is based on her own childhood experiences.

Knight, Ruth A. First the Lightning. Doubleday, 1955. (b. 7-9)

A young boy is tempted to join a street gang in order to get enough'money for his mother and himself to sur­ vive in post-war Ita ly . Contact with an American soldier and an unfortunate gang experience guide him toward accepting the responsibilities of manhood.

Kosterina, Nina. The Diary of Nina Kosterina. Crown Pubs., 1968. (g. 9-up) Tr. Russian.

The intimate record of a young g ir l's lif e in the Soviet Union from 1936 to 1941. I t is a universal story of growing up. But i t is also a deeper, more dramatic experience, as Stalinist terrors reach out against Nina's family, as the Nazis march on Russia, and as she makes her fatal decision to become a warrior for her native land. Reminiscent of Ann Frank's diary. Kotowska, Monika. The Bridge to the Other Side. Doubleday, 1970. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. Polish.

The heroes of this book are children growing up dur­ ing World War I I , the Nazi occupation, and the post­ war years. They are children who have been brutally sucked into the machinery of war, but who struggle against pain and injustice and somehow manage to survive.

Kruess, James. Coming Home from the War, An Id y ll. Doubleday, 1970. (b. 9-up] Tr. German.

The author experienced freedom for the f ir s t time in his life as an eighteen-year-old air cadet wandering through Germany at the end of World War I I . Despite his a b ility to capture in retrospect his youthful id y llic mood, the account is not without the grim and realistic details of events which obviously contributed to his intellectual and moral development. At the end he was able to say: "The war was over. The idyll was over. I came home to be an adult."

Kuper, Jack. Child of the Holocaust. Doubleday, 1968. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. Polish.

The author, the one member of his family to survive the German invasion of Poland and the systematic ex­ termination of Polish Jews, gives a moving account of his childhood from the age of mine to thirteen. He sought refuge with one peasant family after another, only to be driven out when his Jewish identity was re­ vealed. His ingenuity in surviving and his inner struggle to maintain his Jewish heritage in the face of pressures to renounce i t have inspirational value for today's youth.

Lansing, Elizabeth. Nancy Naylor, Flight Nurse. Crowell, 1944. (9. 7-9)

After winning her wings Lt. Naylor goes to South A frica, and then to Sicily where she helps remove the wounded during the invasion of Ita ly .

Levin, Jane W. Star of Danger. Harcourt, 1966. (b. 7-9)

Two teenage Jewish boys fleeing Nazi Germany in 1939 go to Denmark, find jobs and make friends. When the Nazis take over Denmark and order the imprisonment of all Jews, loyal Danish friends risk their own lives to help the boys escape into neutral Sweden. Levitan, Sonia. Journey to America. Atheneum Pubs., 1970. (g. 5-7)

Even in the face of a l if e and death c ris is , i t takes a special kind of courage to leave everything, to face poverty, and to begin again in wholly new surround­ ings. Although this story of Lisa Platt and her family is fic tio n , the courage and the events that display it were all too real for many families in Hitler's Germany.

Lewis, Elizabeth Foreman. To Beat a Tiger. Holt, 1956. (b. 6-8)

Sixteen boys from all levels of society form a street gang and live by th eir cunning, courage and loyalty to each other during the Japanese occupation of Shanghai.

*Lifton, Betty Jean. Return to Hiroshima. Atheneum Pubs., 1970, (b. and g. 7^9)

*Lingard, Joan. Across the Barricades. Nelson, 1973. (g. 8-10)

*______. Into Exile. Nelson, 1973. (g. 8-10)

*______. The Twelfth Day of July. Nelson, 1972. (b. and g. 6-9)

MacKaye, David and Julia. Twenty-Fifth Mission. Longmans, 1945. (b. 7-9)

The survivors of a bombing mission over Germany bail out over Denmark, work with the Underground there, and fin a lly escape to neutral Sweden.

McKown, Robin. Janine. J. Messner, 1960. (g. 7-10)

Haunted by memories of the occupation, Janine, whose father has been betrayed by a fellow villager, bears the scars of a ravaged France. When she fa lls in love with the sone of her father's alleged betrayer her lif e becomes further complicated.

* . Patriot of the Underground. Putnam, 1964. (b. and g. (7-9)

*McSwigan, Marie. All Aboard for Freedom. Dutton, 1954. (b. and g. 6-8)

*______. Juan of Manila. Dutton, 1947. (b. and g. 6-8)

. Snow Treasure. Dutton, 1942. (b. and g. 5-7) 151

Malkus, Alida Sims. Through the M all. Grosset and Dunlap, 1962. (b. and g. 6^85

Sub-titled "A Boy's Struggle for Freedom," this story te lls of the experience of Hans Elmendorf, a twelve- year-old boy who escaped over the Berlin Wall and swam the river to safety in West Berlin.

Masselink, Ben. The Deadliest Weapon. L ittle , Brown, 1965. (b. 7-9)

An action-packed story of the men of the Twenty-Second Marine Regiment who took part in Operation Flintlock, Admiral Nimitz' plan to invade the Marshall Islands from February 17-22, 1944.

*Meader, Stephen. Sabre P ilo t. Harcourt, 1956. (b. 7-10)

*______. Sea Snake. Harcourt, 1943. (b. 7-9)

Mirvish, Robert. Last C ap italist. Sloane, 1963. (b. and g. 9-up)

A group of orphaned children support themselves during wartime by dealing on the "black market."

Montgomery, Rutherford. Thunderbolt, Ho! McKay, 1945. (b. 7-9)

A lieutenant in the U.S. Navy and a tiny group of PT boats are sent to help the marines hold a Guadalcanal beachhead.

______. Warhawk Patrol. McKay, 1945. (b. 7-9)

A story of mystery and flying in World War I I , which describes the adventures of a young American f l i e r and his mechanic in North Africa.

*Morris, Edita. The Flowers of Hiroshima. B ra zille r, 1959. (g. 9-up)

*______. The Seeds of Hiroshima. B ra zille r, 1965. (g. 9-up)

Moskin, Marietta. I Am Rosemarie. John Day, 1972. (g.7-9)

This is the story of Rosemarie Brenner's survival during her five years' internment in H itle r's in­ famous camps. I t is also the story of her growth into womanhood in spite of incredible humiliations and hardships. All the events in the story are absolutely true and all the fictional characters are based on very real people who lived through a ll 152

the things described in the book. I t is dedicated to all those who did not live to tell about their sufferings.

Norton, Alice Mary. Sword Is Drawn. Houqhton M ifflin , 1944. (b. 7-9)

Exciting tale of Lorens van Norreys, one of two sur­ viving members of a famous Dutch family, who escapes to Java when, his country is overrun by the Nazis. After a series of adventures in Australia and the U.S., he succeeds in returning to his Nazi-occupied home to retrieve a treasure important to the Allied cause.

______. Sword in Sheath. Harcourt, 1949. (b. 7-9)

Two young American O.S.S. agents go to the l i t t l e - known islands of the East Indies to search for a missing American aviator who crashed there during the war. There they find a group of Japanese and German renegades who are organizing a resistance movement against Allied authorities.

Olson, Gene. Drop Into H e ll. Westminster Press, 1969. (b. 7-9)

A company of green paratroopers must destroy the guns of Ami on that guard the Normandy beaches where, at dawn the next day, a part of the D-day invasion force is to come ashore. But between the drop point and Utah Beach lie German troops, faceless numbers who must k ill or be killed .

. r* ______. The Iron Foxhole. Westminster Press, 1968. (b. 7-9)

This is the story of tanks and the men who drive them, and of a young soldier's f ir s t six months in action. It is the story of fear, and courage and death--of the sights, the sounds, the smells, the emotions of war, told by a veteran of tank action.

*0mer, Devorah. Path Beneath the Sea. Funk and Wagnalls, 1969. (b. 9-upl Tr. Hebrew.

O 'N eill, Hester. Young P atrio ts. Nelson, 1948. (b. and g. 5-7)

True stories of the brave young people in a ll the occupied lands during World War I I who fought side- by-side with adults, some even giving their lives, so that peace and freedom might return to the world. 153

*Osada, Arata. Children of the A-Bomb. Putnam, 1963. (b. and g. 8-up) Tr. Japanese.

*Pease, Howard. Heart of Danger. Doubleday, 1946. (b. 7-9)

Prince, Alison. The House on the Common. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, (b and g. 5-7)

In spite of blackouts, rationing, and air raids, life goes on as usual for Jane, her brother Danny, and their friend Derek during the early years of World War 11--until Derek becomes uneasy about the myster­ ious house on the Common and the suspicious German couple who live there.

Reid, Patrick. Escape from Colditz. Lippincott, 1973. (b. 9-up)

This one volume contains a reissue of The Colditz Story, Reid's personal memoir until his escape in 1942 and Men of Colditz, the story of the prisoners Reid le f t behind. Maximum-security Colditz Castle was used to house the "d iffic u lt" P.O.W.'s who had escaped from lesser institutions. In four and a half years there were over 300 escape attempts, and though most fa ile d , the miracle is that any succeeded.

Reiss, Johanna. The Upstairs Room. Crowell, 1972. (g. 6-8)

As Jewish g irls in wartime Holland, Mrs. Reiss and her older sister spent more than two years during the German occupation hidden in the upstairs room of a Dutch farmhouse. Now an American, she recalls it all with pain and humor and tells it with affect­ ing precision and control.

Richardson, Anthony. One Man and His Dog. Dutton, 1961. (b. 6-8)

This is the true story of Jan, a Czech gunner with the French Air Force, and Antis, a young Alsatian dog, during World War I I . Heroes to each other, the two share incredible ordeals as prisoners of the Ita lia n s , escapees in a sea of burning o il, and as victims of the Communists.

*Richter, Hans Peter. Friedrich. Holt, 1970. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. German. 154

______. I Was There. Holt, 1972. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. German.

With this authoritative, understated, firt-person account of the day-to-day events and attitudes of the Third Reich, Richter brings American youth into immediate contact with German youths of that period, a period that had a shattering effect on him, as well as on so many million others.

*Riesenburg, Felix. Man on the Raft. Dodd, 1945. (b. 7-9)

*______. The Phantom Freighter. Dodd, 1944. (b. 7-9)

______. Salvage: A Modern Sea Story. Dodd, 1942. (b. 7-9)

A small American freighter captures a derelict and encounters a Japanese ship, but fin a lly manages to get its prize safely into port.

Rynning-Tonnesen, 01af. The Secret Transmitter. Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1965. (b. 7-9) Tr. Norwegian.

Story of Peter Szigeti,who risks his lif e every time he sends coded messages to members of the Underground all over Hungary. As the Russians daily draw the net more tig h tly around him, Peter continues to play a v ital role in helping refugees from the Communist regime to escape across the border to freedom.

Ryss, Yevgency. Search Behind the Lines. Morrow, 1974. (b. and g, 6-8) Tr. kussian.

Every morning*Kolya and his grandfather set out for school together—the man to teach, the boy to learn. But their peaceful days end as the Nazi hordes en­ gulf the land. For a time the two find safety liv ­ ing in a remote forest hut. With them is Lena, daughter of a Russian general. One day a sinister stranger arrives. To escape him, grandfather sends the children out on their own, and the dangerous search for Lena's father begins.

Sachs, Marilyn. A Pocket Full of Seeds. Doubleday, 1973. (g. 5-7)

The story of Nicole flieman, a Jewish child growing up in a provincial town during the German occupation of France. While she is out her entire family is dragged o ff to an unknown concentration camp and the courageous thirteen-year-old faces lif e alone, defence­ less and hunted. 155

Savery, Constance. Enemy Brothers. Longmans, 1943. (b. and g. 7-9)

The absorbing story of an English boy who believes himself to be a German. His older brother's under­ standing and forbearance fin a lly win him back to the English way of lif e . Good picture of wartime England.

Senje, Sigurd. Escape! Harcourt, 1964. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. Norwegian.

Aided by two young Norwegians and a crafty telegraph operator, a POW escapes from a Nazi prison camp.

*S e rra illie r, Ian. The Silver Sword. P hillips, 1959. Also published as Escape From Warsaw. Scholastic, 1972. (b. and g. 6-9)

Seymour, Alta Halverson. On the Edge of the Fjord. Presbyterian Bd., 1944. (b. and g. 7-9)

An exciting story of Norway under Nazi occupation.

______. Toward Morning. F o lle tt, 1961. (b. and g. 7-9)

A gripping story of one group of young people who played an active part in the Hungarian Revolt of 1956. When the fight is lost, they join thousands of refugees in the flig h t to the Austrian border.

Shemin, Margaretha. The Empty Moat. Coward, 1969. (g. 6-8)

In 1942 when H itle r's troops occupied all Holland, the Van Swaenenburgh family's castle was taken as a German m ilitary headquarters. Daughter Elizabeth, at first intimidated by the Nazis, gradually realized that she couldn't remain aloof and found the courage to play her part in the re­ sistance.

Shirreffs, Gordon. The Bolo Battalion.- Westminster Press, 1966. (b. 7-9)

Bob Dunbar swims to shore after his sub, the Grayfin, is torpedoed and encounters members of the Philipine guerrilla forces who are preparing for the American invasion. He learns what jungle warfare is like be­ fore he finds his buddy Gary during an attack on an enemy blockhouse. 156

. The Cold Seas Beyond. Westminster Press, 1963. (b. 7-9)

The adventures of Signalman Bob Dunbar and his pal Gary Lunt, Gunner's Mate, as their ship and its in­ trepid crew participate in the Alentian campaign during World War I I .

• The Enemy Seas. Westminster Press, 1965. (b. 7-9)

Swept from the deck of th eir destroyer by a howling Pacific gale, Bob Dunbar and his pal Gary Lunt are rescued by the submarine Grayfin somewhere between Kwajalein and Brisbane. I t is early in World War I I , and the Grayfin is proceeding through enemy waters on a twofold secret mission.

. The Hostile Beaches. Westminster Press, 1964. (b. 7-9)

______. Torpedoes Away. Westminster Press, 1967. (b. 7-9)

Bob Dunbar and Gary Lunt on their third war patrol on the sub Grayfin head into the Java Sea in search of Jap submarines. When th eir lone sub gets into trouble in this no-man's land, there is no one to call on for help.

Shurtleff, Bertrand. AWOL: K-9 Commando. Bobbs-Merrill, 1944. (b. and g. 6-8)

The story of a Doberman Pinscher, rescued from a brutal Nazi, who becomes a hero in France with the Rangers and ommandos. ✓ *Sommerfelt, Aimee. Miriam. C riterion, 1963. (g. 7-9)

After an incredibly brief training period a band of Australians were dispatched to deactivate live weapons capable of leveling a city block. Among the group were Hugh Syme and John Mould, and i t is their exploits during World War I I that make the substance of this book. Using diaries, tapes, in­ terviews and o ffic ia l documents, Southall has un­ covered many of the tension-packed achievements of these two men.

*Sperry, Armstrong, Hull Down for Action. Doubleday, 1945. (b. 7-9) 157

Stephan, Hanna. The Quest. L ittle , Brown, 1967. (b. and g. 6-8)

The story of Peter Reisiger, separated from his family at age five when the Russian troops occu­ pied his East Prussian town. He was found by a Red Army officer who adopted him and took him to Russia. He was traced by the Hamburg Red Cross and reunited with his parents nine years la te r.

S tiles, Martha B. Darkness Over the Land. Dial Press, 1966. (b. and 9 . 7-9)

Story of the German Eland family, struggling to sur­ vive the six nightmare years of war and to resist the vicious pressures of the Third Reich. With the fall of Germany, fifteen-year-old foster-son Mark had to make a crucial decision that would affect his whole lif e .

S treatfield , Noel. Beyond the Vicarage. F. Watts, 1972. (g. 9-up)

This last volume of the author's autobiography, written in the third person, describes her lif e in England during the Second World War. I t gives a particularly detailed and dramatic account of the b litz in London.

. Stranger in Primrose Lane. Random House, 1941. (b. and g-~5-7)

Suhl, Yuri. On the Other Side of the Gate. F. Watts, 1974. (g. 8 - 10)

Forced into the Jewish ghetto during the Nazi occupa­ tion of Poland, Hershel and Lena Bregman decide to have a child even though i t is outlawed. The details of how they keep the baby hidden, find a Polish family w illing to care for him, and smuggle him out of the ghetto make for a dramatic and moving story.

. Uncle Misha's Partisans. Scholastic Book Services, 1973. (b T T ^ )

During the war years the Ukraine was a dangerous place for twelve-year-old Motile, who had lived by his wits since the Nazis murdered his parents. Now he joins his own people, the famous band of Jewish freedom fighters known as Uncle Misha's Partisans. How he f i l l s a dangerous assignment to in filtr a te a German-held town and risks his lif e to strike a blow against the Nazis makes a gripping tale. 158

Taylor, Theodore. The Childrens War. Doubleday, 1971. (b. and g. 6- 8 )

Dory Scofield, young son of an o ffice r at the Naval Communications Station on Unimak Island in the Aleutians loved the beautiful, mysterious country teeming with w ild life . His bucolic days began to change a fte r Pearl Harbor, as the Japs invaded Attu and Kiska and bombed nearby Dutch Harbor.

Thane, Elswyth. Homing. Duel!, Sloan and Pearce, 1957. (g. 9-up)

One in the author's series of Williamsburg novels which have followed the Day and Sprague families from Revolutionary times. This one is set largely in England during the early years of World War I I .

*Tibbets, Albert B. Courage in Korea. L ittle , Brown, 1962. (b. 8-10)

______. Salute to the Brave. L ittle , Brown, 1962. (b. 8-10)

Ten short stories which show U.S. fighting men in action during World War I I . One sees the cam- araderis of barracks lif e , and the sadness at loss of close comrades. One shares as well the moments of gayety and laughter that make even war bearable.

*Travers, P. L. I Go by Sea, I Go by Land. Harper and Row, 1941. (g. 5-71

*Treadgold, Mary. Left T ill Called For. Doubleday, 1941. (b. and g. 7-9)

*Tunis, John R. His Enemy, His Friend. Morrow, 1967. (b. and g. 7-10)

*______. The Kid Comes Back. Morrow, 1946. (b. 7-9)

*______. Silence Over Dunkerque. Morrow, 1962. (b. and g. 7-9)

♦Uchida, Yoshiko. The Full C ircle. Friendship Press, 1957. (g. 7-9)

*Van der Haas, Henrietta. Orange on Top. Harcourt, 1945. (b. and g. 5-7)

* Victorious Island. Harcourt, 1947. (b. and g. 5-7) 159

V ivier, Colette. The House of the Four Winds. Doubleday, 1969. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. French.

I t is 1943 in German-occupied Paris. The apartment- house where Michel S e llie r's family lives contains an odd assortment of tenants: a family of collaborators, who make a good p ro fit from th eir disloyalty; a Jewish family threatened with deportation; many simple, courageous people ready to risk their own lives to protect those in greater danger; and fin a lly the "resisters" who carry on a bitter underground struggle for the liberation of their country.

Walsh, J ill Paton. The Dolphin Crossing. Macmillan, 1967. (b. and 9 . 7-9)

A sixteen-year-old London slum dweller makes friends with a teenage resident of the coastal town to which he's evacuated. Both play a part in the heroic rescue of 300,000 troops from Dunkirk, and in the process realize the uselessness and ultimate waste of war.

* . Fireweed. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1970. (b. and g. 7-9}

Watson, Helen. Shavetail Sam, U.S. Arm.y Mule. Houghton M ifflin , 1944. (b. and g. 6-8)

Story of an army mule, who, after a carefree time on the Missouri farm where he was born, saw service in the Ita lia n campaign.

*Watson, Sally. The Mukhtar's Children. Holt, 1968. (b. and g. 6-8)

*______. To Build a Land. Holt, 1969. (b. and g. 6-8)

*Wayne, Kyra P. Shurik. Grosset and Dunlap, 1971. (b. and g. 7-9)

Werstein, Irving. The Long Escape. Scribners, 1964. (b. and g. 7-9)

The residents of a Belgian convalescent home for children escape from the Germans,reach Dunkirk, and embark for England. In researching his story, Werstein interviewed the director of the home and others of the Resistance who helped the children. 160

______. That Denmark Might Live. Macrae Smith Company, 1967. (b. and g. 7-9)

A chronicle of the fierce underground movement in Denmark that fought against the German domination in the years from 1940-1945. According to Field Marshall Montgomery, "The Danish Resistance was worth ten divisions." Werstein makes that heroic time liv e again.

Westheimer, David. Song of the Young Sentry. L ittle , Brown, 1968. (b. 9-up)

Shows the transformation via various World War I I POW camps of a weak-willed, callow, American flyboy into a mature, responsible man. Completely be­ lievable characterization and fast-paced plotting.

White, Robb. Flight Deck. Doubleday, 1961. (b. 7-9)

Fresh out of flig h t school, John Lawrence proved his courage at Midway where he received the wound that grounded him for the duration. While en route to relieve the besieged Marines on Guadalcanal, he saw a tiny deserted island, strategically located for spotting Jap bombers coming in to attack. His attempts to get to the island and then to stay alive and accomplish his purpose in sight of the enemy are described here with mounting suspense.

_ . The Frogmen. Doubleday, 1973. (b. 7-9)

The story of Ensign Amos Wainwright and his buddies assigned to rugged Underwater Demolition School. The three sections deal with their training, the grueling, top secret voyage far into Jap territory, and their ordeal trapped on an enemy-held island.

_ . Silent Ship, Silent Sea. Doubleday, 1967. (b. 7-9)

Through administrative error, a green seaman second class, straight out of boot camp is assigned to the destroyer Caron in the middle of an invasion force in the Solomon Islands. 161

______. Surrender. Doubleday, 1966. (b. 7-9)

World War I I began for young Juan McGregor and his sister Juanita with the Japanese bombing of Cavite in the Philippines. What followed was five night­ marish months haunted by hunger, disease, and d e ath - five months of defeat culminating in the horror of the Bataan Death March and the surrender of the island fortress of Corregidor.

______. The Survivor. Doubleday, 1964. (b. 7-9)

A young navy pilot,chosen for a secret mission against his w ill, finds himself on a submarine with a select platoon of Marines en route to reconnoiter a Jap-held a to ll. He changes and grows on the long ride out, and when the sub is disabled, acts. His action is the beginning of a desperate battle to survive.

______. Torpedo Run. Doubleday, 1962. (b. 7-9)

Hidden by day on a river in the steaming New Guinea jungle, Navy PT boat "Slewfoot" ventured out at night to torpedo the Japanese on the open Pacific. When her capable and popular captain was kille d , her smooth-functioning and tig h t-k n it young crew splintered into twelve feuding fragments, each awaiting the inevitable showdown

______. Up Periscope. Doubleday, 1956. (b. 7-9)

Whitehouse, Arch. Combat in the Sky. Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1961. (b. 7-9)

The author, aerial gunner and pilot in Britain's fabled Royal Flying Corps from 1917-1918, was credited with downing sixteen enemy planes. All of the fictional heroes of these ten air-war stories are based on men he knew in the RFC or as a war correspondent in World War I I . He de­ scribes well that special breed of men who take to the sky, men with vision, imagination, and a capacity for dealing with the unknown.

Williams, Eric. The Tunnel. Abelard-Schuman, 1961. (b. 8-up)

The dramatic story of an attempted escape by British prisoners from a German concentration camp during World War I I . 162

______. The Wooden Horse. Harper, 1950. (b. 8-up)

In 1943 two B ritish officers made a wooden horse and by means of i t escaped with a third soldier from a German prison camp. After many tense moments and narrow escapes, they eventually made i t back to England, where a ll three were awarded the M ilitary Cross.

*Wojciechowska, Maia. T ill the Break of Day. Harcourt, 1972. (g. 7-9)

*Wuorio, Eva-Lis. Code; Polonaise. Holt, 1971. (b. and g. 6-8)

______. To Fight in Silence. Holt, 1973. (b. and g. 6-8)

The story of two Danish youngsters and their cousin from Norway who participate in the dramatic rescue of almost a ll of Denmark's Jews. In spite of con­ stant personal danger from German occupation troops and spies, this fictional family cooperates with thousands of th eir countrymen to s p irit 8,000 Jews out of the Nazis' plutches. I Yates, Elizabeth. Haven for the Brave. Knopf, 1941. (b. and g. 7-9)

The adventures of an English brother and sister who come to America for the duration of the war. From - Canada they go to a farm in New Hampshire where they are to stay. The Newbery Award-winning author's theme is the dedication of youth to the rebuilding of a better world.

Zei, Alki. Petros' War. Dutton, 1971. (b. and g. 7-9) Tr. Greek.

When World War I I came to Greece on October 28, 1940, Petros was a ten-year-old schoolboy who loved pets and American movies. With the German occupation, lif e became a nightmare. Petros, his older sister Antigone, and many of their friends joined the grow­ ing Resistance. They painted slogans, sabotaged Nazi vehicles, and finally, driven by mass starvation, organized open demonstrations. As the reign of terror intensified with arrests and executions, the work of the Resistance grew more complex and perilous. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Burton, Dwight L. Literature Study in the High Schools. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964

Carl sen, G. Robert. Books and the Teenage Reader. New York: Bantam Press, 1967.

Catterson, Jane H., ed. Children and Literature. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1970.

Commire, Anne, ed. Something About the Author. Vols. I-V I, Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1973.

Crosby, Muriel, ed. Reading Ladders for Human Relations. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1963.

De Montreville, Doris and H ill, Donna, eds. Third Book of Junior Authors. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1972.

Eakin, Mary K. Good Books for Children. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966.

Egoff, S., Stubbs, G., and Ashley, L. Only Connect-Readings on Children's Literature. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1969.

El son, Ruth M. Guardians of Tradition. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1964.

Fenwick, Sara. A C ritical Approach to Children's Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

Fitz-Randolph, Jane. Writing for the Juvenile and Teenage Market. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969.

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163 164

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Huus, Helen. Children's Books to Enrich the Social Studies. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1966.

______, ed. Evaluating Books for Children and Young People. Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association, 1968.

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Larrick, Nancy. A Teacher's Guide to Children's Books. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. M errill Publishing Company, 1960.

M agaliff, Cecile. The Junior Novel: Its Relationship to Adolescent Reading. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, 1964.

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Metzner, Seymour. American History in Juvenile Books: A Chronological Guide. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1966.

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Robinson, Helen M., ed. Developing Permanent Interest in Reading. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956.

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Savary, Louis M. and Collins, Maureen P. Peace, War and Youth: Your Search for an End to Violence. New York: Association Press, 1971.

Seidman, Jerome M., ed. The Adolescent - - A Book of Readings. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, In c., 1960.

Sigel, Roberta, ed. Learning About P o litic s . New York: Random House, 1970.

Smith, James Steel. A Critical Approach to Children's Literature. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.

Taba, Hilda, ed. Literature for Human Understanding. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1948. f Tolley, Howard, Jr. Children and War. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1973.

Townsend, John Rowe. Written for Children: An Outline of English Children's Literature. New York: Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Company, In c., 1965.

W illard, Charles B., ed. Your Reading: A Book List for Junior High Schools. New York: Signet, The New American Library, 1966.

Witham, W. Tasker. The Adolescent in the American Novel, 1920-1960. New York: Frederick Ungar Company, 1964.

Zeller, Dale. The Relative Importance of Factors of Interest in Reading Materials for Junior High School Pupils. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1941. Periodicals

Adams, John Q. "A Study of Leisure—Time Reading Preferences of Ninth Grade Students." High School Journal, XLVI (November, 1962), 67-72.

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Aim, Richard S. "The G litte r and the Gold." English Journal, XLIV (September, 1955), 315-22.

Alvik, Trond. "The Development of Views on Conflict, War and Peace Among School Children." Journal of Peach Research, V (1968), 171-95.

Arbuthnot, May H ill. "Developing Life Values Through Reading." Elementary English, XLIII (January, 1966), 10-16.

Babbitt, Natalie. "Between Innocence and Maturity." Horn Book,. XLVI11 (February, 1972), 33-37.

Bacon, Betty. "From Now to 1984." Wilson Library B ulletin, XLV (October, 1970), 156-9.

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Barnes, Ann C. "Positive Attitudinal Changes Through the Study of Literature." The Clearing House, XLVII (September, 1972), 25-29. * Berelson, Bernard. "The Public Library,Book Reading, and Political Behavior." The Library Quarterly, XV (October, 1945), 281-99.

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Blount, Nathan S. "The Effect of Selected Junior Novels and Selected Adult Novels on Student Attitudes Toward the 'Ideal' Novel." Journal of Educational Research, LIX (December, 1965), 179-82.

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Boyer, William. "World Order Education: What Is It?" Phi Delta Kappan, LVI (April, 1975), 524-7.

Braverman, Miriam. "Songmy: The Human Imperative." Library Journal, XCV (January 15, 1970), 211-13.

Broderick, Dorothy. "Moral Values and Children's Literature." Library Journal, XCVII (January 15, 1972), 264-5.

Carlsen, G. Robert. "Behind Reading Interests." English Journal, XLIII (January, 1954), 7-12.

______. "For Everything There Is A Season." Top of the News, XXI (January, 1965), 103-10.

Cianciolo, Patricia J. "Children's Literature Can Affect Coping Behavior." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (May, 1965), 897-903.

Clarke, Loretta. "His Enemy, His Friend: A Novel of Global Conscience." English Journal, LXII (May, 1973), 730-36.

Cooper, Peter. "The Development of the Concept of War." Journal of Peace Research, I I (1965), 1-17.

Daniels, Leona. "The 34th Man: How Well Is Jewish Minority Culture Represented in Children's Fiction?" School Library Journal, XVI (February, 1970), 38-43.

Finn, Thomas. "The Now Young Adult Novel." Phi Delta Kappan, LII (April, 1971), 470-2.

Forehand, Garlie A. "Problems of Measuring Response to Literature." The Clearing House, XL (February, 1966), 369-75.

Gail lard, T. and Grew, J. C. "War in the Classroom." English Journal, LXII (February, 1973), 215-18.

Giblin, James C. "Violence: Factors Considered by a Children’s Book Editor." Elementary English, XLIX (January, 1972), 64-7.

Goldman, Richard. "Israeli Pre-School Children During Wartime Stress: Their Knowledge and Interpretation of the 1973 War." Social Education, XXXVIII (April, 1974), 367-70.

Haavelsrud, Magnus. "Views on War and Peace Among Students in West Berlin Public Schools." Journal of Peace Research, V II (1970), 99-120. 168

Halpern, Shelly. "Before Their Time: Reflections on Education and War." Teachers College Record, XLVIII (February, 1967), 423-26.

Hautzig, Esther. "The Endless Steppe — For Children Only?" Horn Book, XLVI (October, 1970), 461-8.

Hersey, John. "The Novel of Contemporary History." Atlantic Monthly, CLXXXIV (November, 1949), 80+

Homze, Alma. "Interpersonal Relations in Children's Literature." Elementary English, XLIII (January, 1966), 26-29.

Hopkins, Lee and Arenstein, Misha. "Nervose of the Thought: War and Peace in Children's Books." Elementary English, XLVIII (May, 1971), 460-2.

Jackson, Evalene P. "Effects of Reading Upon Attitudes Toward the Negro Race." The Library Quarterly, XIV (October, 1944), 47-54.

Jacobs, William Jay. "John R. Tunis-. A Commitment to Values." Horn Book, XLIII (February, 1967), 48-54.

Karl, Jean. "The Here and Beyond." Wilson Library B ulletin, XLV (October, 1970), 149-55.

Kimmel, Eric A. "Can Children's Books Change Children's Values?" Educational Leadership, XXVIII (November, 1970), 209-14.

Kravitz, Bernard. "Interest of Seventh and Eighth Graders in Current Affairs." Elementary English, XLII (February, 1965), 165-8. * Lapides, Linda. "Question of Relevance." Top of the News, XXIV (November, 1967), 55-61.

Larrick, Nancy. "Divorce, Drugs, Desertion, The Draft: Facing Up to the Realities in Children's Literature." Publishers Weekly, CCI (February 21, 1972), 90-91.

Law, Norma. "Children and War." Changing Education, V (Summer, 1973), 12-17.

Lindahl, Hannah M. "What Are Children Thinking About the War?" Progressive Education, XX (May, 1943), 108-10.

Loban, Walter. "A Study of Social Sensitivity Among Adolescents." Journal of Educational Psychology, XLIV (February, 1953), 102- 12. 169

Lukens, Rebecca. "War Is for Children." P.T.A. Magazine, LXVII (October, 1972), 20-22.

Martin, Helen. "Nationalism in Children's Literature." The Library Quarterly, VI (October, 1936), 405-18.

Maurice, Sister M. "Awakening to Human Values in Children's Literature." Catholic School Journal, LXVIII (March, 1968), 41-43.

Nadig, Henry D. "War in Literature and Film." English Journal, LX (October, 1971), 906-08+.

Newman, Arthur J. "On the Desirability of Conditioning for World Peace." The Elementary School Journal, LXXV (December, 1974), 139-42.

Novokovsky, Gertrude D. "Radio — A Medium Toward World Friendship." Progressive Education, XXV (A pril, 1948), 105-7.

Pease, Howard. "Without Evasion." Horn Book, XXI (January, 1945), 9-17.

Quigley, Carroll. "Youth's Heroes Have No Haloes." Today's Education, LX (February, 1971), 28-29.

Rausen, Ruth G. "The Junior High Reader." Top of the News, XXIII (November, 1966), 19-22.

Schulte, Emerita S. "Today's Literature for Today's Children." Elementary English, XLIX (March, 1972), 355-63.

Shirley, Fehl L. "The Influence of Reading on Adolescents." Wilson Library Bulletin, XLIII (November, 1968), 256-60.

______. "Influence of Reading on Concepts, Attitudes, and Behavior." Journal of Reading, XII (February, 1969), 407-13.

Sisk, John P. "War Fictions." Commentary, LVI (August, 1973), 58-66.

Small, Robert C. "Teaching the Junior Novel." English Journal, LXI (February, 1972), 222-29.

Targ, Harry R. "Children's Developing Orientations to International P olitics." Journal of Peace Research, V II (1970), 79-97.

Thompson, David and Philip. "Belfast's Children of Violence." Ramparts, XII (October, 1973), 42-44. 170

Tolley, Howard, Jr. "Children and War: Political Socialization to International Conflicts." Intellect, Cl (December, 1972), 187-94.

Townsend, John Rowe. "Didacticism in Modern Dress." Horn Book, X LIII (April, 1967), 159-64.

Tunis, John R. "What Can an American Believe?" English Journal, XL (February, 1951), 90-93.

Turner, Darwin T. "Literature and Society's Values." English Journal, LX (May, 1971), 577-86.

Welch, Elizabeth. "What Did You Write About the War, Daddy?" Wilson Library B ulletin, XLVI (June, 1972), 912-17.

Wolf, Virginia L. "The Root and Measure of Realism." Wilson Library B ulletin, XLIV (December, 1969), 409-15.

Young, Perry Deane. "Nightmares in Print." Saturday Review, LV (October, 1972), 54-59.

Zucker, Phyllis. "The Junior Novel Revisited." Top of the News, XXI (June, 1969), 388-91.

Unpublished Materials

Barr, Antoinette Lowry. "Literature as a Means of Promoting International Understanding." Unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, 1951.

Hirschman, Ruth. "The Effect of School and Other Selected Factors Upon the Attitudes of High School Students Toward War." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1937.

Hoff, Milton John. "A Study of the Importance of Literature for Fostering International Understanding in the Junior High School." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Dakota, 1970.

Mott, John Homer. "Reading Interests of Adolescents: A C ritical Study of F ifty Years of Research." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1970.

Thomas, Frances. "The Extent to Which World War I I Entered the Field of Children's Literature During the Period 1939-1950." Un­ published master's thesis, Western Reserve University, 1951.