Advertising Creativity: a Study of Advertising Agencies in India

ADVERTISING CREATIVITY: A STUDY OF ADVERTISING AGENCIES IN INDIA

Thesis

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy In Business Administration

Hannah Hameed

Under the Supervision of

Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA) 2016

Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan Department of Business Administration B.Tech, MBA, Ph.D. Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Phone: 2702044, 3582

Certificate

This is to certify that, Ms. Hannah Hameed has completed her thesis on the topic “Advertising Creativity: A Study of Advertising Agencies in India” under my supervision and guidance.

To the best of my knowledge and belief, the work is based on the investigations made, data collected and analyzed by her and it has not been submitted in any other university or institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, Hannah Hameed, Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Business Administration certify that the work embodied in this Ph. D thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit and referred to the researchers’ works wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not wilfully lifted up someone else’s work, paragraph, text, data, result, etc. Reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.

Date: ...... Signature of Candidate (Hannah Hameed)

CERTIFICATE FROM SUPERVISOR/ CO-SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Signature of Supervisor: Name and Designation : Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan Associate Professor, Department of Business Administration

(Signature of the Chairman of the Department with seal)

Title of the Thesis: Advertising Creativity: A Study of Advertising Agencies in India

Candidate’s Name: HANNAH HAMEED

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D. degree.

Date: ...... Signature of Candidate (Hannah Hameed)

Department of Business Administration Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

CHAIRMAN

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Hannah Hameed (Enrolment No. GA 6149) has completed the following formalities successfully which are required for the submission of a

Ph.D. Thesis as per the university ordinances.

• Completion of the course work

• Presentation of pre-submission seminar

• Publication of at least one paper from the thesis

(Chairman)

Dedicated to the Loving Memory of Prof. Mohammad Shaheer, our Beloved Kaka..... Acknowledgements

First and the foremost, I bow before the almighty for giving me the opportunity to undertake this work, and for showering His blessings on us.

I would like to thank all my teachers who have taught and guided me, and developed the enthusiasm in me to be inquisitive, and paved the way for me to aspire for higher goals in life. In the long list of such teachers, the first person that I would like to acknowledge is Dr. Bilal Mustafa Khan who is my supervisor, guide and the mainstay of this thesis. I shall ever remain indebted to him for his intellectual guidance, academic expertise and scholarly discussions during the entire course of this thesis. Whenever I faced any difficulty or bottlenecks on the way, however busy he was, he would listen to me patiently and guided me out of all these problems. I once again thank him from the depths of my heart because words are but poor vehicles of your feelings and the contribution of a teacher in a student’s career.

I take this opportunity to thank Prof. Valeed Ahmed Ansari, Chairman of the department for all the encouragement and scholarly inputs in the development of this thesis. I must also put on record my sincere gratitude towards all the teachers in the department of Business Administration especially; Prof. Kaleem Mohammad Khan, Prof. Javaid Akhter, Prof. Mohammad Khalid Azam, Prof. Mohammad Israrul Haque, Prof. Jamal A. Farooquie, Prof. Parvaiz Talib, Dr. Salma Ahmad for their constant support and academic inputs. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Asif Akhtar for his support and guidance at various stages of this work.

I would like to thank the staff of the department who made things easy for me in all administrative matters so that I could concentrate on my work. It is also my pleasure to express my thankfulness to the staff of the departmental library and the Maulana Azad Library for giving me excess to all the books and material I needed for my study.

I wholeheartedly thank my parents for their unwavering support, encouragement and love throughout. This work would not have been possible without them. I deeply appreciate my in-laws Prof. M. Ilyas and Prof. (Mrs.) N. Ilyas for understanding the importance of my work and supporting me in accomplishing it. I thank my grandmother, Mrs. S. Abdin for her affection, blessings, and unconditional love all my life. My brother, Hasan, deserves heartfelt gratitude for infusing in my life a lot of laughter and care. Lastly, I would like to earnestly thank my dear husband, Dr. Junaid Ilyas for loving and supporting me throughout and making all the sacrifices to see me achieve what I wanted to.

(Hannah Hameed) TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificates Acknowledgements List of Tables List of Figures

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1-24 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Concept, Role and Significance of Creativity in Advertising 1.2.1 The Concept 1.2.2 Significance and Role 1.3 Understanding Creativity: The Essence of Advertising 1.4 Advertising Creativity as a Field of Research 1.5 Rationale for the Study 1.6 Research Objectives 1.7 Scope of the Study 1.8 Research Framework 1.9 Outline of the Thesis 1.10 Summary

CHAPTER II: ADVERTISING AND CREATIVITY: 25-78 A THEORETICAL EXPLORATION 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Understanding Advertising 2.3 Understanding Advertising Creativity 2.4 Tracing the Development of Advertising: A Historical Journey 2.4.1 Exploring the Influences from the Perspective named ‘Americanisation’ 2.4.2 Exploring the Influences from ‘Modernization’ Theory: The Content Perspective 2.4.3 From Historical Account to Contemporary Advertising 2.5 The Creative Revolution 2.6 The Indian Advertising Scene 2.6.1 Sustained Growth of Advertising Market in India 2.6.2 Contribution of Media & Entertainment to the Growth of the Advertising Industry in India 2.6.3 The Advertising Domain in India 2.6.4 Market Size 2.6.5 Initiatives in the Pipeline 2.6.6 Government Plans 2.6.7 Advertising Settings 2.6.8 Overview of the Advertising Industry in India 2.6.9 Online Advertising 2.6.10 The Future of the Advertising Industry in India 2.7 Honouring Creativity 2.8 Difference between Creativity in Advertising and Creativity in General 2.9 Summary

CHAPTER III: LITERATURE REVIEW 79-148 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Academic Perspectives on Advertising 3.3 Academic Perspectives on the Meaning, Nature and Attributes of Advertising Creativity 3.3.1 Production-Oriented Studies: Definitions and Meaning of Creativity 3.3.2 Production-Oriented Studies: Agency Views on Advertising Creativity 3.3.3 Production-Oriented Studies: Organizational Management and Enhancement of Advertising Creativity 3.3.4 Production Oriented Studies: Integrative Thinking Processes for Advertising Creativity 3.3.5 Response-Oriented Studies: Creativity, Advertising Effectiveness and Competitive Advantage 3.3.6 Response Oriented Studies: Creatively Placed Advertising 3.3.7 Response Oriented Studies: Differences in the Perception of Creativity 3.4 Academic Theories on Advertising Creativity: Cultural Connotations 3.5 Studies Highlighting the Importance of Creativity 3.6 Studies on Gender and Creativity 3.7 An Exploration into the Dimensional Analysis of Advertising Creativity 3.7.1Studies on Divergence and Relevance 3.7.2 Studies on Originality, Novelty, Imagination and Relevance 3.7.3 Studies on Meaningfulness, Problem-Solving Ability, Condensation and Reformulation 3.7.4 Studies on Evaluation of Creative Strategy and its Dimensions 3.7.5 Studies on Aesthetics, Complexity and Craftsmanship 3.7.6 Studies on Humour and Stimulation 3.7.7 Studies on Miscellaneous Factors 3.8 Critical Review and Tabular Presentation of the Literature Available 3.9 Measurement and Assessment of Advertising Creativity 3.10 Research Gaps 3.11 Summary

CHAPTER IV: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND 149-173 HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Conceptual Framework 4.2.1 Originality 4.2.2 Message Clarity 4.2.3 Social Empathy 4.2.4 Sustainability 4.2.5 Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics 4.2.6 Exquisiteness 4.3 Hypothesis Development 4.4 List of Research Hypotheses 4.5 Hypothesized Conceptual Model 4.6 Summary

CHAPTER V: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 174-211 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Importance of Methodical Research 5.3 Research Objectives 5.4 Proposed Operationalization of Constructs 5.5 Research Design 5.6 Research Process 5.6.1 Discovery of the Research Problem 5.6.2 Problem-Discovery in Context of the Present Study 5.6.3 Extensive Review of Relevant Literature 5.6.4 Literature Review in Context of the Present Study 5.6.5 Definition of the Research Problem 5.6.6 Definition of the Research Problem in Context of the Present Study 5.6.7 Defining the Conceptual Model: The Constructs & their Relationships 5.6.8 Conceptual Model in Context of the Present Study 5.6.9 Development of Hypotheses 5.6.10 Hypothesis Development in Context of the Present Study 5.6.11 Selection of Measurement Items for Each Construct 5.6.12 Measurement Items for Constructs in Context of the Present Study 5.6.13 Development and Finalization of Questionnaire for Data Collection 5.6.14 Questionnaire Design in Context of the Present Study 5.6.15 Sampling Decisions 5.6.16 Sampling Decisions in Context of the Present Study 5.6.17 Target Group 5.6.18 Collection of Data 5.6.19 Collection of Data in Context of the Present Study 5.7 Methods of Data Analysis 5.7.1 Data Screening and Preparation 5.7.2 Sample Characteristics 5.7.3 Construct Assessment using Factor Analysis 5.7.4 Validity 5.7.5 Translational Validity: Content Validity 5.7.6 Translational Validity: Face Validity 5.7.7 Construct Validity 5.7.8 Convergent Validity 5.7.9 Discriminant Validity 5.8 Factor Analysis 5.8.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis 5.8.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis in Context of the Present Study 5.9 Uni-dimensionality 5.10 Reliability 5.11 Multiple Regression 5.12 Findings and Conclusions 5.13 Illustrative Description of the Entire Process of Research 5.14 Summary

CHAPTER VI: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 212-246 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Snapshot of Data Analysis and its Elements 6.3 Data Screening and Preparation 6.4 Descriptive Analysis: Sample Characteristics 6.4.1 Gender 6.4.2 Age Group 6.4.3 Agency-wise Distribution 6.5 Construct Assessment Using Exploratory Factor Analysis 6.5.1 Assessment of Reliability 6.5.2 Preliminary Analysis using Mean as a Statistic Indicator 6.6 Assessment of Adequacy for Conducting Exploratory Factor Analysis 6.6.1 KMO and Bartlett’s Test 6.6.2 Correlation Matrix Assessments 6.7 Interpreting Factor Analysis: Factor Extraction (Total Variance Explained) 6.8 Exploratory Factor Analysis 6.9 Assessments of Translation Validity: Content Validity 6.10 Assessments of Translation Validity: Face Validity 6.11 Construct Validity Assessments 6.11.1 Convergent Validity 6.11.2 Discriminant Validity 6.12 Multiple Regression 6.13 Results of Hypotheses 6.14 Summary

CHAPTER VII: SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS 247-264 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Summary of Findings 7.3 Theoretical Implications 7.4 Practical Implications 7.5 Limitations and Possibilities for Future Research 7.6 Conclusion/ Afterthoughts

REFERENCES Appendix: Survey Instrument

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: The Indian Advertising Industry: Size and Projections. Table 2.2: The Top Advertisers on Television – Product Categories. Table 2.3: The Top 10 Advertisers on Radio. Table 2.4: The Shape of the Indian Outdoor Market.

Table 3.1: Broad Approaches to Advertising Creativity Researches. Table 3.2: Broad Conceptual Ideas about Advertising Creativity. Table 3.3: Theoretical Propositions to Advertising Creative Thinking Processes. Table 3.4: Studies on Effects of Advertising Creativity from the Response Perspective. Table 3.5: Studies on Factors of Advertising Creativity from the Response Perspective. Table 3.6: A Snapshot of Prominent Researches on Advertising Creativity from Earlier Years. Table 3.7: Dimensions of Advertising Creativity in Academic Studies. Table 3.8: Tabular Presentation of the Researches Reviewed. Table 3.9: Conceptual Models/ Creativity Measurement Scales.

Table 4.1: List of Dimensions/Elements of Advertising Creativity Conceptualized for this Study. Table 4.2: Hypotheses for latent variable- Originality. Table 4.3: Hypotheses for latent variable- Message Clarity. Table 4.4: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Social Empathy. Table 4.5: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Sustainability. Table 4.6: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics. Table 4.7: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Exquisiteness. Table 4.8: Hypotheses for Advertising Creativity Outcomes.

Table 5.1 Dimensions of Advertising Creativity under Study.

Table 6.1 Snapshot of Data Analysis and Its Elements. Table 6.2: Summary of Sample Characteristics – Gender. Table 6.3: Summary of Sample Characteristics – Age Group. Table 6.4: Summary of Agency Distribution. Table 6.5: Reliability Statistics for Items Comprising Advertising Creativity. Table 6.6: Reliability Statistics for Items Comprising Advertising Outcomes Perceived to be Influenced by Advertising Creativity. Table 6.7: Reliability Statistics for Overall Scale Items. Table 6.8: Mean Scores for Items Measuring Dimensions of Advertising Creativity. Table 6.9: Mean Scores for Items Representing Advertising Outcomes. Table 6.10: Sampling Adequacy Assessment (KMO and Bartlett's Test). Table 6.11: Interpreting Factor Analysis: Total Variance Explained. Table 6.12: Interpreting Factor Analysis: Factor Extraction. Table 6.13: Average Factor Loadings. Table 6.14: Multiple Regression Model Summary Output. Table 6.15: Multiple Regression Model (ANOVA). Table 6.16: Multiple Regression Model Parameters (Coefficientsa). Table 6.17: Results of Hypotheses

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1. 1: Research Framework Fig.1.2: Outline of the Thesis

Fig. 3.1: Creative Process in Advertising Fig. 3.2: The Process of Creation of Advertisements Fig. 3.3: Applied Imagination Fig. 3.4: Adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi Model Fig.3.5: Matrix of Creativity Types

Fig. 4.1: Conceptual Framework Fig. 4.2 Originality and its Proposed Components Fig. 4.3: Message Clarity and its Proposed Components Fig.4.4: Meusberger’s Frame of Reference for Creativity in Advertising Fig. 4.5: Social Empathy and its Proposed Components Fig. 4.6: Sustainability and its Proposed Components Fig. 4.7: Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics and its Proposed Components Fig. 4.8: Exquisiteness and its Proposed Components Fig. 4.9: Hypothesized Conceptual Model with Advertising Creativity Dimensions and Relationships

Fig. 5.1: Research Design Fig. 5.2: Sequential Stages of the Process of Research Fig. 5.3: Steps of Data Analysis Fig. 5.4: Validity and Reliability Assessments Fig. 5.5: Assessing the Content Validity Fig. 5.6: Assessing the Construct Validity Fig. 5.7: Five Step Exploratory Factor Analysis Protocol Fig. 5.8: An Illustration of the Entire Research Process

Fig. 6.1: Data Analysis Sequence

Introduction

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction This chapter is an attempt at providing a brief background of the topic under study, along with introducing to the readers the conceptual meaning of creativity, its role and vitality for advertising. This shall be followed by an insightful rationale to the study, the research objectives, the research framework guiding the whole academic endeavour and a brief description of the scope of this study. The outline of the thesis is presented at the end to systematize and provide a snapshot view of the entire thesis for the readers. A recent report by media agency Carat in Advertising Age (Adageindia.in, 2015) envisaged that marketers were expected to spend $540 billion globally on advertising in 2015, a 4.6% increase over 2014. In India specifically, this expenditure is likely to burgeon by a whopping 11% over previous year of 2014, thus climbing to Rs. 49,000 crores (Rs. 490 billion) in 2015. This remarkable trend speaks volumes about the impact, strength and importance of advertising for the global world of today. Advertising occupies a prime position and plays crucial roles in the economic, social, strategic and aesthetic landscape of the world we live in. An essential activity for any business venture that wants to make its presence felt and popularise its brands is advertising. Decisions regarding product communication and marketing strategy have huge implications that no business entity or even government bodies can ignore, for the simple reason that stakes are high and consequences far-reaching. Advertising occupies the central position for the survival of firms. To not invest in advertising and communication is virtually suicidal in the fast-paced, complex and competitive business environment of today And interestingly so, what really ‘drives’ advertising to be what it is, is the phenomenon of creativity. In the competitive business environment of today, advertising agencies swear by the philosophy which aims at the utilization of strategy and creativity to drive growth and measurable impact. An advertising agency has to closely enmesh its long- term organizational vision with the principle of creativity. 1

Introduction

Ask a professional in the business what is the key to success in advertising, and the most likely answer would be that echoes the mantra of Stephan Vogel, Ogilvy & Mather, Germany‟s chief creative officer: “Nothing is more efficient than creative advertising. Creative advertising is more memorable, longer lasting, works with less media spending, and builds a fan community…faster” (Reinartz & Saffert, HBR, 2013). To create a strong brand identity and disseminate positive brand imagery, creativity acts as an influential facilitator. Creative elements, artistically woven together in the advertisement for a brand, augment its quality perception and also make communication easier. A fifty second ad can prove to be more effective than a five minute infomercial if its uses the right creative cues to portray its brand offering. A dull and boring idea, or a technical product attribute can be communicated more effectively through intelligent use of creative elements in advertising. As a consumer of the modern world, we not only know, but experience the significant role played by creative advertising on our attitudes and psyche. One may come across a creative ad on the billboards while travelling to work, which may strike our fancy for a few minutes and then fade away into the back of our minds. However, the associations created by that very ad, may resurface, especially when the product is seen on a shopping aisle in a mall, and all the creativity in the ad we saw in the morning comes back rushing to us, subconsciously assisting in our purchase-decisions. Hence, creativity is emerging as the single most important element that makes recognition and recall for a brand much stronger. Advertising is crucial whether to disseminate information about a new product launch or keep customers engaged with a mature brand; to capture market and boost sales or to be a big source of revenue-generation; advertising is essential for the very sustenance of companies that ultimately lead to the growth of national economies. It is common knowledge that successful Fortune 500 companies have a deep understanding for advertising and marketing and, therefore, invest hugely in this area. It is often seen that communication strategies with immense focus on capturing creativity form the backbone of multibillion dollar advertising and marketing plans for multi-national corporations. Coca-Cola may already be one of the most powerful brands in the world, yet they continue to spend billions of dollars every year on their marketing campaigns. The reason for this can be best understood through the words of Peter Drucker, a

Introduction leading figure in business and management who said, “Because the purpose of business is to create a customer, the basic enterprise has two- and only two- basic functions: marketing and innovation. Marketing and innovation produce results; all the rest are costs” (Drucker, 1985 as stated in Business Insider, 2011). And fascinatingly what really forms the backbone of something as powerful as advertising, is „Creativity.‟ Highlighting the crucial role of creativity for advertising, Pricken (2002) regarded it as a driving force within the advertising industry. Enunciating on another unique quality of creativity, Ashley and Oliver (2010) stressed on the vibrant and powerful role of creativity to continually redesign itself according to the dynamics of the modern business and consumer landscape. The charm and charisma of creativity in advertising has evolved massively from the days of the town-criers shouting to make announcements about their wares, to the first advertising agency by Volney Palmer in 1843; from the simple black and white print ads in newspapers in early 1800s, to the pioneering television commercials of 1900s; from the multi-dynamic, full –fledged advertising agencies of the mid- 1900s to the present revolutionary era of the internet; further transcending into cutting-edge immersive experiences through augmented reality ads; yet what has remained unchanged throughout the journey is that advertising has never existed without creativity. From what started as an organised agency set-up by B. Duttaram in 1905 in Mumbai, the Indian advertising industry has burgeoned into a creative-incubator, developing some of the most iconic advertisements that have outlived the test of time. Creative advertising has the power to stimulate and stir, inform and attract, amuse and educate the consumer. Even after decades, the catchy Cadbury‟s Dairy Milk ad aired on television still evokes nostalgia as it reminds us of the misty memories of the giggling, bubbly girl in the ad. In the same way, the liveliness of Priety Zinta’s Perk (chocolate) ad continues to stir fresh memories. Who can forget the famous catchphrase from the iconic commercial for Pan Parag, a popular tobacco product in India, „Baaratiyon ka swagat Pan Parag se kijiye’ (welcome the guests with Pan Parag). Slogans like ‘Hamara Bajaj’, ‘I’m a Complan Boy’, ‘Aya Naya Ujala’, ‘Polo- The Mint with a Hole’; or the more recent Airtel’s ‘Har Ek Friend Zaruri Hota Hai’ and Mc Donald’s ‘I’m Loving it’ are testimony to their creativity by their pure simplicity and timelessness. 3

Introduction

Undoubtedly, creative ads remain at the forefront of our mind‟s recall power and studies have shown the link between creativity in an ad and its likelihood to be well-remembered (Till & Baack, 2005). It has also been said that creativity helps not only in the initial „attention-grabbing stage, but also assists in building a promising brand image thereon. Advertising specialists engage their creative skills to conjure powerful and carefully crafted messages through the process of creative thinking, involving novel ideation, relevant planning and strategising and impeccable artistry. However, considering the vital character of creativity in advertising to fuel growth in all spheres of modern life, studies in this area have not received the kind of attention by academicians and researchers that it deserved. This study is, therefore, a much-needed and important attempt in this direction. In the sections given below, we shall first get an insight into the concept of advertising creativity and its centrality to the art of advertising; followed by a detailed discussion on the rationale and need for the study.

1.2 Concept, Role and Significance of Creativity in Advertising 1.2.1 The Concept Legendary American advertising expert, Bill Bernbach, Creative Director and founder of the international advertising agency „Doyle Dane Bernbach‟ (DDB), once proclaimed, “In advertising, not to be different is virtually suicidal.” These wise words seem to resound even today. Not only in theory but in practice too, nothing could be more apt for defining creativity in advertising as in every advertising agency‟s environment, they strive to deliver advertising campaigns laden with high levels of creativity and ingenuity. It is more often than not emphasized that the significance and role of creativity in advertising can be ignored by companies at their own perish. Therefore, we find a whole lot of thinkers and practitioners who have singled out creativity as the most important of the ingredients of advertising. Jef I. Richards, American educator, once retorted, “Creativity is an advertising agency‟s most valuable asset because it is the rarest”, highlighting the crucial role that creativity plays in the existence of advertising as a creative field. The absolute importance of creativity has long been recognised, initially by the industry, followed by the academics and then the theorists. It was creativity in advertising that brought

Introduction about, first a surge in advertising which resulted in advertising clutter, and then demarcated excellence from the ordinary. Wherever they lay a line of distinction to mark the „unusual‟ and „extraordinary‟ from the mundane and commonplace; there lay creativity. The crucial role played by creativity transgresses across the realm of advertising industry. Scholars like Rosa et al. (2008), Brein (2010), Zinkhan (1993) and Smith and Yang (2004), unanimously argue on the indispensability to nurture creativity as a foundation for gaining competitive edge for all business entities. Although creativity occupies a central position across many business units, yet it is considered indispensable to the very existence of advertising agencies (Zinkhan, 1993). Rust and Oliver (1994) strongly believed that despite the „death‟ and „resurrection‟ of advertising in the age of internet, creativity will remain the single, core competence sought after from the advertising agencies. Many creative directors from a mix of advertising agencies seem to trust the thought that „Nurturing and inculcating creativity is not just an occupation but it is more of a pre-occupation‟. To develop and sustain creativity in the work people produce is a rewarding challenge for everyone in the modern world, from business to advertising to education and beyond. Inspite of its deep-rooted essentiality in the success of many fields, a thorough understanding into its elements and dimensions still evades us. Popular creativity consultant Roger Van Oech describes creativity as the mind‟s power “To transform on something into another...to make the ordinary extraordinary and the unusual commonplace” (1990, p.18). Similarly, White (1972) put forth a very interesting theory when he called creativity to be the X factor that eludes the understanding of the researcher or the decision-maker. Leo Burnett, the legendary advertising man, whose creative ideas transformed how advertising industry functioned, explained creativity in the most holistic, honest and comprehensive manner. His idea of creativity was, “The art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between things in a manner that is relevant, believable and in good taste” (1968, p.28). Novelty finely balanced with relevance for the product being advertised is an important take-away for all creative agency executives from Burnett‟s insightful definition. Another aspect that needs to be appreciated from this definition is the 5

Introduction mention of message believability crafted through elements that do not appear distasteful or hurt people‟s sentiments just to be unique. This reference is perhaps extremely relevant for a collectivistic, traditional society like India.

1.2.2 Significance and Role World over, in almost all spheres of business and in all domains of industries, optimizing efficiency in production, ideation or achieving strategic differentiation have become the ubiquitous objectives that every sector hopes to achieve. What sets these objectives in motion and spirals into real attainment of goals is the power of creativity. Hence, creativity is emerging as the single most vital element that differentiates excellence from mediocrity, related directly to innovative ideas, business account and competitiveness. Mazzarella (2003, p.33) talks about the vibrancy of the advertising business when he comments: “The advertising business seemed an ideal site: the node at which culture meets capital, global brands encounter local markets and affect weds utility”. The creativity imbibed in advertising enlivens this crucial node between the brands and the people, by presenting communication in the most imaginative way with enhancing the functional benefits through perceived visual and other creative cues in the advertisements. What translates an advertising objective at the strategic level to a visual message that everyone can see and get familiar with the advertiser‟s brand is the unpacking of a creative advertisement. Literature accumulated through the years and diverse ideas from advertising scholars and practitioners alike, confirm the belief that „Creativity is a pre-requisite for advertising to be what it promises to be.‟ Many ad campaigns have proven to be successful exactly because they were original and deviated from the commonly prevalent rules of what a commercial message should be conveying. Amjad Ali, Senior Vice-President, Lowe Lintas, also echoes the same, “Creativity is advertising and vice-versa. It influences people‟s behaviour; it encourages them to consider a product, a social issue or a belief and eventually turn them into brand believers”. Osunbiyi (1999) stresses that advertising is a very strong constituent of business in any society and creativity renders it even more strength in terms of popularity and public appeal. In essence, it reflects on the pervasiveness and

Introduction penetrative power of advertising for the society, its people and the economy at large. Aptly described by a popular slogan, „Love it or hate it, but you can‟t ignore it‟, it attracts consumers psychologically, visually and culturally. Advertising is a crucial vehicle to harmonize and bring forth a brand‟s offerings and inculcate interest and purchase likelihood amongst audiences. The advertising facade of today is one that is vibrant, enormous and cut-throat at the same time. With such intense bombardment of advertising at every step of our lives, the „wary and cynical‟ viewers (Kaikati & Kaikati, 2004) are becoming virtually immune and creating a shield to avoid excessive receptivity to these increasing commercial messages. To break through their avoidance shields and turn customer‟s attention outward towards the advertising message, creative advertising can turn them into eager viewers and interested customers. In today‟s modern world, where lifestyles are shaped by consumerism and digitisation, where people are becoming more marketing-literate, open to experimentation and are easily bored with lacklustre advertising, companies need to advertise more artistically, strategically and inventively to achieve distinctiveness in a crowded advertising space. Furthermore, the internationalization of markets is an enduring trend, leading to the creation of many issues for marketing and advertising. Globalization raises both content and process issues with regard to creative advertising services. Consequently, the agency creative panels need to invent attractive and tactical ways to appeal to clients‟ needs and avoid „account- hopping‟ by clients. Keeping in view this need, Levinson & Godin (1994) advocated the development of newer forms of advertising like „Guerilla advertising‟. For creatives of an agency whose job is to ensure advertising with first-rate creativity and along with a structured communication for brand identity, creative advertising is a proven method to achieve „mindshare‟ space. In some classic cases of brand successes, like Titan, Amul and Parker, the brands experienced iconic turnarounds and profits building up after the launch of an effective campaign. Some atypical forms of advertising developed in the recent past like Ambient advertising, Bait and Tease marketing, Elevator and Experiential advertising, are testimony to the pressing need for developing unconventional ways to advertise (Zyman, 2003; Kaikati & Kaikati, 2004; Huba, 2005; Seggar, 2007; Pavel & Catoiu,

Introduction

2009; Portlock & Rose, 2009). There may be varied kinds of unconventional advertising but creativity forms the backbone of all those forms. Khatri (2006) asserts that strategic positioning and effective communication are the two most important means in guiding brand success in today‟s competitive marketing environment. This niche brand positioning and impressive communication is made largely possible by the creativity shown in advertisements. It is essentially creative effectiveness which marketers ask for from advertising agencies as their core service. In a typical advertising environment, creativity supports the scientific decisions like segmentation and positioning of brand communication, advertising strategic outlook and overall agency functioning. To have provoking, challenging, and inspiring innovativeness is to have creative thinking. It makes the agency‟s chances of winning brand accounts during pitching presentation more upbeat. According to advertising specialist, Shiela L Sasser, “Creative advertising has always been the sexiest and most controversial part of the marketing business and the challenge for the agency lies in creating passion to engage consumers” (Sasser, 2008, p.183). Marketers are often accused of „enraging‟ rather than „engaging‟ consumers, which is precisely why they want to get the services of experts of creative thinking, that is an ad agency specialists. The right dose of creativity and impeccable execution in the form of a well- designed advertising campaign, can hedge against this risk and not lose touch with consumers. The creative teams, in order to be well-received among the clients need to harness their creative instincts with the brand‟s image.

1.3 Understanding Creativity: The Essence of Advertising To understand the purpose of this study more clearly, we must first understand the reasons why creativity is regarded as the soul of advertising and how this aspect substantiated the motivation behind this research endeavour. Charges Mingus, an American musician expressed an interesting aspect of creativity and said, “Making the simple complicated is commonplace; making the complicated simple, awesomely simple, that‟s creativity” (As cited in Baldaia, Intuinovare, 2011). The infusion of creative elements makes a dull idea or

Introduction communication message look, feel and sound interesting, it makes advertising come alive. Instant visibility and getting noticed are some of the obvious benefits for a brand with a creative communication, but beyond the apparent effects also lie many more latent and profound benefits like building of positive brand associations, image and consumer loyalty in the long-run. A company may have an impressive brand portfolio but what actually translates into experiential strength for the brand is its communication through advertising and marketing channels. Creativity has been explored from various angles, amongst which the context of advertising remains of particular attention as it is arguably the most creative aspect of marketing. One of the most admired figures of the advertising world, David Ogilvy, augmented the understanding of creativity by saying, “It is not creative, unless it sells” (As cited in Batra, Myers & Aaker, 2006, p.170). Quite naturally he brought to the fore a prime aim of advertising, which is to advance sales and associated with it the important role of creative in this process. Scholars and practitioners of advertising and marketing believe that designing a creative ad alone won‟t always yield tangible results for a brand. What is more vital is to develop creative campaigns with elements of appropriateness and freshness, connectedness and rationale to match the brand‟s prime proposition and the client‟s expectations. However, what exactly is creativity in advertising and what dimensions should it entail is an area lacking in conceptual clarity. Is there a measure that can standardize its assessment? There is a vital need to develop more clarity on what creativity stands for and what prime elements it encompasses. In the excessively competitive advertising environment, the business and art of designing ads lies in capturing a detailed insight into the finer nuances of creativity and our research intends to do just that. Imagine an experienced creative director of an advertising agency in India flips through a magazine and starts analysing the ads in it. His analysis will incorporate many aspects like creative elements used in the ad, message tactics, artwork or visual presentation, USP or the „big idea‟ and a string of such questions may occupy his mind. To an agency person, the finer nuances of creativity depicted in ads may be understood differently than a person with a non-advertising background. 9

Introduction

It is one of the most stimulating ideas to work towards comprehending as to what actually constitutes creativity for thousands of such agency executives and creative professionals. Is it a mixture of novelty and social relevance? Or is it a combination of message clarity, freshness,, novelty and craftsmanship? What makes up creativity when designing an ad campaign? And subsequently, what in their opinion are the expected effects that creative advertising can achieve? These are some of the prime queries that have fuelled this research analysis. Certainly, there is a need to enable the reigniting of passion for innovative creativity research in advertising. A dominant trend that has governed the advertising scene globally has been the standardisation of the general advertising strategy for a global audience, while tweaking in specific modifications to cater to ethno-centric audiences also. The precision of this culturally-unique tailoring of creativity has been adjudged as a major reason for the success of an advertising campaign in the global marketplace (Duncan & Ramaprasad, 1995; Tai, 1997; Kim, Han & Yoon, 2010; Taylor, 2002). An exploration of the Indian advertising creatives on these lines is still a road less travelled in the research arena. The goal of this research is thus to comprehensively develop and validate a scale to measure the underlying dimensions of advertising creativity from the agency’s perspective in India. Building on previous researches done in India and abroad, we expect unique factors to emerge that can be labelled as dimensions of advertising creativity. Accentuating on the critical role of creativity for the business of advertising, Dowling (1994) and Michell, Cataquet and Haque (1992) advocated how advertising history has witnessed some key account shifting by clients because of unsatisfactory creative work by the agencies. Oldham and Cummings (1996, p. 608) described creativity by elaborating on the main idea that creativity in advertising must fulfil „novelty‟ criteria and also be „useful‟ for the client and the agency. Scholars all over the world have consistently publicized that creativity is paramount in advertising and out of the many elements that make up an advertisement, creativity is the nucleus (El-Murad & West, 2004; Kim et al., 2010). A detailed presentation on this aspect shall be taken up in the upcoming chapters. A close examination of literature reveals that many strands of studies on creativity have been found in cross-cultural psychology, marketing and advertising,

Introduction with academic records as old as 1898 when Royce examined creativity from a scientific outlook. The 1950s and 1960s saw a surge of academic interest in this field with studies themed around individual or situational variables enhancing creativity. Pioneers like Guilford and Torrance dominated creativity research with a primary focus on creative traits in individuals through a measuring scale called the „Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking‟. Thereon, Amabile‟s (1979) work examined people –oriented creativity and proposed the Componential Model of Creativity, while cognitive, social and interactional accounts of creativity (Scott & Bruce, 1994; Mednick, 1962; Stein, 1967; Woodman, Sawyer & Griffin 1993; Amabile, 1996) developed later on. Creativity research no doubt has a long and illustrious history, yet the dimensions which entail this element are not clearly known. Some researchers assume that creativity is a unitary construct hindering a fuller understanding of the phenomenon. Being a phenomenon that creates such impactful repercussions for the sustenance of advertising, creativity has been actively discussed over by academicians and agency representatives in researches, press conferences and lectures. The nurturing and management of creativity has been a recurring theme of many global management magazines, award shows and portals. With a „general theory of creativity in advertising‟ developed by Smith and Yang in 2005, it gained a major spotlight, though the focus here was still the consumer. Similarly, influential insights by scholars such as Kotler and Bliemel (2006), Fuchs and Unger (2014), Schweiger and Schrattenecker (2009), Kim et al. (2010) have contributed immensely to the quality and richness of our knowledge in this area. However, seminal and systematic work on defining, understanding, modelling and measuring creativity from the other end of the adverting spectrum, that is, the agency, has been found under-explored. Despite the recognised importance of creativity in advertising per se, finer-grained insights into agency-side dynamics is much needed. Creativity in advertising is a diverse fusion of patterns, elements of symbolism, conventions, imagination, language, artistry and symbols; applied to conjure up advertisements that are fresh, unique, and appropriate to the product and to the target audience. Despite the plethora of comparative explanations, one can easily identify the common elements: novelty, clarity, relevance, craftsmanship and appropriateness. 11

Introduction

Creativity is not just an instrument to develop a good idea into a great ad but it encompasses a more significant role of creating a niche for the advertiser‟s brand, and helping in achieving marketing communication objectives. Practitioners from agencies across the world have written, talked and advised on building up a unique idea, (the „big idea‟ as professionals may call it), to make advertising effective and stimulate positive interest and action from the consumers. An advertisement hinging on creative presentation and ideation should easily be discernible from the crowd. It is a vital fact that whenever advertising effectiveness is inspected, the agency‟s creative approach along with many other factors taken into prime consideration. While it is quite difficult to find a single approach or technique to create a successful ad, there are some approaches that can lead to creative teams developing an effective advertisement, such as using a unique selling proposition, creating a brand image, finding the inherent drama, and creative positioning. There may be many elements that make-up creativity as a whole dimension, a little bit of this and a little bit of that. “A fascinating subject and an intriguing phenomenon, creativity is something that cannot be taught”, says the world-famous advertising creative Sir John Hegarty, in his book „Hegarty on Creativity‟ (2014). What makes it even more challenging as a research field is that it is typically considered „ambiguous, elusive and requires detached involvement‟ (Blasko & Mokwa, 1986). Brands get identities by creativity-content of their ads. A significant example of this character of creativity can be found in Kohler, a name to reckon with in the areas of bathroom and kitchen fittings. The ads that Kohler created were based exceedingly on abstract artistic forms in magazines and unique television commercials to produce a „bold‟ image that made a niche for the brands in consumers‟ minds. Kohler ads in magazines had the speciality and uniqueness of presenting the products in abstract settings with nothing specific but the tagline - The Bold Look of Kohler‟. The company has earned a reputation of projecting intrepid and dull items into things of sophistication, intricacy and luxury-thus adding value to the products through sheer creativity. The advertising campaign is the face of the brand, which is perhaps the first thing that consumers are introduced to. And the leash to making this face appear attractive is with advertising specialists in an agency. Creative advertising may give a

Introduction brand a good start, and assist consumers in forming positive opinions about a brand to lead to purchase-decisions. Historically, in the early golden era of mass marketing, centralised control of the brand, message and media was possible. However, with the evolution of Integrated Marketing Communication tools and computerized relationship dialogue marketing, prompted by globalization and internet penetration, this formula fails to prosper now. Breakthrough positioning, incited through creative advertising helps maintain a distinctive identity for brands. Unanimously, all agencies and all clients understand that the demand-supply dynamics in the business of advertising hinges on creativity. Brand and marketing managers may often think, “How do I reach this new consumer and appeal to the people?” or “How do I make my brand‟s communication unique and long-lasting?” Advertising agencies are expected to inculcate and execute these fundamentals in the advertising they design for the brands. Senior Vice President of Percept Advertising explains, “Clients‟ demand unleashing of creativity for every brand‟s marketing philosophy”. Many scholars in the field of marketing and communications and an astonishing number of corporate companies have devoted their resources to finding out why has traditional advertising become less effective and the one aspect that emerges as the biggest reason for this is growing advertising clutter. The number of ads, brands, products that people are exposed to on a daily basis is mind-boggling. Thus, the biggest challenge for advertising is to break out of that clutter and strike as a unique, differentiated brand for the consumers so that they don‟t forget the brand easily. To keep a brand‟s recall value high and build on long-term brand value in today‟s world, what we need is not just „advertising‟ but „highly creative advertising‟. One aspect that has stood the tests of time and remained powerful through all the large-scale changes in the advertising business is the element of creativity. As Iyer, creative director- Lowe Lintas puts it, “Creativity is something that can never go wrong. You take away creativity from an ad and it loses its soul. Best agencies are those that give creativity paramount importance in their work.” Therefore, it is perhaps quite clear on why advertising agencies need to understand what creativity is and its main dimensions.

Introduction

Understanding this phenomenon from the perspectives of agency professionals themselves is a necessity. Most brands in the same category deliver more or less the same functional benefits and answer the same needs of the consumers. With so many products in the market having the same functions, the only way to position a product, service, or company differently from anything else in the same category is through creative development in advertising. Advertising business involves people and creative advertising is one that sells through people‟s efforts, and appropriate market demand. To be able to unearth what makes up creativity from their perspective is a constructive step. In an age where hundreds of ads try to grab a person‟s attention, what delineates those which actually make themselves remembered? What elements comprise the basic dimensions of creativity and how do we measure such an abstract theme? There are multiple ads for different products and of categories, but how many of them are able to stand out from others? With creative ads, they can certainly communicate differently so as to create a distinct brand image in the minds of the consumers. There is a great hunger from the consumer‟s side too as they want to see things differently and it is the advertiser‟s responsibility to attract and engage the consumer‟s attention. It is a well-known fact that creative ads are etched more easily in their memories than the products themselves. Marketer‟s needs to understand the various dimensions of advertising creativity are very important. To fully understand creativity, one would need to expose what factors are generally held to comprise it, and the same dimensions could be novelty, meaningfulness, well craftiness, clarity, humour to name a few. To be able to even partially understand the varied, complex and deep-rooted nuances of creativity in advertising, is to be able to forecast and measure with some confidence the prospective creativity of an idea or design better, more creative and successful ad campaigns that build timeless brands with the help of a valid, operationalized model. Furthermore, to understand the link between advertising creativity and its effect on achieving key advertising outcomes from the agency‟s perspective is another aspect that our research intends to delve into. In the upcoming section, we discuss the grounds and rationale for conducting this study.

Introduction

1.4 Advertising Creativity as a Field of Research Considering at the amount of work that has been produced specifically on creativity in advertising, we wouldn‟t have to go too far in acknowledging its significance in researches and intellectual treatment. Seeking to delve into some of the opinions about its value, we find a plethora of definitions in its myriad shades and estimations. We shall present a consolidated essay on those definitions in the upcoming chapters of this thesis. To think of creativity as something that can be confined within the boundaries of a few definitions is unreasonably naive. The scope of this phenomenon is as free- flowing and as unrestrictive as the term „creativity‟ itself. However, it is this very aspect of advertising creativity that sparked our interest and inquisitiveness as researchers. Being considered as a prime expectation sought after by agencies and clients alike, creativity in advertising is without doubt, an area needing more research attention. Heavy expenditure on creative advertising and branding sufficiently justifies the rationale for conducting this study. In our academic quest for understanding perspectives and definitions of creativity that have been researched about throughout the long, cultured and illustrious history of the growth of advertising, we found many accounts that revealed varied dimensions of advertising creativity. A considerable portion of literature is found on  The definition of creativity, in general and in advertising (White & Smith, 2001; Koslow, Sasser & Riordan, 2003; El-Murad & West, 2004; West, Kover & Caruana, 2008).  Facilitators to enhance creative output (Michell et al., 1992; Dowling, 1994).  Effect of advertising creativity on consumer‟s attitudes and brand equity (Kover et al., 1995; White & Smith, 2001; Ehrenberg et al., 2002; Till & Baack, 2005).  Creativity of advertising and commercial popularity and advertising expenditure (Korgaonkar & Bellenger, 1985; Bell, 1992).  Measurement of advertising creativity from consumer‟s side (Kim et al., 2010).  Cultural aspects of creativity (Fam & Grohs, 2007; Kim et al., 2010).  Managerial factors impacting creativity (West & Ford, 2001; Hill et al., 2007).

Introduction

 Creativity and competitive advantage (Scott & Bruce, 1994; Oldham & Cummings, 1996). This concept has gained prominence in researches, however, surprisingly, not many studies have been found covering the essential perspective of the advertising agency. On the other hand, consumer-oriented explorations of creativity have been more extensively found in literature than the agency-oriented side. To explore this concept from the perspectives of the first-hand ad-makers who virtually are paid for infusing new creativity everyday into their work is an exciting and challenging research initiative. Miracle (1984), in his research entailing an overview of key issues in international advertising called for more „country-specific‟ and „comparative-studies‟ in the future. Similarly, West, Kover & Caruana (2008) highlighted a very pertinent observation through their research on advertising creativity in the context of USA that significant differences exist between evaluations and definitions of creativity between advertising practitioners and the commercial-viewing public. In 2005, Taylor highlighted the prospective research issues of creativity from the agency-side and found out that agency professionals „neither respond to the same constructs nor process the measurement scale similarly‟. This notion sets ground for future explorations into this aspect of distinctive perceptions of advertising creativity across the agency and consumer sects and further solidifies the rationale that practitioner viewpoints on creativity call for more specific, empirically sound and in depth studies. Despite frequent calls (Zinkhan, 1993; Rossiter, 2001; White & Smith, 2001; Hunt, 2002), fairly little is known about the components of creativity especially in the context of advertising. White and Smith (2001) signalled the need for a scale to comprehensively understand advertising creativity. Similarly, Kim et al. (2010) sought to investigate the culturally-unique make up of creativity in Korea from the consumer‟s side. However, such an endeavour in the context of India has not been initiated. Overwhelmingly, however, the focus of advertising research, both nationally and internationally has been more consumer-oriented, with not much attention being given to the bearers of creative minds who produce a path-breaking advertisement that consumers find incredible. The current academic effort concerns directly with this crucial side of the advertising scene. 16

Introduction

1.5 Rationale for the study The rationale of any research being undertaken needs to be treated importantly and understood clearly as it is the justification of why the current topic of research has been chosen. The „why‟ part forms the main backbone of any activity and leads it in the right direction for finding out the answers to this „why‟. Having inferred from the views of the great men and women of advertising and its significance for building brand image, the centrality of creative passion for the advertising business to be what it promises to be, we must also have keenness as researchers to understand the concept, meaning and dimensions of creativity. This understanding would have clearly remained incomplete without having explored the real meaning of creativity and of course, its importance to the agency executives involved in making advertisements. If we take the views of Blasko and Mokwa (1986), who opine that “Creativity is usually defined and studied as an elusive phenomenon that defies adequate description and effective management”, we will realize how equally important it is to find some common grounds of its principles as applied in the world of business and trade. During the course of our endeavour to discover this angle of advertising creativity, we identified some very prominent research gaps in the current database of advertising literature. It is evident that studies to understand advertising creativity from the makers themselves who are the real facilitators behind the scenes are called for. This agency-perspective occupies a very important place in advertising knowledge base with immense possibilities for further research that are yet to be explored. While creativity has been widely researched from the perspective of the consumer, the much-needed insights from the perspective of the agency is largely untapped. This aspect needs to be attended to more systematically. Also, while the Indian advertising industry is a towering example of creative excellence, yet systematic analysis into what makes up advertising creativity in India is almost a rarity. Consequently, detailed understanding of this crucial concept in advertising needs to be analysed further on two major counts: 1) The creativity of advertising in the context of India 2) From the perspective of the advertising agency. 17

Introduction

Dale Carnegie (2010, p.29) elucidates the subjective nature of creativity by saying, “When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic, but creatures of emotions” What creativity means to me may not necessarily mean the same thing to another person. Every person has complex and individualistic mental schemas of cognition that aide in developing perceptual understanding of any concept. To be able to coherently consolidate these varied fragments of „what creativity means‟ to the people working in advertising agencies in India and come up with one whole, meaningful, operational model of advertising creativity is one of our prime objectives while undertaking this research. The apparent subjectivity and abstractness of creativity makes us even more resolute to carry out a detailed research on this lively aspect of advertising. Lave and March (1993, p.4) had something interesting to say about systematic study of concepts: “We will treat models of human behaviour as a form of art, and their development as a form of studio exercise. Like all art, model building requires a combination of discipline and playfulness. It is an art that is learnable. It has explicit techniques.” Coherently aligning the basic investigation of our research with this thought, we attempt to understand the underlying dimensions that can measure the meaning of creativity in advertising, something that is essentially abstract, a human quality and a phenomenon that is both an inherent art and a science when it is applied to the advertising business. Just as managerial systems influence business outcomes in general, we can expect advertising practitioners‟ beliefs to influence creative advertising in a substantial manner. What creativity entails for the ad makers will definitely affect the ads they make, the mental modes influence the creative output. Therefore, it is important that a better understanding of creativity in advertising is attempted from the perspective of the agency, as they reflect the creative core in marketing. Summarized below are all the considerations and observations that justify our current topic as a potential research area that requires more in-depth study.

Introduction

Hence, the major raison d'être were:  Substantial research gaps found during literature review.  Advertising qualifies as an economically noteworthy and socially vibrant part of our lives.  Creativity is known to be the soul of advertising.  Lack of perceptive studies conducted on this crucial aspect.  Despite significant intellectual interest given to the creativity of advertising, there have been very few studies probing the essential perspective of the agency professionals, who are the real brains behind iconic advertising campaigns.  The apparent subjectivity and abstractness of creativity makes us even more resolute to carry out a detailed research on this lively aspect of advertising.  The extant knowledge-base themed around the studies on advertising creativity call for two main under-explored territories to be researched into, namely, a) The creativity of advertising in the context of India and b) From the perspective of the advertising agency.  Noteworthy attention has been given to studies on advertising creativity from the consumer‟s side, with much lesser attention being given to the agency‟s side.  Crucial need to comprehensively develop and validate a scale to measure the underlying dimensions of advertising creativity from the agency‟s perspective in India.  The rapid development of creative advertising awards and events felicitating creativity, revealing its growing importance.  The significant and proven impact of advertising creativity on consumer‟s attitude which justifies the pressing need to study this concept from the viewpoint of the modern Indian advertising agency.  The lack of comprehensive models for its measurement.  The curiosity that such an abstract phenomenon can be measured and be broken into dimensions into variables to understand its value.  More often than not, evaluation of creative advertising comes too late or is ineffective as massive advertising expenditure is already incurred in the earlier stages of planning and production. A clear, evaluative and well-researched tool may help considerably in screening creative effectiveness of advertisements at initial stages of planning and strategy formation.

Introduction

 The main method supporting the development of such a map was empirically crafting the critical components of advertising creativity according to the agency professionals‟ beliefs themselves.  This research aims to be a promising step towards a better understanding of the predictors, meaning, dimensions, significance, measurement and perceived effectiveness on advertising outcomes from the agency standpoint.  Therefore, development of a comprehensive dimensional map to understand elements of creativity from the agency‟s mindset was called for in India, to contribute to the advertising theory and practical applicability.

1.6 Research Objectives The current study explores the beliefs on advertising creativity, held by key stakeholders, that is, the agency practitioners, who respond to a creative brief and are expected to deliver creative work for the clients. This exploration shall seek to achieve an in-depth understanding of what advertising creativity really means to the ad-makers themselves, in the context of India. It shall also strive to develop a valid scale to assess advertising creativity and discover its prime dimensions. In other words, it would be our endeavour to answer the question- ‘What comprises advertising creativity for the agency professionals in India?’ We intend to develop a dimensional map that is empirically sound and comprehensive in its scope, to be utilized as an effective instrument to assess and judge advertising creativity. Following the conceptualization of such an instrument, we seek to understand the link between advertising creativity and advertising effects, from the agency‟s perspective. This shall allow us to investigate how well advertising creativity and its dimensions are able to predict key advertising outcomes. It shall also contribute richly to the existing advertising theories and also prove useful for applied advertising decisions in corporations/ agencies.

The primary research objectives of this academic venture are given below: 1. To develop a detailed understanding of what creativity means to the advertising agency professionals in Indian advertising agencies.

2. To develop and validate a hypothesized scale to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity of advertising from the perspective of agency professionals in India. 20

Introduction

The secondary research objectives are given below: 3. To develop a broad understanding of creative ad-making elements in Indian advertising industries.

4. To find out the perceived effects of advertising creativity on salient aspects of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience, memorability. In other words, to investigate how advertising creativity affects perceived advertising outcomes.

5. Provide a valid model of advertising creativity to agency executives, advertising and brand managers who can utilize it comprehensively to understand, predict, and execute successful advertising campaigns.

6. To augment academic theories and practical knowledge pertaining to advertising creativity and its dimensions and assist in generating an integrative view on the subject.

7. To pave way for academic curiosity and intellectual treatment in the future being given to researches in the arena of advertising thought, advertising creativity and advertising strategy, especially in an agency-oriented milieu.

1.7 Scope of the Study While there are a multitude of perspectives, processes and concepts that may be explored in the arena of advertising creativity, this study focuses on exploring advertising creativity primarily from the agency‟s perspective in India. The study will be limited to professionals working in the Indian advertising industry. These professionals were deliberately chosen to represent the larger perspective of the Indian advertising agency and its ideas on creativity. The advertising agencies we consulted comprised a good mix of large-scale multinational agencies and medium sized enterprises as well.

Introduction

1.8 Research Framework The research framework is as shown in the Figure 1.1.

Define Research Problem Pilot Study

Define Research Hypotheses & Test Reliability & Validity of Objectives Questionnaire

Preliminary Literature Review Determination of Sample

Development of Conceptual Administration of Model Questionnaires

Detailed Literature Review & Data Collection & Preparation Finding of Research Gaps

Research Design Discussion of Results & Conclusion

Development of Questionnaires Thesis Writing

Fig.1.1: Research Framework

1.9 Outline of the Thesis Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter, which briefly explains the concept, role and significance of creativity in advertising. A brief narrative of the meaning of creativity is presented along with its centrality to advertising. The rationale behind this research endeavour and its objectives has been discussed in this section. Chapter 2 entails a description of the concepts of advertising creativity in detail. Not only the definitions and explanations given by various experts have been surveyed but the practicality in the industry has also been covered to the extent possible, considering the practical limitations and the wide variety of shades and opinions that have always been a part of the concept. A brief snapshot of the historical

Introduction growth of advertising and its creativity has also been presented along with an account of the current advertising scenario in India. Chapter 3 pertains to the literature reviewed in the sphere of advertising creativity, both along the global and Indian advertising landscape. Observations, key findings and insights from a plethora of research papers, books, websites, interviews and other sources have been enumerated to understand previous work done in this field and carve out prominent gaps in the extant literature available. This has been done with the aim of deepening our understanding of the concepts of advertising creativity and integrating current knowledge with future possibilities of research. Chapter 4 provides a layout of the conceptual model incorporated in this research and presents a set of hypothesis that have been postulated after a thorough review of literature presented in the previous chapter. The conceptual model is a system of concepts and dimensions that make up advertising creativity and advertising outcome variables. As this study probes into the dimensions of advertising creativity from the agency perspective in the context of India, and aims to develop a scale for its measurement, the various related constructs are described briefly in this chapter to make our understanding of this topic more holistic. Chapter 5 deals with the methodology of the current study undertaken. A detailed depiction of all the principles, methods, activities and tools utilized to conceptualise, design and execute this study has been presented in this part of the thesis. A systematic description of the research problem, research objectives, hypothesized research model, research hypotheses, research design, sample design, determination of population, sample frame, techniques followed for sampling, sample size determination, questionnaire preparation, questionnaire reliability and validity, data collection and data analysis techniques has been done. Chapter 6 deals with data analysis and interpretation of results. This segment of the thesis aims at providing a coherent justification for the research objectives formulated at the beginning of this study, by drawing inferences after a thorough analysis of data. Chapter 7 incorporates discussions and summary of findings, along with future research directions and limitations of the study. The last section of this thesis consists of an exhaustive list of references. The questionnaire used for data collection is placed at Appendix „A‟.

Introduction

The outline of the thesis is illustrated in Figure 1.2.

Chapter 4 Chapter Conceptual 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 5 Chapter 1 Framework Analysis Summary & Theoretical Literature and Research Introduction and Discussions Exploration Review Hypothesis Methodology Interpret

Development ation of Data

Fig.1.2: Outline of the Thesis

Thesis

1.10 Summary This is an introductory chapter which highlights the concept, meaning and significance of creativity as a central element of advertising. It also explains the rationale for conducting this study and our major research objectives. Lastly, it mentions briefly the outline of each chapter in this thesis.

Advertising and Creativity

CHAPTER II ADVERTISING AND CREATIVITY: A THEORETICAL EXPLORATION

2.1 Introduction This chapter provides a wide, in-depth and an overall conceptual understanding about advertising, its creativity, and other related aspects. It also sets a ground for understanding the context and the position of research in advertising creativity in the present times by critically analysing the historical development that fuelled interest in creative advertising world-wide. A special focus has been made on the Indian advertising landscape, thus enhancing our understanding of the role and character of the Indian advertising industry with respect to the larger global advertising map. A deliberate attempt has been made in this section to draw differences between advertising creativity and creativity in general so as to set the relevant context for this study and also to narrow down our research scope. By depicting honours and awards constituted for recognition of creative advertising globally, and in India, we attempt to illustrate the credibility and importance that creativity connotes in the present times.

2.2 Understanding Advertising John Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President of the United States (1923 to 1929), a lawyer by profession while climbing the ladder from Massachusetts State politics, made a very significant statement to boost up trade on the eve of the Great Economic Depression, he said, ―Advertising is the life of trade.‖ This statement was significant for it came from the chief executive officer of an economically strong, industrialized nation that faced acute hardships during the depression. Besides encouraging industry, it also was indicative of the ways for boosting up economy for sustainable growth and pushing up GDP of the country. Together with the statement of a statesman, academic circles too were rife with thoughts to bolster the ailing world economy. One such attempt may be ascribed to the eminent author, Derby Brown, who emphasised on the indispensability of advertising to business by saying that, ―The business that considers itself immune to the necessity for advertising sooner or later finds itself immune to business‖ (The International Dictionary of Thoughts, 1969, p. 13).

Advertising and Creativity

In today‘s highly competitive market economy boasting of a highly globalised world trade scenario among nations, onslaught of advertisements, ranging from diapers to air travel, tissue papers to automobiles, small manufacturing units to government departmental schemes; consumers‘ dependence on ads, can hardly be over-emphasised. As we rise higher in the areas of information and communication technology, advertising clutter is very much alive, even growing and pervasive. An increasingly complex and varied mix of media, message strategies, and communication methods are being used to communicate ideas and campaigns to sell products, services and ideas. Looking at numerous thoughts about the significance of advertising, we can fathom the significance of advertising for our society, our economy, and our businesses at large. India has been an active donor as well as recipient of the powerful, all-embracing effects of globalisation and liberalisation that have diffused trade boundaries of the world and has made the world a big, interactive and converging market for all its goods, services, products, brands and ideas. In consequence to all this, brands have spurred both in variety and number and thus, achieving qualitative differentiation is an onerous task for all companies. Creative advertising is a good solution of creating a distinct brand identity in a cluttered space and for getting the consumers‘ attention to ‗notice‘ the brand being advertised. The meaning or the definition of advertising cannot be confined to mere attempts to promote sale of products, as is evident from what Encyclopaedia Britannica says about it, ―The techniques used to bring products, services, opinions or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way to what is advertised. Although, most advertising involves promoting a good or service that is for sale but, similar methods are also frequently used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for candidates in elections, among only a few examples. In many countries, advertising is the most important source of income for media (newspapers, magazines or television channels) through which it is conducted‖ (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2013). Coming to experts in the field of business administration, a world renowned professor of marketing, Philip Kotler, in his famous book, Marketing Management (1996) explains that advertising connotes, ―Any paid form of non-personal

Advertising and Creativity presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services through mass media such as; newspapers, magazines, television or radio by an identified sponsor.‖ Advertising has become such an integral part of our life today that some go to the extent of equating it with any other natural phenomenon occurring on the globe anywhere. If seen in its basic, primal sense, advertising is as natural a phenomenon on the earth as life itself. Quite often, the definitions of advertising might lead us to something similar to the one given by Prof. Kotler, however, to be able to understand its essence, its utility and its meaning, we must look at another which is more primary type of its definition. The most fundamental and simplest way to understand what advertising means is to look at it from the perspective of its Latin origin, ad verter, which means ‗to turn the minds towards‘ or ‗draw attention to‘. This illustrates its core concept which is to present an idea in the most interesting way and make it discernible from the ordinary. Something that is done intentionally, has a purpose, and is utilized to catch attention. In simple terms, it can be understood as ‗messages paid for by those who send them and are intended to inform or influence people who receive them‘. Advertising executes one of the most vital functions in a society, that is: to inform. It gives to the people the power of choice, the power of information and the power of awareness which assists them in taking important decisions thoughtfully, convincingly and deliberately. We find ourselves surrounded by the forces of marketing and advertising in our daily life. The presence of advertisements is ubiquitous, be it television, internet, newspapers, radio, magazines, out-of-home billboards, even on the doors and windows of taxis on roads, ads can be seen all around us. Once touted to be the most interruptive commercial medium of communication, it has now transformed into something that everyone has struck a chord with. Whether we term advertising as a science or an art form or a commercial activity that evokes our interest in a big way, what all schools of thought converge upon for a general agreement is that advertising is second to none, after religion, in terms of its influence on people everywhere, with varying degrees of course. The reason why we attribute such significance is because the core of any advertising lies in its ability to dispense information about brands, products, services and ideas to people who make decisions. This element and status of communication is one of the key features of advertising as an informational tool that influences people 27

Advertising and Creativity at every point in their lives. Since advertising aims to influence purchasing behaviour of the target groups, it is by nature persuasive and informational. In line with its nature, advertising performs a key role in marketing because the company or the brand is identified by its ads. Making a high impact and achieve the objective of an effective brand communication depends on advertising that is high impact forming an integral strategy as part of and ‗integrated communication marketing plan‘. Taken many forms since the beginning of civilization, from painted walls in Roman civilization to Phoenician trade routes used to advertise wares, to hawkers shouting praises of merchant wares in the medieval era, advertising has evolved in contemporary times becoming a force to reckon with, a force that is intrinsically creative, extremely large in scale and scope that permeates all levels of society. Advertising cannot waiver from its basic job of transforming products into brands. Brands rule the world of marketing today and a major part of this profound dominance by brands is essentially due to creative advertising, advertising that etches these brands into our memories and converts our attitudes into very favourable ones. It is quite common to find people asking for ‘Surf’ when they want to buy a detergent or say ‘Bisleri’ when they want to mean mineral water in general. We drive our Mercedes, Hondas and Toyotas, and not just cars. We don‘t go to shopping centres anymore, we go to Walmart, Big Bazaar and Spencers. Successful brands don‘t just exist physically, but advance into entities that build relationships with the consumers. This relationship-building fundamentally rests on advertising, the most phenomenal of the tools project brands as being ‗trustworthy, credible and promising‘. Advertising has played an instrumentally positive role in turning our attitudes and preferences towards certain brands in many ways, which is reflected in a brand‘s degree of awareness, value, image and finally, in its equity. In this vein, we can reasonably say that one of the main objectives of any advertising would be to create brand preference by providing more information about the brand to the public. To convert consumer needs into wants, and consequent actions, is the most primary premise of any advertising campaign. Advertising, thus, becomes the means by which goods and services are promoted to the public. In other words, the advertiser‘s goal is to increase sales of the goods or services by drawing people‘s attention to them and showing them in a

Advertising and Creativity favourable light. However, this aspect is just one angle to the plethora of activities that advertising entails. In the same context, advertising professionals in the world of today point out that advertising is a much more complicated and elaborate business, employing thousands of people with a wide range of skills in marketing, public relations, copywriting, photography, graphic design, filmmaking and so on. We can explain this concept in a more precise manner through the varied writings of Etzel et al. (1997) on the nature and scope of advertising which classifies that all advertising has four primary features:  A verbal or visual message  A sponsor who is identified  Delivery through one or more media  Payment by the sponsor to the media carrying the message Besides the above, however, both researchers and practitioners have discovered a multitude of other aspects of advertising which make advertising what it is today and entail it with its dynamic, complex character. These could be identified as having the following features:  Core element of creativity  Element of marketing mix  Mix of art and science  Consumer choice facilitation  Persuasion  Information  Communication  Profit maximisation By combining the two classifications about the nature of advertising, it can, thus, be deciphered that advertising then consists of all the activities that are involved in presenting to an audience a non-personal, sponsor-identified, paid-for-message about a product or organization. Advertising is necessary because it explains complex issues in ways that are interesting, easy to understand, and meaningful. To further explain this aspect, a mention can be made of Patrick, Maggie and Van den (2010) who define advertising as a sponsored activity by a number of stakeholders primarily with the aim of inducing awareness, persuading (building

Advertising and Creativity brand liking and encouraging brand switching) and reminding target markets that the brand is in the market. Similarly, the views of Etzel et al. (1997) coincide with the simple but all- embracing definitions of Davies (1998) and Arens (2006). These scholars connote advertising to be any paid form of non-personal media presentation promoting ideas/concepts, goods and services by an identified sponsor. Bearden, Ingram and Laforge (1998) have attempted to define advertising in a similar view as, ―The element of marketing communication mix that is non-personal, paid for an identified sponsor, and disseminated through mass channels of communication to promote the adoption of goods, services, products or ideas.‖ There have been many comparable attempts at defining advertising. For example, Wells, Burnett and Moriarty (2005) put forth that advertising is complex and there are many different ways advertising can ‗affect‘ people. He goes on to say that at the most basic level, advertising works if people pay attention, and become aware of the brand, and remember both the brand and the advertisement. That‘s the impact at the perceptual level. This impact is probably the first level impact and the most profound. To be remembered and noticed is the first sign of getting consumer attention. To make this possible, creative advertising is an effective tool, and the centrality of creativity in the field of advertising cannot be over-emphasised. Apart from the basic premise of providing information to the audiences, an advertisement evokes emotions in its viewers/ readers, endow a brand with a strong personality, facilitate in bringing about constructive attitude formation with respect to a brand and eventually are a cause for people to convert their liking into real actions by buying the products being advertised. All this is achieved more effectively, rapidly and for a long term by the use of creative advertising. Scholars worldwide agree on this concept of advertising which says that it is not only the promotion of a company‘s products and services but also a creative activity to build a brand identity and communicate any changes for the brand. Advertising has become an essential element of marketing communications all around the world which is the reason why companies invest a lot of money and then go on to generate huge amounts of revenue in the process. Advertisements help in building strong brands and stimulating sales. Out of the many roles that advertising can play for both the brand and the company, some noteworthy can be identified as under:  Increasing and maintaining sales 30

Advertising and Creativity

 Creating and maintaining brand identity, brand awareness and brand image  Communicating a change in the existing product line  Introduction of a new product or service  Increasing the buzz-value of the brand or company Advertising has evolved through the ages and it can be said that in the contemporary world, we may look at advertising as a communication process, a marketing process, an economic and social process, a public relations process and as an information and persuasion process. Such is the plethora of roles that advertising can take. The same idea has been beautifully encapsulated by Sanjay Tiwari (2012), in the opening chapter of his book titled, ‗The (Un) Common Sense of Advertising‘ in the words, ―Advertising fascinates most people. It flirts momentarily with their lives, seduces them and leaves them with wonderful images and dreams. Dreams, that to be fulfilled make people work harder and harder, earn more and more to spend more and more.‖ Contrary to this, a simpler definition is given by Dunn et al. (1987) who viewed advertising from its functional perspective, hence he defined it as a paid, non- personal communication through various media by business firms, non-profit organizations and individuals who are in some way identified in the advertising message and who hope to inform or persuade members of a particular audience. A more concise meaning of advertising is attributed to Morden (1991), who was of the opinion that advertising is used to establish a basic awareness of the product or service in the mind of the potential customer and to build knowledge about it. Distinguished marketing author Prof. P. Kotler (2003) sees advertising as one of the four major tools companies use to direct persuasive communications to target buyers and public. He clarifies further by saying that, ―It consists of non-personal forms of communication conducted through paid media under clear sponsorship‖. According to him, the purpose of advertising is to enhance potential buyers‘ response to the organization and its offering, emphasizing that ―It seeks to do this by providing information, by channelizing desire and by supplying reasons for preferring a particular organization‘s offer.‖ From a semiotic perspective, an advertisement may be defined as, ―A sign, representing the actual product image (or object), the meaning of which is dependent

Advertising and Creativity on the interpretation of the ad recipient (interpreter), which in turn is based on the context in which the ad (sign) occurs‖ (Dingena, 1994). In a thought provoking study by Sutton and Hargadon in 1996, it was found that advertising enhances consumers‘ willingness to pay by changing their quality perceptions. Thus, the role of communication by advertising affecting the psychology of the human mind is further strengthened. It is not surprising to now understand and justify why a lot of marketing communication and the idea of transference of ideas into the human brain as a system of coding-decoding has been put forth since centuries. Boyer and Moreaux (1999) indicated that while profits may increase with increase in perceived quality, they may reduce in brand awareness, stalling the competitive escalation in advertising. Studies by Doraszelski and Markovich (2007) suggested that the nature of advertising employed can effectively lend a line of definition and distinguish industry dynamics, even in small markets. From an empirical perspective, when estimating a demand model, advertising could be modelled as affecting the choice set or as affecting the utility that the consumer derives from a brand. From creating awareness about the advertised product to maintaining interest in the same, leading to subsequent purchase, advertising encompasses a variety of roles. It can drive image change for a dying brand and lead to its revival, if coupled with quality products. History is replete with lifecycles of brands like Fiat Motors, McDonalds, Nirma, Surf, Tata Tea and many more that were revived and rebranded through strong and favourable advertising campaigns. The relevance of advertising as a promotional strategy, therefore, depends on its ability to influence consumers not only to purchase but to continue repurchasing and even recommending it to others. This is precisely the reason why so many organizations spend huge amounts of money on advertising and brand management in today‘s dynamic environment and allocate a considerable part of their resources to advertising. Advertising is the best profession in the world, says Abhijit Avasthi, former National Creative Director at O&M, India, "It is a confluence of communications, human resources, history, economics, arts, culture, psychology, sociology - you name it and it shares an association with advertising‖ (As cited in Business Today, 2011). It has been affirmed many times that an advertising campaign has the ability to either make or break a brand. With some classic brand stories of brand identity and

Advertising and Creativity brand strength turnaround, advertising sometimes, can also lead to revival of dying brands. In the context of India, PepsiCo‘s soft drink ‘Slice’, ‘Bajaj Chetak’ two- wheelers, ‘Parker’ pens, are some of the characteristic examples that were once facing danger of fading away and declining popularity, successfully revived by employing the right kind of advertising and promotional messaging. Some other great initiatives could be Apple‘s ‘Think Different’ campaign on a global level that transformed not just a brand to mean a plethora of strong brand associations for the consumers but also continues to enhance credibility of a company when backed by good product quality. To sum up the ideas and concepts mentioned above, we can logically say that with the enormous advancements in technology and the ways by which the world communicates; advertising has grown into a multi-billion dollar industry that continues to touch our lives in a variety of ways every day. More open, more collaborative and more penetrative, the advertising industry continues to get stronger with every new phase. In the words of Mark Tungate in the closing chapter of his book ‗Adland‘, he proudly reveals, ―Advertising is not going away. As long as somebody has something to sell, Adland will always have a place on the map‖ (Adland, p. 268).

2.3 Understanding Advertising Creativity Creativity is an advertising agency’s most valuable asset, because it is the rarest. (Jef Richards)

The importance of creativity has long been recognised, initially by the industry, and then by academicians and the theorists. It was creativity in advertising that brought about, first a surge in advertising which resulted in advertising clutter, and then demarcated excellence from the ordinary. If we look at the amount of work that has been produced specifically on creativity in advertising we would not have to go too far to acknowledge its significance in researches and the intellectual treatment it received. Seeking to delve into some of the opinions about its importance we find a variety of definitions in its myriad shades and estimations. It can be said with complete confidence that the act of creativity is at the very centre of contemporary

Advertising and Creativity advertising. Creativity, indisputably the least scientific aspect of advertising, is arguably the most important (Reid, King & Delorme, 1998). The Oxford English Dictionary describes creativity as ‗The skill and ability to produce something new or original‘. When looking at this definition, it is unquestionable that advertising could not possibly exist without creativity. Carl Jung (1952), world renowned social psychologist, defined creativity very interestingly as, ―The creative aspect of life which finds its clearest expression in art baffles all attempts at rational formulations. Any reaction to stimulus may be casually explained; but the creative act, which is the absolute antithesis of mere reaction, will forever elude the human understanding‖ (p. 209). This multi-dimensional, complex and profound understanding of the aspect of creativity underlines its essential character of being novel. Literature, accumulated through the years, and diverse ideas from advertising scholars and practitioners alike, confirm the belief that ‗Creativity is a pre-requisite for advertising to be what it promises to be.‘ Many ad campaigns have proven to be successful exactly because they were original and deviated from the commonly accepted rules of what a commercial message should be conveying. What we must, however, understand more deeply is that creativity permeates and goes beyond ‗visual aesthetics‘ or ‗attention grabbing tool‘. It can be an effective milestone on the road to achieving differentiation by firms. Highlighting the indispensability of creativity in today‘s society, Rosa et al. (2008) argue, ―Creativity is a pre-requisite for commercial successes as it plays a significant role in the successful resolution of challenging organizational and social problems‖. Truly so, the quality of creativity is essential not just for the advertising industry, but for all processes and companies that exist in the competitive business environment. While explaining the absolutely quintessential role of creativity in brand management former CEO of McCann Erickson, Nick Brein (2010) says, ―Our industry is undergoing radical transformation. To keep pace with the changes being driven by emerging technology, it is vital to focus on collaboration, creativity and organizational flexibility.‖ As creative processes and outputs are vital for enterprises to beat competition, creativity is often considered as a source of competitive advantage. Being absolutely essential to fight competition, achieve innovative sustainability and long-term

Advertising and Creativity competitive advantage, creativity is valued across all businesses, but is considered indispensable to the very existence of advertising agencies (Zinkhan, 1993). World over, in almost all spheres of businesses and in all domains of industries, optimizing efficiency in production, ideation or achieving strategic differentiation, have become the ubiquitous objectives that every sector hopes to achieve. What sets these objectives in motion and spirals into real attainment of goalsis the power of creativity. Hence, creativity is emerging as the single most vital element that differentiates excellence from mediocrity, related directly to innovative ideas, business accounts and competitiveness. Better understood as a fine balance of art and science, it is one of the most intelligent weapons in a marketer‘s artillery of brand building that eventually creates a solid and unique identity for the brand. From theme promotions, to personalised customer relationship programs, to outdoor media, creative advertising can bring instant recognition, and if chosen from all the cues that appear in an advertisement, the ones that are most creative (humorous, emotional, unique appeals, to name a few) are the most likely to receive most attention. Since olden times, creative appeals have been employed in promotional messages which have proved to be the foundational source of competitive advantage and eventual success in businesses. Without doubt, creativity forms the very core of advertising. Business Insider (2011) in their assessment reported that the best ads seem to have a fine mix of humour, intrigue, and immense creativity. Bolstering various ideas about creativity, a documentary on the ‗Evolution of Man‘ on BBC (2014) acknowledged that ―The advancement of humanity fundamentally depends on creative evolution.‖ Development cannot take place in the absence of innovations and new thought processes. Whether it is science or the arts, creativity makes all the difference in the world we live in. The dynamic and the wonderful world of advertising is no different. Emphasising on the timelessness and absolute need of creativity in all spheres of life and business, Rust and Oliver (1994) pointed out that creativity will remain the core competence sought after from advertising agencies, despite the ‗death‘ and ‗resurrection‘ of advertising in the internet age. A good example to highlight the importance of creativity within the realm of advertising would also be to look at how advertising textbooks always devote a considerable section of their volume on analysing and understanding this phenomenon. 35

Advertising and Creativity

Examining the challenges facing the creative industries, including the advertising industry, Robert Senior, CEO, EMEA at Saatchi and Saatchi Fallon Group, and also chairman of Saatchi‘s Worldwide Creative Board, highlighted his unshakable faith in the importance of creativity in a talk titled ‗The Science of Creativity‘ in London. Having worked on iconic campaigns for Nike, T-Mobile and Cadbury‘s, he believes that building a supportive environment in which ideas can germinate, and creativity thrive, is the secret to achieving success. When faced with a challenging campaign and creative demands from the client, a simple three-question approach is followed by him, 1) Do I want to experience it again? 2) Do I want to share it? 3) Do I want to improve it? Andrew McStays (2013), a leading scholar in advertising and media studies, emphasises on the importance of creativity in advertising by stating that ―Creative output is an agency‘s calling card and, given that agencies do not formally advertise their services, their creative capacity is judged by the advertising they produce‖ (p. 2). Creativity can be a potential solution to break through the ever-growing media clutter by virtue of it being novel and unique by nature.Truly great creative ideas harness the power to engage consumers and prompt experiential involvement (Sasser et al., 2007). More and more advertising professionals vouch by this message strategy as they feel that this can effectively reach consumer‘s minds, build an impression and lead to overall brand success. The demand for creativity can be seen not only among the makers themselves, but is increasingly sought after by marketers who employ renowned and expensive advertising agencies to create a unique identity for their brands and give them everlasting, memorable and successful campaigns. The demand for more and more novel, inimitable and creative advertisements is being faced by the advertising industry all over the world. William O‘ Barr (2011) also recounts an interesting explanation of creativity, as mentioned by Mozart, the world famous musician, ―When I am, as it were, completely myself, entirely alone, and of good cheer- say, travelling in a carriage, or walking after a good meal, or during the night when I cannot sleep; it is on such occasions that my ideas flow best and most abundantly. Whence and how they come, I know not, nor can I force them.‖ A statement that we can perhaps make, beyond doubt, is that creativity is the crux of the advertising business, which is why it is considered to be synonymous to each other.

Advertising and Creativity

Robert W. Weisberg (2006) in his valuable book on ‗Creativity: Understanding Innovation in Problem Solving, Science, Invention and the Arts‘ states about the origins of creativity, ―Early scholars, among them Plato and Aristotle, speculated on how creative ideas came about. It was proposed originally by the Greeks that creative ideas were gifts from gods. Specifically, the Muses—nine daughters of Zeus, each of whom was in charge of a separate domain—played a central role in producing novel ideas. This meant that not only did the ideas originate outside the normal thinking process, they actually originated outside the person. The person served as the messenger or conduit through which the ideas were presented from the gods to the rest of us‖ (p. 92). Indisputably, creativity can be regarded as the single most important thing in the success of brands and agencies. It is difficult to imagine advertising sans creativity. As Amjad Ali, Senior Vice President, Lowe Lintas, points out, ―Creativity is advertising and vice-versa. Creativity in advertising influences people‘s behaviour. It encourages them to consider a product, a social issue or a belief and eventually turns them into brand believers.‖ Creativity is a key expectation of advertising agencies. There have been many prominent cases where unsatisfactory agency performance, particularly in creative work, is a key reason for account shifting by advertisers (Dowling, 1994; Michell, 1984, 1986, 1988; Michell et al., 1992). Gary Bencivenga had some very wise words to say about how important it is for advertising professionals to recognise the latent needs of the consumers to make ads that strike a chord with the consumers, and make optimal use of their creative abilities when at work. He said, ―The vast majority of products are sold because of the need for love, the fear of shame, the pride of achievement, the desire for recognition, the yearning to feel important, the urge to look attractive, the lust for power, the longing for romance, the need to feel secure, the terror of facing the unknown, the life-long hunger for self-esteem, and so on. Emotions are the fire of human motivation, the combustible force that secretly drives most decisions to buy. When your marketing harnesses these forces correctly, you will generate explosive increases in response‖ (As cited in Stacey Mathis Copywriting, 2013). With the growing influence of modernity and the invasive culture of consumerism and globalisation, businesses today are getting increasingly dependent

Advertising and Creativity on advertising for communicating their presence and for staying ahead in the competitive business scenario. Solutions of the past no longer serve as prospective ways to getting competitive advantage, and the real challenge lies in developing means that can differentiate a brand‘s position from its competitors Ensuring greater business development with a strong advertising strategy is one of the most important goals for all organisations. With innovation and creativity comes an edge to reach strategic differentiation and advertising can be a resourceful tool to achieve this goal. William O‘Barr (2011), interestingly exclaims, ―Creativity tends to be one of those you-know-it-when-you-see-it things that eludes a specific definition.‖ Many people, who others have considered highly creative, have attempted to explain the creative process. Leo Burnett‘s definition of creativity is perhaps one that has been unanimously accepted as a well-rounded, most apt explanation of this advertising element. He defines creativity as, ―The art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously unrelated things in a manner that is relevant, believable and in good taste‖ (1968, p. 21). Underpinning on similar ideas, Arthur Koestler (1981), a noted author and expert on creativity, speaks out in an essay entitled ‗The Three Domains of Creativity‘ and defined creative acts as "The combination of previously unrelated structures in such a way that you get more out of the emergent whole than you have put in.‖ In tandem with Leo Burnett‘s ideas on the concept of creativity in advertising, Hanley Norins (1966), a celebrated advertising copywriter, used the term ‗creative association‘ to explain the art of creativity. He says, ―The world is one and the world contains infinite elements. Everything is dissimilar and everything is interconnected. You can put your world together in an infinite number of combinations, the creative mind-the mind with a ‗vaulting‘ imagination-given a stated problem, can immediately begin to associate hundreds and thousands and millions of symbols that may lead to an ideal solution‖ (As cited in Opas, 2008, p. 25). Thomas Murray (1980) explained this concept in a similar way by using the analogy of two wheels which interact to form a creative idea, which he called ‗the meshing of information‘.

Advertising and Creativity

Rollo May (1994), a distinguished psychologist and author of ‗The Courage to Create‘, portrays creativity as a "Struggle of human beings with and against that which limits them . . . it is the struggle against disintegration, the struggle to bring into existence new kinds of being that give harmony and integration" (p. 169), clearly reflecting on the vast imaginative freedom that creativity enjoys. This definition tries to look at creativity from a wider perspective. However, when it comes to creativity in advertising, there may be some limits imposed on the reach of its imaginative qualities as it is being made for a certain brand with certain objectives of the client. When we come across so many definitions and such heightened interest and attention towards creativity, we are obliged to probe the reasons for it, soon it dawns upon us that it is not a very new phenomenon as inquisitiveness about the basic features of creativity dates back to 1913, when a mathematician, Poincaré, stated, ―To create consists of making new combinations of associative elements which are useful‖ (As cited in Greenberg, 2004). This makes us even more interested to understand the delicate nuances that comprise creativity in its various forms. It can be easily fathomed that for new ideas to be born, there must be a repertoire of some past experience, some past memory, a fleeting moment of déjà vu, ideas that may be strangers to each other but exist in our repertoire of conscious or subconscious memory. Any new idea actually comes from a creator‘s experience and understanding of what existed before, what had previously been known in a domain. Thus, if one is to make a new creative combination, there must be knowledge of what has gone before it. Thus, in order for something ‗new‘ to come into a domain, it must refer to something from the past, the ‗old‘. No business organisation can hope to survive in this age of fierce competitive business environment if it does not work intently to identify ways and means to specialize its own business operations. This can be done only when it is able to find out something unique and fresh, something that stands out in the melee as it is vital for its current success and future sustainability. Each industry confronts this problem of finding something different for promoting its products, the solution lies on creativity exclusively. How can any industry or a business concern aspire to survive in this tough marketing environment if it fails to think, act and respond differently, do not succeed in finding solutions to problems in newer ways? In short, it has to be innovative in 39

Advertising and Creativity whatever it does. The significance and unavoidability of creativity have been stressed upon by a host of writers. One such writer opines, ‗Creative advertising strategy inﬂuences clients‘ integrated marketing communication strategy and overall marketing strategy (Frazer, 1983) and, ‗the service performance of an agency is judged by its creativity‘ (Blasko & Mokwa, 1986). Kalasunas and Thompson (1985) also state, ―Basically, what clients want from agencies is creative advertising itself, the advertising product [...] The other services an agency offers [...] are clearly secondary‖ (As cited in Brashear and Granot, 2008). Understandably so, a few advertising executives maintain that creativity is a prerequisite for the operational effectiveness of advertising agencies. In the same vein, Andrew Cracknell‘s book, ‗The Real Mad Men‘ (2012) reveals: ‗Of all the places where people make money, advertising is one of the most exotic. People are paid to be crazy, and applauded for being heretic. It‘s where commerce meets showbiz and where hard money meets artistic whimsy.‘ Leo Burnett (1960), whose creativity and success in the advertising world spoke of nothing less than brilliance, commented emphatically in his famous speech, ‗Finally Somebody Has to Get Out an Ad‘, ―....The life, core, and heart of the advertising business is, making ads.‖ Another very prominent advertising specialist, Bernbach (1972), argued for his ideas and indispensability of creativity over standard advertising in a communication to his firm, ―It is our belief that every other activity in our business is a prelude to the final performance, which is the ad‖ (as cited in William O‘Barr, 2011). This communication clearly indicates the kind of importance he attached to creativity in advertising. He actually placed creativity above all other customary processes that are adopted in an organisation including market research, media analysis, and other measures that are implemented to promote products and enhance profits of the company. Similarly, David Ogilvy, a legendary adman, developed some of the most iconic ad campaigns of all times, all of which bespoke of high creativity and simple clear messages that the audiences would remember. In the western world, it was the innovatively creative ads of Ogilvy that conceived the ‗Hathaway Man‘ to mean Hathaway shirts, and ‗Commander Whitehead‘ to sell Schweppes. In Indian advertising landscape, Ogilvy scores high on delivering some of the most outstanding

Advertising and Creativity ad campaigns that took the nation by storm due to its creativity, like Fevicol, Centre Shock, Cadbury‘s and Asian Paints campaigns, to name a few. According to Robert Senior, CEO, EMEA at Saatchi and Saatchi Fallon Group, ―Creativity is not only the currency on which business thrives; it can also bring joy to people, restore faith in society, and give hope for the future. Through his creative lens, the volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous (VUCA) conditions in which we live are imbued with positivity, becoming ‗‗Vibrant, unreal, crazy and astounding‘‘(As cited in an Interview by Gareth Bell, 2013). The immensely memorable and striking character, Ronald McDonald, owes its stature and popularity to Leo Burnett, who created this icon and gave McDonalds instant brand equity. Pillsbury doughboy, Mr. Clean , Tony the Tiger, all are some incredible characters born out of Leo Burnett‘s creative shop, that breaks across countries and boundaries with their popular appeal and timelessness. It was creative thinking in the first place by these advertising experts that developed such grand characters and innovative ways to sometimes augment a brand‘s image, or revive a dying brand, or introduce a new one, with immense creative and commercial success. A world renowned agency like Saatchi and Saatchi has creative minds that have discussed a very interesting aspect about creativity in their business of advertising. Robert Senior, from their executive group says that, ―Creativity is as counter intuitive as it sounds.‖ What they are trying to inculcate in the advertising people is to encourage a culture that nurtures and builds on creativity, as it is the only way to gain competitive advantage sustainably. For some professionals, creativity is a rich ‗business tool‘ and not a mere ‗quality‘. It is what bestows ‗brand value‘ to a company. It runs beyond numbers in balance sheets at the end of a year, but what stays with them as their character and brand image through years to come. Quite a number of managers working in the advertising industry, managing an impressive portfolio of leading brands believe in ‗the unreasonable power of creativity‘ (Robert Senior, CEO, EMEA at Saatchi and Saatchi Fallon Group, interviewed by Gareth Bell, 2013). However, not everyone has a creative bent of mind, and not everyone can deliver creatively enriched and innovative solutions to which advertising executives respond by saying that it is more important to have a team which has one or two creative minds who will come up with path-breaking ideas. 41

Advertising and Creativity

The importance of new ideas to a more favourable future cannot be overemphasised, especially in a business that thrives on new ways to create communication. Even today, when the advertising industry is well-endowed with the best technological equipment, when it is the most exciting and challenging time to be in this profession, it is absolutely necessary to have a message first, a basic idea, a value proposition or a USP. As many say, ‗At the heart of creative businesses, is the creativity itself‘. Asserting the magnanimously fundamental role that creativity plays in all businesses, including advertising industries at its very nucleus, Mark Tutssel (2015), the chief creative officer at Leo Burnett Worldwide declares, ―Creativity is the most valuable asset in business.‖ With creativity being bestowed the crucial character of being an ‗asset‘ for an organisation‘s success; it is not far from truth to understand its centrality to an industry which survives on creativity at the most.

2.4 Tracing the Development of Advertising: A Historical Journey In order to understand a field of inquiry in the most profound way, understanding its history is the first step. We have, therefore, made an attempt in this chapter to present a general idea of the growth of historicity in advertising, starting from the beginning of twentieth century to the contemporary times. Considering this vital truth, a detailed survey of the literature related with the history of advertising of the period between 1980 and 2010 was made by Schwarzkopf (2011) in which he attempted to study different central conceptual paradigms and methodologies adopted, followed by contrast and comparisons of various studies. Here, we intend to comprehend that expedition in order to establish its connection with the Indian advertising industry to craft a route for our proposed study by understanding the earlier period better which would then make it easier for us to offer useful guidelines for future scholars and the industry. According to Schwarzkopf, it is often believed that many accounts of advertising history seem to tilt towards unintentional influences of Hegelian philosophy of history which advocates that history is actually composed of huge politico-social configurations which squarely vie with and over-shadow each other in any account of the global history. During the same period, some US corporate houses undertook studies of the history of advertising and also sought to investigate its social purpose and impact. It

Advertising and Creativity may be considered as the beginning of the birth of different theories of advertising communications and concepts that were later termed as ‗modernist‘ hypothesis. Michael Schudson (1984), a renowned historical sociologist, started pointing out that advertising was being disparaged which could be rectified, he suggested, by taking up its systematic study in order to give it its due importance in the society as he identified advertising as an important tool for guiding and shaping what he called, ‗modern consciousness‘ (As cited in Schwarzkopf, 2011). Through these visualizations, the importance of advertising in shaping popular culture can be gauged. Many historians who undertook writing of advertising history in the last quarter of the previous century considered advertising as something that has made the ‗consumerist culture‘ as a part of history. It is pointed out that ‗as an aid to the identification of this consciousness, content analysis came heavily to be relied upon in the pursuit of giving a ‗history-less‘ advertising industry its own history‘ (Marchand, 1985, p. 165). The advertising industry came to be seen as populated by powerful ‗captains of consciousness‘ (Ewen, 1976), whose creations reflected and shaped the culture of the age (Fox, 1984), whose strategies helped ‗making way for modernity‘ (Marchand, 1985), whose ideologies helped ‗selling modernity‘ (Swett et al., 2007), establish the idea of progress (Laird, 1998), and whose very existence showcased the disenchanted, rationalist and consumerist mindset of the age (Lears, 1994). A couple of writers recently expressed this viewpoint most succinctly bythey arguing that the twentieth century was nothing less than an ‗advertising century‘ and that single inﬂuential advertising msn like Albert D. Lasker made this happen (Cruikshank and Schultz, 2010).

2.4.1 Exploring the Influences from the Perspective Named ‘Americanization’ However, it is rather strange that not much was known about advertising or, to be more specific, the psyche behind advertising, hardly any consumer research was done till quite recently. Today‘s professional graphic designers, specialized advertising agencies, and highly competitive industry and its influence on advertising creativity, was unheard of. Even after the growth in the realms of magazines, radio and

Advertising and Creativity television, advertising came much later. The role of multinationals in the advertising industry and great advertising campaigns are relics of only the recent past. If we look at the processes and development of advertising history narrative, we find that there is another angle to it, called the ‗Americanization‘. It may be, in other words, taken to mean what modernization meant for some of its supporters. To explain the term in its true sense, it denotes the over-powering influence of the American advertising system, functioning and structure on rest of the world, especially, the Western countries where advertising industry was flourishing at the time of ‗cultural imperialism‘. If Americanization perspective was thought to be of great significance at the time because of its well-organized, systematic and standardized functioning, it was not far from the reality. It had a definite impact on European advertising systems; however, it would be too far-fetched to think that European advertising machinery had no or very little impact on American advertising. In fact, a number of studies of the period indicate that it was the other way round, American industry benefitted first from the European system which was already developed at that time. It can be proved from the fact that the British, Japanese and French commercial houses first purchased large stakes in the American advertising industry and created an atmosphere conducive to providing an alternative to the American advertising industry norms set by them during the second half of the last century (Schwarzkopf, 2007a, 2007b). A large proportion of the world‘s biggest advertising agencies and marketing communication groups are surprisingly not centralised only in the USA, but are spread over London, Stockholm, Amsterdam and the likes of it. The world‘s largest marketing communications company today, the WPP group, owns a staggering portfolio of over 300 advertising agencies, PR agencies, market research companies, direct marketing companies, media buying companies, social media interactive and search-engine agencies worldwide. It is a British company and headed by a Knight of the Realm, Sir Martin Sorrell. This shows how the spirals of Americanisation spread around the world and have become magnanimous ventures in the South Asian and European markets (Grabher, 2001; WPP, 2011). In order to close the debate about the beginning and the journey of advertising through the ages, we may opine that the crux of the entire gamut related with historical accounts of its development is the one that was presented by Schwarzkopf

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(2007) where he categorised in ‗The Subsiding Sizzle of Advertising History: Methodological and Theoretical Challenges in the Post Advertising Age‘ into three types, namely; Modernization, Americanization, and ‗the idea that Semiotics enables the deconstruction of persuasion in the modern age‘. If we really analyse closely the various aspects of the history of advertising, we would surely reach the conclusion that it is closest to reality about all advertising history. In the words of Presbrey: ―There are those who will question that anything as modern as we consider advertising to be has a history; yet the facts show that it not only has a history but that it is an interesting chronicle. Advertising as we know it is new in its aspects, but its ideas and its objects are as old as the human race. Advertising really has two histories. The history of advertising as we know it today dates from yesterday, and the history of advertising in all its forms harks back through the ages and into the haze that hides the beginning of humanity‖ (As cited in Schwarzkopf, 2011). In tracing the history of advertising, it becomes evident that it began on a modest note-through what is now called ‗Babylonian type‘ marketing attempts through writings on walls in the Roman Empire, by community and city announcers and such other means available then. It created an understandable historical account that ultimately developed into an era often termed as the ‗advertising age‘. Thus, a process that started 3,000-years back, reached an end after journeying through various phases. It will require enormous exercise and a huge bulk of pages to trace the entire travel in this work, therefore, we suffice to say that the journey has been a long one, full of excitement and thrill. It is well-known through the literature from earlier years that advertising as an industry in its artistic and creative form became a part of the systematic historical exercise much earlier than most of us believe it was. It is often believed that the earliest attempts at writing down the history of advertising were made by Henry Sampson‘s work, ‗A History of Advertising from the Earliest Times‘ published in London in 1874. It was followed by Frank Presbrey‘s excellent work, ‗The History and Development of Advertising‘ with Doubleday, Doran & Company, New York published in 1929. These two writers who are said to have depended on income from advertising for their sustenance, though for different reasons, were instrumental in using history for giving legitimacy to and bringing advertising to the level of general acceptance in an age where industry was looked upon with an eye of suspicion for 45

Advertising and Creativity being dishonest, deceptive and misleading (Pope, 1983, pp. 186-193). They did this ‗legitimacy exercise‘ by basing their entire research in advertising history to project business communication by depicting it through advertising. It would not be out of place at this point to remark about what Dr Samuel Johnson had said in 1759 about it when he opined that the business of advertising was ―So near to perfection that it is not easy to propose any improvement‖, and he warned that future historians would one day come across the advertisements of his age and ﬁnd them full of ‗numberless contradictions‘ (As cited in Woodruff, 1979). Let us now delve deeper into the area of historical research in order to reach a point from where we can convince ourselves about the development of advertising in the recent past. To point out a possible reason, large scale shortages during and between the two World Wars resulted in creating an imbalance between supply and demand curve which consequently stalled the progress in advertising industry in the most profound manner. Need to advertise or, writing its history, was hardly felt because the demand out-paced supplies, and so did recording the phenomenon of historicity. So, advertising history picked-up pace from only early 1980s. Although a few endeavours did take place during the 1950s but were not attempts serious enough to warrant mention. It was only from the late 1980s that real investigations into the history of advertising started coming up in the United States, the United Kingdom and some other western industrialised nations A few of these may be mentioned here as, Terrence Nevett‘s Advertising (1982) in the UK, Daniel Pope‘s The Making of Modern Advertising (1983), Stephen Fox‘s The Mirror Makers (1984) and Roland Marchand‘s Advertising the American Dream (1985, all in USA).

2.4.2 Exploring the Influences from the ‘Modernization’ Theory: The Content Perspective This concept is related with the notion that it is not the structure or the standards or the prevalent norms of the advertising industry that impacts the lives of people in a more profound manner than the content of advertisements. The content factor creates a complex network of relationships between the consumer and the advertisement, which in turn resulted from the emerging ‗modernity‘ concept which was sweeping the entire industry off its feet because of the simple reason that it was propelled by unsettling cultural-economic forces that were driving and giving definite directions to the people‘s lives in general.

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During the same time, a new field, known as the ‗media sociology‘ was coming up due to the ideas thrown up, and widely accepted, of some German and French critical philosophers and sociologists, like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno and Roland Barthes. It was done through advertisements in channels of media like magazines, television and posters. ‗Semiotics‘ became the catchword for this type of intellectual exercise. It tried to establish a link between the recipient of the advertisement and the characters or items used in it. For example, an advertisement would show a happy looking house wife using a particular brand of dish-washing soap in the kitchen and a sparkling set of utensils on the rack signifying family happiness acquired by using a specific brand of soap. Thus, meaning-making and association of ideas was being employed through advertisements as a tool. Scholars like Goldman (2001), Kline and Botterill (2009) and Robertson (2009) among many others exemplified through their studies how advertising that prevailed was reflective of the consumer-commercial communication relationship. Moral scepticism, cultural rigidities started to transform into the colours that advertising portrayed.

2.4.3 From Historical Account to Contemporary Advertising It is but natural that it brought with it a clear impact of the visionaries who became instrumental in bringing changes in their nations and consequently, led to a prejudice among most of the advertising historians who painted the twentieth century as a period of extraordinary levels of inﬂuence on business-related communication, on politics, culture and the social fabric.‘ Historians, as a matter of convenience and simplicity, coined the term ‗modernity‘ to signify this stage of development in the Western world. Basically and fundamentally, this new phase was nothing but an onslaught of ‗consumerism‘, what later came to be known as ‗consumer culture‘. It is contended by some that the result of this modernist perspective led to a situation where many advertising historians tended to neglect the real historical account of what they needed to trace. Schwarzkopf goes on to say that the result of this modernist perspective led to a situation where many advertising historians tended to neglect the real historical account of what they needed to trace. To explain this, Schwarzkopf (2007) enunciated that historians associated themselves with the origin of ‗modern‘ advertising. In their 47

Advertising and Creativity eagerness to identify the link between advertising, modernity and the new consumer culture, advertising historians failed to notice that their narratives merely promoted the self-created professional identity of the early advertising industry. A notable shortcoming in the attempts of these historical accounts is that they have not given a fair treatment to the elements of economy, sociology, consumer research and market-based theories in their works, leading to a similar treatment by economists, sociologists, consumer researchers and marketing theorists. It has been observed that many academics working in the fields of sociology, marketing research and business schools have not benefited from the wealth of research provided by historians of marketing and advertising practices. The negativity of approach on both the sides has led to a dead-end because of keeping each other in the dark about what has already been done by each other.

2.5 The Creative Revolution Tracing the path breaking changes in creativity and the beginning of an evolutionary movement with newer trends in creative advertising, it would be pertinent here to go back to the 1947 quote of Bill Bernbach who said, ―Let us blaze new trails. Let us prove to the world that good taste, good art, good writing can be good selling‖ (As cited in Kornberger, 2010, p.57). There can be no better depiction of the revolutionary changes that were taking place in creative advertising during that period. Soon after the notion given by Bernbach, the world saw fresh and absolutely novel ideas in the field of advertising, not only in America but in the whole of the Western world in the 1950s onwards. It was termed as ‗The Creative Revolution‘. It may be noted, however, that all these changes were not without any reason or substance; they were in consonance to the transformation which was slowly creeping in the society itself during those days. On analysing, we come to realize that, probably, the precipitator for the revolution that was to transform the advertising world in the years to come was a specific print ad in New York Times in 1949 which was path breaking, novel, unique, but sexist in nature. It was a women‘s clothing store campaign which prompted a revolution with a catchy line, ‘Liberal Trade In’ for ‗Ohrbach‘ s Women‘s Store with a catchy line, ‘Bring in your wife and for just a few dollars we will give you a new woman’. The visual too was atypical and hit the traditional society of those days both,

Advertising and Creativity culturally and socially. The visual that was carried along with the advertisement showed a black and white photograph of a woman and a coloured picture of a young man running away with a cardboard cut-out of a beautiful well-dressed girl under his arm, like a gift item. This became a kind of a turning point for what was perceived in those days to be a decent and acceptable norm for advertisements. Each time we try to analyse that ad now, after about seven decades, the simple conclusion we get every time is that everything was different in that campaign. ‗Novelty‘ stole the show and created a pioneering shift in the advertising ideology itself, which graduated from just grabbing attention of people to making a mark and being almost like an identity, a brand in itself. Bernbach‘s perspective of being ‗different‘ was freely used by Apple's slogan of the late 1990s and early 2000s, ‗Think Different’. The boldness of the visual style of the ad was hardly ever used by any other campaign of the period. The perfect bonding of the catch-line with the picture used in the ad was quite a break from the run of the mill type of ads churned out frequently in those days. It was very aptly complemented by the rather uncouth brand of humour that accompanied it. The entire advertisement, in other words, may be considered as something completely divorced from the style of the period as the communication was plain, simple and unusual. Another aspect of the ads from Ohrbach which caught people‘s attention was complete absence of ‗prices and sales‘ from them while they were the norm in retail business practice during the period, but, was readily accepted by the people in the retail business. The Ohrbach ad launched a thousand ships as it achieved what every campaign intends to do, i.e., increase in sales. This new style soon became a rage among creators and businesses and was termed as ‗new‘ advertising because it was a break from the routine during the late nineteenth century when the modern consumer culture had already taken birth. This kind of advertising for Ohrbach by Doyle Dane Bernbach (DDB) and other advertisers of the era were nothing short of a revolution during those times. Later on, in the 1960‘s a new term ‗Creative Revolution‘ was used for the changes brought about in advertising by Ohrbach as it opened up a new technique, a fresh style in which products were intended to be sold to consumers in the USA and other parts of the globe. Probably, this was made possible because Ohrbach ignored on research advertising and successfully launched creative angle in advertising.

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The traditional focus of the ads on elites, material gains, and a kind of authoritative directives were shed in favour of the focus on fun, wit and satire. The specific impact of the Ohrbach, and other, similar, campaigns were definitely on consumer culture, their behaviour and how America looked at ads, changed tremendously. Many authoritative writers still believe that there cannot be another revolution in advertising like the one brought about by a simple advertisement created by Ohrbach. Besides the pioneer of creative revolution, there are a few others too who are credited with contributing to this transformation. In his book, the famous advertising historian, Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool (1998), credits two other figures with major roles in the Creative Revolution—David Ogilvy and Leo Burnett. It is a well-known fact that David Ogilvy first worked in market research before venturing into designing ads which ultimately led to establishing his own agency, now known as Ogilvy & Mather. He never completely divorced himself from writing on various issues of advertising. His famous works, ‗Confessions of an Advertising Man‘ (1963), and ‗Ogilvy on Advertising‘ (1983) became best sellers around the world. The books, like his ads, were also equally creative as he took his readers on a ride of the world of advertising by very effectively deliberating his ideas and concepts about it. Bringing to the advertising world in New York, a stroke of British class, he infused an interesting perspective in his advertising. Ogilvy shuttled between the ‗image‘ school of MacManus and Rubicamand the ‗claim‘ school of Lasker and Hopkins. According to Kenneth Roman, he was (and still is) ‗The most famous advertising man in the world‘ (Adweek, 2011). He has often been called ‗The Father of Advertising‘ and in 1962, Time Magazine referred to him as ‗The most sought- after wizard in today's advertising industry‘. As founder of Ogilvy & Mather, he has expanded the boundaries of creativity. At the same time, Ogilvy brought the long- term concept of ‗brand image‘ from the academic world into business reality and thereby put a clear limit to short-term advertising goals. Or, as he put it: "Every advertisement is part of the long-term investment in the personality of the brand‖ (As stated in the Company website for Ogilvy and Mather). Leo Burnett‘s philosophy was to inculcate fine artwork while keeping the focus on real information, executed through mostly humour. Advocate of the Chicago School of Advertising, his style focussed on straightforward and warm

Advertising and Creativity communication that was simple and clear, and often involved ‗slice of life‘ and ‗people appeal‘. In continuation of the trends set by Ohrbach first, and then by Ogilvy, Burnett and Frank, highly attractive and innovative campaigns such as, Pepsi‘s ‗Think Young‘ and ‗Pepsi Generation‘ from Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn banked upon a new concept of establishing a relationship with the consumers instead of talking of their claims about the drink. This was done deliberately as earlier counter- cultures were treated with disdain, and as deviant, undesirable and marginalized, but marketers, through their ads, now attempted to connect with the market mainly targeting youngsters. Another uniqueness of the same period was that the blending of art and commerce became a benchmark of the decade. The ‗new advertising‘ took off from the visual medium of TV and the popular posters of the day, which featured large graphics and minimal copy for an astounding, histrionic effect. Print ads took on a realistic look, relying more on photography than illustration, and TV spots gained sophistication as new editing techniques were mastered. Coming back to the same period of around the late 1950s and extending into the early '60s, DDB again created one of the most celebrated campaigns in advertising history for Volkswagen to promote its tiny car ‗ Beetle‘ in the U.S. The ad came at a time when Americans were obsessed about large and fancy automobiles. DDB rather focussed on the car's ‗liabilities‘ and advertise it with uprightness. DDB's headlines ‘Lemon’, ‘Ugly’ and ‘Think small’ deviated from a well-ingrained ‗canon‘ in advertising by employing negativity to address a product's features. In the case of this small car, compared with the smallness of the insect ‗beetle‘ meant no frills, no glamour, no model and very little muscle. Wells, Rich, Greene's ‗The Disadvantages’ campaign for Benson & Hedges focused on a product gimmick-an extra-long cigarette. Rather than emphasizing the extra puffs a smoker got, the campaign humorously showed the number of ways a long cigarette could get in the way. The examples depicting the fast changes taking place in the ads, which were then being made and shown, were too numerous and varied. To cite a few of the ads of the period which were characterized by catchy slogans, such as Avis's ‘We try harder’, Esso's ‘Put a tiger in your tank’, Foster Grant's ‘Who's that behind those Foster Grants?’, Alka-Seltzer's ‘I can't believe I ate 51

Advertising and Creativity the whole thing’, Blackglama fur‘s ‘What becomes a legend most’ and Wisk detergent's ‘Ring around the collar’. All these ads have a unique and novel slogan, touching people‘s imagination about things they identify with. On the other hand, there were such path-breaking advertisements that were made for a political campaign, election to the most powerful office in the world, the election of the President of USA. The impact of this campaign was tremendous as others were characterized by their impact, such as the 1964 ‘Daisy’ TV spot for the Lyndon Johnson for Presidential campaign, which showed a girl counting daisy petals while a voice-over intoned a countdown leading to the detonation of a nuclear bomb the likely outcome, it was implied, if President Johnson's opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater, were to be elected president. Some campaigns became memorable for their special characters, such as the Maytag repairman, the Pillsbury Doughboy, Ronald McDonald and Charlie the Tuna. Others, such as a series of Canada Dry ads, were noteworthy for their visuals. Presenting the drink as less than perfect, Canada Dry headlines read ‘Sure we could make it cheaper’ or ‗We always said that nothing could compare with an ice-cold bottle of Canada Dry. We were wrong’. The copy offered further explanation and the sales pitch while the ads appealed to consumers' sense of humour, frankness and irony. The decade was also marked by innovative publications by various individuals, some with long histories in the industry. David Ogilvy became the most famous man in advertising in 1963 with the publication of his memoir, ‗Confessions of an Advertising Man‘ which sold 1 million copies and was translated into 14 languages world-wide. Some believe the decade's most influential ad figure was William Bernbach. Bernbach spoke to a new generation of consumers with a number of memorable campaigns during the 1960s, including work for Avis, Volkswagen and Ohrbach's. He structured Doyle Dane Bernbach around a partnership between copywriters and art directors, and the agency's revolutionary creative work made industry history. Another advertising superstar of the decade was Mary Wells Lawrence, who opened her agency, ‗Wells, Rich, Greene‘, in 1966 and quickly became one of the most influential women in advertising history. In 1969, she became the youngest person ever inducted into the Copywriters' Hall of Fame. Her Alka-Seltzer campaign, ‘No Matter What Shape Your Stomach's In’ caught the public's eye with its humour,

Advertising and Creativity human-interest approach and innovative style. Her sitcom-style Benson & Hedges commercials increased sales from 1.6 billion units in 1966 to 14.4 billion in 1970 (As cited in McDonough & Egolf, 2015, p. 790). The decade saw the final deterioration of the agency-TV network relationship in which the advertiser had complete control over the programming environment for its ad messages and the network provided the airtime and physical facilities. By the 1960s, the costs of programming had become so great that few advertisers could shoulder such a burden alone. By the end of the decade, participating sponsorship, in which national advertisers bought commercial slots from an inventory of network-supplied programming, was the norm. While magazines lost ad revenue to TV, newspapers, which relied less on national advertising, remained the dominant medium for most local advertisers. The oversized mass-audience magazines were hit hardest by competition from TV. While advertisers generally withdrew from magazines with broad readership, they did use special-interest publications to reach more narrowly defined audiences. Among the specialized magazines that emerged in the 1960s were regional and city magazines such as New York Magazine, Texas Monthly and Washingtonian. Small independent retail stores began to give way to supermarkets, discount stores and other self-service outlets. The trend towards pre-packaged products and self-service put the onus on advertising to promote specific brands and highlight their distinguishing features. Giving products a personality or image was rewarding. Avis became ‗the underdog‘, Volkswagen ‗the minimalist‘, and Esso the ‗tiger in your tank‘. The economies of scale in manufacturing and retailing meant an era of mergers and expansion, and the decade saw increasing numbers of companies, many of them U.S. based, becoming international in scope. The decade also witnessed the growth of franchises and retail chains, as well as concentration of ownership. By 1963, for example, regional chains such as A&P and Safeway controlled nearly half of all retail food sales. Ad agencies expanded operations as well, dealing with different types of clients and facing new marketing challenges. Mergers and acquisitions transformed agency identities, and a number of agencies went public. The first Madison Avenue agency to do so was Papert, Koenig, Lois in 1962; other agencies soon followed, and 53

Advertising and Creativity the initial public offering became an industry trend. At McCann-Erickson, Marion Harper masterminded the agency's financial growth in part through the acquisition of other agencies. His Interpublic Group of Cos. functioned as the parent for a number of agencies operating independently, thereby eliminating any problems with client conflict of interests. Harper's model for Interpublic also influenced other agencies that, later in the century, created their own holding company structures. Toward the end of the decade, with an economic recession looming, clients demanded that advertising justify its costs. In the agencies, accountants and business administrators were finding their way into positions formerly held by those from the creative side of the business. Market research again assumed a priority, edging out creativity as the hoped-for solution to the economic slowdown. Recession and a trend toward conservatism marked the end of a decade noted for its unprecedented creative surges in both advertising and culture as a whole. While the major established agencies of the decade prospered, new agencies were founded and new reputations made. Jack Tinker, Mary Wells, Jerry Della Femina, Jay Chiat, Julian Koenig, Eugene Case, Helmut Krone, Jane Trahey and Carl Ally were among the individuals ad folk would talk about for years. Chiat/Day, established in California in 1968, became one of the industry's success stories. What started in America spread its wings across the world and India was engulfed by it. This phenomenon was efficiently studied and presented in detail by William Mazzarella in his book titled ‗Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India‘. William Mazzarella traces the rise in India during the 1980s of mass consumption as a self-consciously sensuous challenge to the austerities of state-led developmentalism. He shows how the decisive opening of Indian markets to foreign brands in the 1990s refigured established models of the relationship between the local and the global and, ironically, turned advertising professionals into custodians of cultural integrity. In the phase just after liberalisation, advertising and consumer practices became much more open and global exchange and enrichment of art began, instigated by stricter competition between agencies, introduction of big agencies into India, and the quest for coming up with more creatively enriched advertising campaigns. Many scholars have presented a beautifully crafted account of advertising that shows how the industry that we see today has been journeyed.

Advertising and Creativity

With the growing influence of an open communication system around the world, Indian advertising industry started becoming much more technologically advanced with modern artwork creation techniques and use of computer aided visual designs, media houses started sowing their establishments and advertising agencies became specialised setups. As noted in the theoretically rich and ethnographically solid assessment of the Indian advertising industry in the book ‗Shoveling Smoke‘, Advertising played a serious role in the transformation of India, post liberalisation (p.153). The most popular campaigns of that period like Hero Honda, Hamara Bajaj, Amul ads and Nirma ads delicately melted the Indian sentiments with global culture. There is always a very strong yet fragile relationship between culture and consumerism and creative advertising is a proven tool to make this relationship stronger. There are in fact so many people whose creative bent of mind shaped the advertising industry as we witness it today: strong, massive and innovative. The artistic flair of the period that we now call ‗creative revolution‘ travelled beyond geographical boundaries, through ideologies of advertising and has affected India so much that India produces some of the most creative advertisements that are recognised the world over in festivals like Cannes. We can say with some confidence that during the 1960s, it wasn't just advertising that was transforming, it was actually part of a wider movement that both contributed to and was shaped by other cultural changes going on. Industries such as fashion, art, music and even the political world were undergoing huge shifts. After all, this was the era of Martin Luther King's enduring 'I have a dream' speech. New ways of thinking were emerging across the board which created the perfect conditions for a bunch of talented, and maybe even visionary, creative figures to burst into a kind of limelight very few can even dream of. Bernbach, Lois, Wells and the others involved certainly rose to the challenge and lived up to their names. Many would be surprised at their influence even on today's popular culture because some would still recognise a few of the campaigns that were launched all those years back. Influential imprints and ideological remnants of the period of the creative revolution continue to emboss in the contemporary advertising that we all witness today.

Advertising and Creativity

2.6 The Indian Advertising Scene The beginning of Indian advertising can be traced to the era when hawkers called out their goods, right from the times when markets and cities started developing. As the trading of wares produced were brought to the market place, the dawn of the signage, the trademarks, the print ads, wall paintings, and the like, developed. The dawn of the more organised advertising is ascribed to the classified advertising that was first seen in newspapers and magazines. To be more precise in tracing the history of advertising, it is said to have begun with Hickey’s Bengal Gazette which is claimed to be India‘s first newspaper. So far as the beginning of advertisements created in India is concerned, it began when studios started appearing in the country instead of being imported from England. These studios created bold type, ornamental fonts, more attractive and bigger ads and so on. So, it was the newspaper studios that actually became the pioneers in training the first band of visualizers and illustrators, in the real sense of the term. Looking back in time, we find that the major advertisers during that period were retailers like Spencer‘s, Army & Navy and Whiteaway and Laidlaw. Retailers‘ pricing catalogues that were also utilised for marketing promotions can be cited as examples of advertising promotions. And so were patented medicines which were advertised for increasing sales to prospective buyers. First such brand under this category was Horlicks which was marketed as ‗malted milk‘, patented in1883. When advertisements began to be launched to lure customers, agencies to make these ads could not be left behind. B. Dattaram and Co. is often quoted as the first Indian agency making ads in 1902 in what was then known as Bombay. Subsequently more agencies started entering the field, including some from abroad. Ogilvy and Mather and Hindustan Thompson Associate agencies were established In India in the first quarter of the last century. Besides these so many other smaller campaigns were launched to promote a few brands, Hindustan Lever‘s 1939 campaign to launch Dalda, a vegetable ghee, became an advertisement par excellence, indigenously produced, so far as its market and retain value is concerned. There was so much activity suddenly seen in the field of advertising during the period that the need for organisations was felt to safeguard their interests. Resultantly, in the 1950s, a number of advertising associations were set up to safeguard the interests of various advertisers in the industry. Fast growing

Advertising and Creativity advertising industry made inroads even in government agencies like state controlled radio and later television. The first commercial was aired on Vividh Bharati, a radio music programme in 1967, and the first television commercial was telecast on state television in 1978. There was hectic activity going on to advertise all kinds of wares on radio and television including sponsored soap operas like; Humlog, Yeh Jo Hai Zindagi, Buniyaad etc., on TV. The first India-specific satellite channel, Zee TV, the offspring of that era, started its broadcasts in 1991. With the massive spurt due to introduction of colour television telecasts and opening up of several channels that were not state- owned during the same period, it was impossible to contain the growth of advertising business in the country. The golden era of TV channels around 1995, a great gush in media boom with the growth of cable and satellite and increase of titles in the print medium, saw a huge opportunity for business and advertisers. Advertising specific websites were the result of this boom, one of the earliest such agency was ‘agencyfaqs’, which is today named as, ‘afaqs’. It marked the beginning of a huge boost to advertising in the years to come. What followed thereafter was an enigma for the booming advertising industry because it coincided with economic liberalization and globalization by the government. The licence raj was gradually abandoned through successive industrial policy resolutions paving the way for MNCs to enter the big Indian market. All major global industrial giants entered the Indian market with a bang. The flailing Indian economy suddenly got a spurt in FDIs bringing advertising firms for the Indian ad industry to compete and to find a niche for itself in a highly competitive ad world.

2.6.1 Sustained Growth of the Advertising Market in India In the post economic liberalization in India, there has been a regularly increasing craving for a better standard of living among people of India. This craving proved to be a catalyst for the people to nurse desires for global standards in consumer items they use in their daily lives. Advertising industry, in the rise of these consumerist desires, benefited the most because no consumer culture could sustain without advertising industry playing a big role. There has been no looking back for the advertising industry since then as the growth graph is on a continuous upward trend.

Advertising and Creativity

The growth trajectory has been going through such a north bound trend that the forecasts by many research and survey firms predicted this rise to continue for many years to come. One of the world‘s leading research and advisory firms, IMARC, predicted this growth to continue because of the fact that the Indian economy is on the rise which meant a similar rise in the ad industry as well. However, this growth may not be the same in all sectors and segments of the ad industry. Based on the current boom in the IT industry, it was also predicted that newer segments like cell phones or internet advertising would be significantly higher than before and in comparison to traditional sectors like print or electronic media. Another report by IMARC‘s on Indian Advertising Market Report for the period 2012-2016 provides a statistical discernment based on analytical study into the advertising industry in India along with its various sectors and sub-sectors. The survey conducted by IMARC was undertaken by applying both desk-based and qualitative primary research methodology. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the Indian advertising industry from an empirical angle. Their report provided a very useful guide for investors, academics, scholars, consultants, marketing and media planners, advertisers, radio and television broadcasters, businessmen and traders and all others who would like to enter the Indian advertising market in one form or the other, and in one segment or the other.

2.6.2 Contribution of Media and Entertainment to the Growth of the Advertising Industry in India No study on advertising industry could be of much significance without relating it to the media and entertainment industries because most of the advertisements that are made to lure customers into buying products would find them closely following media and entertainment. It is also a fact that the Indian media and entertainment industry is a fast growing business in the country. The segments associated with media and entertainment may have films, television, print media, music and videos and the like has seen incredible advancement in the last two decades. The contribution by the digital medium has been the largest among the fastest growing sections of the media and entertainment industry. Jehil Thakkar, Head (Media & Entertainment Practice), KPMG gave a very bright picture of the overall Indian media and entertainment industry which saw a growth of 11.8 percent growth in 2013 while the same period saw a growth of around 40 percent in digital

Advertising and Creativity

advertising and gaming. He added that "Digital ads grew upon a much larger base than last year; digital advertising last year comprised eight per cent of the overall advertising pie in 2013 compared to five per cent last year‖ (FICCI-KPMG Press Release, 2013). According to the FICCI-KPMG Report 2015, Indian media and entertainment industry is expected to reach Rs 1,964 billion by 2019. The television sector witnessed a promising advertising growth in the wake of increased spends from 2014 general elections and expansion in budget allocation for media spending and advertising, specially e-commerce online advertising initiatives. The report also explicated that the sector-wise revenue generation is contributed highest by revenue from advertising. The table given below demonstrates advertising revenues and projections in India with different sections of media and the key drivers of growth.

Table 2.1: The Indian Advertising Industry: Size and Projections

Overall Industry Size Growth CAGR (INR in 2014 (2014- 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015p 2016p 2017p 2018p 2019p Billion) over 2013 2019p) For (%) (%) Calendar Years 103. TV 82 88 116.0 124.8 135.9 154.9 14 174.6 198.4 226.2 260.1 299.1 14.1 0 110. 126. Print 108.0 139.4 149.6 162.6 176.4 8.5 192.6 211.8 232.9 255.2 280 9.7 4 0 Radio 8.4 8.3 10.0 11.5 12.7 14.6 17.2 17.6 19.6 22.3 27.0 32.7 39.5 18.1 OOH 16.1 13.7 16.5 17.8 18.2 19.3 22.0 14 24.4 27.1 29.6 32.2 35.1 9.8 Digital 6.0 8.0 10.0 15.4 21.7 30.1 43.5 44.5 62.5 84.0 115.3 138.2 162.5 30.2 Adv. Total 221 228 266 300 327 362.5 414.0 14.2 474 544 631 718 816 14.5 Source: FICCI-KPMG Indian Media and Entertainment Industry Report, 2015.

The faith in digital advertising in media and entertainment industry was not based on hollow claims or on trial and error basis, as is evident from the FICCI– KPMG report claims that India‘s M&E industry reaches 161 million TV households; 94,067 newspapers; about 2000 multiplexes; and 214 million internet users, of which 130 million access the Internet on their mobile phones. Therefore, it was but natural that advertising industry would continue to focus more on digital advertising in the years to come. The renowned Gunn Report for Media (2014) in its global evaluation of media creativity, innovation and effectiveness has ranked India at number 3 position in its

Advertising and Creativity category of ‗Most awarded countries in Media 2014‘. This shows how India is steadily climbing up the ladder for the global advertising and creativity specialists of the world. According to the same source, it is contemplated that the television industry in India, which was estimated at Rs 41,720 crore (US$ 6.94 billion) in 2013, is projected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16.2 per cent over the period extending to 2018, and is likely to reach a colossal Rs 88,500 crore (US$ 14.72 billion) by 2018. It is also visualized that, with an estimated market extent of US$ 5 billion, India is the 13th biggest advertising market globally, as per the2015country-wise creative ranking Gunn Report (With J Walter Thompson, McCann World group and Contract Advertising achieving prominent positions). Digital advertising is also expected to witness a CAGR of 27.7 per cent by 2018. Such rankings reveal the up scaling position of Indian advertising in the global map of creative excellence in advertising. It is a foregone conclusion now that India‘s media and entertainment industry will remain with the digital segment in years ahead too. With a growing internet user base of over 200 million, the industry‘s potential to augment revenue is huge. From 2013 onwards, telecom companies laid their focus on data as a sure shot method for amassing revenue. With ever growing media and entertainment industry in India, the future is even brighter as companies are likely to vie with each other to grab the massive potential on social media and digital realms. All the promising and positive statistics indicate towards the vital fact that the future of the Indian advertising industry rests with the power and strength of its creativity and innovative thinking.

2.6.3 The Advertising Domain in India This impressive journey of the advertising industry in India was brought forth due to increasing brand awareness amongst the Indian youth combined with the increased purchasing power of the upper class in tier II and III cities. By an estimate thrown up by ASSOCHAM-YES Bank joint study (2015), spending by Indian consumers is likely to see a quadruple growth reaching to US$ 4.2 trillion by 2017. According to the joint report, the Indian luxury market is estimated to be worth US$ 18 billion by 2017 from the current level of US$ 14 billion with unprecedented growth in luxury categories including fashion, automobiles and fine dining. Such high growth potential

Advertising and Creativity in consumer spending naturally attracts huge interest in different marketing and strategy initiatives, including advertising potentialities. While various estimates exist on the size and growth potential of the Indian luxury market; most estimates are unanimous on anticipated growth rates of 20 per cent given the tremendous potential in products such as apparel and accessories, pens, home d cor, watches, wines & spirits & jewellery, services: spas, concierge service, travel & tourism, fine dining & hotels and assets: yachts, fine art, automobiles, real estate, to name just a few. The advertising industry is also aware of the governmental support to this growth pattern. Expenditure on advertising is likely to increase in the financial sector too, riding on the current Reserve Bank of India (RBI) policies which could result in a more favourable business environment. Also, proposed licences for new banks and better market sentiments render the advertising and marketing industry in India a fertile space. Given below is a table showing the top advertisers on television (product categories).

Table 2.2: The Top Advertisers on Television – Product Categories Top 10 Super Categories in 2010 on TV Rank Super Categories % Share 1 Food & Beverages 14 2 Personal Care / Personal Hygiene 13 3 Services 6 4 Hair Care 5 5 Personal Accessories 4 6 Telecom / Internet Service Providers 4 7 Auto 4 8 Banking / Finance / Investment 3 9 Household Products 3 10 Personal Healthcare 3 The Top 10 Super Categories in 2011 on TV Rank Super Categories % Share 1 Food & Beverages 13 2 Personal Care / Personal Hygiene 13 3 Services 7 4 Hair Care 5 5 Personal Accessories 5 6 Telecom / Internet Service Providers 4 7 Auto 3 8 Banking / Finance / Investment 3 9 Household Products 3 10 Personal Healthcare 3 Rank The Top 10 Super Categories in 2012 on TV % Share 1 Food & Beverages 14

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2 Personal Care / Personal Hygiene 12 3 Services 7 4 Hair Care 5 5 Personal Accessories 5 6 Auto 4 7 Personal Healthcare 4 8 Building, Industrial & Land Materials / Equipment 3 9 Household Products 3 10 Telecom / Internet Service Providers 3 Source: Vanita-Kohli Khandekar provided in The Indian Media Business, SAGE (2013).

The above table displays the top advertisers with reference to product categories and it is apparent that advertising occupies a primary investment area for varied categories of products.

2.6.4 Market Size With the luxury market expected to grow at over 25 per cent year on year, Private Equity investments in the luxury segment are expected to increase and support the enhanced size of the Indian luxury market (ASSOCHAM-YES bank 2015 report). High internet penetration across tier-II and tier-III cities along with high disposable income shall lead to approximately 80 million transactions on the internet by 2020. As a result, the luxury consumption is going to increase manifold in the country.With this level of growth and subsequent investment from luxury businesses, it is estimated that by 2020 the luxury market in India will be responsible for employing 1.8 million people (ASSOCHAM-YES bank 2015 report). This will not only help in preserving traditional craft skills and heritage, but will also support communities, create employment and provide training. The online advertising market in India will touch Rs 3,575 crore (577.97 million) by mid 2015, a 30 per cent rise from Rs 2,750 crore (US$ 444.59 million) in mid 2014, as per a joint study by the Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) and IMRB International. Of the current Rs 2,750 crore (US$ 444.59 million) digital advertisement market, search and display contribute the most - search advertisements constitute 38 per cent of total advertisement spends followed by display advertisement at 29 per cent, as per the study. The internet's share in total advertising revenue is anticipated to grow twofold from eight per cent in 2013 to 16 per cent in 2018, as per a 2013 joint report by Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC). Online advertising, which was estimated at Rs 2,900 crore (US$ 468.84 million) in 2013,

Advertising and Creativity could jump threefold to Rs 10,000 crore (US$ 1.61 billion) in five years, increasing at a compound annual rate of 28 per cent. Also, according to the report, Indians paid Rs 25,200 crore (US$ 4.07 billion) to access the internet in 2013, a figure greater than the Rs 22,300 crore (US$ 3.61 billion) the print medium garnered in subscription and advertising.

2.6.5 Initiatives in the Pipeline  Google is all set to help India implement Prime Minister Mr NarendraModi's ‗Digital India initiative, and the government has a well laid out plan to realise it, said Google's Chief Internet Evangelist Vinton G. Cerf. Digital India is a Rs 1.13 trillion (US$ 18.27 billion) government initiative that seeks to transform the country into a connected economy, attract investment in electronics manufacturing, and create millions of jobs and support trade.  As companies look for better productivity and increasing efficiencies in a tough market environment, market research firm Nielsen has launched its first consumer neuroscience lab in India at its Mumbai headquarters. The neuroscience lab will augment the company's research capabilities in packaging and research, improving their effectiveness.  ZipDial has become the first Indian technology product startup to be bought by Twitter in what is the third such deal led by a global corporation following the acquisitions by Facebook and Yahoo. The ZipDial deal is expected to cost Twitter US$ 34-35 million. This feature is expected to help Twitter reach people who will come online for the first time in countries such as Brazil, India and Indonesia, mostly using a mobile device.  Telecom major Axiata's subsidiary, Axiata Digital Advertising (ADA) has formed a joint venture with US-based advertising tech firm Adknowledge to get into the US$ 47 billion digital ad market in the Asia Pacific region and has identified India as a 'key' market.

2.6.6 Government Plans The governments of India and Canada have signed an audio-visual co-production deal which facilitates producers from both countries to harness their collective artistic, technical, financial and marketing resources, and encourage exchange of culture and art between the two countries. The agreement is also likely to lead to better promotion 63

Advertising and Creativity of Indian locales for shooting films. "The agreement will also lead to the transparent funding of film production and boost export of Indian films into the Canadian market," as per the agreement. India and Poland are seeking to enhance cooperation in the digitisation and restoration of film archives. This was decided in a meeting between Mr Bimal Julka, Secretary of Information and Broadcasting, India, and a delegation from Poland led by Ms Malgorzata Omilanowska, Secretary of State. The two countries will form a joint working group that will help improve cooperation in fields such as student exchange programmes, animation, films and digitisation, among others. The advertising and marketing sector in India is expected to enjoy a good run. Growth is expected in retail advertisement, on the back of factors such as several players entering the food and beverages segment, e-commerce gaining more popularity in the country, and domestic companies testing out the waters. The rural region is a potentially profitable target. For instance, in the automobiles sector, the focus of two-wheelers on rural areas could mean more launches and more advertising spends. The telecom sector could see growth as well, driven by better smartphone penetration and service providers cutting down on prices. In the table given below, a list of the top advertisers and the percentage share in radio market is given for 3 consecutive years. Table 2.3: The Top 10 Advertisers on Radio The Top 10 Advertisers in 2010 on Radio Rank Advertisers % Share 1 Bharti Airtel Ltd 2 2 Vodafone Essar Ltd 1 3 Tata Teleservices 1 4 Pantaloons Retail India Ltd 1 5 Nokia Corporation 1 6 Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 1 7 Hindustan Lever Ltd 1 8 Coca Cola India Ltd 0.9 9 Idea Cellular Ltd 0.9 10 Quick Heal Technologies Pvt Ltd 0.8 Top 10 Advertisers in 2011 on Radio Rank Advertisers % Share 1 Tata Teleservices 2 2 Ministry of Health & Family Welfare 1 3 Bharti Airtel Ltd 1 4 Pantaloons Retail India Ltd 1 5 Maruti Udyog Ltd 1 6 Nokia Corporation 1 7 Life Insurance Corporation of India 1

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8 Tata Motors Ltd 0.9 9 Hindustan Lever Ltd 0.8 10 Cadburys India Ltd 0.8 Top 10 Advertisers in 2012 on Radio Rank Advertisers % Share 1 Maruti Udyog Ltd 1 2 Gujarat Tourism 1 3 Bharti Airtel Ltd 1 4 Tata Motors Ltd 1 5 Bhartiya Janata Party 1 6 Life Insurance Corporation of India 1 7 Samsung India Electronics Ltd 1 8 Hindustan Lever Ltd 0.8 9 Pantaloons Retail India Ltd 0.8 10 Coca Cola India Ltd 0.8 Source: Vanita-Kohli Khandekar provided in The Indian Media Business, SAGE (2013). Notes: 1.The values are according to Adex India (A division of TAM media Research). The ranking is based on volumes of advertising. Volumes being measured in advertising seconds on radio. 2. (It is a reproduction of the data compiled by Vanita-Kohli Khandekar provided in The Indian Media Business, SAGE, 2013).

2.6.7 Advertising Settings Companies in the advertising and public relations service industry prepare advertisements for other companies and organisations and design campaigns to promote the interests and image of their clients. This industry also includes media representatives-firms that sell advertising space for publications, radio, television, and the Internet; display advertisers-businesses engaged in creating and designing public display ads for use in shopping malls, on billboards, or in similar media; and direct mail advertisers. A firm that purchases advertising time (or space) from media outlets, thereafter reselling it to advertising agencies or individual companies directly, is termed a media buying agency. Most advertising firms specialise in a particular market niche. Some companies produce and solicit outdoor advertising, such as billboards and electric displays. Others place ads in buses, subways, taxis, airports, and bus terminals. A small number of firms produce aerial advertising, while others distribute circulars, handbills, and free samples. Groups within agencies have been created to serve their clients‘ electronic advertising needs on the Internet. Online advertisements link users to a company or product‘s website, where information such as, new product announcements, contests, and product catalogue appears, and from which purchases may be made.

Advertising and Creativity

Table 2.4: The Shape of the Indian Outdoor Market The Players The Format Site Owners Outdoor Media Media Buying Advertiser / Client Company Agency Traditional Bulletins Selvel Jagran Engage Ogilvy Vodafone Landscapes Posters creation Reliance (Big Portland (JWT) ICICI Bank Street) Spectacular Pioneer Serve & Volley Tata Sky displays Outdoor Wall murals Symbiosis Pioneer Advertising Vinyla Bright Prime Site Wrapped Advertising Posters Roshan Selvel Publicity Creation Non-Traditional Street Furniture Bus Shelters Civic Clear Channel authorities / Government Kiosks JCDeceaux Gantries Times Innovative Media Mobile Serve & Volley Billboards Outdoor News Stands Laqshya Media Phone Booths Telephone & electricity poles Transit Buses / Trams Civic / TDI Transport International authorities Airports / Laqshya Media Planes Subways / Rail Trucksides Source: Vanita-Kohli Khandekar provided in The Indian Media Business, SAGE (2013). Notes: 1.The companies listed against different types of players are examples of firms in the space. They may or may not be in another space. For instance, Creation is an outdoor media company and a site owner. 2. The list of agencies and advertisers is just to illustrate a point and is by no means exhaustive.(It is a reproduction of the data compiled by Vanita-Kohli Khandekar provided in The Indian Media Business, SAGE, 2013).

Advertising and Creativity

2.6.8 Overview of Advertising Industry in India The structure of the advertising industry in Asia Pacific, including India, is affected by globalisation and international alignments creating a smaller number of very large agencies and the growth of independent major media buying houses. Very sophisticated software up gradation and planning systems are now integral to the industry, enabling agencies to offer a unique positioning in the marketplace to attract new business. American companies are discovering the appeal of marketing their products in India. With a population of over 1.2 billion, and a middle class that's larger than the total population of the United States, there's definitely money to be made. Local retailers in apparels, food, watches and jewellery have all increased their average ad spending by almost 50% in the past two years. Coupled with many other local players, big retailing brands are spending to the tune of Rs 12,000 crores annually on advertising and promotional activities. This figure, according to industry estimates (India Bizclub report, January 2015) was less than Rs 400 crores about 3 years ago, which means the growth has been a whopping 40%. The local firms are using all the available advertising tools from electronic to print, outdoor advertising and even models. The advertising and promotional spending by local brands has been substantial during the festival season and almost 70% of the spending is done between September to January. The advertising industry in India is growing at an average rate of 10-12% per annum. Over 80% of the business is from Mumbai and Delhi followed by Bangalore and Chennai.

2.6.9 Online Advertising Online advertising spending is increasing fast and is expected to continue this growth rate in future too. Marketers are responding to the economic challenges with new techniques and strategies, along with research data to prove their effectiveness. According to statistics, online ad spending has reached $23 billion (Internet and Mobile Association of India (IAMAI) and IMRB International Report 2014). Nonetheless, nearly three-quarters of web advertising space goes unsold and more than 99.7 per cent of banner ads are not clicked on, as revealed by major service providers. It has been found that despite the spiralling effects of the economic slowdown in recent years, the online advertising arena has shown much resilience. The most 67

Advertising and Creativity notable growth was from the smallest segment of the industry by size – internet advertising. Though, this segment grew by 20.0% in 2009, it was well below the growth of 85% in 2008 (Campaign India report, 2010). The digital media advertising grew by 44.5% in 2014 (according to FICCI-KPMG 2015 report) and continues to fuel overall advertising revenue. Greater digital penetration and awareness among all sectors of the Indian media industry, specially the small and medium sized ad agencies; increased television reach and large-scale impact of the smart phone market and enhanced campaign spending during elections have been identified as important drivers of growth for the Indian media, advertising and entertainment industry during 2014.

2.6.10 The Future of Advertising Industry in India The advertising industry in India has several competitive advantages which ensures steady growth. India has a rich pool of strategic planning, creative and media services personnel. Indeed, Indian advertising industry has been exporting senior-level talent to many countries, particularly to the Gulf, South-East Asia, China, the UK and the US. Indian talent is recognised and respected in global agency networks.

 No other country has access to so many trained management graduates who can provide strategic inputs for brand and media planning.  Indians are multicultural: we learn at least two languages and that gives us a head start in understanding cultural diversity.  Most of the top 20 agencies in India have a global partner or owner, which should provide an immediate link to global markets.  Our production standards in TV and print have improved: With a vibrant animation software industry, we have access to this area of TV production.  India's advanced IT capabilities can be used to develop web-based communication packages for global clients. The Indian advertising industry is a very fast growing and promising sector but there is a cut-throat competition and the fittest and the best is likely to survive. In this sector what matters the most is knowledge and experience of the work, and also of the industry and its functioning. The more the knowledge you can provide, the better the productivity you give. By all accounts, advertising industry is going to have a

Advertising and Creativity massive growth in years to come, and shall continue to baffle researchers and surveyors for the massive leaps visualised in the field of marketing and advertising.

2.7 Honouring Creativity Young and Rubicam (2010) in their company pamphlet introduce themselves as, ―We are a creative company with 186 offices and 7000 colleagues united around a single mission: To Resist the Unusual‖, truly bespeaking of creativity as the central identification to their existence as a business entity. Each year, there are many awards that are given to the most creative and effective campaigns from the arena of advertising both, internationally and nationally. These awards have been constituted to recognise the importance of creativity, and to help discover the most creative and sophisticated campaigns from around the world. In the same way, Indian advertising industry has produced some of the most memorable and iconic campaigns, winning many world-renowned awards throughout the journey. Advertising for brands like Amul, Fevicol, Cadbury’s, Maggi, Coca Cola, Hero Honda, Bajaj, Vodafone, and many more have put India on the global map of advertising creative excellence, and that too, very impressively. Prasoon Joshi, Piyush Pandey, Prahlad Kakkar, Rahul daCunha, R. Balki, are just some of the names that represent the multitude of creatively enriched minds that the Indian advertising industry can boast of. Some of the world‘s largest awards that have been instituted for recognition of the most outstanding works of advertising and marketing are the CLIO awards, the EFFIE awards, the 3AF awards, AME awards, OBIE award, Cannes Lions awards, Goafest awards and many more. At the core of these awards presented in recognition of creative excellence, is the belief that creativity is the driving force for business, for change and for the good of all stake holders. Known to be the campaigners of creativity, award institutions, in their attempt to inspire creative bravery, establish a long-standing, solid tradition to encourage and promote creativity which gains a lot of admiration and reverence worldwide by setting a global benchmark for what good creativity looks like. By admiration of the creative strategy in the context of market communications and planning, what is evident clearly is that ‗creativity‘ is the powerhouse of unique, different and novel ideas that captivate an audience and help in branding. With a pool of the advertising industry‘s best minds and most creative 69

Advertising and Creativity talents in their judgement panels, winning such an award is a mark of credibility, quality and prestige for the advertising agency and everyone associated with it. Creativity, of course, is also the selling point of almost every agency or agency-like company trying to make a living in the widening domain of marketing services. Aptly described as the one central element in the definition of an advertising agency, creativity is encouraged by constituting awards as a mark of appreciation and credibility. According to West (1993), award winning advertisements have greater face and content validity and therefore, such award winning advertisements are often used as a better measure of advertising creativity research (Kover, Goldberg & James, 1995; Stone & Besser, 2000; Till & Baack, 2005). Award winning creative advertising is considered as one of the effective ways of attracting new clients (Schweitzer and Hester, 1992). For some agencies, it is all about creativity when they proclaim, ―We are creative problem-solvers‖ (Naked Communications, 2010). To honour the absolute necessity that creativity holds for the advertising business, there are many magazines like ‗Creativity‘, and ‗Creative Review‘ named after it in the West. In India, magazines and online portals like Campaign India, Afaqs, and Advertising Age devote a considerable segment to the theme of creativity in each issue. World celebrated ad agency, Ogilvy and Mather in 2010 revealed that they put the creative function at the top of their priorities. Similarly, DDB, a celebrated worldwide marketing communications company in 2010 declared, ―Creativity is the most powerful force in business...DDB pursues collaborative relationships with clients and partners to find the hidden potential of people, brands and business through creativity‖ (DDB, 2010). Another famous advertising agency in its pitch presentation highlighted its creativity-led strategic approach by saying, ―We connect ideas and innovations to deliver award-winning results for the world‘s leading brands.‖ (AKQA, 2010). Awards and recognition act as an emblem of pride for the big and small advertising agencies who strive hard to find those ‗unique‘ and striking ‗big ideas‘ to fetch a positive and strong identity for clients and in that process, build up a trustworthy, credible and flourishing portfolio for the agencies themselves.

Advertising and Creativity

With a spurt in advertising festivals like Digital Asia Festival, Cannes Lions Awards and the like, there has been an increased awareness and realization that creativity is a quality worth awarding and encouraging, and brings to the fore the best in the business. Many marketers believe that these festivals qualify as a promising platform where they can interact with advertisers and media and make an impression. Digital Callout, 2013, reports that out of a total of 7 shortlisted agency campaigns from India, four won Effie awards for creative excellence, thereby further strengthening India‘s foray into producing great campaigns since the creative revolution. The Effie awards known to be the most prominent awards for marketing excellence globally, has recognised some very promising creative works by the Indian advertising industry. In the recently hosted 2015 APAC Effie Awards, India emerged as the biggest winner this year, taking a total of 18 awards including the Grand Effie. Australia and New Zealand followed with 15 and 11 awards, respectively (Afaqs, 2015). The grand stage saw a host of prominent and credible Indian advertising agencies being awarded for their creative excellence with Ogilvy & Mather (Mumbai) bagging the prestigious 'Agency of the Year' title while Havas Worldwide winning the Grand Effie for its 'No Child Brides' campaign for Child Survival India, in the Goodworks Non-Profit category. Lowe Lintas and Partners has been declared as the Most Effective Agency in India, with securing the number 5 position globally, a feat that India definitely shall be proud of for its creativity and advertising culture. A clearly elated Piyush Pandey who is the executive chairman and creative director, Ogilvy South Asia exclaimed, ―I am truly blessed to be surrounded with so much great talent focussed on creating great work. The APAC Effie Agency of the Year is a fantastic triumph. I salute our people and all our clients who constantly partner us to create this wonderful body of work that the world celebrates.‖ An amalgamation of gold, silver and bronze medals went to some of the best Indian advertising agencies like Ogilvy and Mather, Lowe Lintas, McCann Erikson, Soho Square etcetera for iconic campaigns like political party BJP‘s ‗Abki Baar Modi Sarkar’ ; 'From Dark to Connectivity' for Unilever India; 'No Child Brides' ; Grey's work for Fiat India - 'Great Just Became Interesting'; Coca Cola's 'Taking on Formality in Indian Homes' campaign; and Hindustan Unilever Limited 'Taste of Togetherness', to name just a few. 71

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Celebrated agency, Lowe Lintas, won Effie 2015 for its unique campaign ‗Brave and Beautiful‘ for Dabur India, showcasing beauty is beyond the face, with the central character being a cancer survivor. A creative blend of functional proposition and empathic elements, carefully presented according to Indian sensitivities, appealed to most people and instantly revamped Dabur‘s brand image. A recent issue of Business Today (June, 2013) proudly read, ―33 'metals' at Cannes: Indian advertising bounces back‖, proclaiming a staggering victory, reflective of the immensely creative campaigns conceived and developed by Indian advertising agencies, that won awards at the prestigious Cannes Awards 2013. India‘s major agencies including McCann Erickson, Lowe Lintas, Ogilvy, and others bagged many awards for their superior work. To encourage originality in advertising ideas, a member on the panel of jurists at Cannes, Padhy, invoked the advertising agencies to produce better creative work, garnished with a simple yet powerful idea. In this milieu, Sabnavis, Vice-Chairman, Ogilvy India, agrees by saying, "India's performance at Cannes this year has been stupendous not just in terms of the metals we have won, but also the quality of the work entered‖ (Business Today, June, 2013). Goafest 2015, an award show organized by the Advertising Agencies Association and the Advertising Club of India, witnessed Indian advertising agencies again taking the lead with JWT India winning 9 Gold, 9 Gold, 8 Silver and 18 Bronze creative Abby awards (afaqs, 2015). In the 2013 Goafest, Pepsi‘s ‗The Game Campaign‘ and Airtel‘s ‗Har Ek Friend Zaroori Hota Hai’ campaign’, were commercially as well as critically acclaimed for their power-packed original ideas. As a fitting testimony to the centrality of creativity and its growing recognition by practitioners and audiences alike, Kyoorius recently launched a festival to recognize and nurture creativity in advertising, media, digital and marketing industries. The festival was named Melt 2015 and is truly a one-of-its kind initiative which included practical workshops and awards commemorating great campaigns. Goenka, MD and CEO of Zee Entertainment Enterprises Limited (ZEEL), commented on this new kind of festival, ―India‘s largest celebration of creativity.‖ Many top management executives also highlighted the importance of such festivals encouraging insight, creativity and craftsmanship for the economic, cultural and social milieu. Award winning advertisements such as the recent ‘Squirrel Dance’ ad for Nestle‘s ‘Kit Kat’, conceptualised by JWT India, was a fresh and musical

Advertising and Creativity rendition subtly implying to the people to grab a few moments from their busy lives to share with their family and appreciate the simple joys of life. Such innovative approaches reflect on a creative leap that the Indian advertising industry has achieved with fresh, novel and different ideas, using a fine mix of emotional and humour appeal that focuses not on the brand, but on the benefit, with its proposition, ‘Have a break, have a Kit-Kat’. This creative advertising technique touched the hearts of millions and was an instant hit, creating a lot of positive attention for the brand. In spite of such good work in recent years, some critics point out that advertising is losing its touch with engaging the consumers deeply enough. What remains to be seen and what we intend to discover in our thesis here is a pertinent aspect whether advertisers still regard creativity as highest priority in advertising and what it means to them.

2.8 Difference between Creativity in Advertising and Creativity in General The nexus between creativity and advertising is one that is extensive, antique, complex, rich and textured. And there are strands of differences between creativity in a ‗general‘ sense and creativity as an aspect of ‗advertising‘. Creativity is something that we are all innately born with; however, it may largely mean different things to different people. Creativity is highly subjective and may be recognised, executed and be thought of differently by individuals. This very aspect of creativity, of individuality and subjectivity, makes it an even more challenging and an interesting phenomenon to delve into. However, it is pertinent in the realm of this research to understand the subtle difference between creativity in general and creativity in advertising. He distinctiveness between the two has been beautifully expressed by Bill Bernbach, Former Chairman & CEO, Doyle Dane Bernbach (now DDB) as, ―Merely to let your imagination run riot, to dream unrelated dreams, to indulge in graphic acrobatics and verbal gymnastics is not being creative. The creative person has harnessed his imagination. He has disciplined it so that every thought, every idea, every word he puts down, every line he draws, every light and shadow in every photograph he takes make more vivid, more believable, more persuasive, the original theme or product advantage he has decided he must convey‖ (As cited in Encyclopaedia of Creativity, 1999, p. 27).

Advertising and Creativity

Clearly communicated by Bernbach‘s words, it is imperative to understand how and why creativity differs when applied to different settings. While imaginativeness, inventiveness, newness and the use of new ideas to create something novel can mean creativity in the arts, all of this can mean creativity in the business of advertising as well, when coupled with a certain strategic, marketing or advertising objective. Creative chaos in the copywriter‘s mind with a certain degree of order or direction to it is more needed in advertising business. This direction is often controlled by the client‘s expectations and the campaign‘s strategic aim. This is better expressed in the eminent advertising educator, Gordon White‘s words, ―Creativity in advertising is creativity on demand - creativity with a deadline - creativity within strict parameters, where the poet may create to please himself and his loyal clique, the advertising writer must create to please a profit-conscious client and an indifferent public. Where the scientists may create an innovation without full awareness of its ultimate application, the advertising writer knows the ultimate application is what will make him a flash or a flop" (As cited in Encyclopaedia of Creativity, 1999). McCaskey (1996), highlighted ‗spontaneity‘ as a key characteristic of creativity when he retorted, ‗it leaps, dances and surprises in ways that baffle and astound, delight and amaze the purely logical in us‘ and also drew attention to the broader goal- oriented framework (specific to advertising creativity) by saying that it should also be ‗logical, comprehensible and manageable‘ (As cited in Brashear & Granot, 2008). All these varied ideas, in different streams of thought by different researchers point to an underlined aspect of an ‗orderly chaos‘, where imagination meets structure in ways suited to the client or brand being advertised. It has to serve a purpose and that purpose has to be creatively designed for effective, memorable and impactful advertising. The presence of a domain with its own body of knowledge is applicable for professions like advertising, along with many other sciences and arts. However, this domain may be more rigid in scientific disciplines than advertising. In advertising, creativity is bound by domains created by the advertiser‘s creative brief that is provided to the agency‘s client servicing executive who works in coordination with the creative specialist to come up with an innovative communication solution that treads along the directions given in the creative brief. They cannot let their creativity

Advertising and Creativity run wild, it has to be tamed with what purpose is the advertising trying to achieve for the prospective brand image. Fletcher (1990) and Andriopoulas and Gotsi (2000) highlighted that creative advertising industry is quite discernible from other business sectors on the basis of the fact that the advertising output is conceptualised solely on the strength of their creativity. The notion of relevance supports the fact that advertising needs to be creative enough but also keep track of the bigger picture and situational boundaries like the client‘s marketing objectives, its strategic direction, and its target audience. Creativity in a non-advertising context like fine arts, or cooking or building a craft project, is somewhat free from this contextual constraint, as its goal is to please or stimulate the viewer visually (or through other senses). However, an important consideration for advertising is to strike the right balance; it has to not be so free-flowing that it transgresses novelty, and risks losing its credibility while also keep its creativity intact to catch people‘s attention. Mednick (1962) actively advocates the belief that the real productivity in employing creative techniques and new ways of saying what a brand wants to portray lies in its capacity to meet certain specified objectives. For example, a brand of soft drink might want to reposition itself as a drink for the youth; which means that the advertising agency‘s job is to make a creatively enriched ad that clearly supports the brand in communicating this objective to the target audience. Incoherence and lack of linkage between the advertising message, its creative techniques, its jingles and visuals, and the brand‘s core proposition will not lead to a successful advertising campaign. It may not be useful for advertising if it is just a good looking and innovative idea for an ad until it matches with the brand‘s marketing objectives. Also, the probability of finding a creative solution increases when a person has more number of facts underlying a requisite problem that he is trying to develop a creative solution for (Mednick, 1962). A copywriter may be very creatively-oriented and talented but he needs to have a basic background of facts that he will employ in his ideation stage, like the core USP of the brand, or the marketing objective of the client. Contrary to other creative acts, in advertising business, pre-campaign market and consumer research is taken very seriously for which big data labs are hired for 75

Advertising and Creativity this purpose. Data and insights after going through surveys and other scientific ways of collection are provided to the creative team by the research department. It is this data that is studied, scrutinised, drawn inferences out from so that a creative and effective advertisement can be conceptualized and executed by the agency for the client. Such logical and step-by-step staging may not necessarily be a part of other creative fields as much as it is of modern-day advertising. Differentiating the basic properties that encompass advertising creativity for agency professions, Mendolsohn and Griswold (1964) referred to these packets of underlying information as ‗environmental cues‘ that make advertising creativity reliant upon the meticulous and logical factual information base, thereby granting this process of creating advertisements some scientific flair also. It is a natural inference that when people construct ideas, solutions, inventions, or products that are divergent and relevant, they are said to be high on the creative continuum. In this view, however, some researchers have pointed out that divergence and relevance are determined by context or the ‗social recognition criteria‘ (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970; MacKinnon, 1962). The perception of creativity differs according to our mindsets, our psycho- socio-cultural background and life experiences. Thus, different groups like teenagers, academicians, agency professionals, middle-aged women, senior citizens all may have their own schemas of cognition that will be used when understanding creativity. Similarly, people who have been working in advertising agencies may view creativity in their advertising differently from the audience who sees the ad. Their knowledge base, exposure to advertising elements, their understanding of marketing strategies will be on a different scale than non-advertising professionals. It is, thus, helpful to keep this distinction in our minds as researchers when analysing this trend in advertising business. When anything new is produced, it goes through a creative process with various stages of idea generation, application and execution etcetera, but the essential element that separates advertising creativity from creativity in a more general sense would be its goal-directedness that contributes towards solution of a problem through its creative communication. Noted researchers, Oldham and Cummings (1996, p. 608) also reflected on this difference of scope when it comes to creativity in the field of advertising and in

Advertising and Creativity general by highlighting in their definition the need for a creative product to be a mixture of both originality and newness (imaginativeness and free ideation) and relevance (towards a real goal, usefulness for an organisation, purposefulness). Similarly, advertising specialists, Stone and Jacobs (2008), pointed out the value of these facts to the copywriter by saying, ―Creative people laugh themselves sick over their Hollywood image, of course. For they're the first to point out the springboard for their creativity is facts. Creative people are problem solvers. Give them the problems, the facts, and figures, and they'll come up with the creative solution‖ (p. 266). It must be noted, however, that it is not the research inputs themselves which create effective advertising but the insightful associations of these inputs into communications. Of course, such interpretation is dependent upon the associative ability of the particular copywriter. A detailed analysis of the pertinent literature in this field suggests that advertising creativity has been treated as a separate element from other types of creativity, such as artistic vision and poetic abilities (Koslow et al., 2003, 2006; Hill et al., 2007; Lethagon & Modig, 2008; Rosa et al., 2008; Smith & Yang, 2004; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). This distinction is based on the fact that advertising creativity is moulded by some contextual factors: the product or service being advertised, the client‘s advertising objective and the audience viewing the ad. We are particularly interested in the agency-side of the advertising business where creativity thrives in large measures and people working in the advertising world are known to be the most creatively enriched minds too. This fine line of distinction requires a delicate marriage between imagination and conformity; boundlessness and boundaries; artistic expression and purposeful artistic expression; lack of directionality and strategic directionality; unstructured creative ideas and structured creative advertising message; divergence and relevance. In the haze of creativity and imagination, the prime proposition of advertising for a particular brand must not get lost. In this context, emphasising on this difference, scholars and practitioners alike have agreed on two aspects that constitute advertising creativity, namely; an ‗outside-the-box‘ and an ‗inside-the-box‘ thinking process. The former reflects the essential character of creativity which focuses on imagination, intuitiveness and 77

Advertising and Creativity divergence; while the latter focuses on relevant structure of advertising message, advertising strategy and the creative brief‘s major objectives to give creativity a ‗structured expression‘ for the target audience to understand and the brand image to be portrayed in the required way. Smith and Yang (2004) branded these elements as ‗divergence‘ and ‗relevance‘, implying that that a creative ad must deliver the core message in an unexpected, unusual manner (e.g., humour), yet it should still allow the audience to interpret the message within an expected, usual structure (e.g., meaningful connection between humour and the product). This is perhaps because of the apparently obvious nature of advertising to be interesting yet goal-directed. After all, it is a product, a brand or a service being advertised and not something vague and free-flowing. It can be, thus, interpreted that it is the ‗inside-the-box‘ approach that delineates advertising creativity from general creativity. The concept of the contextual constraints is a distinctive feature of advertising creativity.

2.9 Summary This chapter takes the readers through various crucial milestones in the area of advertising, beginning from a brief overview of the historical background of advertising around the world to the present Indian advertising scenario, with significant snippets explaining its present picture and future developmental aspects. It provides a wide, in-depth and an overall conceptual understanding about advertising, its creativity, and other associated aspects. It also sets a ground for of the position of the Indian advertising industry with respect to the larger global advertising map. Emphasizing on the centrality of creativity in advertising, a section has been devoted to presenting the awards constituted in honour of creativity, thus, helping the readers understand the enormous credibility that creative communication garners to the brands, the consumers‘ psyche and the agency‘s repute.

Literature Review

CHAPTER III LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction “A literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that people learn from and build on what others have done.” -Neuman, W.L. (2003)

This chapter focuses on published literature connected to our research problem and research area. It seeks to find out the most crucial attributes that are associated with creativity of advertising, with a special reference to Indian context. By engaging in a wide and exhaustive review of the major studies and researches conducted in this field, we intend to deepen, clarify and formalize our understanding of the concepts themed around ‗creativity of advertising‘. We seek, in this chapter, to look into and understand the body of research already done in this field by eminent scholars and also to identify prominent research gaps which would fuel our study in future. This, in turn, will be applied to the methodology part of this research. An age old maxim puts the basic concept of literature review in the following words, ―All progress is born out of inquiry; doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry and inquiry leads to inventions.‖ Taking inspiration from the concept of literature review given by Neuman (2003), the shared goals of this review are ‗to demonstrate a familiarity with the body of knowledge in this area and to establish their credibility; to show the path of prior research and how our study is linked to them; to integrate and summarize what is known in this area, and to learn from others and stimulate new ideas.‘ With a comprehensive literature review, we can focus on many opportunities of assimilation that it offers, like, to imbibe the critical points of current knowledge, including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contribution to a particular area of research. With this, scholars and researchers better understand the arguments of others within a discipline, and develop a holistic understanding of how they can position their own prospective study or literary work in the bigger, larger repertoire of knowledge. It can be described as a constant enrichment of our store of knowledge. This way their work shall serve the purpose of either addressing a research question, finding solutions to a problem, application/ implementation of the solution found or enrichment of ideas and knowledge to help in the growth of an academic field. 79

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In this chapter, our attempt has not only been to explore, understand, classify what already exists in this field but to also recognize opportunities for future research by identifying the research gaps and areas for further study. We have tread along the path of a systematic review to focus on a research question, trying to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that quest.

3.2 Academic Perspectives on Advertising A plethora of literature exists on various facets of advertising as an academic field and as a business activity. Encyclopaedia Britannica defines and analyses advertising in the following words, ―The techniques used to bring products, services, opinions or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way towards what is advertised. Most advertising involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar methods are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for political candidates, among many other examples. In many countries, advertising is the most important source of income for media (that is, newspapers, magazines or television stations) through which it is conducted‖ (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2013). Literature connotes that advertising is the means by which goods and services are promoted to the public (Kotler, 2003). Arens (2004) in his famous book titled ‗Contemporary Advertising‘ explored the activity of advertising from various perspectives like that of a business process, a creative activity, a social process and a communication process. The angles of looking at the activity of advertising may be different for different scholars, yet most scholastic records unite in recognizing the spirit of advertising as being a fundamental ingredient of the economic and social fabric of the world. Advertising professionals, in the world of today, point out that advertising is a much more complicated and elaborate business, employing thousands of people with a wide range of skills in marketing, public relations, writing, photography, graphic design, filmmaking and so on. A widely accepted definition of advertising denotes, ―The non-personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about products or ideas by identified sponsor through various media‖ (As cited in Kazmi & Batra, 2009, p. 361). A stream of literature focuses on understanding advertising and its

Literature Review different characteristics and the basic elements that embody the communication process of advertising (Arens, 2004; and Patrick et al., 2010). Bearden et al., (1998) have attempted to define advertisement as, ―The element of marketing communication mix that is non-personal, paid for an identified sponsor, and disseminated through mass channels of communication to promote the adoption of goods, services, products or ideas.‖ Thorson and Zhao (1997) highlighted the ‗affective‘ nuances of advertising while exploring the cognitive modes of perception to an advertisement. A number of renowned advertising and marketing scholars and management specialists have exemplified advertising from various perspectives. Dunn & Barban (1987) viewed advertising from its functional perspective while Morden (1991) exemplified this view by highlighting the informational and persuasive aspect, declaring that advertising is primarily to establish a basic awareness of the product in the minds of its audiences. Kotler (2003) throughout his distinguished writings emphasised on persuasiveness of advertising as a communication tool; while Dingena (1994) focussed on the semiotic perspective. Sutton and Hargadon (1996) showed the profound effects of advertising on human psychology while Boyer and Moreaux (1999) indicated the inverse relationship between perceived quality perceptions and brand awareness.

3.3 Academic Perspectives on the Meaning, Nature and Attributes of Advertising Creativity Creativity in general and in advertising is a rich and complex concept with a multitude of meanings, definitions, dimensions and effects. A phenomenon difficult to define and absolutely fascinating. An enigmatic concept, with popular notions of apparent abstractness and diffused constructs making it up; there is a clear discordance between its warranted importance in advertising and the research-oriented treatment given to it. Although popular thought endorses the view that there can be no universally accepted, structured way of defining creativity, yet a careful study of the literature available reveals numerous dimensions of creativity in advertising that appear scattered across studies around the world with strong inter-linkages and common threads of meanings. Literature in the fields of advertising, marketing and cross-cultural psychology is replete with diverse and enriching conceptualizations of creativity in its various shades. It is therefore a practical necessity to present the vast review of literature conducted for 81

Literature Review this study within broad outlines to enable effective comprehension by the readers. Thus, all the studies reviewed have been documented within two broad realms, that is, production-oriented research and response-oriented research. The former type shall document and critically analyse studies in literature from the viewpoint of advertising agency‘s or organizations (where creative output is produced); while the later type shall assimilate and make meaning of studies conducted in the context of the consumer who evokes a response to the creativity laden in advertisements, products or environment. A similar approach was employed by Sasser and Koslow (2008) to simplify tabulation of vast perspectives on advertising creativity and advised it for future research methods also. Researchers the world over have used different perspectives and thoughts within these two streams of research. Taking this as a guiding framework for literature analysis, we focus more on the production-oriented aspect in our study. Given below is a framework for analysing studies based on the two perspectives.

Table 3.1: Broad Approaches to Advertising Creativity Researches Production-Oriented  The person who creates advertisements. Studies  The processes they use in developing creative advertisements  The places in which they produce creative advertising Response-Oriented  How different media are perceived Studies  How different audiences respond to creative advertising  Which processes audiences use when responding to creative advertising (Extended and adapted for this study; originally devised by Sasser & Koslow, 2008)

3.3.1 Production-Oriented Studies: Definitions and Meaning of Creativity The first step as researchers exploring creativity in advertising, we have identified, studied and documented varied perspectives about ‗what creativity means‘ to the scholars, researchers and agency practitioners. A brief review of all relevant production- oriented perspectives on advertising and creativity is given below. Politz wrote his first article in the area of creativity in advertising published in the Journal of Marketing, entitled, ‗The Dilemma of Creative Advertising‘ in 1960. Since then, there has been quite a hectic activity in the field, evidenced by the amount of literature produced on the subject, reaching a crescendo around 2008 when the 4th issue of the Journal of Advertising was brought out, exclusively on creativity in advertising.

Literature Review

However, writers of the period tried to conceptualize creativity in advertising by adopting different approaches. Though the resultant variations are subtle but do have certain marked features of their own, creating distinctions in the basic nature and perspectives of creativity and advertising. To better understand these subtleties, we may sift them into diverse categories based on their inherent but delicate divergences. These groupings can be; creative decision processes (that result in creative advertising), personal qualities of creative people (individual mental traits), influence exerted by organization and the process of ad creation, advertising education and creativity influences of culture on creativity, attempts and methods to measurement creativity, and finally, the characteristics of ads or the creative outcomes. The above categories do not fall into water-tight compartments as they may overlap each other in some cases. They are not only inter-dependent but also complimentary to each other. There is a long list of writers who have tried to conceptualise creativity and advertising from different positions and perspectives. The results have come about not unexpectedly. Let us look at how people have viewed and defined creativity in general and as a feature of advertising over the years. A multitude of definitions and characterizations have resulted due to their diverse perceptions and standpoints. In this view, Higgins (1999), presented a consolidated multi-disciplinary review of creativity research and highlighted 30 definitions of creativity, where he uncovered a commonality in theme which means that true creativity must have ‗radical newness‘ and must have ‗value‘. Testifying this, researchers opine that for communication, like advertising, to be creative enough, they must have an intermix of the elements of originality, novelty, newness and all those characteristics that set them apart from mundane alternatives (Mumford & Gustafson, 1988; Sternberg & Lubart, 1996). Literature accumulated through the years, and diverse ideas from advertising scholars and practitioners alike, validate the belief that ‗Creativity is a pre-requisite for advertising to be what it promises to be.‘ Many studies have been conducted exploring meaning and enrichment of creativity in general and more specifically creativity within the purview of advertising. Koslow et al. (2003); El-Murad and West (2004); Guerin (2008) have specially focussed on advertising creativity in their researches. One of the most distinguished advertising professional, Leo Burnett (1968) conceptualized creativity on the basis of creating novel and synergistic combinations from seemingly unrelated entities. Likewise, Koestler (1981, pp. 1-17) refers to creative 83

Literature Review acts as ―The combination of previously unrelated structures in such a way that you get more out of the emergent whole than you have put in.‖ Jung (1952, p. 209), very interestingly spoke about creativity as, ―The creative aspect of life which finds its clearest expression in art baffles all attempts at rational formulation. Any reaction to stimulus may be casually explained; but the creative act, which is the absolute antithesis of mere reaction, will forever elude the human understanding.‖ Jung has thus made it clear in his rhetoric that creativity as a concept is as hard to formally define as any other abstract and intangible phenomenon. This further fuels the increasing demand to make attempts to understand it even more. Also, this multi- dimensional, complex and profound understanding of the aspect of creativity underlines its essential character of being novel. Individuals who produced creative matter by going beyond cognitive and circumstantial barricades have regularly been the focus of attention by scholars and researchers in the field of advertising. For instance, May (1994, p. 135) encompasses the idea on creativity, ―Struggle of human beings with and against that which limits them --- - it is the struggle against disintegration, the struggle to bring into existence new kinds of being that give harmony and integration.‖ The same is reflected in Von Oech‘s (2010, p. 18) opinion about creativity by saying that it is mind‘s power ―To transform one thing into another [...] to make the ordinary extraordinary and the unusual commonplace.‖ He goes on to say that creativity is instinctive, but at the same time covered and constricted by ‗mental locks‘. To get out of it, he advocates that creative innovations and transformations are often results of going away from the routines and traditions to come out of the mental locks. William O‘Barr (2015) exclaims that ―Creativity tends to be one of those you- know-it-when-you-see-it things that eludes a specific definition‖ (As cited in Advertising Educational Foundation, 2015). Many people who others have considered highly creative have attempted to explain the creative process. ‗Bio-association‘, which Koestler (1964) viewed as creativity, was termed by Blasko and Mokwa (1986) as an extension of Janusian perception of creative thinking. In the same vein, Rothenberg's (1971) ground-breaking research evolved an interesting mix of historical, scientific, investigational and significant research works that focused basically on the creative innovations and primary creative route of renowned artists and scholars in diverse disciplines. He highlighted the intricacies of the creative discourse 84

Literature Review that he called ‗oppositional thinking‘, while many other scholars referred the same as ‗advertising creativity being paradox under pressure‘ (As cited in Blasko & Mokwa, 1986). El-Murad and West (2004) are well-known among academic circles for their studies on conceptualizing creativity and affirming that creativity is a fundamental element of effective advertising. A stream of researches established the Associative Theory of creativity which proposed that creativity is the skill or ability of converging mutually remote ideas into congruity to give birth to an innovative creative output (Mednick, 1962; Burnett 1968; Rothenberg, 1971; Reid & Rotfeld, 1976). Advertising giant and the founder of- one of the most awarded advertising networks in the world Leo Burnett depicted creativity with reference to association of unrelated ideas in novel ways to present the product in a fresh light (Burnett, 1968). This explanation imparts to creativity the characteristic of primarily being an associative process and emphasizes on both newness and relevance. Meusburger (2009) holds the opinion that there have been considerable efforts in defining what creativity really means and how it can be measured. In business and advertising, literature shows various attempts that have been devoted to understanding what creativity is, what creative individuals distinctively encompass, how creativity functions as a process, how creative ideas are born, what influence‘s this artistic ability and what are its effects and understanding creative strategies behind iconic brands, to name a few. However, a lot still has to be done. Creativity is one area that has a lot of scope for empirical analysis in advertising research.

3.3.2 Production-Oriented Studies: Agency Views on Advertising Creativity Literature is replete with diversity within agreements and opinions about the significance of creativity in advertising and marketing. Berstein‘s (1989) distinctive words about creativity in advertising have been appreciated by the industry, which was defined as, ―The main raison d'être of the advertising agency and the shiny apples at the front when it puts out its stall‖ (p.46). The benchmarks for evaluating value of creativity differ for advertising and non- advertising specialists, where the former lays emphasis on creative strategy more than actual measurement of advertising effectiveness (for example, sales) and vice versa 85

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(Hirschman, 1989; Kover, Goldberg, & James, 1993;). An interesting observation made by some researchers reveals that the friction between clients and agency specialists has been found to push creative teams to create better advertising. It has been observed that a major portion of studies in advertising creativity focus on client-agency relationships (Hackley, 2003); culture (Stuhlfaut & Windels, 2011; Kim et al., 2010), value of creativity in advertising (Sharma, 2012), benefits of creativity for enhancement of brand‘s memorability (Pieters, Warlop & Wedel, 2002) and agency organization (Koslow et al., 2006). Such a wide-ranging impetus given to creativity and its management stands testimony to its importance as an asset for an organisation and an advertising agency. Conversely, in relation to its importance, naturalistic and personal insight-based research on the meanings of creativity for the agency practitioners‘ stands inadequate (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Research shows that the advertising professionals consider creativity to be one of the most important concepts within advertising production (Kover, 1995; Nyilasy & Reid, 2009). Ashley and Oliver (2010) also analysed published interviews of agency top executives and mapped historical trends behind the changes in advertising creativity. However, studies focussing primarily on empirically understanding the ad practitioners‘ mental moulds on the meaning and workings of advertising creativity are far less than what its significance would warrant. A distinctive stream of researchers has investigated how agency personnel view and interpret creativity. Reid, King and DeLorme (1998) carried out a thought-provoking study on the influential opinions of top-level agency creatives on the presumed adage that in today's advertising creativity has declined. The result of their exploration was reassuring and gave a positive direction for professionals and academicians alike. It was found that the overwhelming majority view is that advertising is now more creative than it was when they entered the business, or at least as good. In their eyes, certain aspects of advertising creativity have changed, though not always in the direction predicted in previous writings. Hill and Johnson (2004) focused on agency-client relationships and presented an elaborate process of the delivery of creative products as experienced by advertising executives. More recently, Hackley and Kover (2007) conducted a qualitative exploration into the management of personal and professional identities by senior advertising executives in their workplace, in the purview of creative output generation. 86

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Special meanings and view-points attributed to creativity by individuals was well documented by Erik Modig (2012). Simply said, for him, if an individual says something and believes it to be creative then it is creative for that person. Similarly, a small group of researchers like Elsbach and Kramer (2003) and Puccio and Chimento (2001) apply ‗laymen theory‘ revolving around specific mental modes of cognition in determining a concept. It has also been freely used in studies done on creativity in advertising. Cognitive patterns that help people to ―Categorise an event, assess its consequences, and consider appropriate actions‖ are known to be mental modes (Prahalad & Bettis, 2004, p. 76). Conversely said, it is also true that Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011) pointed out that advertising professionals face a definite shortcoming as they do not have standard methodology to measure and evaluate creativity in advertising and creative products. Consequently, he says, creative professionals rely and utilize peer driven and personal perspectives to evaluate them. The underlying aim, probably, was to generate a methodology to judge advertising concepts. There is no harm, thus, in saying that experts in the field of advertising often called ‗creatives‘, denoting a faction of people in advertising agencies that chiefly include creative directors, art directors, and copywriters, use specific and expert- influenced definitions of creativity as the primary filter for judging among options in advertisements before any examination by fellow experts within agencies and prior to evaluation of their advertisements‘ value by target audiences (Stuhlfaut & Windels, 2012). A comparative and cross- cultural study by Hill, Johnson, Pryor and Helmi (2011) enunciated significant perceptual and belief-oriented differences on advertising creativity between agency creative practitioners and the advertisers who wish to advertise their brands. Their findings showed how there is congruency between some factors in an advertising agency‘s creative process which find agreement in most executives across cultures and across roles. However, a certain unity of creative spirit was discovered amongst all creatives irrespective of the country they come from. This insight is a crucial input for our study as we hope culturally unique factors to emerge from our scale-development for creativity and its dimensions. Noteworthy studies by Devinney, Dowling, and Collins (2005); Young (2000); Koslow et al. (2003) have shown perceptions of creativity differ along roles in an

Literature Review agency, where strategy is considered to be more reflective of creativity by account planners while artistry is hailed as the real symbol of creativity by the creatives. These studies reflect the absolute importance that advertising agency executives give to imagination, ideation and innovative thinking irrespective of the outer business conditions. Similar findings were generated after studies by Kover (1995) who found that copywriters view themselves to be ‗surrounded by potential enemies—agency account people, client representatives, and creative supervisors—against whom they must defend their work and themselves.‘ Some scholars have also suggested the development of an in-house agency to avoid inter agency-client conflicts, especially when it affects creative output quality (Bursk and Seth, 1976; Horsky, 2006). It is extensively accepted that designing a creative advertisement for a brand or an idea that is imaginative results from the myriad of creative thoughts in an artistic mind. To testify this aspect, researchers have tried to explore personality traits, cultural attributes and organizational environments which enhance creative ability (Kilgour, 2006; Sternberg, 2006). Therefore, a separate cluster of researchers have focused on identifying and categorizing creative personality traits of people, in order to contribute to the knowledge base in this area. While external work environment which encourages diversity and welcoming of new ideas is crucial for enhancing a creatively inclined employee‘s thinking process, certain personality attributes like intelligence and motivation also positively influence creativity (Andrews & Smith, 1996; El-Murad, 2003). This ideal blend of internal and external conducive traits was also being popularised as ‗attitudinal make-up‘ of creative executives. Highly creative personalities have been also found to possess better rational, decision-making skills with increased receptivity to environmental cues which are imbibed in the advertising that they conceptualize. Especially copywriters, who incubate innovative ideas and fresh communication tactics, are known to have such personality traits. In a similar theme of analysis by Reid and Rotfeld (1976), the problem-solving abilities and creative advertising talent was found to be positively correlated. This idea was clarified by Guilford (1950) by saying, ―Creative encounters must require detached involvement: a result of a person being simultaneously immersed and psychologically distant from a problem" (As cited in Blasko & Mokwa, p. 44).

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Mainstream opinions in the advertising agency comply with the thought that pleasant client-agency relationships lead to successful advertising campaigns. Many scholars (Belch & Belch, 2003) believe that the roles of agency executives have inflated in scale, nature and scope and thus call for more creative insight, shrewd management and media expertise. However, Burke et al. (1990) suggested a valuable perspective into creative output generation by saying that some agency executives who are responsible for building creative ideas may inherently lack the creative spirit and thus a structured approach may benefit their work. Substantiating their viewpoint, Reid et al. (1998) hinted that advertising practitioners feel pressurised by the strict-deadlines and competitive challenges of modern advertising, yet they are as much involved in the real consumer-insight generation and marketing research sessions as they were in earlier times. Hotz, Ryans and Shanklin (1982) came up with four conflict-prone areas between clients and agencies which provided significant value to better understanding advertising creative environments. In a slightly varying thought of research, Hunt and Chonko (1987), scrutinized agency-client conflict matters from an ethical standpoint. Understanding how top-level executives view the progression and significance of creativity in strategic roles has been the hub of production-oriented studies. Granot (2011) insightfully explored the viewpoints about creativity as held by executives in advertising agencies and found that individual meanings of creativity for top-level agency executives are influenced by creative cultures and a better understanding of the processes involved can lead to their application in other businesses too. In studies focussing on understanding conceptual meanings of creativity as held by advertising executives, an interesting interactive component structure composed of artistic, aesthetic elements and business strategy are found. All such studies have tried to explore various important research objectives from the perspective of top-level agency executives, their assimilations and meanings about creativity and qualitative perceptions about agency-conflicts related to creativity management. In general, the advertising practitioners club the creative idea and creative concept together and do not normally demarcate between them in practice. This helps them in devising an ‗original idea with the emphasis on a product‘s competitive advantage‘ or ‗creatively embodying the strategic principle in an idea intended to catch the consumer‘s attention‘ (Moriarty & Robbs, 1999).

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An impressive volume of studies have found that a lack of clear understanding of advertising creativity has rendered it as a bone of contention between the creative side of an advertising agency and the client side. This reflects on the increasing need to address systematic analysis of creativity and its dimensions, which shall be dealt with in detail by our research study. Given below is a tabular representation of some of the chief conceptual ideas about advertising creativity given by several eminent scholars and specialists in this field. Table 3.2: Broad Conceptual Ideas about Advertising Creativity S.No Scholar/ Advertising Key Conceptual Idea of Creativity . Specialist 1 Higgins (1999) Radical newness. 2 Mumford and Gustafson (1988), Breaking out of mundane expression. Sternberg and Lubart (1996) 3 Burnett (1968) Combination of previously unrelated structures in new and meaningful ways. 4 Jung (1952) The creative act is the absolute antithesis of mere reaction and shall forever elude the human understanding. 5 May (1975) Struggle against disintegration, to bring harmony 6 Oech (1990) Making the ordinary, extraordinary and the unusual commonplace. 7 William O‘Barr (2015) Creativity tends to be one of those you-know-it-when- you-see-it things that eludes a specific definition. 8 Berstein‘s (1989) The main raison d'être of the advertising agency and the shiny apples at the front when it puts out its stall. 9 Koestler (1964) Paradox under pressure and Bio-association 10 Rothenberg (1971) Oppositional thinking. 11 El-Murad and West (2004) The conceptualization and production of an object from new or existing components in novel yet relevant ways. 12 Mednick (1962); Reid and Converging mutually remote ideas into congruity to Rotfeld (1976) give birth to an innovative creative output 13 Rosa et al. (2008) Creativity is a pre-requisite for commercial successes. 14 Nick Brein (2010) Collaboration, creativity and organizational flexibility is the secret for successful modern business environment. 15 Zinkhan (1993) Indispensable to the very existence of advertising agencies 16 Rust and Oliver (1994) Creativity will remain the core competence sought after from advertising agencies, despite the ‗death‘ and ‗resurrection‘ of advertising in the internet age. 17 Robert Senior (2013) Creativity has unreasonable power to counter the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) conditions of modern times.

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18 Andrew Mc Stays (2013) Creative output is an agency‘s calling card and, given that agencies do not formally advertise their services, their creative capacity is judged by the advertising they produce. 19 Sasser (2008) Creative ideas have the power to engage consumers and prompt experiential involvement. 20 Gary Bencivenga Emotions are the fire of human motivation, the combustible force that secretly drives most decisions to buy, channelled through creativity in advertising. 21 Kalasunas and Thompson The main demand of clients from advertising is (1985) creativity itself. 22 White and Smith (2001) A prerequisite for the operational effectiveness of advertising agencies. 23 Andrew Cracknell (2011) Of all the places where people make money, advertising is one of the most exotic. 24 Bernbach (1972) Every other activity in our business is a prelude to the final performance, which is the ad and creativity is above all processes. 25 Abhijit Awasthi (2011) Creativity has the power to move people emotionally. 26 Mark Tutsel (2015) Creativity is the most valuable asset in business. 27 Halinen (1997) Creativity is the heart and soul of advertising services. 28 Arden (2004) The currency with which ad agencies operate; without it there are no agencies. 29 Amabile (1996) Componential model of creativity composed of domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant skills, and task motivation. 30 Cropley and Cropley (2010) Functional perspective to creative products and its contrast with aesthetic creativity. 31 Csikszentmihalyi (1996) The key components of ‗Flow‘ or optimal experience is strongly tied to creativity. 32 Csikszentmihalyi (1999) Creativity is an interaction between the domain, field, and person. 33 Dietrich (2004). Cognitive neuroscience model with four modes of creative insights and their connection to brain function: two processing modes (deliberate and spontaneous) and two knowledge modes (emotional and cognitive). 34 Lubart (2010) Cross-cultural perspectives on creativity and enrichment of creative thinking through multiple cultural interactions. 35 Mumford, Medeiros and A creative process model, with eight stages of Partlow (2012). cognitive processing.

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3.3.3 Production-Oriented Studies: Organizational Management and Enhancement of Advertising Creativity This section lays down some of the previous studies that have been carried out from the perspective of the ‗place‘ or the ‗where‘ and ‗person‘ or the ‗who‘ of the production of advertisements. With the increase in competition between brands and the tug-of-war at trying to become market leaders, companies have employed the services of advertising agencies to handle their creative campaigns. Amabile (1996) also informed that companies‘ own efforts are often met with disappointment when it comes to designing innovative communication ideas for their products. Owing to the nature of creative production as to being a highly artistic, open and imaginative activity, it requires an environment that can facilitate and nurture inventiveness and dynamic thinking. Correspondingly, Sutton and Hardagon (1996) pointed out that creative production requires a dynamic organization open to ideation and artistic expression while highlighting the importance of the ‗where‘ or ‗place‘ in creative production. Organizational environment and the attitudes of managers regarding nurturing creativity plays an important role in the quality of creative output or services. Horn and Salvendy (2006) carried out a prominent line of research concerned with the assessment of advertising creativity drawing from the literature on defining and measuring creative products. Hence, by examining the creative dimension of products in a broad sense (goods and services), analogically opened up other perspectives for conceptualizing and measuring advertising creativity. Similarly, Amabile (1996) hypothesised some key elements which are found to influence organisational creativity, including advertising creativity. This was further tested by Ensor, Pirrie and Band (2006) in the context of UK advertising industry with considerably influence in this area. Insights from such academic probes can provide an enriching platform to develop ingrained principles of enhancement of advertising creativity in all industries, including advertising agencies. A group of studies (Johar, Morris & Stern, 2001; Oldham and Cummings, 1996) have explored an interesting blend of personal characteristics and organizational factors as main facilitators of creativity. Stuhlfaut and Windels (2012) developed a code of perceived qualities about acceptable creativity within advertising agencies, known as the ‗Creative Code Intensity Scale‘. Their findings augmented the view that creative practitioners are affected by 92

Literature Review organisational culture through an informal code that influences expressions of creativity in the development of advertisements. White and Smith (2001) developed their views on creative products; while creative processes that lead to better creativity was studied by Finke, Ward and Smith (1992) and Dasgupta (1994), among other related topics. Drawing attention to the importance of creativity for successful business, Martensen and Dahlgaard (1999, p.879) state, ―Organisations that want to be successful must develop a system, which, on one hand, nurtures a creative environment and on the other hand is good at handling the creativity process.‖ Literature is replete with an array of managerial styles that impact creative outcomes like advertising ideas, referred to as ‗applied creativity‘ (Hill and Johnson, 2003) and discouraging fear of criticism (West and Ford, 2001). Damanpour (1991) and Michael and Ciaassen (2008) studied the connections between creativity and organizational environments and found a significant link between the two entities. Andriopoulos (2001) consolidated an assemblage of writings in an attempt to clearly spot the features that influence organisational creativity and must be considered in the management of creative activities in organizational settings. The literature oriented study qualitatively summarized five key factors, namely organisational climate, leadership style, organisational culture, resources and skills and the structure and systems of an organisation. In 2004, Hill and Johnson augmented their expertise on creative working styles by developing detailed conceptualisation of the advertising problem delineation, communication and response (APDCR) process to enable both agency and advertiser stakeholders to achieve greater satisfaction. Some academicians emphasize on the competitive edge that creativity provides to organizations with creativity forming an intrinsic part of their corporate strategy (Warner, 1995). The relative impact of creativity vis-a-vis other elements associated with advertising and marketing has been highlighted recurrently in literature (Korgaonkar & Bellengar, 1985 and Jones, 1992). Contrarily, Bell (1992) found that advertising success is linked more to the expenditure involved on popularizing the brand rather than just the creativity element. This gives rise to exploring further the association between creativity in advertising and commercial popularity.

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A new perspective was brought forward by Weissenberg (1995) when he argued for more product-specific strategic focus and lesser importance on creativity in typical campaigns. Another prominent stream of studies from the purview of advertising agencies fall in the domain of ‗client-agency‘ relationships. These studies have been conducted to better understand the salient issue of the apparent strain between the client‘s more systematic approach to advertising planning and creativity, compared to agencies‘ more intuitive, spontaneous approach (Andrus, 1968; Michell, 1984; Hackley, 2003). Campaign creativity is also affected to a large extent by client and agency dynamics. Broadening on findings from previous studies, Kennedy (1995) explained that a harmonious agency-client relationship is a springboard for client satisfaction and agency effectiveness. Fletcher (1990) conducted a series of studies exploring the dynamics of agency-client viewpoints and conflicts on creativity and found strands of differences between their thought-processes. Apart from studies focussing on agency-client dynamics, many scholars have also stressed on the differences in perceptions of advertising practitioners and the academicians (Lee & Greenley, 2010; Nyilasy, Canniford & Kreshel, 2013). Koslow et al. (2006) studied how situational and contextual issues affect advertising and agency creativity. They found out that it is not only the direction or strategy in a creative brief that is a necessary incentive to boost creativity of the ad- makers but also a proactive and encouraging attitude of the marketers or the clients that impacts and enhances creative ability and output of the agencies. Contrary to popular thought, creativity in advertising output is not the sole responsibility of the agency team, Elliott (2003) and White (2003) reported. The excessive involvement and scrutiny by some marketers to gauge creativity of the agency which they have hired for their marketing communications also influences the attitude of the advertising professionals. Frequent evaluation and accountability monitoring of the agency by the client can actually dampen the creative spirit (Cuneo, 2003; MacArthur, 2003; Sanders, 2003). Sophisticated, high-ranking clients appear to send a ‗chilling‘ effect throughout the agency, thus dampening creative potential (Koslow et al., 2006). When specifically addressing creativity as a performance criterion, one finds the advertiser and advertising agency have different priorities. Research has also recognized differences in the view of advertising creativity within an agency (Hirschman, 1989; Kover et al., 1995; Sutherland, Duke & Abernethy, 2004). For example, client servicing 94

Literature Review executives give more prominence to a structure and strategy for a brand, while the creative department in an advertising agency highlights the need for aesthetics and artistry. What creativity means to different creative professionals may have different connotations and perspectives which cause a lot of performance related issues in agencies. These differences have been found to be role-specific (Devinney et al., 2005; Young, 2000) and therefore many programmes have been launched to inculcate conflict- resolution techniques and managerial strategies for enhancing creativity (Frazer, 1983; Verbeke et al., 2008; Stuhlfaut & Yoo, 2011). In this context, Koslow et al. (2006) found that the incorrect handling of client– agency conflict to be hugely crucial for generating a creative idea by the agency executives. Li et al. (2008) confirmed their findings and showed that it can negatively influence campaign outcomes. As a constructive solution, Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011) talked about the client- agency relationship negotiation and proposed the view that advertising creativity is more than being just an individual process; it is a social process too. El-Murad and West (2003) found that there is a positive relationship between risk-taking and creativity, and how the risk can be hedged against. It is well accepted in advertising academia and industry circles that diverse perceptions between agency executives working on an advertising idea can hamper constructive growth if it is not addressed properly. This causes communication breakdown and deterioration of the agency‘s creative work. Recognizing the strong influence that the social environment can have on creative mindsets, Amabile‘s (1996) seminal work on creativity testified that a restricted structure in workplace can negatively influence creative outputs. Accentuating on importance an environment conducive for creativity, Michell (1984) said that compatibility with one‘s self-image and healthy professional exchanges in the work environment encourages creativity. The clients perceive the creative process itself and the creative philosophy as more important factors, while agencies stressed the importance of creative environment and personalities. Cultural connotations have also been proposed to be a significant indicator of client-agency differences on creativity by cross-country researches conducted in this area (Benedetto, Tamate & Chandran, 1992; Taylor, Hoy & Haley, 1996; West, 1993). There is thus, a thin line of balance between these concepts and slight mishandling can lead to losing out on brand image and huge amounts of investment. This magnifies the role and 95

Literature Review importance that the right balance of creativity can play in advertising, and how agencies can achieve this target. As a useful strategy to manage these diverse perspectives that cause disagreements, UK advertising agencies follow a structure that encourages closely enmeshed work-groups, addresses organizational hurdles to openness and focuses on creative facilitation. Robert Senior, CEO, EMEA at Saatchi and Saatchi Fallon Group, advocates that building a supportive environment in which ideas can germinate, and creativity thrive, is the secret to achieving success („The unreasonable power of creativity‟, Robert Senior, 2013, interview by Gareth Bell). Numerous scholars advocate the same idea when they explain how an advertising agency becomes the hallmark of optimal creative judgement process when it regularly nurtures creativity. These studies have consistently provided foundation to proclaim that it is creativity, either in an organization‘s working environment, its strategic outlook or in an advertising agencies‘ atmosphere; which provides a defining edge against competition. For that reason, creativity is frequently regarded as a cause of competitive advantage, which becomes a core winning trait of an advertising agency whose existence is fuelled by the quality of creative services. To summarize, it can be said that there has to be a way to minimize tension and optimize creative output, and agencies can implement a common creative code to achieve this commonality within diverse approaches to creativity.

3.3.4 Production Oriented Studies: Integrative Thinking Processes for Advertising Creativity This section lays down some of the previous studies that have been carried out from the perspective of the process or the ‗how‘ of the production of creative advertisements. Several researches have been carried out to decipher practices that can optimize an advertising professionals‘ understanding of the brand‘s communication objective or the target audience‘s latent needs, to enable him to design a creative advertising campaign that fits the client‘s objectives perfectly. Kover et al. (1995) emphasized on two-way dialogues between an internalised consumer and the ad makers to ‗flesh out the target person‘ (p. 60) and thereby design meaningful and appropriate creative communication. Dialogue, openness to welcome diverse insights and a curiosity to know with profundity the brand‘s ideology has been recommended for agency practitioners to be more effective at their work. 96

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Prominent scholars specialising in the studies of advertising creativity have focussed on the discovery and classification of stages or steps in the creative thinking cycle (Taylor et al., 1996), with many different opinions emerging on what creative process entails. Studies have also explored managers‘ mental structures that act as intrinsic, innate guiding frameworks in making marketing and advertising decisions (Day & Nedungadi, 1994), although with insufficient clarity around advertising specialists. Young (1974, p.81) described creativity in advertising as a five step sequence comprising of the stages: ―Gather raw materials, organize them, drop the entire subject (incubation), wait for the idea to appear, and adapt the idea to practical use‖

Gather

Practical Organize application

Wait Incubate

Fig. 3.1: Creative Process in Advertising (Young, 1974)

While this sequence is a simplistic guideline, it positions the emergence of creative ideas as accidental and independent of human or situational influences. The process of making creative advertising has been studied widely and many researchers are of the opinion that it is not a mystery rather a systematic and sequential process. Extending thought that creativity includes a process from idea generation through implementation, Amabile (1988) proposed a five-step creative process: problem identification, immersion or preparation, idea generation, idea validation and application and outcome assessment (As cited in Andrews & Smith, 1996). It was also observed that the ﬁve-step process was influenced by three major factors: intrinsic task motivation, task-relevant skills, and creative thinking skills. According to White (1972), Incubation and Illumination entail the production of advertising, as shown in the diagram below in which the first four steps indicate ‗divergent thinking‘ and the fifth step indicates ‗problem-solving ability of creativity‘.

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Gathering of raw material

Final shaping Mental of idea into thought to raw practical material usefulness collected

Illumination Incubation Stage: Actual Stage leading birth of the to synthesis of idea ideas

Fig. 3.2: The Process of Creation of Advertisements (White, 1972)

Osborn (1963), pioneer and founder of the Creative Education Foundation presented another comprehensive model of creativity and showed that the creative process includes: Orientation, Preparation, Analysis, Ideation, Incubation, Synthesis and Evaluation.

Orientation

Evaluation Preparation

Analysis Synthesis Stage

Incubation Ideation

Fig. 3.3: Applied Imagination (Osborn, 1963)

Both models given by White and Osborn have similar concepts defining the creativity process in advertising. There is thus, a seemingly general consensus, taken out of the literature studied, on the sequential mental processing that advertising entails. What appears different is the varied thinking styles of different individuals who are involved in ad making. For one professional, use of humour appeal may be the road to increase creative output while for another person it might be the employment of ‗slice of life‘ appeal.

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Similarly, Vanden Bergh (1983) has conceptualised this creative process as a stream of activities from ‗problem definition‘ to ‗outcome‘, and has specifically recognised the effects of client evaluation on the advertising process. The process does not exist in isolation but is influenced by the agency environment and by the client specifications and satisfaction. Studies by Haner (2005) and Roberts (1988) affirm that the processes of innovation and creativity have common elements that interweave when applied to advertising. Bledow et al. (2009) reinforces this idea by finding common elements of novelty and value creation with innovativeness. While some scholars envisage the interplay of creativity and innovation as sequential, current research does not confirm to a strict sequence of occurrence between innovation, creativity and application. Haner (2005) described this divergence of opinions by pointing out that both creativity and innovation are ‗complex, partly iterative and partly simultaneous efforts.‘ Hirschman (1989) opined that scholars in this field have not paid requisite attention to the perspective of ‗production of culture‘ or the social process that is generative of advertising creativity. She proposed a sociological collaborative approach to examine social relationships that influence the creativity of advertising messages. In advertising, creativity is needed to generate new ideas and innovation to apply those ideas in interesting ways to leverage a brand‘s image in the most effective manner. Such insights about the process of creativity especially in the context of advertising serve as important inputs in our understanding of creativity as researchers. Given below are some major theories underpinning creative thinking processes for advertising:

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Table 3.3: Theoretical Propositions to Advertising Creative Thinking Processes S.No. Scholar Theoretical Proposition 1 Politz (1975) Copywriter‘s personality and influences on advertising development and ideation. 2 Auer (1976) Personality trait differences in advertising and non-advertising students. 3 Mednick (1962) Associationist theories of advertising. 4 Reid and Rotfeld (1976) Associative theory of advertising creativity. 5 Hotz, Ryans and Shanklin (1982) Advertising creative abilities and interpersonal, reciprocal relationships of the creative subject. 6 Hunt and Chonko (1987) Ethical issues of conflicts between clients and Agencies. 7 Blasko and Mokwa (1986) The Janusian thinking to advertising creativity. 8 White (1972) Incubating and epiphany as important creative process stages. 9 T. A. Bengtson (1982) Criticism and new perspectives to advertising creative processes. 10 Hirschman (1989) Sociological influences on advertising creativity. 11 Amabile (1996) Componential Model of Creativity (factors associated with a person‘s capacity for creative thinking and processing). 12 Johar, Holbrook and Stern (2001) The system of generation of an advertisement by the creative teams.

3.3.5 Response-Oriented Studies: Creativity, Advertising Effectiveness and Competitive Advantage

As a pertinent inquiry into what creative advertising can achieve and what results it leads to, many prominent researchers studied the effects of creativity and its benefits for branding and advertising as a dynamic field. Creative skills and characteristic elements of creativity are utilised by advertising specialists to come up with path-breaking ideas for brands that can lead to lucrative results in many facets like brand equity enhancement, sales, recall and increased brand loyalty. The ultimate aim of creativity in advertising is to achieve differentiation, march ahead of competition, catch attention of people and ultimately lead them into buying the products. Over the years many researchers have attempted to understand the link between advertising creativity and effectiveness. There have been quite a number of studies done to understand this relationship in its various inter-linkages. Some studies have tried to comprehend the link between ad effectiveness and creativity in India (Sharma, 2012; Ahmad & Mahmood, 2011; Mukkelli, 2014) while others have tried to delve deeper into the link between creativity of advertising and consumer

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Literature Review response (Zinkhan 1993). A handful of researchers have also explored the effect of perceptions of creativity by professionals and consumers on ad impact (Modig, 2012; El- Murad & West, 2004; Sasser & Koslow, 2008; Kim et al., 2010; Reid et al., 1998; Guerin, 2008). A host of researchers have systematically, primarily qualitatively, explored creative thinking and found that creativity is the foundation of competitive advantage (Amabile 1988, 1996; Devanna & Tichy, 1990; Shalley, 1995; Rosa et al., 2008; Nick Brein, 2010; Zinkhan, 1993 and Smith & Yang, 2004). For the most part though, literature has viewed creativity as a function of a consumer‘s response and an advertisement‘s effectiveness in inculcating the behaviour that it was designed to from the target audiences. A multitude of researches have dealt with the controversial aspect of actual effectiveness of creative advertisements. There have been criticisms (Kover, James & Sonner, 1997; White & Smith, 2001) and there have been supporters (Abernethy & Franke 1996; Till & Baack, 1995). Tippins and Kunkel (2006) showed through their analysis that there is a positive relationship between highly creative advertising and prosperity of the firm in context of the food industry. A distinct approach has been given by Heath et al., (2009) who argue that it is the emotional cues that appeal to consumers and not only creativity. Another prominent stream of research focuses on the ‗effects‘ of advertising creativity on the mind of the receiver. This is measured by how the audience perceives the advertisement, the advertised product, and the brand. A number of studies have studied the relationship of creativity in advertising and its effectiveness on purchase intentions (Kover et al., 1995; Ang & Low, 2000; Smith, Chen & Yang, 2008) and found that creative advertisements being more novel, meaningful and emotional are consistently perceived as more favourable and to some degree result in positive brand attitude and greater purchase intent. Many researchers have explored how creative advertising positively influences brand recall and consumer engagement (Stone, Besser & Lewis, 2000; Pieters, et al., 2002; Till & Baack, 2005; Baack, Wilson & Till, 2008; Sheinin, Varki & Ashley, 2011). In the same vein, Keller (1993) depicts ‗recall‘ as a good measure of how strong a brand‘s association is in a person‘s memory as a result of creative advertising. Wells et al. (2005) further strengthened this notion by linking recall with attitude towards a brand and deciphered that advertising creativity reinforces favourable 101

Literature Review associations in a consumer‘s mind. Ang et al. (2007) gave it a new perspective and drew strong linkages between creativity and customer based brand equity, while Walgren, Ruble and Donthu (1995) positively linked memorable advertisements with creative elements to greater purchase interest. Christiaans (2002) said that a creative product obtains significantly higher preference scores than products seen as less creative. Guerin (2008) endorsed this view by saying that the use of a creative product results in two kinds of affective responses: pleasure and attention. This encourages positive and favourable attitude towards what is endorsed and helps greater recall and recognition. Literature is replete with studies that demonstrate that high creativity in advertisements instigates more attentive mental states and greater cognitive processing efforts in a consumer‘s mind (Keller, 1993; Ailawadi, Lehman & Neslin, 2003), thereby forming memorable associative linkages between the ad and the brand. This relationship was further verified by a host of other researchers like Lee and Mason (1999); Keller (1993); Ang et al. (2007); Dahlen, Rosengren, & Törn, 2008; Smith et al., 2008). Brand trust and brand equity is another dimension that is seen to be enhanced by creative advertising (Sheinin et al., 2011; Warlop, and Wedel, 2002; Till & Baack, 2005; Smith et al., 2007). Scholars and practitioners have consistently recognized that the creative individual must produce a unique central idea for an advertising campaign to break through people‘s potential mental shields of avoidance. The insights developed by Smith et al. (2008) in this arena serve immense academic relevance as they describe the process-outcome stance in which a creative advertisement catches the attention of the audience, leading to cognitive processing, which in turn results in emotional and attitudinal changes. Walker and Von Gonten (1989) linked aesthetic elements to putting the brand in consumers‘ evoked set. These aspects can be especially useful for practitioners working in advertising agencies as it helps them to know their target consumers better and therefore design better advertisements to effectively position their brands. Also, such an insight allows agency specialists to compare and contrast processes related to creativity and its response effects on consumers with their own mental modes about advertising creativity and its consequences. Studies focussing on the interplay of cognition-behaviour- affection from creative cues in advertising on responses (Lavdige & Steiner, 1961; Smith et al., 2008) were carried out resulting in an inclusive ‗hierarchy-of-effects‘ model. 102

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The well-known scholar Arthur Koestler, whose research on creativity spanned over many years meticulously studied and synthesized investigative accounts about creativity in general and in advertising. A group of studies have examined the affective responses that creative communication should evoke and brand recall activated by means of an interesting advertisement is frequently used in literature to highlight the importance of creativity (Smith et al., 2008; Till & Baack, 2005 and Stone et al., 2000; Heath, Nairn, & Bottomley 2009). Till and Baack (2005) found that award winning creative advertisements are significantly more memorable and elicit greater recall than normal advertisements. To further confirm the immediate recall with delayed recall, they found that even after a one week delay period, creative advertisements were significantly better recalled than normal advertisements Literature is full of instances where researchers have suggested that creativity is important for long-term survival of not only advertising agencies, but all organizations (Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Scott & Bruce, 1994) as it has elements of scientific (Datta, 1963), artistic (Simonton, 1975, Koslow et al., 2003; Guerin, 2008) and developmental aspects (Nyilasy et al., 2013). David Ogilvy, the advertising legend who is celebrated for his creative excellence was a strong supporter and believer of the inevitable effectiveness that comes with creative advertising for today‘s competitive world. Across literature themed around advertising, it is recurrently emphasized that creativity is paramount for effective advertising. Having reviewed in detail the literature available, we can confidently assert that most studies have been carried out from the response side in this context and lesser explorations from the production side of advertising. Taking fresh changes in advertising environment into focus, many scholars have explored the applicability of newer and diverse perspectives about advertising creativity into marketing strategy and other peripheral areas. It is palpable that an enhanced and well-rounded understanding of creativity in advertising requires an expansion of academic interest into alternative, similar or contradictory perspectives in this area. Given below is an illustrative list of key researchers who have studied the effects of advertising creativity. This stream has been specifically viewed from a process- outcome perspective (Modig, 2012).

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Table 3.4: Studies on Effects of Advertising Creativity from the Response Perspective S. No. Researcher/ Scholar Advertising Creativity Effect 1 Stewart and Koslow (1989) Perceived brand quality 2 Kover, Goldberg and James (1995) Attitude towards advertisement, purchase intention 3 Stone, Besser and Lewis (2000) Brand recall 4 Ang and Low (2000) Attitude towards advertisement and brand, arousal 5 Pieters, Warlop and Wedel (2002) Brand recall, increased attention to creative advertising 6 Tellis et al. (2005) Brand equity and increased scope for premium pricing 7 Till and Baack (2005) Brand recall, attitude towards advertisement, increased attention to creative advertising 8 Smith et al. (2007) Attitude towards advertisement and brand, purchase intention, increased attention to creative advertising, greater motivation 9 Dahlen, Rosengren, and Törn (2008) Brand interest, perceived brand ability, increased attention to creative advertising 10 Smith, Chen and Yang (2008) Emotional and attitudinal changes, brand interest, purchase intention 11 Baack, Wilson and Till (2008) Brand recall, increased attention to creative advertising 12 Poells and Dewitt (2008) Arousal 13 Yang and Smith (2009) Emotional and attitudinal changes, brand evaluation 14 Heath, Nairn and Bottomley (2009) Arousal and emotional connect 15 Sheinin, Varki and Ashley (2011) Brand recall, brand trust (Adapted and extended from Modig, 2012).

3.3.6 Response Oriented Studies: Creatively Placed Advertising This entails within its domain the studies done from the angle of the place: responses to a creative advertising medium. In this realm of research, the focus has been on creative advertising executions and little has been done on how the placement of an advertisement can be creative in itself (a concept that is now increasingly being studied and applied into the Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) strategies of many big companies of the world). Taking forward this view, some researchers like, Dahlen (2006) and Dahlen, Friberg and Nilsson (2009) have argued for the importance of placement when it comes to creative advertising and its capacity to influence advertising

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3.3.7 Response Oriented Studies: Differences in the Perception of Creativity This stream of research highlights the differences among audiences in their response to creative advertisement. An important focus has been the perceived creativity of advertisements. Most of the studies done in this area reveal that there are considerable differences in the way creativity in advertising is perceived by people belonging to the general public and the advertising agency executives. Kover et al. (1997), compared such responses and found that the perceptual differences stem from their professional identities and personal attributes. Award- winning advertising gained more affinity from the agency standpoint while emotionally touching advertisements appealed more to the general public. White and Smith (2001) can also be credited with a similar kind of study to find out the differences in peoples‘ responses. However, they could not achieve empirical clarity on the subject. In a similar experiment, West, Kover and Caruana (2008) suggested that there are significant differences in how advertising professionals and consumers assess advertising creativity, which was clearly studied by Modig in 2012. Many scholars have iterated that in spite of the differences in opinions amongst advertising professionals and researchers as to what elements are required to make an ad creative, it needs to be realised that there often seems to be a clash between the perception of practitioners and the members of the public as well. This is because consumers receive and deconstruct advertising according to their own needs, which, makes the adoption of a long-term interest in understanding consumers‘ views of creativity a top priority for advertisers in order to maintain a beneficial relationship between the two groups (Friestad & Wright, 1994). Guerin (2008) in her in-depth study on consumer‘s perception of the creativity of advertisements explored consumers‘ implicit theories of creativity in advertising and 105

Literature Review subsequently developed a scale to measure perceived advertising creativity. It was inferred that perception of creativity in advertisements by the consumers included three dimensions: novelty, complexity and aesthetics. According to Rossiter and Percy (1997), understanding why some advertisements are viewed by consumers as more creative than others is important both for brands constantly seeking differentiation and for advertising agencies anxious to demonstrate their effectiveness to their clients. A divergent type of approach to view creativity and its processing was proposed by Dahlen et al. (2008) who talked about ‗the signal theory‘ for information processing. When an advertisement is more creative, it signals greater marketing effort on behalf of advertiser and the brand, which the audience may inculcate into more positive brand quality and increased brand interest. A section of academicians focussed on studying how audiences process creative elements in advertisements and how it gets etched in their memory. They found that certain creative cues favourably affect assessment of creativity and lead to positive attitude towards the brands advertised. In this context, Levitt (1970) was among the early researchers to empirically observe linkages between advertising effectiveness and consumer responses. Presented in the table below is a consolidated list of some insightful studies about factors of advertising creativity from the response side of advertising creativity. The factor- specific response studies typically analyse the correlation of various characteristics/ factors of creativity with overall audience judgements of its creative content/ level.

Table 3.5: Studies on Factors of Advertising Creativity from the Response Perspective S.No. Scholar/ Researcher 1 Haberland and Dacin (1992) 2 Ang and Low (2000) 3 White and Smith (2001) 4 Koslow, Sasser and Riordan (2003) 5 Elliot (2003) 6 El-Murad and West (2004) 7 Smith and Yang (2004) 8 Smith et al. (2007) 9 Smith, Chen and Yang (2008) 10 West, Kover and Caruana (2008) 11 Yang and Smith (2009) 12 Kim, Han and Yoon (2010) 13 Sheinin, Varki and Ashley (2011) 14 Kapoor (2011)

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3.4 Academic Theories on Advertising Creativity: Cultural Connotations Most scholars of advertising creativity maintain that all definitions of advertising creativity stem from mental models associated with cognition and imaginative thinking. El-Murad and West (2004) refer to the three main perspectives in this context namely, 1) Primary Process Cognition 2) De-focussed Attention 3) Associative Hierarchies. All these theories explain in varied ways the process of cognition in creative thinking patterns. Scholars like Dewing and Battye (1971), Martindale (1999), Reid and Rotfeld (1976) were the main propagators and postulators of these psychological process-based theories for creativity (As cited in El-Murad & West, 2004). Sternberg and Lubart (1999) summarized a seven stage developmental process for creativity with the following typology: mystical approach, pragmatic approach, psychodynamic approach, cognitive approach, social personality approach and confluence approach. These approaches highlighted different dominant traits, environmental cues and techniques to enhance creativity and generate divergent thinking. In 2010, Lubart also presented a consolidated overview and critical analysis of cross-cultural perspectives on creativity and how multicultural milieu can enrich meanings and conceptual connotations of creativity. A host of researchers (Sasser & Koslow, 2008; Mumford, 2003; Nyilasy et al., 2013) applied the 4P‘s framework (persons, process, press, products) for creativity and advertising and generated substantially useful insights. Additionally, a rich body of literature exists on the influence of culture and ethnic beliefs on creativity of advertising, which we have tried to incorporate in our study, and also attempt to establish a link between the previous theories and new directions for our research. Culture is a society‘s personality. Hofstede (1980, p.16) defined culture as, ―The interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influences a group‘s response to its environment‖. Gaining prominence as an important area for supplementary research in the international marketing academic circles, advertising creativity is being explored in its various shades and characters. Many scholars have devoted their researches to cross-cultural and cross- specialization studies on advertising creativity like anthropological antecedents of advertising creativity (Hall, 1984) and cultural typologies with constructs such as power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation 107

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(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Findings of these researches reveal that advertising messages call for specialized execution techniques according to the culture they are designed for. Consumer behaviour in marketing has been linked strongly with the way culture operates and the advertising that is conceptualized accordingly. How creativity is inculcated through the use of appeals in advertising is culturally driven and standardization of messages is found to be less effective when advertising internationally. Many scholars (Stuhlfaut, 2011; Kim et al., 2010 and Earle, 2007) have discovered different ethno-centric creative cues in Eastern and Western advertisements, confirming the imprints of cultural values on creative execution, creative thoughts and consumer behaviours. In this context, a substantial theory was developed by the prominent researcher Csikszentmihalyi (1999) which indicated that creativity is characterised by historical and societal influences and not exclusively an individual‘s trait. Csikszentmihalyi‘s socio- cultural model of creativity where domain, field, and creator interact in a system giving rise to outstanding creative works is given below in figure 3.4.

Field

Person: Source of the innovation Field: Experts Domain: Stores & transmits the innovation Person Domain

Fig. 3.4: Adaptation of Csikszentmihalyi Model (1999)

According to Wierenga (2002), advertising specialists are fuelled by a system of mental structures that form a system of advertising concepts specific to them as advertising practitioners, sufficiently different from academic models. An Daechun (2013) carried out a comparative analysis of the cultural differences in the perceptions of advertising creativity, thus highlighting the important role that culture plays in this field. Their results showed considerable differences in the perceptions of creativity in advertising between people of Korea and US; evidence that stands testimony to the proposition that the cultural characteristics of the target market is important for marketers.

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Fam and Grohs (2007), examined the likeable executional techniques in advertising, across five Asian countries and their impact on ad purchase intention. Their studies revealed that in China, Hong Kong, Indonesia and Thailand, there is not a specific ‗likeable‘ executional technique that influences a purchase, at least among the urban young adults. An exception was found to be India where the likeable attributes of ‗relevant-to-me‘ and ‗soft-sell‘ have an impact on purchase intention. This propelled and enriched how creativity can be used to optimize the success of advertising as per cultural identities of the country or people that it is targeting. Research also has examined that typically, international marketers have two options in promoting their products: the standardization approach and the localization approach. According to Onkvisit and Shaw (1999), academics and international marketing managers alike have struggled with the issue of standardisation of advertising programmes. However, the debate on whether to standardise or localise is not over yet. Studies by Ohmae (1989) and Fam and Grohs (2007) reveal that in a world of increasingly homogenised markets and consumers, it is possible for a firm to standardise advertising programmes and messages across countries. In contrast, critics of standardisation have consistently argued a case for their adaptation, citing cultural, economic and political barriers that provide the mandate to adapt advertising programmes for products marketing globally (Quelch & Hoff, 1993; Perry, 1990). A careful exploration of the previous studies done in this field reveals that there is a clear distinction between the two schools of thought, where one group of scholars propagate the thought that culture may not have such a decisive role in the influence over creativity of advertising and thus, it is possible to standardise marketing communication strategies; and the other set of thinking emphasizes on the impact of culture and ethnic-oriented perspectives on the creativity of advertising. In reviewing the literature, it was found that most cross-cultural studies have focussed on advertising content, explaining the differences in relation to the cultural values of the society in which the advertising has appeared. Scholars in this arena propagated that understanding the local culture and tailoring advertisements to reflect its values, is often considered a pre-requisite for successful international advertising. This can also be somewhat understood by the Transnational strategies in International business where there is a blend of going international with localisation.

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A plethora of research by scholars shows that advertisements that reflect some local cultural values are more persuasive than those that ignore them (Gregory, Munch & Peterson, 2002; Han & Shavitt, 1994; Taylor et al, 2002). Every culture has instructions for behaviour, organized into rules, common ways people think or act. Within these cultures, most human activities are generally stable and passed on from one generation to the next. However, when creators suggest something new and this is deemed better or novel, the change will be accepted and passed along to the domain. However, Woodman et al. (1993) articulated that sometimes the culture may be highly resistant to change and dampen creative incubation. There is a general emphasis on the research oriented efforts themed around creativity in advertising and cultural aspects across extant literature available. It has been observed that most researchers have paired countries to test and study advertising content, including creative strategies, across dissimilar cultures. This enables them to test for differences in several values expressed in advertising (An, 2013; Mueller, 1992; Shalley et al., 2004; White, 2003; Pracejus, Olsen and Guinn, 2006). Hill, Johnson, Pryor and Helmi (2007), extended knowledge of practitioner‘s beliefs amongst advertising agency creatives across three countries: Australia, New Zealand and Malaysia- regarding factors that impact advertising creative excellence in the advertising agency. The findings showed that a group of factors encourage creatives, and to an extent their clients, to have high expectations of the achievement of optimal creative work. Kapoor (2011) reinforced the view that metaphorical meanings of creativity in advertising were found to be culturally derived and ‗not devoid of idiosyncratic interpretations‘. Paletz and Peng (2008) analysed implicit theories of creativity across cultures and reviewed the assessment of novelty and appropriateness in two product domains. Another multi-cultural, cross-country study of advertising content strategies was carried out by Zandpour et al. (1994). It examined television advertising messages among USA, Mexico, France, UK, Spain, Germany, South Korea and Japan. They found differences in creative strategy, informative and style among these countries, and attributed these differences to cultural values and the home advertising environment. The review of studies conducted by Hall (1984) & Hofstede (2005), show that it is pertinent to ask why and how culture affects advertising: its creativity and likeability. The literature reviewed showed that Asia is a collectivist, high-context society with emphasis on group orientation, conformity, non-direct confrontation, non-verbal modes 110

Literature Review of communication (Gudykunst et al, 1996; Hall, 1976; Kim et al, 2010). According to Hofstede (1980), India is a relatively more individualistic compared with Hong Kong, Indonesia and Thailand. In a slightly different line of thought, Schutte and Ciarlante (1998) enunciated that Asian sensibilities showed likeliness for brand advertising as conspicuous consumption patterns have socio-cultural roots. Substantial research has been undertaken to understand the diversity of cultural values among the cultures of the world, and explore the different ad appeals used and their effectiveness. Many studies have highlighted that a country‘s religious character and its socio-historical influences largely determine how people view or interpret advertising content (Khairullah & Khairullah, 2009). Biel and Bridgewater (1990) were of the opinion that likeability does have a persuasive effect, as it can directly affect feelings towards a brand. Consequently, five likeable dimensions were identified namely, ‗ingenuity‘, ‗meaningfulness‘, ‗energy‘, ‗warmth‘, and ‗rubs the wrong way‘, supposed to entail likeability for an advertisement. Aaker and Stayman (1990) conducted a similar likeability study covering 80 commercials and came up with identical findings to Biel and Bridgewater. However, an important thing to note here is that very few studies have examined whether likeable commercials can be equally liked across borders and whether the same likeable dimensions are similarly effective in different countries. Several researchers like Han and Shavitt (1994) and Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002), have reported some very interesting culturally-coloured findings about how advertising creativity is perceived across cultures. While collectivist feelings of sharing, humaneness, kindness, trustworthiness, social appropriateness, pleasant, family values and traditions were found to be more associated with judging the creativity of an advertisement in cultures oriented more towards socialism; advertisements that used individualistic creative appeals like ‗You can do it‘ or ‗A woman is special‘ or ‗attribute-benefit‘ analysis were seen as more interesting in capitalist, individualistic cultures. Such insightful findings guide our research to understand if in a collectivist country like India such findings stand applicable. According to Lee (1999) and Nisbett (2003), eastern interpretations and benchmarking of creativity in advertising communications is quite different from its western counterpart as creativity may be reflected by emotional, caring and delicate tones in the east while logical and content-infused ads may be regarded as more creative 111

Literature Review in the west. It was also found that many ads that were developed in eastern cultures did not have a clear ‗USP‘ or ‗Big Idea‘ which would be very rare in the western advertising world. Many studies have found that Asians appreciate commercials that communicate relevancy and therefore this aspect has been found to be beneficial for an advertising agency‘s creative inputs when designing advertising (Fam & Waller, 2006). With the advent of globalisation and information-sharing worldwide, these gaps have significantly reduced. The most pronounced effects were generally associated with a perception of cultural sensitivity on the part of the advertiser (Koslow, Shamdasani & Touchstone, 1994). Across cultures and continents, conceptualizations of creativity vary for the advertisers, consumers and the agency practitioners. Literature states that executional styles differ according to the product categories being advertised and also the cultural values (Han & Shavitt, 1994; Laskey et al., 1995 and Gregory & Munch, 2002). Malefyt and Moeran (2003) in their book, Advertising Cultures, discuss through an innovative mix of business strategy and cultural theory, a methodical analysis of the link between advertising and larger cultural forces. Kim et al. (2010) developed and validated a measure of advertising creativity that is intended for a collectivist, holistic population. In the scale developed ‗considerateness‘ emerged as a culturally-unique factor, representing the social norms as a significant dimension of advertising creativity. This shows how culture tends to influence the perceptual understanding of the people of a country, and has been found to have close links with advertising communication. Taylor (2002, 2005) in his studies on international advertising has indicated that survey and experimental research suffers from measurement imprecision for cross- cultural populations because consumers and advertising professionals in different cultures neither respond to the same constructs, nor process the measurement scale similarly. Taylor called for a focus on how ‗clients and agencies interact‘ in planning communications strategy (Taylor, 2005). Similarly, evaluating key issues in international advertising, Miracle (1984) called for ‗more comparative studies‘ which collect data in more than one country. A culture‘s impact on the perception of advertising creativity has justifiably been the focus of many contemporary research studies. It can be effectively put forth that the culture

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3.5 Studies Highlighting the Importance of Creativity Not only researchers, but institutions of worldwide repute have declared the importance of creativity in advertising. To be released, an advertisement in the Western world needs to first pass the Universal Advertising Standards established by D‘Arcy Masius Benton & Bowies (Belch & Belch, 2003). Scholars argue that a winning creative idea has long-term benefits and can lead to long-lasting effects on sales, remuneration and reputation of advertising agencies (Michell et al., 1992 and Rossiter & Percy, 1997). Literature contains significant evidences where creativity has been positively linked with favourable marketplace influence (Brownlie, 1998; Fillis, 2007). The magnitude of significance associated with creativity, especially for the existence of advertising can be understood by the wide scale and scope of research activity surrounding the understanding of creativity and its enhancement in general (Hirschman, 1989; Kover et al., 1995; Moriarty & Robbs, 1999). Advertising practitioners and scholars have continually spoken about the fact that it is creativity in advertising which is the prime expectation of their clients and what advertising agencies strive to offer world over. It is thus observed that the topic of creativity and effectiveness is discussed regularly between all stakeholders in the advertising business, with the advertising agency being at the centre of the creativity debate. A host of researchers devoted consistent academic interest to explore and understand the importance of creativity in advertising and most of them proclaim that it is inseparable for advertising. While Unsworth (2001) recognised creativity as a ‗crucial concept‘ in management, many other scholars like Brownlie (1998) and Fillis (2007) studied how important a part is occupied by creativity in marketing and advertising. Forsgren, Tregert and Westerlund (2004) investigated the management, nature and processes of creativity from the ad agency perspective and found the successful management of creativity a source of enhanced organizational value. Not only on the role of creativity were academic studies undertaken, but scholars recurrently stressed on development of a holistic measure of advertising creativity. 113

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In this context, White and Smith (2001) advocated that the evaluator of the creative product needs an instrument by which to measure creativity. Mc Adam and Keogh (2004) likewise opined that ‗supporting measures‘ and instruments that can assess creativity can lead to its effective results and competitive advantage. Scholars also highlight that a detailed probe into the mental schemas of the practitioners and their perceptions about advertising creativity are very crucial for not just understanding of the concept as a whole but also to decipher the creative process in advertising. Emphasising on how important creativity is for advertising, Reid et al. (1998) argued that creativity is the least scientific but the most essential part of advertising. Not only have the dimensions of creativity been given attention to, but different types of creativity within individuals have also been mentioned and analysed by many researchers in the field of advertising and communications. Given below is a matrix of domains of creativity encountered or possessed by practitioners in advertising environments as proposed by Unsworth (2001).

Fig.3.5: Matrix of Creativity Types (Unsworth, 2001)

Given below is an illustrative depiction of some of the prominent studies conducted in earlier years when creativity researches gained ground and led the way for more inquisitiveness in this aspect.

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3.6 Studies on Gender and Creativity A stream of scholars has investigated various factors affecting gender roles and creativity in advertising agencies around the world. Some of the researches have explored a cross- cultural viewpoint on gender and creativity linkages (Khairullah & Khairullah, 2009; while some studies have examined the under-representation of female gender in creative roles in an advertising agency setup (Windels & Lee, 2012; Pueyo, 2010; Etayo & Del Rio, 2008). Correa, Rodriguez and Ayhan (2012) are among prominent scholars whose research interests lay around analysing and deciphering the reasons for imbalances in the gender distribution in creative departments of advertising agencies and judgement panel in creativity award festivals. Their studies found gender divides and underrepresentation of women in advertising creative jobs in the Spanish advertising industry. A host of researchers drew academic focus on the gender distribution and apparent gender bias in creative advertising roles, both in agencies and in festivals (Kreshel, 2003; Martin, 2007; Grow & Broyles, 2011). Sutton (2009) examined the multidimensional and complex roles that female copywriters played at JWT, one of the largest advertising agencies in the world. Stereotypes of advertising agency work cultures defined according to gender identity were analysed, creating an idealized notion of beauty and sometimes, redefining cultural value systems.

3.7 An Exploration into the Dimensional Analysis of Advertising Creativity Academicians, researchers and practitioners have unremittingly attempted to study and identify the critical dimensions that make-up advertising creativity. The main stream of research has tried to understand how factors/ dimensions of creativity associate with overall judgement of creativity, from the perspectives of both audience and agency. Though most studies have been conducted from the perspective of the consumers‘ perception of what elements constitute desirable advertising creativity and in the Western world, yet Indian advertising practitioners appreciate the importance of an empirical scale or a standardised set of models that can unveil the complex notion of creativity with greater clarity. There is thus immense practical and theoretical relevance for any such prospective study in the Indian advertising context. Many studies have been documented in advertising journals and books of repute focussing on the dimensional make-up of creativity especially in the context of advertising. 115

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Table 3.6: A Snapshot of Prominent Researches on Advertising Creativity from Earlier Years

S.No Author Year Title Journal Creativity: A Function for Journal of 1 Andrus 1968 Computers or Executives? Marketing Journal of 2 Keil 1975 Can You Become a Creative Judge Advertising A Two-Course Survey of Creative Journal of 3 Mallhows 1975 Country Advertising Journal of 4 Politz 1975 Creativeness and Imagination Advertising Journal of 5 Bursk and Sethi 1976 The In-house Advertising Agency Advertising Creative Strategy: A Management Journal of 6 Frazer 1983 perspective Advertising Accord and Discord in Agency Journal of 7 Michell 1984 Client Perceptions of Creativity Advertising Agency Client Trends: Polarization Journal of 8 Michell 1984 versus Fragmentation Advertising Vanden Borgh, Internal Agency Relationships: Journal of 9 Smith, and 1986 Account Services and Creative Advertising Wicks Personelle Role Based Model of Advertising Journal of 10 Hirschman 1989 Creation and Production Advertising Journal of A Knowledge Based System of 11 Burke et al 1990 Marketing Advertising Design Science Benedetto, Developing Creative Advertising Journal of 12 Iamate & 1992 Strategy For The Japanese Advertising Chandran Marketplace Research Cross-National Creative Journal of Personalities, 13 West 1993 Advertising Processes and Agency Research Philosophies Journal of Advertising Awards & Advertising 14 Helgesen 1994 Advertising Agency Performance Criteria Research The Games Copywriters Play: Journal of Kover & 15 1995 Conflict, Advertising Coldborg Quasi-Control, A New Approach Research Using Judgement Profiles to Journal of Murphy & Compare 16 1996 Advertising Maynard Advertising Agencies & Client Research Campaign Values How French Advertising Taylor, Hay & Journal of 17 1996 Professionals Haley Advertising Develop Creative Strategy Antecedents of Risk Taking Journal of Behaviour By Advertisers: 18 West & Berthod 1997 Advertising Empirical Evidence & Research Management Implications

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The conceptual contributions of different scales and approaches vary in the dimensions studied but merge in the goal that they all set out to determine, that is, creativity of advertising. In many studies reviewed, respondents from either the general audience or agency professionals are asked to reveal what creativity means to each of them. Here, their individual ideas and thoughts come into play, which can be recorded in rating scales and ranking items. Given below is an account of important studies dealing with this aspect. The concept, meaning, significance and dimensions of advertising creativity have been majorly qualitatively explored and analysed in extant literature, with the exception of a handful of empirically based researches in this context. Studies by El-Murad and West (2004); Koslow et al., 2003, 2006; Russell and Lane (1999); Kilgour (2006) and Smith and Yang (2004) have delved deeper to examine advertising creativity and its desirable dimensions. Raudsepp (1983), Carson et al. (1995) and Nyilasy et al. (2013) have attempted to identify creative characteristics and competencies thus, coming up with a list of adjectives, essentially and very effectively used by advertising agencies to deliver some exceptional ‗creative‘ work. What appears repeatedly in these academic discussions is that for advertising, creativity counts and this principle is paramount. According to Prahalad and Bettis (2004), dimensions that specialists in advertising perceive as important for creativity are stimulated by mental models that assist them to ―Categorise an event, assess its consequences, and consider appropriate actions‖ (p. 76). In management literature, these underlying sources of larger perspectives are known as constructs. In advertising, the role of these constructs for understanding creativity becomes manifold. Researchers like Hunt (2002) and Rossiter (2002) have consistently stated that the broader marketing literature has focussed less on understanding the viewpoints of the advertising agency professionals and what dimensions they consider most reflective of creativity. There may be a multitude of studies and scholars who have multiple approaches to understand creativity in advertising and analyse its nature, concept, significance and dimensions in scores of different ways, yet more than a few common themes emerge within those divergences that bind it into a strong unit of advertising creativity as a coherent field of research. Despite individual differences, some core dimensions of

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3.7.1 Studies on Divergence and Relevance Creativity has been said to be borne out of two types of thinking: ‗Divergent Thinking‘ and ‗Convergent Thinking‘. In long-established tests of creativity, the aspect of being novel is reflected, as they focus mainly on the ability to engage in divergent thinking (Meusburger, 2009). Corroborating Burnett‘s idea of creativity, Koslow et al., (2003, 2006) described novelty and relevance to be significant characteristics of creativity in advertising. They devised a framework for assessing advertising creativity with two main approaches of thinking that is an outside-the-box approach (which focuses on imaginativeness and innovative thinking to impart to advertising its core character of being novel); and an inside-the-box approach (which stresses on the need for creative advertising communication to be relevant to suit the client‘s or the brand‘s overall marketing image). Relevance which is another significant dimension of creativity can be depicted by many other names such as ‗logic‘, ‗meaningfulness‘, ‗connectedness‘ or ‗strategy‘ (Oldham and Cummings, 1996; Kim et al., 2010). Wallach and Kogan (1965) were early proponents of divergent thinking (As cited in El-Murad & West, 2004). Even though researchers have used different labels, most published studies have measured the factor of divergence in some way (see table 3.7). In literature, divergence has been described by the originality of an idea tending to differ from the mundane. This element makes up the core of creativity and enunciates that creativity in the context of advertising has to be an amalgam of both relevance and divergence. This is logically understood by the basic nature of advertising which is to present a communication creatively while sticking to a larger frame of advertising/brand strategy for the client. Kilgour (2006) and Toubia (2006) described the divergent thinking approach by ‗the mental process of coming up with new ideas‘ while convergent thinking can be explained by the problem-solving ability of creativity (El-Murad & West, 2004). Smith et al. (2008) described divergence as ‗the extent to which an ad contains brand or execution elements that are different, novel, unusual, original, unique, etc.‘ (p. 820). Haberland and Dacin (1992) described divergence with descriptors like ‗unexpectedness‘, ‗deviation from the norm‘ while Smith and Yang (2004) said that

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Literature Review divergence corresponds to unexpectedness in the sense that advertisements are inconsistent with other advertisements in the same product category. However, it may be of use to note that what is defined as divergent and relevant may be in reference to the creator, society, or the domain within which the creation occurs (Meusburger, 2009), meaning that what is defined as creative or not is in relation to a specific field, person or culture. This rationale creates a ground for the distinctiveness of advertising creativity from creativity in arts. In the business of creating advertisements, the communication has to be exciting and appealing while it also has to exist in a goal-oriented framework. While divergence has been accepted as a core character to make an advertising communication high on creativity, yet for appropriate application of creativity in advertising, it should also be directed towards the functionality or benefits of the product advertised to be regarded as meaningful creativity. Hirschman (1989) in his academic pursuits on the meaning of creativity found that advertising creatives are motivated by purposes set by the marketing brief of the client, and he thus corresponds with El-Murad and West‘s concept of goal-oriented advertising creativity. However, Zinkhan (1993, p. 3) mentions White‘s (1972) view which reads, ―The process of creativity in advertising (or marketing) is more or less identical with the process of creativity in the arts and sciences‖, which stands out in its dissimilarity to other dominant viewpoints.

3.7.2 Studies on Originality, Novelty, Imagination and Relevance In the hunt for a comprehensive understanding of what creativity in advertising means, a few common themes surface recurrently which underline its basic elements despite diverse individual conceptualizations. Imagination, expression and association are the elements that unite advertising creativity which are seen as a ‗process‘. In this context, Blasko and Mokwa (1986, p. 44) state that, ―The creative experience involves an integrative resolution, and typically a harmonious transformation; a breaking out to a new and exhilarating state of association and meaning‖, which was highlighted by the concept of oppositional elements or logical antithesis creating greater sensation of novelty. Ang et al. (2007) have stressed on the dimension of novelty as ‗the bedrock‘ of advertising creativity.

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Stressing on ‗uniqueness‘ as an essential component of creativity, Batra et al. (1996) considered creativity in advertising as the persuasive communication of the core advertising message in an ‗unexpected‘ way. Consistently so, the nurturing or presence of innovative ideas, originality in thinking and freshness are the basic characteristics of creativity. Oldham and Cummings (1996, p. 608) said that, ―Products, ideas or procedures that satisfy two conditions 1) They are novel or original and 2) They are potentially relevant for, or useful to an organisation; reflect their creativity.‖ This definition, with slight linguistic variations has become dominant throughout academia and in textbooks on creativity. Fletcher (1990) also testified that advertising creativity should mean both originality and innovation. Burnett‘s (1968) definition of creativity which states, ―The art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously unrelated things...‘ testifies most succinctly the significance of novelty for creativity in advertising. Similarly, Young & Rubicam, a well-known advertising agency believes in the absolutely indispensability of novelty for creativity in the making of advertisements and encourages its employees to inculcate novel ideas which ‗have never been seen or heard before‘ (Norins, 1990). Many scholars have urged that in order for an advertisement to be efficient, it must be able to instigate from the target consumer particular kinds of cognitive and affective responses, as stated by the client‘s marketing brief. It is the creative professionals in an advertising agency who utilize imaginativeness to create an interesting, attention-garnering and effective advertisement that should present the clients‘ needs in the most attractive manner. Thus, to be able to transform what the client expects into a two minute commercial or a print ad is largely determined by the degree of creativity of the output. On top of winning creative awards, advertisements should fulfil objectives such as ‗reinforcing the brand‘s image and materially augmenting the movement of the brand through its distribution channels and into the consumer‘s hands‘ (Robinson, 1997); therefore requiring the combination of the elements of originality, imagination, goal- direction and problem solving. Literature suggests a host of desirable dimensions that comprise creativity in advertising. This poses greater scope and opportunities for the advertising professionals

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Literature Review to decode and examine the value of creativity and its measurement for practical applications. Previous research has presented many ideas and definitions of creativity, however, a common theme that runs across all these ideas is that creativity has to be continuous, can strike anytime, is novel, and seeks to develop unique, innovative solutions to potential opportunities. Novelty has been discussed in its several shades and aspects in the literature. Parkhurst (1999) opined about novelty being the most widely acknowledged pre- requisite of creativity across advertising and other businesses too. Another divergent approach taken up by some researchers reveals the belief that having attention-grabbing powers in advertising are more important for creative practitioners than novelty as an absolute component (Rossiter, 2002; Russell & Lane, 1999). Ford and Harris (1992) highlighted that products that are labelled as novel are unique, while Sternberg and Lubart (1999) used the term originality to mean novelty. An exploration into the role of ‗verbal newness‘ by Easwar (1988) confirmed that newness and creative copy in an ad positively affected ad effectiveness and helped in building a stronger brand. Amabile (1996) expressed novelty as imaginativeness that fuels creative ideas that haven‘t been conceived before, and thus, entail newness in its very conception and form. Some researchers, in the context of creative products, described novelty in advertising as germinal, which was measured along a product‘s trendsetting, ground- breaking, and radical nature (Besemer & O‘Quin, 1987). Academic insights by researchers reveal that for advertising to be successful, it must have impact, creative quality, and stylistic elements woven together with relevance. In a thought provoking study by Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011), the dimensions of ‗attention-getting‘ and ‗originality‘ scored the highest percentage of mentions by the creative practitioners on the desirable characteristics for ad creativity. Meaningfulness, new, strategic, memorable and emotionally engaging also were discovered to be important indicators of creativity for advertising professionals. For Snelders and Hekkert (1999), novelty can be defined as an original and relevant combination of two or more characteristics that belong to the domain of a creative entity. Guilford (1965), addressed this component of creativity be saying that ―Novelty is only one component of creativity, and is understood in the literature as the

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Literature Review perceived originality of a product, its unique and atypical character supplemented by the idea of utility and relevancy‖ (As cited in Guerin, 2008, p. 101). Originality (Reid et al., 1998; White and Smith, 2001; Koslow et al., 2003); or uniqueness (Duke, 2001) has been recurrently found in literature as a significant trait of creativity in advertising. Rosenman and Gero (1993) talked about extending ordinary potential solutions into a completely new innovative space by engaging in out-of-the box thinking. Many researchers have found that novelty can be a manifested effect of expectancy and relevancy and have thus attempted to measure creativity along these lines. Originality can be another way of describing novelty and it would be similar to one of the forms of incongruity as defined by Heckler and Childers (1992), namely the form linking expectancy to relevancy. Another characteristic trait of creativity that practitioners and researchers have consistently talked about is the trait of being amusing or surprising, which can be understood as one of the corollaries of being novel. Novelty, complexity and aesthetics were identified by Guerin (2008) as significant indicators of creativity for the consumers. Many studies show that the core difference that makes certain advertisements more creative than other is credited to ‗non-formulaic thinking‘ (Nyilasy et al., 2013). This idea resonates with the dimension of novelty or innovative thinking and originality as discussed by many scholars time and again. In striking contrast to the innovative thinking approach, a group of scholars argue that the creative process involves as ordinary processes as any other everyday thinking (Dasgupta, 1994; Finke et al., 1992). Proponents justify their view by positing that unique ideas that we call creative thinking are born because of the struggles to move away from pre-structured mental categories in our brains. Scholars such as Hofstadter (1985) believe that the essence of creativity is a balance between freedom and constraints, and moderation is the key to remain in steadiness (As cited in Brashear & Granot, 2008). Within the academy of advertising, novelty is the chief module in the explanations for creativity. Expressed in different ways, its essentiality for advertising is undoubted. Highlighting the crucial need for relevance or utility, earlier researchers like MacKinnnon (1962) opined that ‗Novelty is necessary but insufficient for creativity‘ and limits have to be imposed to make advertising communication appropriately oriented.

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The combination of originality with usefulness has widespread academic agreement and acceptance (Sternberg and Lubart, 1999; Unsworth, 2001; Amabile, 1996; Koslow et al. 2003). Cropley, Kaufman and Cropley (2010) described this balance between novelty and usefulness by ‗effective novelty‘, which they found to be the best combination for thriving creative outcomes.

3.7.3 Studies on Meaningfulness, Problem-Solving Ability, Condensation and Reformulation It has also been advocated that meaningfulness also occupies a significant dimension of creativity as it is known to facilitate information processing (Ang & Low, 2000; Ang et al., 2007). Studies by Lee and Mason (1999) and Heckler and Childers (1992) have provided empirical evidence to show that novel and meaningful advertisements have higher recall value as compared to novel but non-meaningful advertisements. Consequently, based on such evidences from literature, we also expect meaningfulness to form an important component of advertising creativity. Reinforcing this idea, along with the significance of creative communication being meaningful, Haberland and Dacin (1992) view the creativity of an advertisement as ―The extent to which it is original and unexpected, appropriate and meaningful, requires the viewers to reformulate or modify their attitude towards an advertised product or service and is condensed, that is simple, yet conveys a lot of meaning‖ (p.818). Their study is an important one as it drew on the work of two psychologists, Jackson and Messick (1967), to design a creativity measurement with four dimensions and 16 items, and have included reformulation as an important aspect of creativity which means that the receiver‘s attitude must undergo some degree of ‗reformulation‘ or ‗change‘ in order to be ingrained in his memory and for an ad to be labelled as a good testimony of creativity. It can be explained as seeing the product in a new light, wanting to buy the product. However, logic says that reformulation is more of an ‗effect‘ than a ‗cause/ factor‘ of a creative commercial. Many contemporary researchers are of the opinion that this aspect can be of immense impact as it is associated with attitude change. Additionally, the condensation dimension seems to be a way of describing the complexity and richness of meaning that creative advertisements can have. Underpinning on similar thoughts, Marra (1990, p. 47) considers two dimensions that are noteworthy 123

Literature Review for an advertisement to be creative, that is, ―Being first or new and being right or relevant are critical to creative advertising‖. Ang et al. (2007) substantiated the opinion that relevance shows that an advertisement is oriented well towards its target audience. Thus, we find three streams of advertising researchers who have viewed utility from the input side (Sasser & Koslow, 2008; West et al. 2008) by focussing on creativity in advertising as a strategic, problem-solving means to achieve a client‘s business objectives. The second approach emphasize on the output side by viewing advertising creativity in context of its meaningfulness and relevance for the consumers (Smith et al., 2007; Ang & Low, 2000). Popular scholars Ang et al. (2007, 2014) have given substantial research impetus to studying the role of novelty, connectedness and meaningfulness in garnering creative effectiveness and persuasive effect on advertising and found positive relationships between the proposed variables. Their concepts were laid out conceptually through the ‗Ad Creativity Cube‘ (2007) and later empirically tested in 2014. The third version of utility is denoted by ‗generativeness‘ in advertising creativity. Duke (2001) viewed utility as an enchanting ability of creativity to generate new variations and fluidly (for example, flexibility to suit different cultures), while many other industry professionals consider advertising utility to ‗have legs‘ and have the ability ‗to tempt, to fascinate, to attract, to charm, or to entice‘ (Taylor et al., 1996, p. 7). Many definitions of creativity present in literature have connotations of problem- solving ability of creativity in advertising as a main theme (Simonton, 1999; El-Murad & West, 2004). Scholars like Mumford and Gustafson (1988), Unsworth (2001) and Reid et al. (1998) have also propagated that the dimensions of usefulness, problem-solving ability, appropriateness, goal-accomplishment ability and value are good indicators of output that is creatively rich. Several scholars have stressed that advertising creativity needs to be both imaginative and appropriate. In this vein, Runco and Charles (1993) put forth their view that it is rather perplexing to combine appropriateness/fit and usefulness/value in one dimension of creativity. They specifically mentioned that there has to be a distinction between the questions of ‗does it ﬁt‘ and ‗does it work‘. However, most of the advertising literature connotes appropriateness, meaningfulness, relevance and utility as different labels having the same underlined meaning.

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Utility is one dimension that has been interpreted and understood in a variety of different ways, and using many diverse indicators of its meaning. What is important to decipher from this literature review in the context of utility as a dimension of ad creativity is that it is a very important element and ensures workability, functionality and relevance of the creative ideas being presented in advertising, so that the bigger picture about the brand does not get out of focus.

3.7.4 Studies on Evaluation of Creative Strategy and its Dimensions Advertising creativity conceptualized as a function of appropriateness and originality was initially developed by Runco and Charles (1993) and taken forward in concept and in structure by Koslow et al. (2003). Way back in 1983, Frazer, on the other hand, had reallocated the focal point of his study on creative strategy in advertising and defined it in advertising as a policy or guiding principle which specifies the general nature and character of messages to be designed. Rossiter and Percy (1997) and Brashear and Granot (2008) remarked that a ‗winning creative idea‘ which is unique and memorable can have a considerable influence on sales, hiring and firing of advertising agencies and remuneration for agencies also. This informs the readers of the substantial centrality of creativity in advertising business. Smith et al. (2008) showed that creative advertising has the power to influence stronger cognitive processing of the brand leading to enhanced brand recognition and attitude. Similarly, studies by Yang and Smith (2004) portrayed the positive correlation between creative elements in an advertising message (like, divergence, uniqueness and relevance) with favourable brand attitudes. In a way, it reflects that the careful interplay of creative cues along with a suitable match to the brand‘s prime functional benefit can go a long way in translating the creativity of the advertisement into stronger and more stable effects for the brands advertised. While Koslow et al. (2003) focused on role-specific definition of appropriateness in an ad agency setting, Lee Earle (2007), carried out a study to discuss and understand a general theory of creativity in advertising in which a socio-cultural model was utilized, and studied the interception of three domains that effect creativity, that is, the creator, the domain and the field (Analogous to Csikszentmihalyi‘s (1999) socio-cultural model of creativity). 125

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Many other characteristics of creativity have been described by theorists and advertising personnel which they consider an inherent and important part of the creative strategy for a brand. Contextualised in the sense of creative products, MacKinnon (1962) and Amabile (1996) have been found to stress that creative products are those that fulfil an original insight through a process of open-ended, broad creative thinking. Heurism in the process of creativity is an important aspect of advertising ideation, where elaborations are born from structured client‘s briefs. A few scholars have also stressed on the ethics and moral ways of generating creative ideas and products, thereby signalling on the social considerateness aspect of advertising creativity. Being organic, elegant, beautiful and moral are some of the descriptors used to identify this aspect of creativity in literature (Cropley et al., 2011; Besemer & O‘Quin, 1987). A combination of other minor characteristics of creativity as perceived to be desirable for advertising by its practitioners came about in our literature review. Excitement, both on the part of the creators and the consumers (affective responses) was reiterated by Kover et al. (1995) as desirable for advertising creativity. Some other elements from the advertising narrative include truth and focus (Duke, 2001) and simplicity (Young, 2000). Creatively laden advertisements not only have been found to be interesting for consumers but have provided real time value for brands in turn for their attention. A stream of studies have reinforced that well-planned executions of visual cues, aesthetics and metaphorical designs in advertising employed by practitioners evoke effective interest from the viewers and help in generating the expected responses for the clients and their brands. The important point to be noted here is that whether or not this is applicable for the Indian advertising sensibilities, which we shall decipher in detail during our data collection stage. This stream of researchers can be identified in advertising literature to be studying creative dimensions as an important aspect of the overall creative strategy.

3.7.5 Studies on Aesthetics, Complexity and Craftsmanship Aesthetics, as some researchers have rightly named ‗visible creativity‘, ‗craftsmanship‘, and ‗execution‘ or ‗artistry‘ is another important and effective dimension of advertising creativity (White & Smith, 2001; Koslow et al., 2003). Thus, an advertisement that qualifies as well-crafted also qualifies as being high on creativity. Advertising 126

Literature Review academicians have linked artsy qualities to creativity such as artistry (the appreciation of an ad as a piece of art and spectacle (Taylor et al., 1996). Besemer and O‘Quin (1987) believed that the stylistic and aesthetic characteristics of a product are the first manifestations of perceived creativity, which can be enhanced by creative advertising designed by agency professionals. Many professionals seem to have an agreement on the fact that aesthetics in advertising is not just a beautifully executed ad, or a stunning print cover, but more of a well-designed, harmonious, unique and relevant communication with a strong USP (Unique selling proposition). Way back in 1960, Berlyne described syntactic patterns, and complex combinations of signs to mean aesthetics in the context of advertising. In a rather interesting explanation to this concept of craftiness or artistry, Mc Quarrie and Mick (1992) said that creative advertisements can create an aesthetic effect ―by strategically violating certain rules of the code, so as to activate overlapping and intertwining semantic chains that are normally not associated‖ (As cited in Guerin, 2008, p. 104). Additionally, many researchers (Parnes, 1975; Torrance & Safter, 1999) are of the opinion that for a successfully creative ad, it must strike with the audience as an ‗AHA‘ moment of association: meaning the relevant association of thoughts, facts, and ideas into a new figure, which provides a synergistic effect. In this view, ‗Synthesis‘ was identified by Treffinger (1992) as one of the main cognitive traits of creative behaviour, a trait expected from advertising professionals engaged in creative thinking. Guerin (2008) based her study on the dimensions of novelty, complexity and aesthetics and very adeptly placed and tested creativity through congruity-incongruity along a continuum representing novelty and complexity from the perspective of consumers. This aspect has been referred to by other academicians as novelty, amusement, craftsmanship and relevance. An Indian scholar, V. Kapoor (2011) studied the use of visual cues and metaphorical symbolism in advertising and found them to be effective execution elements with metaphorical interpretations being culturally linked to an individual‘s learned set of meanings. Some advertising narratives show that excessive elements of complexity to make an ad more creative actually are found to be ‗bizzare‘ and that the creative practitioners should exercise careful inclusion of complex creative techniques in a brand‘s strategic conception and execution plan (Dahl, Frankenberger & Manchanda, 2003). 127

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In this context, Mc Quarrie and Mick (1992) also validated the need for cautious and wise employment of complex elements, where multiple signals might emanate from a complex representation of a product‘s message which actually blurs and puts the consumer off. It can be observed that in today‘s competitive advertising world, elements of complexity in advertising are increasing to break out of clutter.

3.7.6 Studies on Humour and Stimulation From a detailed study of the researches done in this field, we came across another significant dimension that most creative advertising entails: Humour. Humour as a feature of advertising creativity has been studied by many prominent researchers like West et al. (2008); Alden, Hayer and Lee (1993) and Olsson and Larsson (2005) among many others. It is one of the most frequently used appeals to leverage advertising creativity and augment recall. This might be because of the focus on advertising professionals‘ assessments of creativity, which is even more applicable for Indian advertising through the years. Some of the most successful and well-remembered brands (Fevicol, Nestle, Camlin) have humour as the main element in their creative advertisements. Interestingly, substantial academic focus has been given to the role and importance of humour in advertising in psychology as a field of study. To Taylor et al. (1996) and Kim et al. (2010) humour forms an integral part of advertising creativity. To many, it is the most easily recognisable and eye-catching methods of employing creativity. Le roux (2001) operationalised creativity with three prime dimensions: creativity, ingenuity, novelty, while mentioning that ‗amusement‘ and ‗humour‘ is found as an operational dimension in many other studies. According to Thorson, Chi and Leavitt (1992), creativity is built-in the ‗stimulation‘ dimension, which leads to a feeling of self- esteem for the consumers. Studies have shown that having an element that induces an emotional connection with the consumers is very essential to be creative and bring the needed attitudinal and behavioural responses (Fallon & Senn, 2006). A close examination of the researches conducted on advertising creativity largely follow two stream of approaches, namely 1) analysing creativity in advertising through the constituents of the creative output (or creative products) and 2) viewing advertising creativity as a dynamic and powerful system of dimensions that requires a dedicated

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Literature Review scale for its measurement. Some researchers (Kim et al., 2010; Stuhlfaut & Yoo, 2011) have combined both the approaches to understand advertising creativity in greater depth. A synthesis of a number of different studies brings out recurrent and common dimensions (originality/novelty, utility/relevancy, empathy, message clarity, and aesthetics) and dimensions characteristic of particular scales. A thorough study into literature shows that creativity cannot be reduced to a few, rigid dimensions; rather it is a multi dimensional concept, where combinations of various elements strike an interactive balance which makes advertising communication creative and impressive. It is interesting to note that not all researchers believe in empirically understanding creativity and its dimensions; as they consider the creative process distinct to ordinary thinking, mostly involving an unexplained X factor, or a flash of momentary insight that cannot be reconstructed or analyzed (Guilford, 1950; White, 1972). In the same vein, O‘Connor, Willemain, and MacLachlan (1996) stressed that for agency creatives, sometimes a great idea is born out of free, unrestricted and random thinking. Moreover, eminent academic researchers (Amabile, 1996; Ford & Harris, 1992) are of the view that creativity is one of the most complex human behaviours to be described and some researchers (El-Murad & West, 2004 and Callahan, 1991) suggest that it cannot be defined or measured. This is because there is a high degree of chance in coming up with a winning creative idea, and random creativity is therefore pivotal. Cognitive elements, that is, the message or the copy of the ad, along with a sophisticated artistic flavour boost the creative effectiveness of advertising. To be deemed creative, advertisements must break the conventional moulds of thinking, given rise to ingenuity and new solutions, while accomplishing clients‘ expectations related to the brands being advertised. As Kover et al. (1997) described that an advertising agency‘s output can be considered a creative success when it achieves a client‘s communication objectives in a novel manner.

3.7.7 Studies on Miscellaneous Factors A variety of dimensions have been identified by advertising practitioners and researchers the world over to explain what really constitutes advertising creativity. It is not only practicable but is also suitable to club some of the scattered yet significant factors which too are believed to be components of advertising. Jackson and Messick (1965) introduced two other dimensions: ‗transformational‘ and ‗condensed‘ as contributors to advertising creativity. 129

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‗Positioning effectiveness‘ (Smith and Yang, 2004) and ‗connectedness‘ (Ang et al., 2007) were used to describe elements of advertising creativity. Reinartz and Saffert (2013) came up with ‗elaboration‘, ‗synthesis‘ and ‗flexibility‘ to denote creative elements used in advertising. There can be a host of other elements too in different countries, societies and communities, and in different periods of time. The subject of creativity has no clear-cut boundaries, cannot be easily bounded by a few of its dimensions, hence, there can be no finality to what constitutes creativity in advertising. Given below is an illustration of the different conceptualizations of creativity in advertising by an array of prominent scholars. A clear list of dimensions included or developed in the respective studies is also provided.

Table 3.7: Dimensions of Advertising Creativity in Academic Studies S. No. Author/ Researcher Dimensions Studied Haberland & Dacin (1992) Originality, Meaningfulness, Condensation and 1 Reformulation. Ang & Low (2000) Novelty, Meaningfulness and Emotional 2 Content. White & Smith (2001) Originality, Resolution, Logic, Well-Craftiness, 3 Elaboration and Synthesis. 4 Koslow, Sasser & Riordan (2003) Originality, Artistry and Logic. 5 Ang, Lee & Leong (2007) Novelty, Connectedness and Meaningfulness.

6 Smith et al. (2007, 2008) Divergence and Relevance. West, Kover &Caruana Originality, Relevance, Goal-Directedness, 7 (2008) Execution and Humour. Kim, Han & Yoon (2010) Originality, Considerateness, Product Relevance 8 and Clarity. 9 Altsech (1995) Originality and Pertinence. 10 Sheinin, Varki &Ashley (2011) Novelty and Usefulness. 11 Guilford (1965) Originality and Appropriate Character. 12 Jackson & Messick (1967) Novelty, Transformation and Condensation. Guerin (2008) Novelty, Ingenuity, Condensation, Stylishness, 13 Complexity, Incongruity and Resolution. Nyilasy, Canniford & Kreshel (2013) Conceptual Innovativeness, Artistry, Generative 14 Individual Creativity, Non-formulaic Mental Modes, Intuition and Risk. 15 Hirschman (1983) Intelligence, Creativity and Consciousness. 16 Opas (2008) Serendipity, Similarity and Mediation.

To sum up, there is a general agreement that divergent thinking (originality, imaginativeness and novelty) and relevance (goal-orientedness) are two important

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factors of advertising creativity, within the purview of which fall most sub-dimensions desirable for advertising creativity. It has also been found that artistry, humour and syntactic complexity might also explain perceptions of creativity, especially for the experts in this field. Furthermore, we expect, culturally-unique dimensions related to social considerateness and sustainability to emerge from this study, as important elements of creativity, perceived by Indian advertising agency specialists.

3.8 Critical Review and Tabular Presentation of the Literature Available In order to investigate the researchers‘ perspective and to document and summarize what is already known about advertising creativity, and to set a direction for my own research, I carried out a content analysis of all academic articles addressing advertising creativity. In this section, an attempt has been made to explore and organize all the relevant literature in the area of advertising creativity, and subsequently, to understand, classify and develop insights into the rich collection of knowledge available in relation to our prospective study. For the ease of understanding for any future researcher, an academic depiction has been made in the table given below:

Table 3.8: Tabular Presentation of the Researches Reviewed S.No Author Article and Journal Proposition The definition and An in-depth exploration on

measurement of definitions, meaning, theoretical El-Murad and 1 creativity: what do we know? underpinnings, measurement and West Journal of Advertising enhancement of creativity in (2004) Research advertising. A tool for evaluating A four dimensional model of advertising concepts: advertising creativity was desirable characteristics as Stuhlfaut and Yoo developed represented by factors: 2 viewed by creative (2011) novelty, utility, emotion and humor. practitioners:

Journal of Marketing

Communications Do marketers get the Examination into the influence of advertising they need or the marketers on the creativity of their Koslow, Sasser, advertising they deserve?: advertising agency focussed around 3 and Riordan agency views of how clients three main areas: (1) setting (2006) influence creativity: Journal direction, (2) resource allocation, of Advertising and (3) evaluation. Examined creativity in advertising What is creative to whom and Koslow, Sasser, from the perspectives of ‗creatives‘ why? perceptions in 4 and Riordan and the ‗account managers‘ and advertising agencies: Journal (2003) discovered perceptual differences in of Advertising Research the dimensions of strategy,

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originality and artistry according to the respective agency roles. A theoretical synopsis critically Sasser and examining the confluence of the Creativity and ad theory: 5 Koslow 3P‘s framework of person, place Advertising Theory Textbook (2011-12) and process in advertising creativity. The authors developed and validated a measure of advertising creativity in the form of a four- Advertising creativity in factor model with originality, Kim, Han and Korea: scale development considerateness, clarity, and product 6 Yoon and validation. Journal of relevance as prime dimensions. (2010) Advertising. Researched in the eastern cultural milieu, with considerateness reflecting the culturally unique dimension. Ad agency professionals‘ Nyilasy, mental models of advertising Mapping advertising agency 7 Canniford and creativity: practitioners‘ mental models of Kreshel (2013) European Journal of creativity. Marketing. The forms of unconventional Documentary discussion of advertising – a theoretical 8 Jurca (2010) unconventional advertising and its approach. Management and primary features. Marketing. The PISCES Process: guiding Study on the PISCESS Process clients to creative Vardis and Sideris (plan, imagine, select, create, 9 positioning strategies. (2000) evaluate, start) to assist in Journal of Business & successful positioning action plans. Industrial Marketing. Ad schema incongruity as Assessment of the impact of ad Dimofte, elicitor of ethnic self- schema incongruity with respect to Forehand and 10 awareness and differential ethnic self- awareness and Deshpandé advertising response. advertising responses of target (2003-4) Journal of Advertising. consumers. Advertising and knowledge intermediaries: managing the A new framework for management ethical challenges of Miller and Choi of ethical considerations for 11 intangibles. Journal of (2003) intangible advertising challenges Business was constituted. Ethics.

From consumer insight to advertising strategy: the An elaborate account of the account planner‘s integrative integrative and dynamic role of the 12 Hackley (2003) role in creative advertising account planners in the creative development. Marketing process of advertising. Intelligence and Planning Advertising dislike ability in An exploration into the elements Asia: Is there a relationship causing the disliking of an 13 Fam et al. (2013) with purchase intention and advertisement in Asia with frequency? Asia Pacific seven main dislike attributes being Journal of Marketing and found.

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Logistics. A cross- country exploration of Advertising creativity: The advertising agency practitioner Hill, Johnson, view across the meeting room beliefs, identification of similarities 14 Pryor and Helmi and across cultures. Asia and differences in beliefs between n (2007) Pacific Journal of Marketing the creatives of the three countries and Logistics. under study. Evaluation of the advertiser- Evaluating the advertiser- advertising agency relationship and 15 Kennedy (1995) advertising agency elements to improve this relationship. Masters Thesis. relationship are proposed. A comparative inductive study to Are advertising educators analyse advertising educator‘s 16 Reid (1977) good judges of creative judgements of creative talents in talent? Journal of Advertising their students with the student‘s creative abilities. Attitude toward the ad as a The influence of advertising on mediator of consumer brand 17 Shimp (1981) consumers‘ brand choices is choice. Journal of examined in detail. Advertising. The connection between brand On congruence between Maehle and preferences and human personalities 18 brand and human Shneor (2010) is studied to uncover brand- personalities personality match. Advertising message processing amongst urban children: An The factors which influence Panwar and Indian experience – with special processing of advertising messages 19 reference to TV advertising. Agnihotri (2006) Asia Pacific Journal of among Marketing and Logistics. urban children in India.

A revised communication The study elaborated on a model for advertising: communication multiple dimensions of the 20 Stern (1994) model for advertising with emphasis source, the message, and the on crafted text rather than everyday recipient. Journal of speech. Advertising. Consumer intelligence, creativity, and consciousness: An exploratory investigation of the implications for relationship between consumers‘ 21 Hirschman (1983) consumer protection and intelligence, creativity and ability to education. activate Journal of Public Policy & consumption-relevant information. Marketing. An exploratory study showing the prevalence of empathy as a Creative advertising students: distinctive personality trait in 22 Auer (1976) how different. advertising Journal of Advertising students as compared to non- advertising students. The evolving role of A critical evaluation of the creativity significance of creativity for brand 23 Thomas (2011) in brand management. management. Bachelor Thesis. 24 Blasko and Creativity in Advertising: A Janusian thought is analysed from

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Mokwa (1986) Janusian perspective. the perspective of advertising Journal of Advertising. creativity. Considering a general theory Creativity in advertising analysed of creativity in advertising: from a socio-cultural perspective the case for a socio-cultural with 25 Lee Earle (2007) model. interactions of the creator, domain, Journal of Business and and Public Affairs. field elements. Creativity work environment: Using Amabile‘s KEYS framework, do UK advertising agencies the working environment of UK Ensor, Pirrie and have one? advertising agencies is 26 Band (2006) European Journal of explored with respect to Innovation organizational Management. creativity. Cultural Differences in the perceptions of advertising Perceptual differences of 27 Daechun (2013) creativity: A comparative advertising creativity between two analysis of the U.S. and different cultures, Korea and the Korea U.S. were explored. Cultural values and effective executional techniques in advertising: A The study of identifying likeable cross-country and product executional techniques in category study of urban Fam and Grohs advertising across five Asian 28 young adults in Asia. (2007) countries and their impact on International Marketing purchase intentions. Review.

Developing combinations of An investigative study focussing on message appeals formulation of the best 29 Davies (1993) for campaign management. combinations, characteristics and European Journal of creative appeals for an advertising Marketing. communication plan. Cross-cultural analysis of gender roles: Indian and US Analysis of socio-cultural Khairullah and advertisements. influences on gender roles as 30 Khairullah (2009) Asia Pacific Journal of presented in Indian and US Marketing and advertising world. Logistics.

The construction of gender The female creative professionals‘ and creativity in advertising perspectives on their few numbers Lee and Windels creative departments. 31 in advertiisng agency roles are (2012) Gender in Management: An examined. International

Journal. A qualitative study of French How French advertising Taylor, Hoy and advertising revealing four main professionals develop 32 Haley descriptors-la seduction, le creative strategy. Journal of (1996) spectacle, l‘amour, l‘humour-that Advertising. characterize French advertising.

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A study on how carefully designed Idea generation, creativity, Toubia ideation incentives can improve 33 and incentives. Marketing (2006) creative output in advertising Science. processes. A cross-cultural qualitative research undertaken across five Asian cities Identifying likeable (Hong Kong, Shanghai, Jakarta, Fam and Waller attributes: A qualitative 34 Bangkok and Mumbai) to discuss (2006) study of television Asian consumers‘ attitudes towards advertisements in Asia. television commercials in their respective country/city. Interactions in Psychographics A study to explore influences of 35 Boote (1984) Segmentation: Implications psychographic segmentation on for Advertising. Journal of advertising. Advertising. This study elucidates creativity- Learning creativity in the Suh, Jung and related determinants of learning in client-agency 36 Smith the context of business-to-business relationship. The Learning (2012) services and client-agency Organization. relationships. Creative managers and An explorative study to understand managing creativity: A how creativity is assimilated by 37 Granot (2011) hermeneutic exploration. executives in business‐to‐business American Journal of (B2B) services. Business. Market orientation, creativity, and new This study examines the mediating Im and Workman product performance in high- role of NP and MP creativity 38 (2004) technology between market orientation and NP firms. success. Journal of Marketing. An evaluation of artistic influences on An exploration to devise how marketing theory and connections between artistic 39 Fillis (2009) practice. influences and marketing planning Marketing Intelligence & can enhance theory and practice. Planning. Creativity business cultures: A theory-building research to Brashear and A hermeneutic examination enunciate how creative advertising 40 Granot in advertising agencies. executives make meaning of (2008) EnANPAD. creativity in a cultural context.

A study for modelling, Modeling and measuring Fillis and understanding and measuring creativity at the interface. 41 McAuley creativity at the level of the Journal of Marketing Theory (2000) Marketing Entrepreneurship and Practice. Interface. Words of a feather: An elaboration on the extraordinary confessions of a Thomas contributions made by renowned Twitcher. professor of marketing, Prof. 42 Brown (2011) Marketing Intelligence & Michael Thomas. Planning.

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Operationalising brand Construction of a pioneering Hakala, Lätti and heritage and cultural heritage. 43 operationalisation of both brand and Sandberg (2011) Journal of Product & Brand cultural heritage. Management. An empirical investigation of The study examines the potential the association between effectiveness of award winning Ahmad and 44 creative advertising and television advertisements in Mahmood (2011) advertising effectiveness in Pakistan in both single and three Pakistan advertising exposures. The use of product sampling and advertising: effects of The effects of sequence of exposure sequence of exposure and to exaggerated advertising and Marks and degree of advertising claim product sampling on subjects‘ belief 45 Kamins exaggeration on consumers‘ strength, belief confidence, attitude, (1988) belief strength, belief and purchase intention toward a confidence and attitudes. product. Journal of Marketing Research. Perspectives on advertising research: Views from the winners of the This paper represents a snapshot of Carlson, Grove American academy of advertising research, and its 46 and Stafford advertising outstanding evolvement over time with a focus (2005) contribution to research on future directions. award. Journal of Advertising. The planning and An illustrative case-study implementation of integrated highlighting various facets of Caemmerer 47 marketing communications. planning and implementation of (2009) Marketing Intelligence & integrated marketing Planning. communications. Winter, Russell Psychographics and This study views the area of 48 and creativity. psychographics from the Wolter (1973) Journal of Advertising. perspective of the creative person. Duffy, Craig and Purpose, process, place: The study explores the use of design 49 Gillen design as a research variables in improving performance (2011) tool. Facilities. of creative organizations. Misplaced marketing: The The study focuses on finding out the real reason for the real reason for bad advertising 50 Rotfeld (2002) real bad advertising. commercials and delinks it to Journal of Consumer creativity. Marketing. An examination into the probable Recall and Persuasion: does effectiveness of creative advertising Till and Baack creative advertising matter? 51 in enhancing recall, brand attitude, (2005) Journal of Advertising. and purchase intent.

Relationship marketing defined? An examination of current relationship An explorative study on relationship 52 Harker (1999) marketing definitions. marketing and its related conceptual Marketing Intelligence & meanings. Planning.

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An inclusive study into the Correlates of successful correlation between successful brand advertising in 53 Tai (2007) advertising in China and other China. Asia Pacific Journal advertising factors. of Marketing and Logistics.

An empirically tuned study to SME practice towards discover and test the gap between Gabrielli and integrated marketing the theory and practice of integrated 54 Balboni communications. marketing communications (IMC) (2010) Marketing Intelligence & in small‐ and medium‐sized Planning. enterprises (SMEs). The study employs social Social constructionism and constructionism as a theoretical research in marketing and framework to demonstrate 55 Hackley (1998) advertising. qualitative research in marketing Qualitative Market Research: with special reference to advertising An International Journal. creativity. Speculations on the future of The research discusses the changes advertising in advertising and its implications 56 Stewart (1992) research. Journal of for future research methods centred Advertising. on advertising creativity. Measurement and diagnosis An illustrative diagnosis about of student attitudes toward. a students‘ attitude for advertising 57 Lutz (1975) career in advertising. Journal careers is presented using the of Advertising. ‗expectancy-value‘ models. The subsiding sizzle: A A decade- by-decade content descriptive history of analysis is presented, identifying 58 Pollay (1985) print advertising, 1900-1980. fads and trends in tactics and styles Journal of Marketing. of print ads. The effects of emotional Organizational creativity is analysed ambivalence on from the perspective of emotionally 59 Fong (2006) creativity. ambivalent persons with a focus on The Academy of Management diagnosing improvement of creative Journal. performance. Creativity‘s paradoxical character: A postscript to The study revisits and analyses James Webb critically the classical work of 60 Bengtson (1982) young‘s technique for James Webb Young, A Technique producing ideas. for Producing Ideas. Journal of Advertising. The differential effect of ad Two main dimensions of ad Sheinin, Varki, novelty and message creativity (novelty and message 61 and usefulness on brand usefulness) are examined for their Ashley (2011) judgements. Journal of differential effects on various Advertising. advertising variables. Toward an associative model Formulation of an associative model Reid and Rotfeld 62 of advertising creativity. underpinning creative thought (1976) Journal of Advertising. process in advertising. Creating passion to engage versus enrage A study to understand how new consumer co-creators with interactive media trends affect the 63 Sasser (2008) agency co-conspirators: creative process in agencies and Unleashing creativity. engage consumers as co-creators. Journal of Consumer

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Marketing. The influence of verbal An exploration into the role of the content and relative newness verbal content and relative newness 64 Iyer (1988) on the effectiveness of of a brand‘s advertising in comparative advertising. determining the effectiveness of a Journal of Advertising. comparative format. The visual components of An empirical analysis into the visual print advertising: Cutler, Javalgi components of print advertisements A five-country cross-cultural 65 and across five countries, with analysis. Erramilli (1992) implications for international European Journal of advertising knowledge. Marketing. A conceptual study emphasizing on Creativity in Advertising. William O‘Barr the significance, definitions and 66 Advertising & Society Review (2011) evolution of creativity in

advertising. How nothing became The domain of commercial rhetoric something: white space, Pracejus, Olsen, (advertising) is analysed from the rhetoric, history, and 67 and O‘Guinn perspective of visual theory and meaning. (2006) symbolic meanings of objects from Journal of Consumer their histories. Research. A multidimensional perspective into creativity research history by the Unpacking creativity. development of a matrix of four 68 Unsworth (2001) Academy of Management creativity types: responsive, Review. expected, contributory, and proactive. A cross-cultural and cross- specialization study to discover the Advertising creativity: The beliefs held by two key stakeholder Hill, Johnson, view across the meeting room groups in the advertising process, 69 Pryor and across cultures. those of ‗creatives‘ – the agency and Helmi (2007) Asia Pacific Journal of practitioners who respond to an Marketing and Logistics. advertising brief – and the advertiser clients who commission the creative work. Do marketers get the advertising they need or the Koslow, Sasser The study examines the influence of advertising they deserve? 70 and Riordan marketers on the creativity of their Agency views of how clients (2006) advertising agency. influence creativity. Journal of Advertising. Toward a general theory of A study on exploring definitions creativity in advertising: Smith and Yang dimensions of ad creativity and its 71 Examining the role of (2004) influences on ad effectiveness by a divergence. comprehensive literature review. Marketing Theory A comprehensive overview of Creativity: The holy grail of extant researches on advertising advertising? Lambert creativity with in-depth analysis of 72 Halmai (2010) Publishing. various effect variables like

purchase intentions.

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An insightful study on the Creative managers and viewpoints about creativity as held 73 Granot (2011) managing creativity: A by executives in advertising hermeneutic exploration agencies and the influences of creative cultures. Pioneering ideas from advertising‘s Confessions of an advertising legend, David Ogilvy on 74 Ogilvy (2006) man advertising, corporate ethics and many other aspects of business. Advertising Effectiveness: Understanding the value of A study centred around reviewing creativity in advertising, A literature to understand the value of 75 Sharma (2012) review study in India. creativity in the field of advertising Online Journal of in India. Communication and Media Technologies. A Test of two consumer An empirical study designed to Zinkhan and response scales in measure the predictive powers of 76 Fornell advertising. Wells‘ reaction profile and Leavitt‘s (1985) Journal of Marketing commercial profile with respect to Research. attitude and purchase intentions. Consolidation, collection and Creativity in the Journal of analysis of the number and contents 77 Zinkhan (1993) advertising. of the articles published on Journal of Advertising. advertising creativity in the Journal of Advertising. Top-Level agency creatives A study on opinions of top-level Reid, King and look at advertising creativity agency creatives on the presumed 78 Delorme (1998) then and now. adage that in today‘s advertising Journal of Advertising creativity has declined. Practitioner and customer A comparative study examining views of advertising definitions of advertising creativity West, Kover and 79 creativity: Same concept, held by samples of New York Caruana (2008) different meaning? Journal of agency practitioners and members Advertising. of the television-viewing public. Consumers‘ perception of the creativity of advertisements: A study on consumer‘s perception Development of a valid of the creativity of advertisements 80 Guerin (2008) measurement scale. and development of a valid Recherche et Applications en measurement scale. Marketing (English Edition) The subsiding sizzle of A comprehensive review of major Schwarzkopf advertising history. advertising historical research 81 (2011) Journal of Historical published over the last three Research in Marketing. decades. Emerging paradigms in the Observations on Indian economy Indian marketplace. and business environment as one of 82 Shukla (2006) Asia Pacific Journal of the world‘s most promising Marketing. economies. Identification of the antecedents and Comparative study of effects of advertising creativity, advertising creativity- 83 Jurca (2013) with traditional versus ambient traditional versus ambient. advertisements. Doctoral thesis.

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The study explores how an Creativity Management. Forsgren, Tregert organization adds value through From the ad agency 84 and Westerlund enhancing creativity in the perspective. (2004) workplace, with case studies from Master‟s thesis. the advertising industry. Does advertising shape or A study exploring the powerful 85 Waugh (2011) reflect popular culture? influence of advertising on popular Master‟s thesis. culture. The development of a new An Investigation into the creativity support tool called the development of a creativity 86 Opas (2008) Creative Pad, to assist advertising support tool for advertising. creatives in generating creative Doctoral Thesis. ideas for advertising. Accord and discord in agency-client perceptions of An in depth study on ad agency 87 Michell (1984) creativity. satisfaction and creativity Journal of Advertising influences. Research. Attitude toward advertising in The differences between results of general and attitude toward a studies focused on consumers‘ Christian, Zdeněk Specific Type of Advertising 88 attitude toward advertising is and Lucie (2014) – A First Empirical examined based on international Approach. research. Journal of Competitiveness. The effect of advertising on market How does advertising affect Hamilton, performance that relies on the market performance? A note 89 Richards and preferences of ﬁrms participating in on generic advertising. Stiegert (2013) generic advertising programs is Economic Inquiry. estimated using a novel approach. Another one bites the grass – Aspects of international advertising making sense of international like language and culture, global 90 Paswan (2001) advertising. brand management and its interface Journal of Consumer with the ad agency is explored in Marketing. detail. Creativity, brands, and the ritual process: Confrontation The study deals with how creativity and resolution in advertising Malefyt and is managed, channelled and agencies. 91 Morais controlled in the central site of Culture and Organization. (2010) creativity that is the agency.

The study identifies the main Lethagen and Unbundling creativity. dimensions of advertising creativity 92 Modig (2008) Master‟s thesis. and several key measures of advertising effectiveness. Building brand equity The study examined the impact of Makasi, Govender through advertising. advertising on building brand equity 93 and Mediterranean Journal of in Zimbabwe‘s tobacco auction Rukweza (2014) Social Sciences floors. The future of creativity in The value of creative advertising Michael and advertising. and why marketers may be less 94 George (2013) Journal of Promotion focused on message strategies is Management. discussed.

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A descriptive study exploring a Creativity. multitude of aspects of creativity 95 Sefertzi (2000) INNOREGIO project. and its application and implementation. Consumer perceptions of Modelling the Determinants Smith, Yang, advertising creativity are and Effects of Creativity in 96 Buchholz and investigated in a series of studies Advertising. Darley (2007) with scale development and model Marketing Science. testing Creativity in Advertising: Analysis of the central role and Reinartz and When It Works and When It dimensions of creativity in 97 Saffert (2013) Doesn‘t. advertising and its influence on Harvard Business Review. advertising effectiveness. A tool for evaluation of advertising concepts: A measurement model of Desirable characteristics as advertising creativity with four Stuhlfaut & Yoo 98 viewed by creative dimensions: novelty, utility, (2011) practitioners. emotion and humour. Journal of Marketing Communications. When creativity is a must: The study emphasizes on greater professional ‗applied recognition of the business-to- Hill and Johnson 99 creative‘ services. business (2003) Creativity and Innovation service process through which much Management. applied creativity is generated. Advertiser satisfaction with The study explored the satisfaction advertising response in from the advertisers for 100 Hill (2006) agency creative product. the agency‘s creative ser European Journal of services. Marketing The impact of advertising The impact of advertising creativity creativity on customer on customer loyalty, for one of the 101 Mahboul (2012) loyalty: Case Agency X. most important advertising agencies Bachelor‟s Thesis. in Finland. Understanding creative service: A qualitative study of the advertising An elaborate process of the Hill and Johnson problem delineation, delivery of creative products as 102 (2004) communication and response experienced by advertising (APDCR). executives. International Journal of Advertising. A qualitative, content-based review of Advertising Creativity: the creative product, conceptual Balancing surprise and Goldenberg and understanding of creativity in 103 regularity. Mazursky (2007) advertising, thinking processes SAGE Handbook of influencing creativity and design Advertising. structures assisting our mental modes of creative thinking. Measuring the organisational A creative code of perceived Stuhlfaut and impact on qualities about acceptable creativity 104 Windels (2012) creativity: The Creative Code within advertising agencies has been Intensity Scale. shown to affect creative

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International Journal of practitioners‘ boundaries of creative Advertising: The Review of expression. Marketing Communications. A detailed overview on the conceptual development and What we know about Plucker, assessment of the 4Cs of creativity, creativity. 105 Kaufman and that is, Creativity, Critical Thinking, Partnership for 21st Century Beghetto (2015) Collaboration, and Communication, Learning. with special reference to student population. This volume puts forth different Kaufman and The International handbook cultural perspectives on human 106 Sternberg (Eds.). of creativity. New York: creativity, offered by scholars from (2006). Cambridge University Press. around the world. A review-based study on theories Understanding creativity. about creativity with the 107 Piirto (2004) Scottsdale, AZ: Great development of ‗Pyramid of Talent Potential Press Development‘ model. An exploratory study deciphering Creative Syndrome: certain conceptual issues embodied Mumford and Integration, application and 108 in the description and understanding Gustafson (1988) innovation. of creative behaviour and innovative Psychological Bulletin occupational achievement. An in-depth examination into the Antecedents of creative beliefs of creative personnel in excellence in advertising: The advertising agencies as to what 109 Railton, H. (1996) beliefs of senior creatives. factors are believed to be important New Zealand Journal of factors of optimal creative Business. advertising executions. A study highlighting how the visual cues in advertising assist in creating The use of visual cues and effective cognitive and affective metaphors in advertising. response interpretations for the 110 Kapoor (2013) International Journal of brands being advertising, with Marketing and Technology. cultural linkages being linked to the symbolic meanings aroused by visually pleasing advertising. Ad creativity is conceptualized as a The Ad Creativity Cube: function of 3 dimensions: Novelty, Conceptualization and Ang, Lee and Meaningfulness, Connectedness. 111 initial validation. Journal of Leong (2007) The relationship between ad the Academy of Marketing creativity with level of persuasion Science. and effectiveness is studied. Bell (2013) on The unreasonable power of Viewpoints of Robert Senior on the Robert Senior, 112 creativity. powerful influencing of creativity in CEO Saatchi and Strategic Direction. advertising. Saatchi. Necessary but not sufficient: This study empirically tests whether Ang, Lee, Leong Beyond novelty in advertising the effects of novelty can be 113 and Lou (2014) creativity. Journal of enhanced by meaningfulness and Marketing Communications. connectedness.

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3.9 Measurement and Assessment of Advertising Creativity The first question that comes to mind whenever research into advertising creativity is undertaken is to explore whether creativity can be measured or not. To understand and decode the answer to this question is one of the primary aims of this study. Can something as abstract and subjective be measured? Is it possible to develop a scale to make this happen, and if there is a way, what is it? A practical resolution of this issue can be of immense help to professionals and researchers alike when designing creative strategies for brands where advertising and marketing budgets are massive. In this section, we set out to appreciate and categorize scales developed to measure creativity in previous studies. The well-known psychologist John Paul Gilford‘s (1950) pioneering work on creativity provided a platform for establishing a norm that could be applied for measuring creativity. Building upon his work, E.P. Torrance further constructed the foundations for authenticating findings in this area and invented what came to be known as Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) which remain the most popular and widely used tests even today. Since then, there have been significant attempts to develop tools or scales to measure this highly abstract concept. There is no dearth of researches which successfully applied these methods. It is however, pertinent to note that most of these attempts at building measurement scales for advertising creativity were from the perspective of the consumer and not from the standpoint of the agency. The sparseness lies not in research on advertising creativity per se, but in the context. Way back in 1981, Hocevar classified creativity measurement principles into ten individual classes, spanning across two broad categories of psychometric tests and expert opinion tests. Since then, many diverse instruments to measure creativity, more specifically in the context of creative personalities have been established. Teresa Amabile‘s Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT), first published in a social psychology journal in 1982, is a ground-breaking technique, often rightly been called as the ‗Gold Standard‘ of creativity assessment. Researchers like Granot (2008) and Ang & Low (2000) utilized semi-structured interview techniques for grounded theory studies. More recently, Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011) in a dexterous study developed a four dimensional model of advertising creativity, represented by four factors: novelty, utility, emotion and humour.

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Kim et al. (2010) also developed and validated a measure of advertising creativity in the form of a four-factor model with originality, considerateness, clarity, and product relevance as prime dimensions. Given below is a tabular representation of the measures used in advertising creativity assessments, as identified through review of literature:

Table 3.9: Conceptual Models/ Creativity Measurement Scales (Adapted and extended by El-Murad and West, 2004)

S.No. Author/ Scholar Measure/ Description Primary Psychometric Tests 1 Guilford (1950) Unusual Uses Test 2 Mednick (1962, 1968) Remote Associates Test: A self-completion divergent- thinking creativity test, consisting of making 3 Torrance (1962, 1974, Torrance’s Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT): 1981) Adapted by Robert Smith (Indiana University, 2000s). Designed to measure degree of divergence from a norm along five dimensions: originality, flexibility, elaboration, synthesis, and artistic value. 4 Getzels & Jackson (1962) Four Creativity Measures: Word association, unusual uses, hidden shapes, make-up problems 5 Wallach & Kogan (1965) A series of five untimed Divergent Thinking Tests 6 Guilford (1967) Structure of the Intellect (SOI) 7 Plucker & Renzulli (1999) Torrance’s Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) 8 Naglieri & Das (1997) Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) 9 Naglieri (1999) Planning. Attention. Simultaneous, and Successive Cognitive Tests (PASS); Stroop test 10 Besemer & O‘Quin‘s (1987, Creative Product Semantic Scale (CPSS): Creative 1999) output rated on various elements of novelty, perceived resolution capacity, problem-solving elements, elaboration and synthesis. Original attempt to measure creativity by non-expert consumers 11 Kaufman & Beghetto The Four C Model of Creativity: Levels of personal (2009) creative capacities (Little-C, Big-C, Mini-C and Pro-C). 12 Kirton (1976) The Adaption-Innovation Theory: Problem solving either by adaptation or innovation. 13 Piirto (2004) Pyramid of Talent Development Model: Seven I‘s: Inspiration, Imagery, Imagination, Intuition, Insight, Incubation and Improvisation. 14 Renzulli (1978) Three Ring Model to Assess ‘Giftiness’: Gifted (creative) behaviour draws from three rings: high abilities, high task commitment and high creativity. Combination Tests 15 Reid & Rotfeld (1976) Expert Opinion Creative Ability Profile Scale: A set of ten rating scales designed to gauge creative ability of

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products, evaluated by expert judges. Linked to associative ability to advertising creativity.

16 Mumford et al. (1998) ‗Guessing Consequences’ subtest of TTCT scored by panel of expert judges using 5-point scale 17 Hocevar (1981) A Ten-Criteria Scale for Measuring Creativity: Creativity measurement principles into ten individual classes, spanning across two broad categories of psychometric tests and expert opinion tests. 18 Amabile et al. (1996) KEYS Research Tool: A group of ten scales with characteristic dimensions to assess organizational creative climate and individual‘s perception of the work environment and its creativity. 19 Amabile (2012) Componential Model of Creativity: A model including domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant skills, and task motivation (aspects associated with creativity). 20 Kim, Han & Yoon (2010) A Four-Factor Advertising Creativity Scale, represented by the dimensions of originality, considerateness, clarity, and product relevance. 21 Opas (2008) The Creative Pad: A creativity support tool for advertising. 22 Ang, Lee and Leong The Ad Creativity Cube: Ad Creativity as a function (2007) of novelty, connectedness and meaningfulness.

Primary Expert Opinion Tests 23 Amabile (1982) Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT): Assessments of creativity in advertising are done by specialists, and an adequate degree of agreement of opinions is analysed. Experts‘ individual perceptions about creativity are utilized to make judgements. The CAT has been also applied to stories, art, poetry and other aesthetic products.

24 Van den Bergh, Reid & Creativity of advertising assessed by panel of top Schorin (1983) advertising creative people 25 Kirton (1976) The Adaption-Innovation Theory: Problem solving either by adaptation or innovation 26 Gough(1992) Creative Personality Scale 27 Kover. Goldberg & James One Show advertising creativity awards (1995) 28 Bell (1992) TV commercial popularity, measured by Video Storyboard Test Inc. 29 Stone (2000) Creativity of advertising assessed by expert panel of senior advertising students

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30 Stuhlfaut & Yoo (2011) A measurement model of advertising creativity with four dimensions: novelty, utility, emotion and humor.

31 Stuhlfaut & Windels (2012) The Creative Code Intensity Scale: Measuring the organisational impact on creativity Biometric Tests 32 Plucker & Renzulli (1999) Study of brain function during creative activity. 33 Mumford, Medeiros A creative process model, with eight stages of &Partlow (2012). cognitive processing. 34 Dietrich (2004) Cognitive Neuroscience Model: Four modes of creative insights and their links to brain function (processing modes and knowledge modes).

3.10 Research Gaps After a detailed and exhaustive review of the extant literature available on the theme of advertising creativity, prominent and impressionable gaps have surfaced. The gaps help us understand the missing pieces in our quest for exploring advertising creativity from the agency‘s viewpoint and provide relevant positioning of our study in the current advertising landscape. A clear gap in the conceptual understanding of advertising creativity emerged, especially from the perspective of the agency practitioners‘ themselves. An apparent need was also discovered to have researches done empirically and systematically to understand this seemingly abstract and lively aspect of advertising. The prospects of a study centred on developing a detailed understanding of what creativity means to the agency professionals in Indian advertising agencies and subsequently extract its key dimensions seem to be potentially needed. While many types of researches have been devoted to discovering management styles and their effects on advertising output, academic explorations on understanding the thought process and mental modes of advertising practitioners is sparsely studied, especially from the Indian perspective. The huge size and economic magnanimity of the Indian advertising industry renders it even more necessary for a systematic dimensional analysis from the agency‘s side. Though, not very far behind any more, but a lot of distance is yet to be covered by not only for its aesthetic appeal but for achieving commercial success too in the twenty first century. The role of creativity cannot be over emphasized. It is important for solving challenging social problems and organizational goals.

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Furthermore, within the realm of advertising research, valuable insights on creativity have been assimilated by analysing the perspectives of managers, advertisers, consumers, advertising students and academicians. Despite these efforts, very few studies have been found to focus on the real brains behind the creative business of advertising that is the agency practitioners. Moreover, there is a clear dearth of a conclusive scale that can represent creativity in advertising and its dimensional mapping as a standardised measure. This gap in the advertising research database becomes even more prominent as we draw comparative reflections on the asymmetrical occurrence between researches done on advertising creativity from the consumer‘s perspective and that of the agency‘s standpoint. With conceptually strong theories of various advertising variables and effects from the consumer‘s side being available in literature, the area of agency dynamics seems to have been paid scant attention to. This reflects on the increasing need to address systematic analysis of creativity and its dimensions, and develop conceptual clarity on advertising creativity for the agency practitioners, which shall be dealt with in detail by our research study. There is an apparent lack of studies explicitly focussing on creativity and empirical analysis of advertising creativity (Reid et al., 1998; Zinkhan, 1993; Taylor, 2005). This leads to a wide research gap around advertising creativity and the real meanings, dimensions and conceptual understanding of creativity, especially in the thriving world of advertising where a growing disconnect can be seen between academic theoretical know-how and practical knowledge. Literature encompasses diverse studies related to various levels of advertising effectiveness like recall, advertisement and brand attitude and purchase intention, as a corollary of creative advertising. However, studies have majorly been conducted from the consumer‘s viewpoint and not from the advertising agency‘s perspective. In Indian advertising landscape, this gap in literature was found to be even more pronounced. However, research on advertising creativity still suffers from the absence of a definition of the concept from the viewpoint of those who are involved in the creation of advertisements, and this sparked our interest to carry out an in-depth study in this area.

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3.11 Summary This chapter consolidates previously published literature in the area of advertising creativity and helps the readers and the researcher to understand, integrate and summarize what is known in this area, and to learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A conceptual familiarity is developed through exhaustive literature review and opportunities for future research are examined by identifying the research gaps.

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Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development

CHAPTER IV CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK & HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Introduction Best represented as a system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and theories that supports a research and creates a model for conducting it, the conceptual framework is a key part of any research design. Miles and Huberman (1994) explained the centrality of a sound conceptual framework to the quality of a research by defining it as, “A visual or written product, one that „explains, either graphically or in a narrative form- the main things to be studied: the key factors, concepts or variables, and the presumed relationships among them.” Based on this definition, the conceptual framework has been designed and developed to understand and decode the various linkages between the constructs being studied. To coherently delineate the co-relationships and divergences in how the variables interact as a system and as separate entities, here we present a conception or model of what is out there that we plan to study, and what is going on with these concepts and why, and a tentative theory of the phenomenon that we have set out to investigate. Lave and March (1993, p.4) had to say some very interesting words about this aspect of research design: “We will treat models of human behaviour as a form of art, and their development as a form of studio exercise. Like all art, model building requires a combination of discipline and playfulness. It is an art that is learnable. It has explicit techniques.” Coherently aligning the basic investigation of our research with this thought, we attempt to understand the underlying dimensions that can measure the meaning of creativity in advertising, something that is essentially abstract, a human quality and a phenomenon that is both an inherent art and a science when it is applied to the advertising business. As this study probes into the dimensions of advertising creativity from the agency perspective in the context of India, and aims to develop a scale for its assessment, the various related constructs are described briefly in this chapter to make our understanding of this topic more holistic. Centred on the concept of creativity, a clear dimensional analysis has been presented. A first step in this endeavour would be to define this multidimensional 149

Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development construct and subsequently to identify dimensions that symbolize advertising creativity in India. Building on previous research in advertising creativity and cross- cultural psychology and deriving a conceptual model out of it, we expect some unique factors to emerge that could be culturally linked to India. After a comprehensive literature review, we have attempted to identify some specific dimensions and definitions of creativity from the ad agency perspective.

4.2 Conceptual Framework A number of explanations about the concept of creativity in general, and in advertising in particular were found in the literature reviewed, as discussed in the preceding chapters. Out of those, the most comprehensive were the ones given by advertising and marketing legends Leo Burnett and Sir John Hegarty. Both of them resonate in their own, different words, the same concept of creativity. According to Leo Burnett, creativity is “The art of establishing new and meaningful relationships between previously unrelated things in a manner that is relevant, believable and in good taste” (Burnett, 1968). Sir John Hegarty (2014) explains this phenomenon of creativity in advertising in the following simple words “Creativity is self-expression. It is who you are and putting that into your work.” Additionally, among the dimensions of advertising creativity identified, „Originality‟ , „Message Clarity‟ and „Well- Craftiness‟ were found to be recurrently mentioned and testified in previous literature. The dimensions of „Empathy‟ and „Sustainability‟ have been partially derived from literature available and studies conducted in this field and from our own subjective interactions with the advertising professionals. Thus, these constructs with their sub-dimensions have been both substantiated from previous literature studies and our endeavour to discuss and decipher elements of this highly abstract character of advertising (that is, creativity) from the people working in advertising agencies in India. The aim of this research is to delineate, extract and identify dimensions that best represent advertising creativity from the agency’s perspective in India, and subsequently to develop a valid scale for advertising creativity. We also seek to investigate how advertising creativity affects perceived advertising outcomes. Before identification of conceptual dimensions operationally, a broader theoretical understanding of the main variables of interest was done. This helped in 150

Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development deciphering some major constructs that shall be translated into items for factor analysis in later stages. The key executional variables that conclusively have been proposed to symbolize advertising creativity have been shown diagrammatically laid out in the conceptual model. In the following section, the conceptual framework has been represented diagrammatically with dimensions of creativity on one side and perceived effects on the other side; to explore and develop a coherent picture of the variables in question and generate a valid model. The proposed 6 main latent dimensions represented are originality, message clarity, social empathy, sustainability, craftsmanship and exquisiteness. The proposed 5 main perceived effects to be studied are client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience and memorability. The following figure (Fig. 4.1) shows a conceptual framework to represent various aspects of advertising creativity that we plan to study and measure in our research.

Conceptual Framework

Dimensions Effects

Perceived advertising

Originality Client Objectives AdvertisingCreativity

Message Clarity Agency Awards

Social Empathy Social Change

o Sustainabilty u

o Connectedness m with Audience

Craftsmanship/ e

Aesthetics Memorability Exquisiteness

Fig. 4.1: Conceptual Framework

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Given below is a table showing the source(s) of dimensions taken in our study, thus enabling the reader to clearly understand the exhaustiveness of the literature reviewed.

Table 4.1: List of Dimensions/Elements of Advertising Creativity Conceptualized for this Study

Dimensions of Operational Source (s) from Literature Advertising Creativity Variables/ Items Novelty (O1) Kim, Han & Yoon (2010); Marra (1990); Russel & Lane (1999); Oldham & Cummings (1996); Haberland & Dacin (1992); Ray (1982); White & Smith (2001); El-Murad & West (2004); Sheinin, Varki & Ashley (2011); Baack, Wilson & Till (2008); Oldham & Cummings (1996); Guerin (2008); Le Roux (2001). Surprising/ Amusing Zinkhan & Fornell (1985); Leavitt's Commercial (O2) Profile (1970); Batra, Myers & Aaker (1996); Haberland & Dacin (1992); Bruner (1962); Le Roux (2001). Originality Imaginative (O3) Pilot study, Burnett (1960); Kilgour (2006); Toubia H1 (2006); Robinson (1997); El-Murad & West (2004); Le Roux (2001). Original (O4) Guilford (1950, 1956, 1967); Torrance (1987); Smith & Yang (2004); Kim, Han & Yoon (2010); White & Smith; Koslow, Sasser & Riordan (2003, 2006); Oldham & Cummings (1996); Sternberg & Lubart (1999); Reid, King & De Lorme (1998); Young (2000). Unique (O5) Ford & Harris (1992); Piirto (2004); Stokes (2006); Duke (2001); Smith et al. (2007). Freshness (O6) Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Alden, Hayer & Lee (1993); Weinberger & Gulas (1992); Stuhlfaut & Yoo (2011).

Meaningful (MC1) Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Leavitt's Commercial Profile (1970), Marra (1990); Haberland & Dacin (1992); Ang et al. (2000); Bruner (1962). Clear/ Simple Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Young (2000). (MC2) Message Clarity Informative (MC3) Haberland & Dacin (1992). H2 Easy to understand Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Ang et al. (2000). (MC4) Believable (MC5) Burnett (1960). Convincing (MC6) Leavitt's Commercial Profile (1970); Well's Reaction Profile (1964).

Sensitive (SE1) Leavitt's Commercial Profile (1970). Social Empathy Gentle (SE2) Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Leavitt's H3 Commercial Profile (1970).

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Socially considerate Haberland & Dacin (1992); Nyilasy, Canniford & (SE3) Kreshel (2013); Khan & Khan (2012).

Suited to Indian Pilot Study and Interactions with Specialists. values (SE4) Respectful towards Pilot Study and Interactions with Specialists. people‟s sentiments (SE5) Honest (SE6) Well's Reaction Profile (1964)

Timeless (ST1) Well's Reaction Profile (1964). Indelible impact Burnett (1960); Koestler (1983); Guerin (2008); Sustainability (ST2) Nyilasy, Canniford & Kreshel (2013). H4 Stimulate purchase Ohanian (1991); Atkin & Block (1983); Hovland (ST3) &Weiss (1951); McCracken (1989). Universal appeal Russel & Lane (1999); Rossiter (2008); Pilot Study (ST4) and Interactions with Specialists.

Product-relevance Pilot Study and Interactions with Specialists. (CA1) Effective execution Marra (1990); Oldham & Cummings (1996); El- (CA2) Murad & West (2004); Koslow, Sasser & Riordan (2003, 2006); Smith & Yang (2004); White & Smith (2001); Sheinin, Varki & Ashley (2011); Baack, Wilson & Till (2008); Heckler & Childers Craftsmanship/ (1992). Aesthetics Brand-celebrity Ohanian (1991); Atkin & Block (1983); Hovland H5 endorser match &Weiss (1951); McCracken (1989). (CA 3) Make consumers Marra (1990). want to use the product (CA4) Melodious Jingle Russel & Lane (1999); Rossiter (2008); Pilot Study (CA5) and Interactions with Specialists.

Exciting (EX1) Well's Reaction Profile (1964); Leavitt's Commercial Profile (1970); Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011); Kover, Goldberg, and James (1995). Inspiring (EX2) Marra (1990). Entertaining (EX3) Marra (1990); Oldham & Cummings (1996); El- Exquisiteness Murad & West (2004); Koslow, Sasser & Riordan H6 (2003, 2006); Smith & Yang (2004); White & Smith (2001); Sheinin, Varki & Ashley (2011); Baack, Wilson & Till (2008); Heckler & Childers (1992). Eye- catching (EX4) Pilot Study and Interactions with Specialists. Appealing (EX5) Pilot Study and Interactions with Specialists.

Let us look at the constructs and the concepts underlying them one by one:

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4.2.1 Originality Creativity in advertising is almost synonymous with the idea of originality. Agency professionals, often explain advertising creativity by offering „originality‟ as a key component when they set out to conceive the „big idea‟ for a brand. In majority of the studies reviewed, the dimension of originality or novelty has been recurring and common. It is almost like a theme that runs through all the academic articles related to this field. Every professional belonging to the advertising agency will have had the idea of originality played in his her mind as a pre-requisite when designing ads. A variety of descriptors like, „novel‟, „surprising‟, „unique‟, „unexpected‟, „outstanding‟, „differentiated‟ was identified to mean originality. Since these dimensions may be multi-semiotic, and referred to by several words by different people, it is necessary to take this aspect into account. Thus, in our pilot study, we generated a list of adjectives that might mean the same thing but are just different words used by different people. Understandably, an important thing to note here is that for each of these constructs, some sub-describers or „words‟ have been included to cover all words by which people might mean the same thing. So, for one professional the meaning of creativity may be described by the word „original‟ while for another person working in the same environment, the best word could be „novelty‟. We have, therefore, tried to include the most recurrent words used by these professions to mean the same ideology. As expected, originality has been referred to by many words such as novelty, newness, exciting and many more. Originality has been referred to as „the basic criteria to measure creativity‟ by the works of many advertising researchers. Guilford (1965) used „novelty‟ to describe this dimension (As cited in El-Murad & West, 2004, p.192). Novelty refers to how different an execution or concept is as compared to other ads in the same category (Ang & Low, 2000; Sheinin et al., 2011). Originality or novelty would be similar to one of the forms of incongruity as defined by Heckler and Childers (1992), as a form linking expectancy to relevancy. In fact, the conceptualization of creativity having the two dimensions of „originality‟ and „newness‟ along with „uniqueness‟ and „appropriateness‟ of the creative outcome has got the greatest acceptance trend (Rusell & Lane, 1999; Gruber & Wallace, 1999; Mumford & Gustafson,1988; Unsworth, 2001). 154

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According to Kim et al. (2010), advertising researchers have essentially agreed on what constitutes creativity in advertising, namely an „outside-the-box‟ and an „inside-the-box‟ thinking process. Koslow et al. (2003, 2006) termed these two components as „originality‟ and „appropriateness‟. The fine balance of these two considerations is what differentiated creativity in advertising from creativity in general, like the creativity in art and music. Taking cue from the research findings of advertising legends and scholars, we have included both „originality‟ and „appropriateness‟ themes in our conceptual model. By the dimension of „product relevance‟ under the umbrella term of „craftsmanship/ aesthetics‟, we intend to measure the component of „appropriateness‟ in its various shades. In the early 2000s, Torrance‟s measures were adapted for advertising by the Indiana University communications researcher Robert Smith and his colleagues. They adjusted the definition of creativity to refer to “The extent to which an ad contains brand or execution elements that are different, novel, unusual, original, unique, etc.” (As cited in Smith et al., 2007, p.820). An ad can diverge from norms or experiences by applying unique visual or verbal solutions, for instance. An original ad comprises elements that are rare, surprising, or move away from the obvious and commonplace. The focal element here is uniqueness of the ideas or features contained in the advertising. A creative output is said to be highly creative if it has, in the form of an ad, an idea which is:  „out of the ordinary‟  „presents an idea differently‟  „never seen before idea‟  „departs from stereotypical thinking‟  „is unique‟  „differs from the norm‟ Additionally, some excerpts in literature reveal the use of „un-commonness‟ to mean something unique and out-of-the-ordinary (Haberland & Dacin, 1992). Another prominent line of thought in the conceptualization of creativity has been on the characteristics of the creative outcome. Here, the elements of „originality‟, „novelty‟, „message clarity‟, „well-craftiness‟, „effective execution‟ and

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„product relevance‟ coincide. All these dimensions have been structurally embedded in our conceptual framework. Further, to Von Oech (1990), breaking out of the routines, conventions, and expectations that lock our minds generally accompanies, if not governs, creative breakthroughs and transformations. Newer ideas and impact making ads are expected these days with a focus on arresting that part of the target consumer‟s minds that is craving for „something different‟. That is where the challenging spot lies for advertising professionals and brand managers. It is undoubtedly fascinating to try to understand not only the intriguing nature of creativity from the consumer‟s perspective but more importantly is it needed to explore its dimensions and meaning from the perspective of the ad makers themselves. Oldham and Cummings (1996, p. 108) offer a more elaborate definition of creativity by saying, “Products, ideas, or procedures that satisfy two conditions: (l) They are novel or original and (2) They are potentially relevant for, or useful to an organization". This definition, with small differences in the words used, has become dominant throughout academia and in textbooks on creativity. An original idea imparts freshness to an advertising message, it tends to differ from the norm and develop in a different direction. This aspect highlights creativity of advertising in significant way while also keeping this creativity within the domains of „relevance‟, which we have included in our theoretical framework under the dimension of „Craftsmanship‟.

Imaginative

Novelty Unique

Originality

Freshness Surprising/ Amusing Original

Fig. 4.2 Originality and its Proposed Components

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4.2.2 Message Clarity In the business of advertising, which thrives on communication, having clarity in the message conveyed by that communication (advertisement) is paramount. This dimension of creativity is supreme in advertising, where the marketer‟s got just a few seconds of media-space to make an impact. To break through advertising clutter and carve a niche for itself, a brand‟s advertising communication needs to have elements of both uniqueness and clarity, so that it strikes a chord with the consumers and achieves mind-share. Sub-dimensions like „believability‟, „honesty‟, „convincing to the audience‟, and „meaningfulness‟ can be implied to mean „message clarity‟. Many researchers have emphasized on the fact that it is important for an ad to be both unique and relevant, meaningful and divergent (Haberland & Dacin, 1992; Ang & Low, 2000). White and Smith (2001) observed that the creativity needed in advertising is one that is functional and problem-solving creativity, which requires clarity in its message structure in lieu of its very purpose. A clear communication design adds value to the brand proposition. Visual elements, print layouts shall have no substantial impact unless they are easy to interpret and are synthesized clearly. Needless to say, message clarity for advertising is a basic criteria to be effective both in terms of perceived output and creativity content. The notion of clarity is as simple as it sounds, that is, having understandable, clear and well-thought propositions communicated in an easy to understand manner. While being lucid, creative advertising should not lose touch of its novel execution elements too in order to break out of clutter and create its own differentiated space. The clarity in advertising communication must be brought along all stages of an ad-making process, starting from conceptual ideation, illumination, design, layouts and the actual production and execution. No advertising shall have long-lasting effectiveness if it does not make the audience feel interested enough to know what the ad is about, like the ad and understand its prime idea easily, without much mental effort. Precision and clarity in designing of an advertisement speaks a lot about the creativity entailed in the advertisement. Simplicity in communication and a relevant match between the advertisement and the brand being advertised attracts the audiences, engages them and sets them on the path to become happy consumers. 157

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Enhanced quality perceptions and a sense of evoked mindshare can be garnered with great success by elements of message clarity, infused to a fine blend by the advertising specialists. Scholars emphasize that creativity should encompass ways to create an effective surprise, with unexpectedness and meaningfulness to the receiver. In the same vein, Marra (1990) suggests two principles instrumental for an advertisement to be creative, that is, „being new and being right/ relevant are critical to creative advertising‟ (p.47). By right or relevant principles in the definition, he means that the advertisement should be related to its target audience, in convincing and believable ways. Moreover, message clarity was also studied by Kim et al., (2010) as part of a four factor model to assess the dimensions of advertising creativity from the consumer‟s perspective. However, we attempt to understand the role of this dimension from the agency‟s perspective in the Indian context.

Convincing

Believable Meaningful

Message Clarity

Informative Simple/ Clear

Easy to understand

Fig. 4.3: Message Clarity and its Proposed Components

4.2.3 Social Empathy Empathy reflects the culturally unique construct that appears to centre around social consciousness and communal responsibility of the advertising professional. India as a country is both culturally rich and vibrant, while at the same time being emotionally sensitive. Traditions and values hold a great deal of importance in the Indian diasporas, and commercial communication tools need to keep this aspect intact in order to be accepted successfully in a collectivist India.

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In a more specific sense of the word, this dimension indicates that a creative ad can make its audiences emotionally involved, thereby invoking affective responses from consumers. This task proves to be a key requirement from the maker of an ad, and a challenging one too. If an advertising creative successfully makes and ad that has an element of favourable, intense and profound empathy, then it surely speaks of the creativity entailed in that endeavour and it is worthwhile to test if this dimension can be a significant indicator of creativity. In the context of this study, empathy is used more as a social construct that reflects social considerateness towards the sentiments of the Indian audiences and a genuine effort from the advertising world to create culturally & socially responsible communication endeavours. Meusburger (2009) has emphasised this aspect more clearly by saying that creativity, combining the elements of both divergence and relevance, has to be interpreted with a frame of reference. This reference or yardstick could be with respect to the advertising professionals or the creators, the society, or the domain within which the creation occurs. In tandem with this viewpoint, what is defined as creative or not and the search to decode its elements has to be in relation to a specific field or person or culture. In our study, the field shall be the advertising agency, the people shall be the advertising professionals across various levels of the organization and the culture shall be the Indian society (as shown in the diagram below):

Field: Ad Agency

People: Culture: Advertising Indian Society Professionals

Fig.4.4: Meusberger’s Frame of Reference for Creativity in Advertising (2009) This exploration into literature compels us to ask the following questions (to lead us to develop a sound conceptual model): Can empathy, both in a specific, individualistic sense and in a broader, social sense, be a driver for the mental thought process and imagination of the ad-maker?

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How do advertising executives develop creative substance that sells? What does empathy mean for individuals who are creating these iconic ads? Is it an important determinant for the professionals in this creative field? How important is this approach to be communally adequate, societal appropriate, sincerely prepared, and showing pleasing conduct because the advertiser is identified as a part of a greater community? This line of thinking resonates with the comment by a leading creative figure who noted during one of our interactions, “When it comes to creativity, we must give rise to something that is not just creative in the commercial sense, but is creative in its soul, is sensitive and respectful to the Indian people and the advertiser‟s brand too.” We have attempted to understand and answer these recurrent questions that came up in our minds, through this dimension. Perhaps the common thread that runs along many successful creative communications, especially in the context of Indian ads, is the element of empathy. This is evident by the roaring success of Airtel‟s campaign on “Barriers break when people talk” dealing with sensitive India-Pakistan relationship and how harmony can be brought about by Airtel‟s empathetic brand proposition. The path to effective and moving advertising lies in embracing the ideal of empathy by the ad makers themselves; as unless it comes from within, it won‟t transfer into the creative output. The makers are required to understand how important it is to create ads that „personify‟ sentiments of the Indian population at large, and to instigate in the audience feelings that closely identify with the characters in ads. To make it an experience, the visual cues acting as a stimulus for evoking favourable feelings, is one of the most important challenges that advertisers face when it comes to creativity. To portray poignant advertising requires being adept at creating empathic communication for brands through creativity. Infusing empathy into creative work starts with marketers persistently exercising it – the imaginative effort of extending themselves into the emotions behind consumer attitudes and behaviors, and translating those emotions into the advertising they design. The successful accomplishment of such emotional connection with the audiences through creative advertising is a matter of great pride for the agency practitioners as it uncovers insightful, latent truths about human thoughts. To capture people‟s interest through a brand‟s advertising; recognition of their latent aspirations 160

Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development is needed. A great way to form that indescribable and long-lasting connection with consumers is empathy in marketing. Speaking about elements of emotional nature used in advertising, Thomas Goodwin (2013) argues, “For me the most important word in advertising is not digital or creativity or innovation, its empathy. It‟s wonderful that dynamic agencies and young people in advertising have so much enthusiasm about new tools, it‟s brilliant that brainstorming sessions mean ideas flow wildly, but if I had to ask people to do one thing in all of this exuberance, it‟s put yourself in the place of the people you are trying to reach and use that as a final and vital filter.” With empathy, advertising can help to uncover more powerful insights, insert more sensation into substance, and, ultimately, create stronger ties. As Google‟s VP of global marketing put it, “If we don‟t make you cry, we fail” (Empathy Sells, 2014). We thus are interested by the question: Can such an impactful dimension be a good measure of creativity in an advertisement? Specialists in the field of advertising to the likes of Grand Tudor, strategic planner at Ogilvy and Mather, also vouch by the effectiveness of emotive messages over informative advertising. Google‟s latest commercial that underlines reunion of old friends from India-Pakistan is a classic example of this dimension. Voted to be one the most creative ads made, it has managed to strike a chord with the audiences and not directly declare a selling product. Similarly, the „Open Happiness‟ campaign from Coke is a fitting testimony to the central position of empathic cues in creative advertising. Tudor emphasizes this aspect in the following words “It‟s easy to forget that each of these advertisements is actually selling us something – cars, packaged goods, a web browser – or that the spots are in fact advertisements at all. It doesn‟t feel like we‟re being peddled anything. As the millions of views for each suggest, we love them. So much so that we buy more of their stuff” (Co Create, 2013). Empathy was also found to be a significant determinant of attitude towards a brand‟s advertising in a study by Khan and Khan (2012), employing the BRC advertising response model. In a study by Co Create (2013) in the United Kingdom, it was found that, on an average, emotional campaigns outsell informational ones by 19 percent. Another examining the profitability of 1,400 campaigns found that purely emotional communications performed about twice as well as purely informational communications. Empathy is often what‟s behind such strong emotional content. 161

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Having understood the role that empathy can play in advertising creativity and its effectiveness, we must acknowledge that the conceptual understanding of empathy is still in its nascent stages and must be explored in greater detail. What we know however is that empathy creates emotionally reverberating content and facilitates purchase behavior for brands. Many variants of empathy have been included in our conceptual model to enable comprehensive coverage of all possible meanings of empathy in the Indian context. Varied connotations of empathy in advertising, as showcased in academic literature have been found and consolidated along our conceptual design. Researchers all over the world have conducted studies which have testified that there is a link between culture and how an advertisement will be perceived by the audience, which automatically makes the creative executives in ad agencies that one important element who can influence this chain of relationship. A few prominent cross-psychological, anthropological and marketing studies in this area have found that collectivistic values (trustworthiness and sincerity, nationalistic sentiments, sharing) are more prevalent in India (versus Western) advertisements and produce more positive reactions from India (versus Western) participants, whereas advertisements that use individualistic appeals („the art of being unique‟; „power lies within you‟; „be beautiful‟; „impossible is nothing) are less attractive. A similar study was conducted by Han and Shavitt (1994) where cross-cultural comparisons between Korea and America were made with respect to cultural influences on advertising perceptions of consumers. We wanted to testify this aspect of creativity from the perspective of the opposite end: the origin of ads that is, the advertising professionals, and try to establish a relationship of how much influence empathy and social considerateness has in Indian advertising. Especially in India, contemporary advertising professionals frequently use „emotional appeals, national integration and patriotic flavors, caring for others, communal relationship, dutifulness, harmony, nostalgia, humor, respect for the elderly and humane causes in ads. In the Indian mind-set, however, it may be that not only is it critical that ad content is original and relevant, but that ad context is socially appropriate, sincere, and pleasing, thus upholding the cultural sanity of India. Hugely successful advertising campaigns like Tata Tea Jaago Re campaign or the Incredible India campaign are a living proof of this fact. 162

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With an element of empathy, we should be able to unearth other related but latent variables in a creative ad, and understand its importance in defining the creativity of advertising. With such contextual cues as emotionally caring tones and delicate nuances, we can realize the value of a dimension when it comes to what creativity means to the advertising agency. Accordingly, we posit that advertising creativity viewed by holistic members of a collectivistic nation may encompass a culturally distinctive factor(s) that reflect their contextually loaded societal norms. The expert believes that the creativity in advertising could never exist in isolation without a context. The success of final product largely depends on empathy and the relevance of message it intends to deliver. The trigger for ideas and insights must necessarily come from the environment. With these ideas supporting our belief in the affective part of „empathy‟ we have set out to test this aspect in our research framework.

Fig. 4.5: Social Empathy and its Proposed Components

4.2.4 Sustainability The concepts of sustainability convey long-lasting effects instigated by creativity of advertising. The reason why we remember some iconic brands and their advertisements even after many years is that they have managed to create positive and strong associations in our minds fuelled by their creativity and interesting storylines, executions or melodious jingles. Whatever be the main element causing that favourable attitude and higher recall, it is ultimately creativity that lends timeless appeals to advertising and thus helps brands achieve mindshare dominance.

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Enduring appeals of Indian ads like ‘Hamara Bajaj’ or Cadbury Dairy Milk‟s ‘Kuch Khaas Hai’ are testimony to the importance of strong message content and impeccable craftsmanship. In the current research, the dimension of sustainability has been assessed through an array of descriptors like advertisements being timeless, leaving and indelible impact on the audience‟ minds, stimulating purchases and universally appealing. . For specialists in the field of advertising, the creativity lies in melting together, seamlessly, many elements of creativity to give rise to a well-designed, unusual and memorable advertisement. The creative idea results from a new blend of ideas enabling a relation to be formed between two concepts that have never previously been linked (Burnett, 1968; Blasko & Mokwa, 1986). Perhaps this blending of creative elements in the wonderfully simple advertisements for Volvo cars lends it sustainable impact and powerful associations with the people it wishes to capture.

Fig. 4.6: Sustainability and its Proposed Components

4.2.5 Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics The aesthetic quality in creative advertising is perhaps one feature that stands out the most. An ad which is emotionally moving, visually pleasing, beautifully executed, entertaining and humorous speaks of the highly creative qualities of craftsmanship. All these subtle nuances add to the recall value of the ad and build a stronger, long- lasting brand image. Timeless appeals of Indian ads like „Hamara Bajaj‟ or Cadbury Dairy Milk‟s „Kuch Khaas Hai‟ are testimony to the importance of strong message content and impeccable craftsmanship. In the dynamic and volatile advertising environment of today, the ad creators believe that the aesthetic quality of an ad is a mark of its

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Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development creativity. It is, thus, not surprising to find how critically decisive is this aspect when it comes to the judgement on creativity. Parnes (1975) indicated that the essence of the concept of creativity is the notion of the “Aha”–meaning the relevant association of thoughts, facts, and ideas into a new figure which provides a synergistic effect (Torrance & Safter, 1999). This synthesis was described by Treffinger et al. (1992) as one of the main cognitive traits of creative behavior, and underlines the over-arching character of craftsmanship. Well-known researchers who propounded the „perspective‟ approaches to creativity, Koslow et al. (2003) included „artistry‟ as an important dimension of advertising creativity. West et al. (2008) included aspects of humour and craftsmanship while assessing creative advertising. As a noteworthy testimony to the importance of craftsmanship qualities for creative excellence, Guldägget, the Swedish advertising creativity award, includes well-craftiness as a criterion (As cited in Lethagon and Modig, 2008, p. 19). Keeping in context the subjectivity involved with creativity and divergent patterns of creative thought processes of advertising professionals, several dimensions of an advertisement like „melodious jingle‟, „entertaining‟, „appealing‟, „eye- catching‟, „likeability‟, „positive-ness‟, „humorous‟, „slice of life appeal‟, may be used to mean craftsmanship in advertising. In this study, the items product-relevance, appealing, effective execution, brand-celebrity endorser match, make consumers want to use the product, melodious jingle and entertaining have been included to embody the over-arching dimension of craftsmanship. It is accepted with unanimity among advertising scholars and practitioners that creative advertisements must convey the core communication in novel, unexpected ways, yet it should garner processing of the advertisement for the audiences in expected, usual structures. This can be highlighted by novelty in the concept of advertising for a brand along with a sensible connection with the execution elements and the brand proposition. According to Besemer and O‟Quinn (1987), „elaboration/synthesis‟ part of the semantic scale of creativity they developed suggested profound elements of craftsmanship. This essentially represents how well-crafted an ad is, with respect to stylistic details and the execution of the advertisement. White and Smith (2001) have propagated this thinking by including „well- craftiness‟ along with „novelty‟ and „meaningfulness‟ in their assessments of 165

Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development advertising creativity. Russell and Lane (1999) consider that the creativity of advertisements should be described not just by its „novelty‟ but also its „attention- grabbing‟ power, which can also be expressed as „eye-catching‟- an important component of aesthetics in advertising. Reinartz and Saffert (2013) in their article on Creativity in the Harvard Business Review (June 2013 issue) interestingly remarked about artistically creative ads by saying, “Their production quality is high, their dialogue is clever, their colour palette is original, or their music is memorable. As a result, consumers often view the ads as almost a piece of art rather than a blatant sales pitch.” Most scholars have used the concept of „relevance‟ to denote an affinity to the „problem-solving‟ trait of creativity in advertising. It is the concept of „relevance‟ that demarcates creativity in advertising from creativity in general. In advertising, merely being creative is not effective. The creativity should be contextually loaded, either „product-wise‟ or „culture-wise‟ or „organization-wise‟. Among the dimensions of creativity identified through literature review, product relevance has consistently been mentioned (White & Smith, 2001; Kim et al., 2010; Smith & Yang, 2004; Sheinin et al., 2011). To highlight the centrality of a clear „USP‟ or „The Big Idea‟ in judging the extent of the creativity of agency professionals and their art of ad-making, the dimension of „product relevance‟ is often discussed. Many scholars advocated that „novelty‟ and „imaginativeness‟ have to be directed towards a specific communication objective or a brand proposition in order to be creative, and effective, at the same time. This essentially points towards the contribution of „relevance‟ or „appropriateness‟ in advertising creativity. Since advertising has to find creative ways of achieving a communication or sales objective for a brand, it requires being relevant to the context in which it is being utilized. The creative message in advertising need to be novel and imaginative yet is structured to be relevant to the brand‟s image. This component of relevance is contextualized by many situational factors such as the client‟s marketing objectives, its strategic direction, and its target audience. To us, in the context of India, we wanted to find out „What is the point of this dimension when it comes to the art of creativity in the advertising business?‟ „Is the construct of artistry/product relevance decisive and impactful enough to define or influence its creativity?‟

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In a study, aptly titled „Unbundling Creativity‟, Lethagon and Modig (2008), state how creativity in advertisements can fuel positive attitude change in consumers and lead them to purchase. The professionals in advertising agencies swear by this effect of aesthetics and creativity and put forth the view that, “An alternative strategy to greater advertising spending may be more creative advertising.” Aesthetics in advertising could entail design elements like screenplay, colour, sound, visual rhetoric, or even strategic aesthetics on a deeper level.

Melodious jingle

Product Make Craftsmanship/ relevance consumers Aesthetics want to use product

Brand- celebrity Effective endorser execution match

Fig. 4.7: Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics and its Proposed Components

4.2.6 Exquisiteness In advertising, possessing qualities of remarkable delicacy and finesse of design elements is important for the appeal of the creative advertisement. Exquisiteness can be used interchangeably with many elements such as „appealing‟, „inspiring‟, „exciting‟ and so on. In the general expanse of advertising creativity research, elements that evoke excitement from the consumers, get them interested set up a foundation for further cognitive processing of the advertisement designed and thus speak of the creative design of the ad makers. According to Rossiter (2008) the „attention-getting value‟ of an advertisement is an essential criterion of creative judgment. Presenting brand propositions in ways that are renovated and eye-catching help break away from the clutter and stand out. In this context, Taylor et al., (1996) reflected upon the elements of exquisiteness by discussing the seductive element of advertising that means „to tempt, to fascinate, to attract, to charm, or to entice‟. Creativity has often been described by

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Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development qualities of aesthetics, exquisite elements in communication and elements of beauty in the screenplay or print designs. Supplemental characteristics of creativity have been found to vary according to the field it has been used for. With slight variations, commonalities have been found in certain elements that apply to all creative fields, including the most creative business that is advertising. However, many affective characteristics of creativity were found exclusively in advertising literature, and signify elements necessary for creativity employed in advertising business. Some of the affective elements like excitement, eye-catching and appealing (Kover et al., 1995; Kim et al., 2010) have been mentioned in literature themed around advertising creativity.

Appealing

Eye- Inspiring catching

Exquisiteness

Entertaining Exciting

Fig.4.8: Exquisiteness and its Proposed Components

4.3 Hypothesis Development A central aspect of our research design is the devising of hypothesis in order to uncover the relationships and components truly representative of the creativity of advertising as viewed by the practitioners at large. A critical step in research, it serves as a foundation for converting the abstractness of concepts in the conceptual framework to exact, testable statements. This process is at the nucleus of all kinds of researches so much so that the research process begins and ends with the hypothesis. It ensures that the entire research process remains scientific and reliable. However, an important consideration to be kept in mind at this stage is that this dimensional item-wise break-up of advertising creativity components is a tentative proposition that has not been verified yet. Factor analysis shall be

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conducted to extract underlying patterns in the variables, the results of which shall lead to more definite factor scores and dimensional clarity.

4.4 List of Research Hypotheses In the perspective of this study, hypothesis generation has been a central part of the entire process of research. A total of 38 hypotheses have been generated for this study. The first set of 32 predictive statements represents 6 main dimensions of advertising creativity. These are built on individual elements that are assumed to make up dimensions of creativity in advertising. Through statistical analysis, we shall prove or disprove those assumptions. The next set of 6 hypotheses represents the relationship between advertising creativity dimensions and its perceived effects on salient outcomes (Client Objectives, Agency Awards, Social Change, Connectedness with audience and Memorability). The proposed dimensional map of advertising creativity has been transformed into operational terms through hypothesis formation. The rationale behind hypothesis structuring on the basis of items of advertising creativity lies in the fact that it is a formalized and scientific way to answer our research questions about creativity. It will systematically lay out the elements and relationships which can be empirically tested. The elements identified to encompass advertising creativity actually mean advertising creativity for the agency professionals and its dimensional elements; and shall be tested through statistical analysis. The scope of hypotheses covers the following: 1. Originality and its relationship with overall advertising creativity 2. Message Clarity and its relationship with overall advertising creativity. 3. Social Empathy and its relationship with overall advertising creativity. 4. Sustainability and its relationship with overall advertising creativity. 5. Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics and its relationship with overall advertising creativity. 6. Exquisiteness and its relationship with overall advertising creativity. 7. Dimensions of advertising creativity and their perceived effects on selected advertising outcomes (assessed through one overall advertising creativity outcome variable) The list of hypotheses for each of the proposed main dimensions of advertising creativity is given below:

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Table 4.2: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Originality

Hypotheses for latent variable- Originality

H1a Novelty forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity. H1b Surprising/ Amusing forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity. H1c Imaginativeness forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity. H1d Original forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity. H1e Unique forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity. H1f Freshness forms a significant element constituting Originality component of Advertising Creativity.

Table 4.3: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Message Clarity Hypotheses for latent variable- Message Clarity

H2a Meaningful forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity. H2b Clear/ Simple forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity. H2c Informative forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity. H2d Easy to understand forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity. H2e Believable forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity. H2f Convincing forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity component of Advertising Creativity.

Table 4.4: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Social Empathy Hypotheses for latent variable- Social Empathy

H3a Sensitive forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity. H3b Gentle forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity. H3c Socially considerate forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity. H3d Suited to Indian values forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity. H3e Respectful towards people’s sentiments forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity. H3f Honest forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component of Advertising Creativity.

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Table 4.5: Hypotheses for Latent Variable- Sustainability Hypotheses for latent variable- Sustainability

H4a Timeless forms a significant element constituting Sustainability component of Advertising Creativity. H4b Indelible impact forms a significant element constituting Sustainability component of Advertising Creativity. H4c Stimulate purchase forms a significant element constituting Sustainability component of Advertising Creativity. H4d Universal appeal forms a significant element constituting Sustainability component of Advertising Creativity.

Table 4.6: Hypotheses for latent variable- Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics Hypotheses for latent variable- Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics H5a Product relevance forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of Advertising Creativity. H5b Effective execution forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of Advertising Creativity. H5c Brand- Celebrity endorser match forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of Advertising Creativity. H5d Make consumers want to use product forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of Advertising Creativity. H5e Melodious jingle forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of Advertising Creativity.

Table 4.7: Hypotheses for latent variable- Exquisiteness Hypotheses for latent variable- Exquisiteness H6a Exciting forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component of Advertising Creativity. H6b Inspiring forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component of Advertising Creativity. H6c Entertaining forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component of Advertising Creativity. H6d Eye-Catching forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component of Advertising Creativity. H6e Appealing forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component of Advertising Creativity.

Table 4.8: Hypotheses for Advertising Creativity Outcomes Hypotheses for Advertising Creativity Outcomes H7a Originality is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7b Message Clarity is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7c Social Empathy is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7d Sustainability is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7e Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7f Exquisiteness is a significant predictor of AC outcomes.

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4.5 Hypothesized Conceptual Model The conceptual model has been designed to:

 Understand and decode the various dimensions of advertising creativity  To classify, group and assign sub-elements that make up the main latent dimensions of advertising creativity  To demonstrate clearly the whole map of items constituting creativity for the advertising agency and its perceived effects  Present a clear illustration of the presumed relationships between the dimensions of advertising creativity and its perceived effects on the objectives of an advertising campaign and  Design a coherent map to measure advertising creativity and its various dimensions for agency and marketing practitioners.

The conceptual model conceived for a study is the representation of all the items and constructs that need to be validated by statistical analysis to be tested on credibility and validity. The construction of the model involves lucid identification of the main dimensions of creativity and defining of path relationships between constituents and effects in advertising. It is thus a descriptive layout showing the key factors, concepts or variables, and the presumed relationships among them. A visual representation of the proposed conceptual model (measurement model and structural model), consisting of all the dimensions of advertising creativity under assessment and the proposed perceived advertising outcomes is given below (Fig. 4.9). The structural relationships are highlighted with the help of arrows. The study will test the relationships and grouping tendencies between the 32 creativity elements pertaining to the main dimensions of advertising creativity, using factor analysis techniques. The assessment of perceived effect of advertising creativity on advertising outcomes forms the second part of the model which shall be tested through regression analysis. This shall allow us to investigate how well advertising creativity and its dimensions are able to predict key advertising outcomes.

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O1 H1a Structural & Measurement O2 H1b H1c Model O3 ORG H1d O4 H1e H1 H1f O5 O6 H3a H2a H3b MC1 H2b H3c MC2 H2c H3d H2d H3e MC3 H2e CLO H3f MC H2f MC4 MC5 AWD H2 SE1 MC6 SE2 SE3 H3 ADV. SOC SE ADV. OUTCOMES SE4 CREATIVITY H4 (Perceived) SE5 ST1 CON SE6 ST2 ST H4a ST3 H4b MEMO CA1 H4c H5a ST4 H5 H4d CA2 H5b H5c CA3 CA H5d H5e CA4 CA5 H6 EX1 EX2 EX EX3 EX4 EX5

Fig. 4.9: Hypothesized Structural and Measurement Model with Advertising Creativity Dimensions and Relationships

4.6 Summary This chapter discusses the conceptual background of the various concepts under study. A lucid conceptual framework, showing all the constructs of advertising creativity has been developed. The dimensions of advertising creativity (constructs) and their sub-elements have been explained in detail, with conceptual meanings from the extant literature. A list of research hypotheses developed has been illustrated with the proposed conceptual relationships. A conceptual model has been presented with graphical representation of the proposed dimensions and outcomes of advertising creativity and the presumed relationships among them. The next chapter discusses the methodology adopted to conduct this study.

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CHAPTER V RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction A detailed depiction of all the principles, methods, activities and tools utilized to conceptualise, design and execute this study has been presented in this part of the thesis. A systematic description of the research problem, research objectives, hypothesized research model, research hypotheses, research design, sample design, determination of population, sample frame, techniques followed for sampling, sample size determination, questionnaire preparation, questionnaire reliability and validity, data collection and data analysis techniques has been done.

5.2 Importance of Methodical Research The success of any exploratory endeavour that involves research is highly correlated with how well-designed the methodology component is. A well-laid out, pre-planned and concisely conceptualized research model serves as a strong foundation to ensure laudable research. The process of research, as the name suggests, is inherently iterative. Re- searching, or the practice of returning again and again to the core research problem, leading to new ideas and improvements, is an essential character of all researches. While research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic, research methodology is the „instruction manual‟ that guides this complex process. Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem (Rajasekar, Philominathan, Chinnathambi, 2013). To enable the unravelling of constructive insights and solutions to scientific, social, cultural, managerial and psychological problems/ issues, through objective analysis, a well-designed methodology is indispensible. A comprehensive and logical research design should enlist all the „whats‟ and „hows‟ of a research process. It should make the reader understand „what is being investigated‟ and „how will this investigation be carried out‟. The nature of exploration and careful identification of hypotheses and variables need to be laid out. For any researcher, giving prime importance and careful attention to designing a fool-proof methodology is a necessary step. Every research need has a unique way

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Research Methodology of being approached for analysis, and the researcher alone knows and understands best what method shall be the most appropriate for his/her topic. Good research depends on the careful planning and execution of the study.

5.3 Research Objectives The primary research objectives of this academic venture are given below: 1. To develop a detailed understanding of what creativity means to the advertising agency professionals in Indian advertising agencies. 2. To develop and validate a hypothesized scale to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity for the advertising practitioners.

The secondary research objectives are given below: 1. To develop a broad understanding creative ad-making elements in Indian advertising industries. 2. To find out the perceived effects of advertising creativity on five important aspects of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience, memorability. In other words, to investigate how advertising creativity affects perceived advertising outcomes. 3. Provide a valid model of advertising creativity to agency executives, advertising and brand managers who can utilize it comprehensively to understand, predict, and execute successful advertising campaigns. 4. To augment academic theories and practical knowledge pertaining to advertising creativity and its dimensions and assist in generating an integrative view on the subject. 5. To pave way for academic curiosity and intellectual treatment in the future being given to researches in the arena of advertising thought, advertising creativity and advertising strategy, especially in an agency-oriented milieu.

5.4 Proposed Operationalization of Constructs The constructs designed for this study have to be defined both „conceptually‟ and „operationally‟. The conceptual layout has been discussed in chapter 4, with a comprehensive conceptual model being presented. This section shall operationalize variables representing advertising creativity from our conceptual model to allow for measurement and statistical testing. This 175

Research Methodology process shall lead to defining of fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. In order to generate a comprehensive scale for advertising creativity and its perceived effects, the conceptual model framed for the study has to represent and analyse the following broad dimensions of advertising creativity: 6 broad dimensions of advertising creativity, namely; 1. Originality (O) 2. Message Clarity (MC) 3. Social Empathy (SE) 4. Sustainability (ST) 5. Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics (CA) 6. Exquisiteness (EX) Since the above 6 dimensions of advertising creativity are latent, and thus not directly measurable, therefore these are subsequently measured upon using 32 sub- dimensions representing the main dimensions of advertising. This is enumerated in detail in the table given below:

Table 5.1 Proposed Dimensions of Advertising Creativity under Study

Dimensions Label Operational Variables Novelty Surprising/ Amusing Originality O Imaginative H1 Original

Unique Freshness

Meaningful Clear/ Simple MC Message Clarity Informative H2 Easy to understand Believable Convincing

Sensitive Gentle SE Socially considerate Social Empathy H3 Suited to Indian values Respectful towards people‟s sentiments Honest

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Timeless Sustainability Indelible impact H4 ST Ad should stimulate purchase Universal appeal

Product-relevance

Craftsmanship/ Effective execution

Aesthetics Brand-celebrity endorser match CA H5 Make consumers want to use the product Melodious Jingle

Exciting

Inspiring EX Exquisiteness Entertaining H6 Eye-catching Appealing

The above table showcases an illustrative list of all the dimensions of the conceptual model that have been converted into operational variables suited for statistical analysis. Each of the latent variables (Originality-O, Message Clarity-MC, Social Empathy-SE, Sustainability-ST, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics-CA and Exquisiteness- EX) is represented on the left column of the table. The sub-dimensions that may define the main latent variables have been shown in the right columns. These items are 32 in total and shall be put to analysis to reveal their level of significance/loadings in constituting advertising creativity for the agency professionals. However, an important consideration to be kept in mind at this stage is that this dimensional item-wise break-up of advertising creativity components is a tentative proposition that has not been verified yet. Factor analysis shall be conducted to extract underlying patterns in the variables, the results of which shall lead to the identification of core dimensions of advertising creativity.

5.5 Research Design There are two major types of research designs: exploratory and conclusive. Conclusive research designs are further classified into descriptive and causal. The primary objective of exploratory research is to provide insights into, and an understanding of, the problem confronting the researcher whereas the objective of conclusive research is to test specific hypotheses and examine specific relationships. 177

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Furthermore, within conclusive research is causal research which is defined as a type of research where the major objective is to obtain evidence regarding cause- and-effect (causal) relationships (Malhotra, 2007). This research can be identified as a conclusive study because it involves multiple hypotheses investigating the relationships amongst various variables. Furthermore, it is a pre-planned structured research with clear research problem definition and specific hypotheses, and therefore, it falls under the category of descriptive research. Also, the respondents have been selected from the population and data has been collected only once, therefore, this research qualifies under the subcategory of single cross sectional design under descriptive research as shown in Figure below:

Fig. 5.1: Research Design (Malhotra, 2007)

5.6 Research Process The research process is cyclical and each stage is inextricably intertwined with subsequent stages, thus rendering clarity on every step to be essential for sound research. The concept of research is synonymous with a thorough, detailed study of a subject with the aim to discover new knowledge and reach newer understanding. The emphasis on „detailed study‟ reveals the necessity of following a systematic and organized design to lead to well-founded, valid research. It is thus, an intertwining of different stages or processes that define a research and make it scientifically and practically sound. Each process has characteristics, and all the stages follow a sequence of occurrence, though, quite often than not, these stages overlap and are mutually interacting.

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Given below is a figure highlighting the sequential stages of the process of research followed in this study:

Factor Analysis for scale development

Run Multiple Regression

Findings and Conclusions

Fig. 5.2: Sequential Stages of the Process of Research

A comprehensive discussion of the steps/ methodology undertaken for this study is as follows:

5.6.1 Discovery of the Research Problem Commencing the process of research, this is the first and the most important stage in the entire cycle of research. The importance of this stage of the research process can be vividly understood by Albert Einstein‟s words, “The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution.” In order to carry out any study, there has to be a „need‟ first. Deciding what to research is the starting point of conducting a study. To discover that „need‟ is essential

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Research Methodology to move forward and design the whole journey. Identification of a research problem means that the researcher understands that there is a research gap somewhere which needs to be explored. A clear understanding of the research problem gives direction for the whole project. This serves as the focus of the study.

5.6.2 Problem-Discovery in Context of the Present Study  The prime propelling force that sparked our curiosity and subsequent plan for conducting research in the area of advertising creativity was the identification of a „need‟ to examine advertising creativity from the agency‟s perspective more systematically.  A sincere recognition that creativity is indeed the heart and soul of contemporary advertising pushed us to explore the lesser-known facts in this arena.  The apparent subjectivity and abstractness of creativity makes us even more resolute to carry out a detailed research on this dynamic aspect of advertising.  Discovery of the crucial need to comprehensively develop and validate a scale to measure the underlying dimensions of advertising creativity from the agency‟s perspective in India was another important factor that we realised needed attention.  As a consumer of the modern world, we not only know, but experience the significant role played by creative advertising on our attitudes and psyche. This rightly justifies the pressing need to study the content and meaning of creativity from the ad makers‟ perspective themselves.  Any aspect that compels a researcher to want to reason further and fascinates his/her intellectual reasoning is the foundation of a future of explorations. For this study, this fascination came from the multi-dimensional world of advertising creativity.

5.6.3 Extensive Review of Relevant Literature The study of relevant literature pertaining to a research area is an essential step to gain insights into what has been published on a theme by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a fundamental part of the research process and helps in gaining connectivity with respect to the extant studies already conducted.

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Being propelled by a guiding concept (which is advertising creativity in this case), a literature review has been carried out to seek information, widen our understanding in the academic area and to critically appraise previous studies and sieve in unbiased studies. With this vital step, we aim to synthesize results into what is known and not known, identify areas of controversy in the literature and formulate questions that need further probe. A detailed analysis of related literature in our area of study shall lead to identification of the „research gap‟ which is the missing element in the existing knowledge base and shall be filled in with our forthcoming study.

5.6.4 Literature Review in Context of the Present Study A rich and varied blend of academic and scholastic literature was read, studied and interpreted to explore previous research conducted on advertising creativity. Out of this amalgam of literary sources, the most pertinent ones were research papers from academic journals themed around advertising and its creative qualities, academic books on advertising communications, newspaper editorial reports that focussed on creativity of advertising per se, websites and other online marketing and advertising news portals etc. More than 150 research papers and numerous books along with several online websites centring on this theme were studied during the course of literature examination. A detailed break-up of all the literature reviewed is presented in chapter 3 of this thesis. From an initial in-depth review starting with tons of marketing, advertising research papers, we sieved in the more relevant articles, and journals that focussed essentially on creativity in advertising. We continued to consistently scan for new developments in this field of research throughout the course of our study. We created separate classifications for research papers that approached creativity in advertising from two main angles: Response oriented and Production oriented. Since our study investigates advertising creativity from the source of its conception and production (that is, the ad-makers) we scrutinized the literature for more production-oriented studies that have been published. While we found numerous academic researches themed around response- orientations and consumer-processing of creativity, only a few studies explored this concept from the production orientations. Thus, literature gaps in the form of scant 181

Research Methodology attention being given to the agency-perspectives on advertising creativity started to emerge. Additionally, what was striking was that rarely scholars seemed to focus on what constitutes creativity, or what are the defining elements of creativity in the context of advertising. A thorough scrutiny and tabulation of studies that incorporated dimensional analysis of advertising creativity was done. This assisted us in identifying important elements of advertising creativity developed by scholars previously and collating it with item-generation for our study. Utilizing elements identified through literature review and our own interactive discussions with the industry experts, we generated a proposed dimensional map representing the meaning of creativity in advertising through this study. What emerged out of in-depth review of extant literature are prominent gaps in the current repertoire of advertising creativity studies. Sufficient attention was given to explorations of creativity in advertising from the point of view of the consumers, but there was a significant lack of research focus on the other end of the spectrum, that is, the ad-makers and their perspective. Further, internationally, there exists a rich literature on advertising creativity and its antecedents, versions, measurement and predictors. However, in the context of India, this kind of an exploration is severely under-developed. This apparent lack of insightful researches exploring advertising creativity from the viewpoint of the agency itself in India signifies a surfacing „literature gap‟ that requires further exploration. While some studies (majorly in the Western World) described creativity qualitatively, yet almost negligible research attention was given to systematically study and consider dimensionality of creativity in an objective manner. The sheer subjectivity of this phenomenon is widely understood, but attempts to understand it more objectively are limited. Despite best efforts, we did not come across any comprehensive and valid model that could measure advertising creativity from the perspective of the agency. Therefore, development of a comprehensive and valid map to understand elements of creativity from the agency‟s mindset was called for in India, to contribute to the advertising theory and practical applicability. However, some studies have dealt with this aspect and developed a measurement scale for creativity in the Western world.

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5.6.5 Definition of the Research Problem Definition of the research problem follows its discovery. By definition, we mean that the problem has been identified and has to be converted into more specific terms like, a research statement with key constructs or further, objectives of the research. This is usually a by-product of the funnel approach which means looking at an academic issue from general to specific terms. The best expression of the research objectives are well-defined testable, quantifiable hypothesis that show „What the study wants to find out about.‟ This allows for clarity to replace ambiguity when progressing with the process of research. From a wider discovery of the need to do research, and identification of gap areas in the existing database, we narrow down to precise research statements and objectives to enable focussed measurement. The formulation of the research problem lets the readers know what we intend to research in a more precise and defined form. Ultimately, the degree of clarity and specificity in formulating this aspect leads to how the whole research turns out in later stages. The more detailed a formulation is done, the more clarity it imparts to the overall design of the study.

5.6.6 Definition of the Research Problem in Context of the Present Study As mentioned above, by defining a research problem, we automatically mean more clarity and specificity in understanding of a research interest. The precursor to coming up with predictions or hypotheses is the generation of research problem, which is usually framed as questions or objectives. This means asking what, or why, something is happening. After discovering the need to conduct research on a creativity of advertising, we have narrowed down on clear statements and research objectives to give direction to investigate the problem. (The objectives of this research are stated in detail in the beginning of this chapter in section 5.3). By defining objectives of this research, we wish to state what aspects of advertising creativity will be studied and what insights will be sought from our analysis. We shall focus on finding out answers to many research questions about creativity and its dimensions, scale development and effects on advertising, thus ensuring that what we want to achieve is in measurable terms and is justified.

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5.6.7 Defining the Conceptual Model – The Constructs and their Relationships Conceptualization of the constructs/ variables to be analysed, commences the design stage of the entire research project. It brings together scattered conceptual pieces to create a meaningful framework that can be studied as a whole, to understand variable interactions, relationships between concepts and pave way to empirically test a theoretical assumption. Initially based on extensive and exhaustive literature scanning, the conceptual model is a clear, functional and illustrative map of the concepts that a researcher wants to study. The most important character of a conceptual framework is that it is essentially a conception or a model of what a researcher plans to study and describe the overall variable-network (if any). Being a tentative theory of the phenomena that is being investigated, it informs the design, methods and approaches of the research.

5.6.8 Conceptual Model in Context of the Present Study In this study, the conceptual framework has been designed to:  Understand and decode the various dimensions of advertising creativity  To classify, group and assign sub-elements that make up the main latent dimensions of advertising creativity  To demonstrate clearly the whole map of items constituting creativity for the advertising agency and its perceived effects  Present a clear illustration of the presumed relationships between the dimensions of advertising creativity and its perceived effects on the objectives of an advertising campaign and  Design a coherent scale to measure advertising creativity and its various dimensions for agency and marketing practitioners. The conceptual model conceived for a study is the representation of all the items and constructs that need to be validated by statistical analysis to be tested on credibility and validity. The construction of the model involves lucid identification of the main dimensions of creativity and defining of path relationships between constituents and effects in advertising. It is thus a descriptive layout showing the key factors, concepts or variables, and the presumed relationships among them.

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Before identification of operational dimensions conceptually, a broader theoretical understanding of the main variables of interest was done. This helped in deciphering some major constructs that shall be translated into items for factor analysis in later stages. In chapter 4 of this thesis, the conceptual framework has been represented diagrammatically with dimensions of creativity on one side and perceived effects on the other side; to explore and develop a coherent picture of the variables in question and generate a valid model. The proposed 5 main latent dimensions represented are originality, craftsmanship, message clarity, sustainability, and empathy. The proposed 5 main perceived effects to be studied are client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience and memorability.

5.6.9 Development of Hypotheses This is a central step in methodology as it lists out all individual hypotheses, or predicted statements that we wish to prove or disprove through our empirical scrutiny. A hypothesis is used to connote an educated prediction that can be tested through empiricism. Mostly it is a statement or a group of statements that define relationships between variables. A critical step in research, it serves as a foundation for converting the abstractness of concepts in the conceptual framework to exact, testable statements. Usually occurring after inductive reasoning, hypothesis serves the basic function of predicting the final outcome of the research endeavour and often leads to establishment of theories after careful testing. Since these are „testable statements of a potential relationship between two or more variables‟ (Mc Guigan, 1978), these must be carefully formulated. In other words, these are predictions about the nature and direction of relationships among variables that the researcher has to put forward for testing. Through a sound system of hypothesis formulation, the scholar can hope to achieve logical solutions after factual and empirical testing of the hypothesis. This process is at the nucleus of all kinds of researches so much so that the research process begins and ends with the hypothesis. It ensures that the entire research process remains scientific and reliable.

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5.6.10 Hypothesis Development in Context of the Present Study In the perspective of this study, hypothesis generation has been a central part of the entire process of research. A set of 32 formalized predictive statements have been generated as hypotheses for part 1 of the study (advertising creativity and its dimensions). 6 hypotheses (advertising creativity outcomes) form part 2 of the study. These are built on individual elements that are assumed to make up dimensions of creativity in advertising. Through statistical analysis, we shall prove or disprove the assumptions and build a valid model to dimensionally represent and develop a model to assess advertising creativity. The rationale behind hypothesis structuring on the basis of items of advertising creativity lies in the fact that it is a formalised and scientific way to answer our research questions about creativity. It will systematically lay out the variables and relationships which can be empirically tested. Thus, all variable relationships can be stated clearly and avoid the study getting astray or haywire. As it helps to furnish continuity, and organize the next phase of the research, it is actually a central part of any research process. As next steps, a list of all hypotheses was generated, which has been presented in detail in the preceding chapter of this thesis.

5.6.11 Selection of Measurement Items for Each Construct To enable the testing of hypotheses to prove or disprove a theory, or extract factors underlining a main construct, we need to prepare a pool of items that can measure our latent constructs related to advertising creativity. These constructs are variables that identify the concepts to be studied. Conceptualising and identifying key variables are the means to understand the basic foundational concepts that comprise an event, a happening or a bigger concept. If we try to design a study that poses to understand systematically the creativity of advertising and its core dimensions and peripheral effects, we have to develop and identify concepts that make up that creativity. These are constructs or variables of the study through which an analysis shall be undertaken. To understand any theory in empirical detail, the variables constituting that theory must be identified and integrated into a comprehensive conceptual framework. These variables can suggest key independent and dependant constructs and assist in designing the overall methodology of the study.

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In our study, the selection of measurement units or constructs is in consultation with literature and insights gained from interviews with key agency executives. However, an important consideration to be kept in mind at this stage is that this dimensional item-wise break-up of advertising creativity components is a tentative proposition that has not been verified yet. Factor analysis shall be conducted to extract underlying patterns in the variables, the results of which shall lead to the identification of core dimensions of advertising creativity.

5.6.12 Measurement Items for Constructs in Context of the Present Study In the context of the current study, a thorough analysis of previous literature available in this area along with insights gained from interviews of agency personnel were fused into a pool of variables assumed to represent creativity in the advertising world. These dimensions emerged after subsequent rounds of consultations with agency experts. There are 32 proposed sub-constructs representing the 6 main presumed dimensions of advertising creativity, namely originality, message clarity, social empathy, sustainability, craftsmanship/ aesthetics and exquisiteness. An integrative perspective for item identification was thus taken entailing all the key insights from industry interactions and literature scanning. A synthesized pool of items was developed through recurrent consultations with subject and industry experts to reduce items in the scale into generic constructs that form the basis of advertising creativity and interactive consultations with experts. The initial item scale consisted of 45 items, which were reduced to 32 items. Previous research in creativity (Koslow et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2010), has shown that a qualitative approach is an appropriate technique for generating an initial item pool. An exhaustive process of reviewing literature themed around advertising creativity revealed that many dimensions of advertising creativity have been studied, explored and developed by authors, mostly in the Western world and taking the consumers‟ perspective into consideration. Koslow et al., (2003) viewed creativity from the lens of originality- appropriateness framework while Kim, Han and Yoon‟s (2010) study developed and validated a measurement scale for advertising creativity in context of Korea along 4 187

Research Methodology main dimensions of originality, considerateness, and clarity and product relevance. Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011) generated 4 characteristic dimensions of creativity for the practitioners with dimensions: novelty, utility, emotion and humour. Amusingly, almost negligible studies have been found to coherently focus on advertising creativity from the agency‟s perspective in the scenario of Indian agency setup. A complete list of all the variables underlying the main dimensions of advertising creativity has been illustrated in table 4.1 in chapter 4 of this thesis.

5.6.13 Development and Finalization of Questionnaire for Data Collection Perhaps the most important part of the survey process is the creation of questions that accurately measure the opinions, experiences and behaviour of the target group. The first requisite that any survey method of research poses is the devising and execution of a well-structured and well-designed questionnaire. A survey instrument like a questionnaire consists of a formalised set of questions seeking to collect responses that make up appropriate data to conduct a study. The questions need to be structured in appropriate formats according to what the researcher wants to gather from the respondents and in tandem with the objectives of the study. This is the field where data collection shall happen and the one tool that the respondents shall come across. Therefore, it is imperative that the questionnaire be designed after much planning and sufficient consultations with experts. Pilot testing of the questionnaire to look for prospective mistakes and overall feasibility is a sensible step. For a well-crafted and focussed questionnaire, inculcating the following vital considerations is an imperative process. It usually includes:  Deciding on the information to be sought  Defining the target respondents  Choosing the methods of data collection  Developing proper content, wording and length of the instrument  Developing balanced sequence of questions  Pre-testing the questionnaire for areas of improvements  Inculcating the prospective improvements and refining the instrument

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 Developing the final questionnaire. Employing a balance of previous literature knowledge, practical experience and intuitiveness of the researcher, a well- designed questionnaire can be realized. The finer nuances of each questionnaire differ according to the nature of study. However, in general, a scientifically sound questionnaire will always be formulated to assist in achieving the research objectives, providing complete and accurate information. Ease of access, readability, design and clarity is also necessary to carry out smooth recording of data and fool-proof analysis.

5.6.14 Questionnaire Design in Context of the Present Study The main considerations that we focussed on while designing the survey instrument for this study were:  Clear wording and structuring of the questions so that the respondents remain sincere and self-motivated while answering them.  Coherence between the overall objectives of this study and individual questions on advertising creativity.  Since this study is based on the responses from advertising professionals who have busy schedules, we wanted to ensure crispness and clarity in every question.  Due to the time constraint in the professional schedules of the respondents, we made sure that the questionnaire is not too lengthy.  Also, care was taken to cover all essential aspects pertaining to creativity so that profound insights can be sought from the respondents.  Clear instructions provided along with the questionnaire to keep the context and academic nature of our study intact and avoid biasness.  A mixture of direct and indirect questions to instigate certain psychological nuances and beliefs of the respondents pertaining to Indian sensitivities. For the purpose of this research endeavour, we designed a structured questionnaire to understand agency professionals‟ mental modes of advertising creativity and generate a scale to map and measure this aspect. Keeping in context the objectives and the hypotheses of the research, a first draft of the questionnaire to be used in the study was developed which was refined after subsequent rounds of critical evaluation by supervisors and pilot study. The survey instrument comprised of three sections (A, B and C).

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 Section A required the respondent to rate 32 indices of creativity in advertising according to their perception of how important those elements are for creativity.  Section B had 11 questions, each dealing with some prominent and some subtle qualities that creativity is believed to encompass. This part of the instrument intended to get agency‟s opinion on the relationship of the creativity of an ad and its core elements of „unusual message communication‟ and „AHA‟ moment of association with the audience. These two elements have been believed to be a benchmark of creativity. Questions were also designed to assess popular creative appeals like „humour appeal‟, „emotional appeal‟ and „slice of life appeal‟ that are utilized in conceptualizing a creative ad. Some questions dealt with the presence of a „USP‟ (Unique selling proposition) and „Big Idea‟ and artistic elements are essential for creative advertising, while others touched upon the various effects in advertising that its creativity is believed to generate. These questions were conceptualised to gauge the perceptions of advertising effects that agency professionals believe should be achieved by creative advertising. These perceived effects are achieving client objectives, getting agency awards, creative ideas leading to social changes, developing connectedness with audience as a result of creativity and ultimately the impact of creative ads that are always remembered by audiences.  Section C of the questionnaire was crafted to gather personal and demographic data of the respondents like respondent name, gender, age, agency name, designation and work experience.

5.6.15 Sampling Decisions Sampling is the act or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population. Taking appropriate sampling decisions are extremely crucial for ensuring the representativeness of the results obtained from the research. Being a key component of the marketing research process, sampling has to be decided upon after much deliberation and informed consultations with specialists. The nature and objectives of the study, resource availability, specifications sought from the target group and the type of respondents, and various other considerations are taken into account when designing sampling strategies. This is very important to

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5.6.16 Sampling Decisions in Context of the Present Study In the present research endeavour, care was taken to ensure representativeness and accuracy to the best of our resource abilities. However, due to practical constraints, there might be some areas where improvements could be made in this aspect. Considering the nature and focus of our study and the practical constraints posed by the type of information sought from the advertising professionals, we utilized non-probability sampling techniques like convenience, snowball and judgemental sampling to gather insights for our research and execute the data collection process. Due to very busy schedules of professionals in advertising agencies, we operated through convenience sampling techniques. Also, since the researcher has worked with an advertising agency, I had contacts of many professionals. I was able to interact with them either face-to-face, via email or telephonically in context of this study. This helped me gather profound insights about their perceptions on creativity, and also get referrals for extended data collection. Furthermore, detailed analysis of reports by national daily The Economic Times, Hindustan Times and websites like www.campaignindia.com and www. afaqs.com helped in getting a list of top advertising agencies in India.

5.6.17 Target Group The target group selected for this study were chosen after considering two main aspects, namely, „what‟ we want to find out and „how‟ we want to collect the data required to achieve those objectives. Also, another impacting factor that has to be taken into careful consideration was the intervening situational and resource limitations that would be inevitably faced during the study. Since our main objective was to find out mental modes of advertising creativity from the perspective of the advertising agency, and subsequently be able to develop a comprehensive measurement scale of advertising creativity, our set of respondents were advertising professionals working in India‟s most prominent

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Research Methodology advertising agencies, with a diverse blend of specialists in creative, strategy, media and client servicing departments of an advertising agency. These professionals were deliberately chosen to represent the larger perspective of the Indian advertising agencies and its ideas on creativity. The insights we wanted for this study was based on the rationalization that it had to be those people who were closely associated with the creative business of advertising. Those numerous creative minds working in Indian advertising agencies that are the real brains behind conceptualising and designing of such innovative ad campaigns. To be able to initiate and systematically record first-hand versions of what creativity means to the makers themselves was a challenging task which could only be achieved by getting responses from the professionals themselves. We attempted to contact 200 professionals from 30 advertising agencies spread across India to the best of our abilities. However, getting reverts from all the respondents approached was not practically possible due to busy schedules and difficulties in contacting the professionals in India‟s biggest advertising agencies. After consistent reminders and follow-ups, we managed to get responses from advertising specialists working in a varied amalgam of agencies across India. These constituted some of the most coveted agencies like Ogilvy and Mather, Lowe Lintas, Percept, Mc Cann Erickson, JWT, FCB-Ulka, Dentsu, Publicis and many more. Interestingly, we also got many responses from medium and small sized agencies like Advantage Communications, Mahima Advertsing, Group M, Bang in the Middle and many more. Thus, we have been able to strike a good agency-blend with a combination of the top advertising agencies of India as well as medium-sized agencies too. The advertising specialists who made up our respondents were professionals spread across various functional departments in an agency like creative and client- servicing departments. This was done in order to accommodate all shades of people with different work experiences in advertising agencies. This was also done because experts usually work in different departments during their advertising career and may have switched across laterally between teams as brand directors, copywriters, planners, strategists, client servicing executives. The myriad of roles that an advertising professional typically may perform during his career in an agency calls for researches that recognise this variety in their methodology design.

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Most of the top agencies of India that we consulted for our study are large multinational setups that have international offices all around the globe. Agency executives from these multinational advertising agencies like Ogilvy and Mather, Lowe Lintas, Dentsu, JWT etc have worked in many cross-geographical areas within India as well as abroad. This lends to our research a pan-Indian advantage and a broader respondent base. During our sampling design phase, we focussed on an inclusive list of advertising agencies across India and incorporation of the top advertising agencies mostly concentrated in metropolitan cities like Delhi, NCR and Mumbai with some agency offices responding from urban cities like Patna and Lucknow. This study does not so much require geographical representation as much as agency-wide representation. The reason for this is that advertising professionals have been known to switch jobs between different cities and different agencies rather frequently. A good blend of advertising professionals from the creative, account strategy and planning, media and the client servicing departments made our pool of respondents. Some of the respondents chosen for this study were CEOs of advertising agencies with a career spanning more than 40 years and spread across all departments within an advertising agency. A good number of the professionals who recorded their opinions and participated in this study were involved closely in designing the creative strategies of some of the biggest brands in India like Cadbury, Maggi, Amul and many more. Some of the respondents were fresh talent in the field of advertising who infused newer perspectives to the concept of creativity. The summary of agency-coverage in our study shows that we have received responses from 140 professionals spread across 23 different agencies in India. This list includes 10 of India‟s most celebrated and top advertising agencies (according to a report of the Afaqs portal in 2012 and The Economic Times, 2012). This is a vital aspect to understand as it follows the principle of Pareto optimality or the 80-20 rule of Economics. Majority of the most creative advertising campaigns like Coke, Fevicol, Marlboro, Lux to name a few, have been conceptualised by the top 10 agencies of India which reflect approximately 20 percent of the agency responses in this study.

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5.6.18 Collection of Data Data collection is one of the most important steps of conducting a research. This is the stage which marks the actual execution of research design into action. It is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established, systematic way that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Absolutely indispensible to the completion of any research project, collecting data needs careful planning, the right techniques, hard work, patience and unfaltering dedication. After planning and deciding about sample size and characteristics needed to analyse, a researcher needs to determine the method of data collection according to the needs of his research objectives. Data can be collected using primary approach or secondary approach or in some cases, a mix of both. Development of instruments, questionnaires, or tools to collect data, pilot testing and refinement of questionnaires are crucial aspects of this process to be successful. Accurate and valid methods of data collection are essential to maintaining integrity of any research.

5.6.19 Collection of Data in Context of the Present Study To achieve the objectives of this research initiative, data was collected after much planning and designing a detailed research design. A structured survey instrument in the form of a well-crafted questionnaire was employed to collect data from the prospective target group of respondents. As mentioned earlier, the respondents were advertising professionals working in Indian advertising agencies, who have nurtured creativity at every step in their career. For this study, the questionnaires were administered both via email and personally, as per situational considerations. For survey data collected personally, the researcher met with the respondents in the respective advertising agencies, or interacted via telephones, and discussed about the background and objectives of the study. For collection of data via online channels, Google Docs and Emails were used. An explanatory note about the background of the research emphasizing on the valuable contribution of their responses for the completion of the research was sent. The requisite mandatory instructions required in the process of filling up the survey instrument were highlighted. All the respondents were explained the purpose of the study and it was reiterated that their responses will be treated as confidential and will be exclusively used only for the current research work.

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During the data collection stage, we attempted to contact 200 advertising professionals across 30 agencies in India. Post completion of surveys, a total of 140 questionnaires were received (covering a broad spectrum of 23 advertising agencies), out of which 119 were correctly filled and fit to be utilized for analysis.

5.7 Methods of Data Analysis The data collected from the respondents will be recorded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS-21). The data analysis will be carried out in following steps: 1. Data Screening and Preparation: Examination of the data for missing values, outliers and take appropriate corrective actions and testing for assumptions of multivariate analysis. Data must be screened in order to ensure the data is useful, reliable, and valid for testing causal theory. 2. Descriptive Statistics: To describe the main features of the collected data in quantitative form and thus give an overall sense of meaning to the data in a way that patterns might emerge from it. 3. Data and Scale Assessment: For assessing reliability and suitability of data for Factor Extraction and Analysis. 4. Factor Analysis and Scale Development: Analyze the structural relationships between measured factors and the latent constructs to form conclusions on the hypothesized relationship. 5. Multiple Regression: To explore the relationship between advertising creativity and perceived advertising outcomes. This shall allow us to investigate how well advertising creativity and its dimensions are able to predict key advertising outcomes.

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Data Screening and Preparation

Descriptive Statistics

Data Assessment

Inferential Statistics Factor Analysis and Scale Development

Multiple Regression

Fig. 5.3: Steps of Data Analysis

5.7.1 Data Screening and Preparation The objective of such an exercise is to ensure that the date be screened in order to ensure the data is useful, reliable, and valid for testing theory. This step is essential as it helps to identify any errors in data set that may have crept in during data entry. Data needs to be screened for missing values, outliers and take appropriate action and analyze for statistical assumptions of normality, homoscedasticity, linearity, multi-colinearity and absence of correlated error. For missing values, observation was done on a case basis. Any case with more than 10% missing data was excluded (Hair et al., 2010).

5.7.2 Sample Characteristics Descriptive statistics was used to describe the main features of the collected data in quantitative form and thus give an overall sense of data being analyzed. This included sample characteristics which included gender and name of advertising agency.

5.7.3 Construct Assessment using Factor Analysis A construct is an unobservable (latent) concept that the researcher can define in conceptual terms but cannot directly measure it without error. It is defined in varying degrees of specificity, ranging from quite narrow concepts to more complex or

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Research Methodology abstract concepts, such as intelligence or emotions. No matter what its level of specificity, however, a construct cannot be measured directly and perfectly but must be approximately measured by multiple indicators (Hair et al., 2010). Correspondingly, in this study, advertising creativity is a latent construct and cannot be directly measured. As a result, an array of variables conceptualised to represent this latent construct have been identified to enable operationalization of the underlying theoretical construct. A multi-item scale needs to be evaluated for accuracy, consistency, suitability and applicability which will be done through an assessment of reliability, validity, and dimensionality of the scale (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). This evaluation is done with the intention of knowing whether the instrument, items and scale developed are the best available approximation to a given proposition, theory or construct. In our objective to develop and validate a scale to embody and measure advertising creativity, assessments have to be made on various accounts to ensure quality and suitability of the instrument developed.

5.7.4 Validity Validity is the extent to which a scale or a set of measures accurately represents the concept of interest. As per the Saunders (2011), validity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about. Validity basically means up to what extent the test measures, what we actually desire to measure. The validity of a scale may be defined as the level to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random error. The two main forms of validity include external and internal validity. The external validity of the research findings refers to the ability of the results of the study being generalised across persons, times and settings. As per Cooper & Schindler (2003), internal validity is the ability of a research instrument to measure what is purposed to be measured. For this research endeavour, the researcher had taken various steps to ensure validity, which included formation of statements in the instruments based on literature survey and frame of reference, consultation with subject experts and faculty, pretesting of questionnaire, constructive feedback loop and ensuring data collection as objectively as possible. 197

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In the context of the present study, the methods used to validate the measurement scale included:  Translational Validity: Content validity and Face validity. In essence, both Content and Face validity are related to the assessment of how accurately the constructs have been translated into operational variables, hence the term Translational validity.  Construct Validity: Convergent and Discriminant validity through Factor Analysis and Correlation Analysis.  Uni-Dimensionality A flow chart depicting the processes used to examine the validity of the scale is presented in Figure 5.4.

Advertising Creativity Scale Development

Reliability Procedures → Cronbach's Alpha

Factor Analysis

Validity procedures Translational validity → Content validity →Face validity

Construct validity → Convergent and Discriminant validity

Unidimensionality

Fig. 5.4: Validity and Reliability Assessments

5.7.5. Translational Validity→ Content Validity: As the name suggests, content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. Content validity is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. Thus, the operationalization is verified for the corresponding „content domain‟ for the underlying theoretical construct.

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Content validity is usually established by content experts and is a judgment of how appropriate the items seem to a panel of reviewers who have specialist knowledge of the subject matter. With self-report measures/questionnaires, pre-tests with multiple sub-populations, we can also assess the degree to which individual items represent the construct being measured, and cover the full range of the construct (content validity). Content validity indicates the content reflects a complete range of the attributes under study and is usually undertaken by seven or more experts (Pilot & Hunger, 1999 and DeVon et al., 2007). Through evaluation of this aspect of validity, the researcher can gauge the correspondence of the variables to be included in a summated scale to its underlying conceptual definition. The objective is to ensure that the selection of scale items extends past just empirical issues to also include theoretical and practical considerations. Judgements on the validity relating to the content of the measurement scale are subjective but systematic judgements.

5.7.6 Translational Validity→ Face Validity: Face validity was assessed to estimate if the questionnaire appears to be appropriate to the study in terms of what it is designed to investigate, the appearance of the questionnaire in terms of feasibility, readability, consistency of style and formatting, and the clarity of the language used (Trochim, 2001; DeVon et al., 2007). Face validity assesses whether translation of constructs (operationalization), seems good on its „face‟. It is often known to be easiest but the weakest form of validity evaluation, and is thus, more an indication of usability rather than empirical reliability evidence.

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Translational Validity

Content Validity Face Validity (Appropriateness of the content (Readability, appearance) of an instrument)

Fig. 5.5: Assessing the Content Validity

5.7.7 Construct Validity Construct validity refers to the degree to which the items on an instrument relate to the relevant theoretical construct (Kane, 2001; DeVon et al., 2007). In other words, construct validity is the extent to which a set of measured variables actually represent the theoretical latent construct they are designed to measure. With estimation of this type of validity, the researcher can understand the extent to which conclusions can legitimately be drawn from operationalizations in the study to the theoretical constructs on which those operationalizations were built. If the items designed to measure a certain theoretical concept do not achieve that very purpose, then this can invalidate the findings of the study. Thus, evidence of construct validity provides confidence that item measures taken from a sample represent the actual true score that exists in the population (Hair et al., 2010). When a researcher chooses a set of variables to mean a hypothetical construct, the concept of validity leads to evaluation of whether those variables have been successful in capturing the „essence‟ (Heppner, Kivlighan and Wampold, 1992) of the hypothesised construct. In the context of the present study, this concept shall be understood through how well the dimensions conceptualised by the researcher actually represent advertising creativity. Construct validity examines the question: Does the measure behave like the theory says a measure of that construct should behave?

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Construct validity is essential to the perceived overall validity of the test and is one of the three main evidences of overall validity along with Content and Criterion validity. In this study, construct validity will be analyzed on the following parameters:  Factor Loadings should be at least 0.5.  Correlation Matrix Patterns  Construct Reliability of 0.70 will be considered the threshold for reliability of a construct. The following figure lays out the elements of assessing construct validity.

Construct Validity

Convergent Validity (Factor loadings) Discriminant Validity (Correlation Matrix Pattern) (Correlation Matrix Pattern) (Construct reliability)

Fig. 5.6: Assessing the Construct Validity (Adapted from Hair et al., 2010).

5.7.8 Convergent Validity Convergent validity assesses the degree to which two measures of the same concept are correlated. We examine the degree to which the operationalization is similar to (converges on) other operationalizations that it theoretically should be similar to. According to Malhotra (2007, p.280), “Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct.” Here the researcher may look for alternative measures of a concept and then correlate them with the summated scale. High correlations here indicate that the scale is measuring its intended concept (Hair, 2010).

5.7.9 Discriminant Validity Discriminant validity is the degree to which two conceptually similar concepts are distinct. It involves the examination of the degree to which the operationalization is

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Research Methodology not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. There is a need for each dimension of the construct to be unique and different from the other, even through each reflects a portion of the construct. Discriminant validity reflects the extent to which the measure is unique and not simply a reflection of other variables. Assessment of discriminant validity is required to ensure construct validation. The empirical test is again the correlation among measures, but this time the summated scale is correlated with a similar, but conceptually distinct measure. The correlation should be low, demonstrating the summated scale is sufficiently different from other similar concepts (Hair, 2010; Malhotra, 2007). Discriminant validity evaluation was done using EFA (Exploratory Factor Analysis). For adequate discriminant validity, the diagonal elements (containing square root of the AVE) in the matrix should be greater than the off diagonal elements (containing correlations between the constructs). In summary, convergent validity confirms that the scale is correlated with the other known measures of the concept; discriminant validity ensures that the scale is sufficiently different from other similar concepts to be distinct.

5.8 Factor Analysis (FA): Factor analysis is a method for identifying a structure (factors or dimensions) that underlines the co-relationships among a set of observed variables. The key concept of factor analysis is that multiple observed variables have similar patterns of responses because they are all associated with a latent (i.e. not directly measured) variable. Factor Analysis is „a class of multivariate procedures aiming to identify the underlying structure in a data matrix.‟ Being a multivariate statistical technique, it transforms the correlations among a set of observed variables into a smaller number of underlying factors, which contain all the essential information about the linear relationships among original test scores. Factor analysis operates on the notion that measurable and observable variables can be reduced to fewer latent variables that share a common variance and are unobservable, which is known as reducing dimensionality (Bartholomew, Knott, & Moustaki, 2011). These unobservable factors are not directly measured but are essentially hypothetical constructs that are used to represent variables.

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With factor analysis, collective and strongly correlated movements of variables are identified and grouped together to represent one factor, revealing some underlying construct causing that movement. It is intended to classify a set of variables in terms of a smaller number of theoretical variables or to explore underlying dimensions (Yong & Pearce, 2013). The two approaches to factor analysis are: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis, which have slight differences in the „purpose‟ for which they are undertaken by researchers. According to Skrondal and Rabe-Hesketh (2007), EFA and CFA are complementary strategies and CFA can be seen as a particular case of EFA. In the purview of this research, EFA was undertaken to reveal dimensional map of advertising creativity.

5.8.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): EFA is a widely utilized and broadly applied statistical technique in psychological and marketing researches (Fabrigar et al., 1999), prompted by the need to go beyond the individual items to reveal the latent structure that underlies them. Many scholars have explained that the main idea behind EFA is that numerous variables are used to characterize objects. In recent times, many studies designed for diverse instrument and scale development utilized EFA (Lovett, Zeiss, & Heinemann, 2002; Kane, 2001). The scale developer starts with a large number of individual scale items and questions and, by using factor analytic techniques; they can refine and reduce these items to form a smaller number of coherent subscales. Factor analysis can also be used to reduce a large number of related variables to a more manageable number, prior to using them in other analyses such as multiple regression or multivariate analysis of variance. Factor analysis attempts to bring inter-correlated variables together under more general, underlying variables. More specifically, the goal of factor analysis is to reduce “The dimensionality of the original space and to give an interpretation to the new space, spanned by a reduced number of new dimensions which are supposed to underlie the old ones” (Rietveld & Van Hout 1993, p.254), or to explain the variance in the observed variables in terms of underlying latent factors. Thus, factor analysis offers not only the possibility of gaining a clear view of the data, but also the 203

Research Methodology possibility of using the output in subsequent analyses (Field, 2009; Rietveld & Van Hout, 1993). EFA is used when a researcher wants to discover the number of factors influencing variables and to analyze which variables „go together‟ (Yong & Pearce, 2013). In other words, this technique helps to identify complex interrelationships among items and group items that are part of unified concepts. It assists in getting answers to some very crucial questions that a researcher(s) may have, like: How to pattern correlated items so that the common latent themes are grouped together? Or how to capture underlying constructs based on comparable measurement items? What are the „reasons‟ for certain variables to be consistently behaving in a similar manner and those very „reasons‟ are the latent constructs that factor analysis captures. Thus, the applications of EFA include: Exploring data for patterns, underlying latent constructs, data reduction and extraction and confirmation of factor structure. By empirically investigating the complex, interactive and intertwined latent structure of the variables thought to be influencing an over-arching construct (in this case, it is advertising creativity), factor analysis helps in extracting and grouping items that share some commonality and reveal redundant items that do not sufficiently influence the underlying construct. In this manner, the researcher can systematically and validly draw a conclusive map of dimensions that point to underlying latent constructs (which cannot be directly measured). Detecting structure in the relationships between the variables that are proposed to be influenced by latent factors is a crucial step in scale development procedures. Through Factor analysis, we want to capture the constructs through tightly correlated items and summarize data so that relationships can be easily interpreted.

5.8.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis in Context of the Present Study

In the context of this study, exploratory factor analysis was utilized through SPSS:  To develop and explore the factor structure underlining advertising creativity and what items best represent it.  To investigate the dimensional analysis of creativity of advertising, through a pool of items and find out the factor loadings representing the underlying constructs.

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 To identify the structural patterns in data according to complex co-relational predisposition in variables revealing a latent pattern underlining creativity.  To understand the item-wise break-up that shall assist in developing a hypothesized scale to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity of advertising from the perspective of agency professionals in India.  To examine whether the compilation of variables identified to represent creativity actually reveal the hypothesized factor structure.  To know if the underlying latent advertising creativity dimensions actually cause the variance in the measurement variables.  To reveal discernible patterns in the inter-relationships of the variables chosen with respect to the theoretical latent constructs.  To reduce large amount of variables into a parsimonious set of few factors that account better for the underlying variance in the measured phenomenon (i.e., AC)  To explore the actual correlations between the items of AC hypothesized (rather than just theoretically). Consistent correlations among groups of items from our study, unearthed underlying constructs constituting our principle phenomenon of creativity. FA was conducted to reveal discernible patterns in the data collected for advertising creativity that may assist us in generating key dimensions for our study. EFA provides the researcher with an empirical assessment of the interrelationships among variables, essential in forming the conceptual and empirical foundation of a summated scale assessment of content validity and scale dimensionality (Hair et al., 2010). Conceptual definitions are the starting point for the creation of the summated scales. It has been recurrently observed that EFA is a statistical method commonly used during instrument development to cluster items into common factors, interpret each factor according to the items having a high loading on it, and summarise the items into a small number of factors. Factor analysis has been continually linked with validity assessment and is a useful tool to evaluate various levels of validity of an instrument. When an indicator consists of multiple items, factor analysis is used to determine construct validity. „Loading‟ refers to the measure of association between an item and a factor A „factor‟ is a list of items that belong together. Related items define the part of the

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Research Methodology construct that can be grouped together. Unrelated items, those that do not belong together, do not define the construct and should be deleted (Bryman & Cramer, 2005). Through employment of EFA techniques, definition of the construct of advertising creativity based on theoretical framework is possible, which also indicates the direction of the measure (DeVon et al., 2007) and identifies the greatest variance in scores with the smallest number of factors (Parsian & Dunning, 2009; Munro, 2005). It is essential to have a sufficiently large sample to enable factor analysis to be undertaken reliably. Although, the number of participants required undertaking factor analysis remains under debate, a minimum of five participants per variable is generally recommended (Munro, 2005). However, to ensure an appropriate sample size was obtained for the current study to enable factor analysis to be undertaken two criteria were considered: 1) Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Sampling Adequacy, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity 2) Factor loadings and the Correlation between a variable and a factor (Hayes, 2002). Several types of extraction methods are used to undertake factor analysis. The two most common forms are Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Principal Axis Factoring (PAF). In PCA, all the variance of a variable (total variance) is analysed, while PAF only analyses common variance. Total variance consists of both specific and common variance. Common variance refers to the variance shared by the scores of subjects with the other variables, and specific variance describes the specific variation of a variable. Therefore, PCA is assumed to be perfectly reliable and without error and used on the 32 items The main criteria used to determine how many factors should be retained: 1) The Kaiser criterion to select those factors that have an Eigen value > 1.00 (Bryman & Cramer, 2005). However, the general criterion of an Eigen value > 1.00 could misrepresent the most appropriate number of factors (Heppner et al., 1992). 2) Varimax, the most commonly used orthogonal rotation was undertaken to rotate the factors to maximise the loading on each variable and minimise the loading on other factors (Field, 2009). The rotation was converged in 18.

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The following Five Step Exploratory Factor Analysis Protocol (Adapted from Williams, Brown and Onsman, 2010) was utilized as a guiding framework to generate a decision pathway for conducting a successful EFA.

•N>100 (Hair et al. 1995). •N:p ratio (3:1) (Hogarty et al. 2005; Cattell, 1978; Munfrom et al. 2005) •Factorability of the correlation matrix : Correlation Is Data suitable for factor analysis? Coefficients > 0.3 at least.( Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). •Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy: > 0.6 /Bartlett's Test of Sphericity p<0.5 (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007; Bartlett, 1950).

How will the factors be extracted? •Principle Component Analysis: Varimax Rotation converged in 18 (Gorsuch, 1983; Pett et al., 2003; Tabachnick and Fidell,

2007).

What criteria will assist in factor •Kaiser's Criteria: Eigen value >0.1 (Kaiser, 1960; Hair et al. extraction? 1995)

Selection of rotational method •Orthogonal Varimax Rotation converged in 18 (Thompson, 2004; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007)

•According to loadings generated and theorettical Interpretation and Labelling understanding of the researcher, factors were descriptively labelled to best represent the clustered items.

Fig. 5.7: Five Step Exploratory Factor Analysis Protocol (Adapted from Williams, Brown and Onsman, 2010)

5.9 Uni-Dimensionality This implies that all the items in a scale are strongly associated with each other and represent a single concept. Factor analysis plays a pivotal role in making an empirical assessment of the dimensionality of a set of items by determining the number of factors and the loadings of each variable on the factor(s). The test of uni-dimensionality is that each summated scale should consist of items loading highly on a single factor. All cross loadings are hypothesized to be 0 when uni-dimensional constructs exist. Covariance among error terms of two

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Research Methodology measured variables should also be evaluated. Significant between-construct error covariances suggest that the two items associated with these error terms are more highly related to each other than the original measurement model predicted implying significant cross-loading exist. Uni-dimensionality can be assessed by exploratory factor analysis or confirmatory factor analysis. The judgement of uni-dimensionality for this study is quite significant as generating key dimensions of the main construct, advertising creativity, is one of the primary goals.

5.10 Reliability Reliability is an assessment of the degree of consistency between multiple measurements of a variable (Hair, 2001). If an instrument is reliable, it can then be interpreted consistently across different situations. The suitability of any kind of scale used in researchers or scales developed through a research must be tested on two main accounts: 1. Reliability and 2. Validity. Both these factors influence the quality of data obtained. Reliability and Validity assessments are important statistical tests that are routinely used in scale construction (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Of the three approaches for assessing reliability (test-retest, alternative-forms and internal consistency methods) we shall take the internal consistency approach. Internal consistency reliability is used to assess the reliability of a summated scale where several items are summed to form a total score. In a scale of this type, each item measures some aspect of the construct measured by the entire scale, and the items should be consistent in what they indicate about the characteristic. In this case, this shall reveal how well each element proposed to embody advertising creativity contributes to measuring some characteristic of this overall construct. The rationale for internal consistency is that the indicators of the scale should be appraising the same constructs and thus be highly inter-correlated. This can also be understood as the degree to which the items that make up the scale are all measuring the same underlying attribute (i.e. the extent to which the items „hang together‟). This measure focuses on the internal consistency of the set of items forming the scale. Judgements of uni-dimensionality and internal consistency have been used here for item analysis. Cronbach‟s Alpha is a reliability coefficient which provides an indication of the average correlation among all of the items that make up the scale.

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For this study, internal consistency reliability of the various statements for measurement of each variable was tested with Chronbach‟s Alpha (coefficient alpha). Values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater reliability. While different levels of reliability are required, depending on the nature and purpose of the scale, Nunnally (1978) recommends a minimum level of 0.7. Chronbach‟s alpha value of 0.70 and above has been considered acceptable. A scale is considered to have a good reliability if it has an alpha value greater than 0.60. Reliability estimates between 0.60 and 0.70 represent the lower limit of acceptability for reliability estimates (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The Cronbach‟s Alpha reliability of all the items included was calculated using SPSS software. The computed reliability indicates whether the items in the questionnaire measure the variables they are supposed to measure and that the measures are stable when used for repeat measurements. Reliability also has to do with representing that the construction of a study such as data collection procedures can be repeated with identical results. The analysis of reliability in SPSS software calculates a number of commonly used measures of scale reliability and also provides detailed information about the relationships between the individual items in the scale. Assuring research can be replicated and can produce similar results is an important element of the scientific research method as it reflects consistency and steadiness in a research attempt.

5.11 Multiple Regression The conceptual model presented in chapter 4 of this thesis presents and overall conceptual framework of the „dimensions‟ part and the „outcomes‟ part of advertising creativity. The first part of the analysis has tested the relationships and grouping tendencies between the 32 sub-dimensions pertaining to the 6 main dimensions of advertising creativity, using factor analysis techniques. The assessment of perceived effect of advertising creativity on advertising outcomes forms the second part of the model which shall be tested through regression analysis. Since one of the secondary objectives of this study was to understand the relationship between advertising creativity and its perceived effects on selected advertising outcomes, we employed multiple regression techniques to look into this

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Research Methodology aspect. In other words, to investigate how advertising creativity affects perceived advertising outcomes. It is an important off-shoot of dimensional mapping of advertising creativity to also probe into its effects on advertising outcomes. In a way, it would help in answering the questions: Whether or not the key advertising dimensions have any effect and can predict the occurrence of salient advertising outcomes? How well advertising creativity and its dimensions are able to predict key advertising outcomes? This step of analysis followed scale-development stage achieved after Factor Analysis. Here, independent measures representing Advertising Creativity (AC) and one set of dependent measures representing Advertising Outcomes (AO) were tested for relationship possibilities using regression techniques, and specify the relative strength of effect between the two sets of variables. The consolidated group of advertising outcomes consisted of selected salient effect features of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience, memorability. The independent measures of advertising creativity are: Originality, Message Clarity, Social Empathy, Sustainability, Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics and Exquisiteness. Using multiple regression techniques, possible linkages were explored between the predictor variables and the outcome variables. In this context, a total of 6 independent/ predictor variables and one set of dependent/ outcome variable were employed for regression analysis.

5.12 Findings and Conclusions The final part of the analysis deals with findings and conclusions drawn from the study. In this section, we aim to integrate and synthesize the findings of our study vis-a-vis the objectives, draw reasonable conclusions by highlighting managerial applications of the findings, understand the theoretical implications of this research with respect to the overall landscape of advertising research area highlight limitations of this study and provide prospective directions for future research in this area.

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5.13 Illustrative Description of the Entire Process of Research The flow-diagram given below provides a snapshot view of the entire research process and the main considerations at each stage:

Data Collection Target Group Selection • Attempted to contact 200 advertising Discovery of Research Problem specialists in 30 ad agencies • Indian advertising agenc y Need to examine advertising • Got responses from 140 advertising practitioners specialists across 23 ad agencies creativity from the agency's perspective • Online, telephonic and personal interactions also

Sampling Decisions Literature Review • Non-probability sampling techniques • Research gaps identified • Convenience, snowball and • Lack of studies on advertising judgemental sampling Data Analysis creativity from the agency's • Analysis of reports in national • Data was analysed using advanced perspective dailies for top advertising agency list statistical tools and methods • Lack of systematic, comprehensive for India dimensional model for advertising creativity

Questionnaire Development Definition of Research Problem • Development and finalization of survey instrument after successive • Formulation of research objectives refinements and critical evaluations

Selection of Measurement Items Hypothesis Development for each Construct • 32 +6 statements =38 • 32 elements: dimensions of AC • Broad core 6 dimensions of AC • 5 AC outcome variables

Fig. 5.8: An Illustration of the Entire Research Process

5.14 Summary This chapter presents in detail the methodology adopted for this study. A meticulous depiction of all the principles, methods, steps and statistical tools utilized to conceptualise, design and execute this study has been presented in this part of the thesis. The discovery of research problem and objectives, formulation of the conceptual framework and hypothesis, data collection and sampling decisions along with data analysis techniques has been explained in this chapter. The next chapter shall deal with data analysis and interpretation, thus giving meaning to the whole process of research.

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CHAPTER VI ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

6.1 Introduction This chapter is an attempt at systematically describing and presenting analysis of the data collected and subsequent results and findings. This segment of the thesis aims at providing a coherent justification for the research objectives formulated at the beginning of this study, by drawing inferences after a thorough analysis of data. Our aim is to present the data collected in an easy to understand manner so that the readers can comprehend the interplay of theories propounded and its analysis. Through analysis, we shall empirically verify our propositions, hypotheses, build a valid explanation for the conceptual framework proposed and verify the various dimensions, constituents, effects and linkages of our central theme, that is, creativity of advertising. The activity of analysing data is all about ‘process’ and ‘interpretation’. Process refers to the standard procedures followed when using certain statistical techniques and interpretation means taking the findings generated from those processes and extracting meaningful insights from it. The ultimate aim of data analysis is to be able to make use of the findings to accentuate knowledge base and contribute to practical situations. The purpose of this research initiative was to map the mental modes of what creativity means to the advertising professionals of India, to develop and validate a hypothesized scale to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity of advertising from the perspective of the agency and its impact on perceived advertising outcomes. To achieve these objectives, the design of research to be undertaken was conceptualised and the type of data needed, target group of respondents and the statistical techniques to be utilized for analysing the collected data was systematically decided upon. In the previous chapter on the methodology adopted for this research, all statistical techniques employed have been described in detail. Therefore, our objective in this chapter is to consider the previous chapter as a background and focus on the results in this chapter.

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The data analysis was conducted on SPSS 21. The data analysis was divided into three stages: 1. Data Screening and Preparation. 2. Descriptive Statistics. 3. Inferential Statistics (For Factor analysis, scale development, hypothesis testing and analysis of the structural model) Given below is an illustration of the data analysis sequence:

Data Screening and Preparation

Multiple Descriptive Regression Statistics Translational Analysis Validity: Content & Reliability testing: Face validity; (Cronbach’s Alpha) Construct Validity: and Data Adequacy Convergent & Tests (KMO and Discriminant Bartlett’s tests) Validity Validity Scale Assessment Assessments assessments

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Fig. 6.1: Data Analysis Sequence

The following primary assessments were conducted: 1. Scale Assessment (Reliability testing using Cronbach’s Alpha; Data Adequacy using KMO and Bartlett’s test). 2. Exploratory Factor Analysis 3. Validity Assessments & Scale Development 4. Multiple Regression Analysis Finally, the 32 proposed research hypotheses were tested according to the results from the Factor analysis and 6 hypotheses according to multiple regression results.

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6.2 Snapshot of Data Analysis and its Elements The table given below shows the type of data analysed, the type of activity involved, the purpose of that activity and the statistical tool used associated with each stage of data analysis. This gives a snapshot view of the entire data analysis sequence, to enhance readability for the readers.

Table 6.1 Snapshot of Data Analysis and Its Elements Stage of data Type of data Type of activity Purpose of Choice of analysis analysed/generated analysis at statistical tool this stage or research method Stage 1: Initial Elements Exhaustive To explore all In-depth pool of 45 comprising literature review. dimensions literature items creativity of and elements review. generated. advertising. of creativity in advertising available in literature in detail. Stage 2: Elements In-depth review To refine item In-depth Refinement of comprising of literature and pool and literature measurement creativity of continued remove review and constructs from advertising. interactions and redundant/ consultations 45 items to 32. discussions with similar items with industry industry experts. that may experts and mean the academicians. same thing. Stage 3: Elements Inclusion of all To generate a Integrated Formulation of comprising items identified conception or proposed conceptual creativity of into one coherent model of what model model with 32 advertising. conceptual is out there conceptualised elements model. that we plan to be tested representing 6 to study and for scale broad core develop development. dimensions of proposed advertising scale for creativity. advertising creativity. Stage 4: Elements identified Inclusion of all To generate a Integrated Formulation of to measure items identified proposed proposed conceptual perceived effect of into one coherent structural model model with advertising conceptual model to conceptualised advertising creativity on model. show to be tested

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data creativity advertising proposed for dimensions and outcomes. relationship of investigating key advertising advertising cause-effect effects. creativity on relationship. advertising outcomes. Stage 5: Constructs Inclusion of all To present a Integrated Integration of representing items identified consolidated proposed stage 3 and dimensions of into one coherent conceptual model stage 4 creativity and conceptual model conceptualised conceptual advertising model. showing all to be analysed models into one outcomes. propositions using EFA system of and elements. and interactions Regression. built on a core concept of advertising creativity. Stage 6: Data Missing value Eye balling and Data Box Plots, screening: identification, statistical preparation Histograms skewness, kurtosis, analyses. for EFA and with normality outliers, multi Regression. curves, VIF. collinearity.

Stage 7: Analyses of scale To check To check for Cronbach’s Reliability items for proposed internal item Alpha analysis of advertising consistency or reliability and coefficient. scale items for creativity model reliability of the data proposed and perceived scale and other suitability for advertising advertising factors to screen further creativity outcomes model. data for analysis. model and analytical perceived suitability. advertising outcomes model. Stage 8: EFA 32 scale items EFA for data To find out if KMO and analysis on comprising 6 key condensation data is valid Bartlett's Test, scale items. elements of and grouping, and suitable EFA advertising interrelationships for analysis, techniques. creativity. among set of sampling variables. adequacy measures to carry out EFA in next stage. Grouping of individual

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scale items according to underlying structure, to find out factor loadings. Factor extraction to group factors onto dimensions of creativity and lead to sale development. Stage 9: Constructs Face and content To check and Inter-item Validity testing representing validity, establish the correlations. for proposed dimensions of convergent and psychometric scale items. creativity and its discriminant properties of outcomes. validity. the scale.

Stage 10: 6 independent To know how To explore Multiple Multiple measures (Adv. well can relationships regression regression Creativity) and one advertising between techniques. analysis set of dependent creativity advertising measures (Adv. predict and creativity and Outcomes). affect its perceived advertising effects on outcomes. advertising outcomes. Stage 11: Analysis of results Drawing To prove – Inferential Collate results and findings. inferences. disprove analysis. and hypotheses, interpretation justify research objectives and understand what results mean and their practical implications.

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6.3 Data Screening and Preparation The data collected was examined for missing values, outliers and other incomplete information provided in the questionnaires. This ensured that data was checked for errors that may have crept in during collection or entry stage. We received 140 filled questionnaires from advertising professionals, out of which 119 were found to be complete and fit to be utilized. 21 forms were rejected based on excessive missing data values, giving a response percentage of 85%. Any case with more than 10% missing data was excluded (Field, 2009). For lesser than 10% missing data cases, those items were identified and replaced with the median value for the item. After weeding out outliers and missing values, data was examined in particular for normality and kurtosis. None of the variable was found to have significant departure from normality or pronounced kurtosis, and therefore all 32 variables were found suitable for use.

6.4 Descriptive Analysis: Sample Characteristics SPSS 21 software and MS-Excel were used to analyze the sample characteristics. The tables and discussion that follows summarizes the characteristics of the respondents. Overall, there was a fair representation of respondents gender-wise, age-wise and agency-wise.

6.4.1 Gender Of the total 119 respondents, approximately 57% (n=207) are males and approximately 43% are females. Table 6.2: Summary of Sample Characteristics – Gender

Gender Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Female 51 42.9 42.9 Valid Male 68 57.1 100.0 Total 119 100.0

6.4.2 Age Group About one-third of the respondents were in their twenties which reveals that they were fresh talent in the field of advertising who infused newer perspectives to the concept of creativity.

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Approximately two-thirds of the respondents were in their thirties and forties, which means that they had substantial experience of working in the advertising industry and brought to the study more knowledgeable insights. 7 respondents were above 50 years of age and at the CEO/ President level, with a career spanning more than 40 years and spread across all departments within an advertising agency. This imparted richness of creative experience to our data gathering process. Thus, the respondent base is a good blend of advertising professionals from various departments in an agency, with varied career spans and diverse perspectives. Table 6.3: Summary of Sample Characteristics – Age Group Age Group Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent 20-29 34 28.6 28.6 30-39 52 43.7 72.3 Valid 40-49 26 21.8 94.1 50 and above 7 5.9 100.0 Total 119 100.0

6.4.3 Agency-wide Distribution The summary of agency-coverage in our study shows that we have received responses from 140 professionals spread across 23 different agencies in India, out of which 119 are fit for analysis. Such a mapping of the distributional characteristics of advertising agency sample utilized in our study shows the appropriateness of the sampling frame. These constituted some of the most coveted agencies like Ogilvy and Mather, Lowe Lintas, Percept, McCann Erickson, JWT, FCB-Ulka, Dentsu, Leo Burnett, Publicis and many more. Interestingly, we also got many responses from medium and small sized agencies like Advantage Communications, Mahima Advertising, Group M, Bang In The Middle etc. Thus, we have been able to strike a good agency-blend with a combination of the top advertising agencies of India as well as medium-sized agencies too. This list includes 10 of India’s most celebrated and top advertising agencies (According to a report of the Afaqs portal, 2012 and The Economic Times, 2012). This is a vital aspect to understand as it follows the principle of Pareto optimality or the 80-20 rule of Economics. Majority of the most creative advertising campaigns like Coke, Fevicol, Marlboro, Lux to name a few, have been conceptualised by the top 10

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data agencies of India which reflect approximately 20 percent of the agency responses in this study. Table 6.4: Summary of Agency Distribution Agency Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Leo Burnett 1 .8 .8 Advantage 6 5.0 5.9 Bang In the middle 5 4.2 10.1 Bates 6 5.0 15.1 Contract 4 3.4 18.5 Corporate Comm. 2 1.7 20.2 Crayons 1 .8 21.0 Dentsu 7 5.9 26.9 Euro RSCG 7 5.9 32.8 FCB ULKA 1 .8 33.6 Genesis 5 4.2 37.8 Goosebumps 2 1.7 39.5 Valid Group M 9 7.6 47.1 JWT 6 5.0 52.1 Lowe Lintas 18 15.1 67.2 Mahima Adv. 3 2.5 69.7 McCann Erikson 7 5.9 75.6 Net Carrots 3 2.5 78.2 Ogilvy & Mather 7 5.9 84.0 Percept 13 10.9 95.0 Publicis 3 2.5 97.5 Saatchi & Saatchi 2 1.7 99.2 Siddharth Adv. 1 .8 100.0 Total 119 100.0

After understanding the overall sample characteristics and the varied agency blend, we can say that the sample chosen is representative and suitable to carry out a systematic research in the area of advertising creativity in Indian context. Subsequently, the next step was to carry out Inferential Statistical analysis.

6.5 Construct Assessment Using Exploratory Factor Analysis In the context of this study, the primary construct that we want to investigate is the phenomenon of advertising creativity. This has been designed in the functional form

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data of various dimensions and sub-dimensions predicted to be representative of the founding construct of advertising creativity. This will be measured by multiple indicators in an attempt to develop a comprehensive scale for measuring advertising creativity; we must assess the scale for important concepts like reliability, validity, and dimensionality. This shall ensure that our measurement variables, scale and overall research elements are fit to be utilized for scientific analysis and can lead to valid results later on.

6.5.1 Assessment of Reliability The suitability of any measurement scale developed or adapted for research must be assessed on two important accounts, namely; reliability and validity. Reliability is an assessment of the degree of consistency between multiple measurements of a variable. A commonly used measure of reliability is internal consistency, which applies to the consistency among the variables in a summated scale. This can also be understood as the degree to which the items that make up the scale are all measuring the same underlying attribute (i.e. the extent to which the items ‘hang together’). If an instrument is reliable, it can then be interpreted consistently across different situations. For this study, internal consistency reliability of the various statements for measurement of each variable was tested with Chronbach’s Alpha (coefficient alpha). Chronbach’s Alpha value of 0.70 and above has been considered acceptable (George & Mallery, 2003). Following are the diagnostic measures to assess internal consistency: a. Item-to-total correlations exceed 0.50 b. Item-item correlations exceed 0.30 c. Reliability coefficient with Cronbach’s Alpha – generally agreed lower limit is 0.70 although it may decrease to 0.60 in exploratory research. A value of 0.60 or less generally indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability (Hair et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alpha values are dependent on the number of items in the scale. When there are a small number of items in the scale (fewer than ten), Cronbach alpha values can be quite small. In this situation, it may be better to calculate and report the mean inter-item correlation for the items. Optimal mean inter-item correlation values range from 0.2 to 0.4 (as recommended by Briggs & Cheek, 1986).

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In the context of this study, a total of 11 key constructs (6 items for dimensions and 5 items for outcomes) were part of the model and 37 sub-constructs were used to measure them (32+ 5= 37 items). Out of this, 6 constructs are exogenous, or independent namely, Originality, Message Clarity, Social Empathy, Sustainability, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics and Exquisiteness. The next 5 which seek to measure the link between advertising creativity and its effects are endogenous or dependent namely, Client Objectives, Agency Awards, Social Change, Connectedness with audience and Memorability. First, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated for all the factors with 32 items of proposed dimensions of advertising creativity using SPSS 21. The following table shows the results:

Table 6.5: Reliability Statistics for Items Comprising Advertising Creativity Item-Total Statistics Reliability Item Main dimension of creativity Cronbachs (α) Novelty 0.803 Surprising/ Amusing 0.798 Imaginative 0.806 ORIGINALITY Original 0.798 Unique 0.799 Freshness 0.802

Easy to Understand 0.801 Meaningful 0.792 Simple/ Clear 0.796 Believable 0.804 MESSAGE CLARITY Convincing 0.800 Informative 0.787

Sensitive 0.791 Gentle 0.790 Socially Considerate 0.790 Suited to Indian Values 0.794 SOCIAL EMPATHY Honest 0.795 Respectful 0.786

Indelible Impact 0.784 Stimulate Purchase 0.795

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Universal Appeal 0.790 SUSTAINABILITY Timeless 0.807

Melodious Jingle 0.803 Product Relevance 0.810 Effective Execution 0.795 CRAFTSMANSHIP/ AESTHETICS Brand-Celebrity Endorser 0.796 Match Make Consumers Want to Use 0.795 Product

Appealing 0.797 Eye Catching 0.852 Exciting 0.803 EXQUISITENESS Inspiring 0.796 Entertaining 0.845

The above table shows the Cronbach Alpha values indicating reliability of individual items that together make up the 6 key dimensions of advertising creativity. The Cronbach Alpha values for all the 32 items are more than 0.7 which indicates that all factors had good internal consistency. Many items showed Alpha value to be more than 0.8 which is reflective of the fact that those items are closely related as a group and hint towards consistency at measuring the same underlying attribute.

Table 6.6: Reliability Statistics for Items Comprising Advertising Outcomes Perceived to be Influenced by Advertising Creativity Item-Total Statistics Item Reliability Main construct Cronbachs (α) AHA (Connectedness with audience) 0.804 Social Change 0.805 Agency awards 0.807 Advertising Outcomes Perceived Creativity- Ad Effectiveness 0.797 (Memorability) Client Objectives 0.801

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The above table shows the Cronbach’s Alpha values indicating reliability of individual items that together make up the 5 key outcomes of advertising perceived to be influenced by advertising creativity. The Cronbach’s Alpha values for all the 5 items are more than 0.7 which indicates that all factors had good internal consistency.

Table 6.7: Reliability Statistics for Overall Scale Items

Overall Reliability Statistics Overall Reliability Statistics (For items measuring dimensions) ( For items measuring adv. outcomes) Cronbach's Alpha N of Items Cronbach's Alpha N of Items

0.800 32 0.802 5

Taken as an entire scale with a system of 32 constructs representing dimensions of advertising creativity, the reliability statistics done using SPSS 21 generated an overall Cronbach Alpha value of 0.800. For items (N=5) representing salient advertising outcomes, Cronbach Alpha value of 0.802 was obtained. This signifies that the scale items are internally consistent, steady and reliable to be analysed with EFA techniques.

6.5.2 Preliminary Analysis Using Mean as a Statistic Indicator Mean values were used as statistical indicators of implication and importance of variables proposed to symbolize advertising creativity. A careful examination and reading of mean value gradient can help the researcher understand the general agreement-trend of respondents done on Likert Scale. The following tables show mean values for all 37 variables considered in this study. Item statistics showing mean values nearing 5.00 (that is, > 4.00) denote that those factors are very important dimensions for creativity infused in the ads according to the respondents. For all values above 0.4, the average response for that dimension is titling towards scale-point 5 (that is, Strongly Agree). To elucidate using an example, Novelty has a statistical mean value of 4.52 which means that majority of the ad-makers believe that it is an essential component of advertising creativity. Similarly, Originality, Uniqueness, Fresh, Effective Execution etc. occupy a high-agreement opinion. Items such as Informative,

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Sensitive, Melodious Jingle are considered less essential for creative advertising than the other factors with higher means.

Table 6.8: Mean Scores for Items Measuring Dimensions of Advertising Creativity Item Statistics Std. Item Mean Deviation N Novelty 4.52 .609 119 Surprising/ Amusing 4.05 .484 119 Imaginative 4.49 .580 119 Original 4.41 .764 119 Unique 4.48 .594 119 Exciting 4.15 .799 119 Freshness 4.24 .582 119 Easy to Understand 4.34 .541 119 Meaningful 4.22 .727 119 Simple/ Clear 3.89 .928 119 Believable 4.09 .781 119 Convincing 4.27 .709 119 Informative 3.13 .956 119 Sensitive 3.77 .786 119 Gentle 3.66 .718 119 Socially Considerate 3.93 .722 119 Indian Values 4.18 .777 119 Honest 4.02 .689 119 Respectful 4.08 .754 119 Indelible Impact 4.04 .807 119 Purchase 4.14 .586 119 Inspiring 3.76 .756 119 Universal Appeal 3.61 .950 119 Timeless 3.32 .723 119 Eye Catching 4.38 .638 119 Melodious Jingle 3.35 .926 119 Product Relevance 3.57 .962 119 Appealing 4.07 .647 119 Effective Execution 4.56 .515 119 Product Celebrity Endorser Match 3.29 1.001 119 Consumers Use Product 4.13 .688 119 Entertaining 4.31 .648 119

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Similarly, the table given below shows mean values for 5 advertising outcomes chosen for the study. The general idea from mean value analysis indicates that most agency executives believe that AHA (AHA moment of association) and Agency Awards are two outcomes that are affected more by creativity advertising. On an average, out of 119 respondents, most believe that creative advertising shall lead to awards for the agency and generate connectedness with audience (AHA). However, fewer majorities of the agency executives believe that creative advertising leads to social change, and achieving client objectives. Likewise, lesser number of people believe that using artistic elements increase perceived creativity and effectiveness. In general, the mean values for items showing how advertising outcomes are predicted and affected by ad creativity range between 3.36 and 4.11.

Table 6.9: Mean Scores for Items Representing Advertising Outcomes

Item Mean Std. Deviation N AHA 4.00 .504 119 Social Change 3.36 .767 119 Agency Awards 4.11 .579 119 Perceived Creativity- Ad Effectiveness 3.76 .592 119 Client Objectives 3.82 .701 119

6.6 Assessments of Adequacy for Conducting Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Preceding the extraction of the factors, several tests were employed to assess the suitability of the respondent data for factor analysis. These tests include Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity. The correlation matrix was scanned for assessing factorability to gauge suitability to conduct Factor Analysis.

6.6.1 KMO and Bartlett's Test To warrant suitability of conducting an EFA, appropriateness in sample size was ensured by calculating Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) sampling adequacy and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity statistics for our data set. The KMO statistic value was found to be 0.857 (See table 6.10) while the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant.

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As a general rule, the KMO statistic varies between 0 and 1 and a value of 0 indicates that the sum of partial correlations is large in comparison to the sum of correlations, which indicates diffusion in the pattern of correlation, and that factor analysis is inappropriate. This reveals if the data are likely to coalesce on components (i.e. some items highly correlated, some not) and thereby assess sampling adequacy. A value close to one indicates factor analysis will yield distinct and reliable factors (Field, 2009). Bartlett’s test of sphericity investigates whether or not our correlation matrix is an identity matrix (1 on the diagonal & 0 on the off-diagonal). Kaiser (1974) recommended accepting values > 0.5 and described values between 0.5 and 0.7 as mediocre; 0.7 and 0.8 as good, 0.8 and 0.9 as great, and > 0.9 as superb. Therefore, using Kaiser’s scale, the sampling adequacy value of 0.857 for the items was good. Likewise, Stevens (2002) suggested that a factor is reliable if it has 10 or more variables with loadings of 0.4 and more than 100 participants. Therefore it is concluded that factor analysis can be employed on the data for analyzing the correlation matrix and the data is suitable for structure detection.

Table 6.10: Sampling Adequacy Assessment (KMO and Bartlett's Test) KMO and Bartlett's Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.857 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi- Square 2397.039 Df 528 Sig. .000

6.6.2 Correlation Matrix Assessments A correlation matrix displays complex inter-item correlations between variables and thus gives an idea about the direction and strength of associations between variables under investigation. The correlation matrix was inspected for understanding the factorability of the data. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), correlation coefficients should be >0.3 at least. Scanning of this matrix generated is a popular criteria used by researchers. Hair et al. (2010) categorised the correlation coefficients using another rule of thumb as ±0.30=minimal, ±0.40=important, and ±.50=practically significant. If no

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data correlations go beyond 0.30, then the researcher should reconsider whether factor analysis is the appropriate statistical method to utilise. In other words a factorability of 0.3 indicates that the factors account for approximately 30% relationship within the data, or in a practical sense, it would indicate that a third of the variables share too much variance, and hence becomes impractical to determine if the variables are correlated with each other or the dependent variable (multicollinearity). Scanning the correlation matrix generated for this study, it indicates that our correlation matrix (of items) is not an identity matrix as the off-diagonal values of the matrix are not zeroes and therefore the matrix is not an identity matrix. It was found that KMO and Bartlett’s tests and Correlation Matrix assessment ensured suitability of data for Factor Analysis.

6.7 Interpreting Factor Analysis: Factor Extraction (Total Variance Explained) In the milieu of this study, the statistical process of exploratory factor analysis was conducted in three stages: First, the generation of a correlation matrix for all the variables; Second, factor extraction from the correlation matrix based on the correlation coefficients of the variables; and Third, factor rotation so as to optimize the variable-factor relationship. The Total Variance Output generated from SPSS (See table 6.11) shows all the factors extractable from the analysis along with their Eigen values, the percent of variance attributable to each factor, and the cumulative variance of the factor and the previous factors. The Eigen values calculated are before extraction, after extraction and after rotation. The first section of the table shows the variance explained by the initial solution, where the initial number of factors is the same as the number of variables used in the factor analysis. Eigen values represent the variances of the factors. Because we conducted our factor analysis on the correlation matrix, the variables are standardized, which means that the each variable has a variance of 1, and the total variance is equal to the number of variables used in the analysis, in this case, 32. In the column named ‘Total’, all the Eigen values for factors are displayed, with the first factor accounting for most variance, the next factor accounting for as much of the left over variance as it can, and so on. Each successive factor accounts for 227

Analysis And Interpretation Of Data less and less variance. As is evident from the first section of the table, only five factors are found to have Eigen values >1. These five factors reveal the ‘extracted’ factors and are significant for scale development in this study. The next column shows the percentage of total variance accounted for by each factor of advertising creativity. The variance accounted for by the factors at this stage is before rotation. It was found that the first factor accounts for roughly 17% of the total variance, the second 10%, third 9%, fourth 7% and fifth 6.5%. All the remaining factors are not significant. Also, the cumulative percentage column reveals the percentage of variance accounted for by the current and all preceding factors. Together, they account for almost 50% of the variability in the original variables (Before Rotation). This suggests that five underlying, latent factors are associated with advertising creativity but there still remains room for a lot of unexplained variation. The second section of the table shows only the variance explained by the factors extracted (before rotation). The ‘Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings’ correspond to the number of factors retained. The values in this section are based on common variance. The rightmost section of the table shows the variance explained by the extracted factors after rotation. The criteria employed for rotation was Varimax orthogonal rotation with Kaiser Normalization criteria, converging in 18 iterations. Varimax rotation technique attempts to maximise the variance of each of the factors, so that the total variance accounted for is redistributed over the five extracted factors. This is done essentially to manipulate and clean up the variable inter- correlations to let strong factor loadings emerge onto one factor, and avoid muddling of loadings. As is evident from the table, the rotated factor model makes some small adjustments to the extracted factors, with the first factor accounting for maximum variability being explained by itself and the subsequent factors accounting for variability in descending order. This means that the first factor (Originality in this case) accounts for maximum influence (15% approx.) on advertising creativity dimension scale. This can be analysed so on and so forth for all the extracted factors. Conclusively analysing the values obtained from factor analysis, almost 65% of the advertising creativity scale is explained by key dimensions of Originality, Message Clarity, Social Empathy, Sustainability and Craftsmanship/Aesthetics.

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Table 6.11: Interpreting Factor Analysis: Total Variance Explained

Total Variance Explained Extraction Sums of Squared Rotation Sums of Squared Initial Eigenvalues Loadings Loadings % of Cumulative % of Cumulative % of Cumulative Component Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance % 1 5.632 17.067 17.067 5.632 17.067 17.067 4.623 15.009 15.009 2 3.329 10.089 27.155 3.329 10.089 27.155 3.441 14.987 29.996 3 2.160 8.707 35.863 2.873 8.707 35.863 2.889 13.225 43.221 4 1.486 6.926 42.788 2.285 6.926 42.788 2.515 11.623 54.844 5 1.101 6.574 49.362 2.169 6.574 49.362 2.444 9.890 64.734 6 .944 5.382 54.744

7 .828 5.088 59.832

8 .783 4.502 64.333

9 .642 4.387 68.721

10 .626 4.177 72.898

11 .484 3.337 76.235

12 .467 2.861 79.096

13 .455 2.509 81.605

14 .410 2.373 83.978

15 .366 1.945 85.923

16 .298 1.897 87.821

17 .271 1.468 89.288

18 .241 1.417 90.705

19 .232 1.377 92.082

20 .194 1.242 93.324

21 .146 1.109 94.434

22 .119 .903 95.837

23 .096 .822 96.891

24 .084 .731 97.594

25 .067 .703 98.182

26 .049 .588 98.624

27 .039 .441 98.985

28 .035 .361 99.276

29 .028 .291 99.529

30 .021 .253 99.732

31 .019 .203 99.881 32 .012 .148 100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

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6.8 Exploratory Factor Analysis Considering the nature of our study, where the prime objective was to develop and design an advertising creativity scale, with all the dimensions systematically laid out, exploratory factor analysis was conducted to aid in achieving this objective. EFA belongs to a family of factor analysis methods that are powerful statistical tools used extensively in the development and evaluation of tests and scales. EFA was employed as focal methodology to extract, condense and group factors that represent dimensions of advertising creativity and validate it as a measurement scale. This technique also led to uncovering latent dimensions underlying the concept of advertising creativity. The proposed 6 key dimensions that were initially identified through stages of preliminary exploration comprised of 32 underlying sub- items that were analysed for factor patterns using EFA. This way we found out the underlying grouping of sub-elements associated with each key hypothesized dimension and the strength of associations among them. This was done to explore the underlying factor structure related to the over-arching construct of creativity. The main concept that we wanted to decode was what manifest variables represented the latent construct of advertising creativity in Indian ad agencies. This structural mapping using EFA shall be used with tests of hypothesis to prove or disprove proposed set of hypotheses in our study. By empirically investigating the complex, interactive and intertwined latent structure of the variables thought to be influencing an over-arching construct (in this case, advertising creativity), factor analysis helps in extracting and grouping items that share some commonality and reveal redundant items that do not sufficiently influence the underlying construct. In this manner, the researcher can systematically and validly draw a conclusive map of dimensions that point to underlying latent constructs (which cannot be directly measured). The table 6.12 given in the next section is the SPSS EFA-output ‘Rotated Component Matrix’ with the rotated factor loadings for all the extracted factors. The columns under the heading of ‘Factors’ are the rotated factors that have been extracted. Through Varimax rotations, the number of factors on which the variables have high loadings are reduced and optimised. The table represents how the variables ‘cling on’ to the factors extracted and the strength of association between them. This

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data is the key table of results where the actual factor generation is shown with clustering of variables onto respective underlying factors. All the variables grouped together show their affinity or loading to one factor, which is proposed to be the underlying theme for all those grouped variables. This implies that all those variable groups can be explained by one over-arching factor which is a key dimension of advertising creativity. This generates a map of advertising creativity and its dimensional structure for researchers to interpret. In this table, factor loadings less than 0.4 have not been displayed because during the factor analysis inputs, we entered the criteria of refraining loading less than 0.4 to be displayed, thereby allowing more clarity for interpretation of factor extraction results. From a careful look at the table generated, we can understand that clusters of variables have emerged that load highly only onto one factor, and in this way, all the variables under investigation have been clubbed into five predominant parent factors. This EFA output is utilized to discover the number of latent factors influencing advertising creativity and its dimensions and to analyze which variables ‘go together’. The results obtained from EFA outputs assist in exploring data for patterns, underlying latent constructs, data reduction and extraction and confirmation of factor structure. Scanning the results from the factor matrix, we can find variables with similar underlying characteristics or traits that load on the same factor. Through the factor analysis results, tightly correlated constructs are captured through strong item correlation and factor loadings. These way common themes emerge and validate our hypothesis that these dimensions of advertising creativity symbolize common latent constructs. The loadings onto factors represent real-world constructs that constitute the mental modes of agency professionals when designing creative advertising. The matrix is not just a grouping of closely related constructs but a practically interpretable model for advertising creativity and its dimensions. The clusters impart clarity in clearly interpreting the structural relationships of advertising creativity and the extracted constructs represent significant defining factors which conclusively represent a valid map of advertising creativity for the agency. The factor matrix generated suggests that:

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 Clear patterns of variable groups have emerged signifying underlying common themes that assist us in generating key dimensions for our study;  Underlying patterns are revealed in clusters of variables which ‘hang together’ as evident from factor loadings generated. This shows there may be some common latent themes to these clusters, reducing them to few defining factors;  Structural mapping of creativity elements is evident; with all the variables under investigation been clubbed into five predominant parent factors;  From an initial hypothesised 6 factor distribution, the factor analysis output has reduced the overall factors to 5. This means that clusters of variables have been loaded highly onto the respective five factors, eliminating redundant factors by optimised regrouping based on complex correlation coefficients and rotations;  Consistent correlations among groups of items from our study, unearthed underlying constructs constituting our principle phenomenon of creativity;  Underlying constructs are captured, where variable loadings onto factors account for a significant percentage of variability in the original data;  Dimension reduction from proposed 6 main dimensions of advertising creativity to 5 factors extracted.  A careful scanning of the table given below shows that 7 dimensions of creativity load highly onto factor 1; 8 dimensions of creativity load highly onto factor 2; 6 dimensions of creativity load highly onto factor 3; 5 dimensions of creativity load highly onto factor 4 and 6 dimensions of creativity load highly onto factor 5.  All the factor loadings are >0.7 which implies that the respective variables sufficiently represent that factor-dimension of creativity in advertising. For example, variable ‘original’ with factor loading 0.915 (See table below) explains 91% of the latent construct of ‘originality’ dimension of advertising creativity.  The overall factor loadings for all the variables were noteworthy with variance exceeding 70% in all the cases. This implies that the factors are significantly explained by constituting cluster of dimensions (variables) loaded under that factor.  The first set of grouped variables all are relating to aspects of originality and that factor is therefore labelled ‘Originality’ (V1). Out of the 7 variables (elements) proposed to mean latent variable originality (V1), all have been found to be significantly explaining V1, with factor loadings >0.8. It can thus be deciphered

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that ‘original’ and ‘fresh’ dimensions explain more than 90 percent of the latent dimension originality.  The second cluster of variables revolves around the idea of the artistic quality of an ad. The factor explaining these variables is labelled as ‘Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics’ (V2). 8 variables have been grouped under V2, all significantly accounting for the underlying factor (that is, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics). From the table given below, it can be implicated that 82% of craftsmanship can be explained by the element of ‘melodious jingle’ in an advertisement, while ‘product-celebrity match’ accounts for an impressive 83% of craftsmanship of an ad. 75% of craftsmanship is accounted for by elements of ‘effective execution’.  The third cluster of variables represents the concept of clarity and believability, with 6 items loading tightly onto this factor, adequately labelled’ Message Clarity’ (V3). Elements like ‘convincing’, ‘meaningful’, ‘easy to understand’ and ‘informative’ each explains more than 80% of the message clarity factor.  The fourth cluster of variables are grouped together on some underlying factor that revolves around the concept of ‘being remembered’ or ‘timeless’. 5 items have loaded on to this factor which is labelled ‘Sustainability’ to encompass all the grouped variables. In this factor matrix, elements of an ad that evoke ‘timelessness’, are ‘inspiring’ or leave an ‘indelible impact’ on the consumers’ minds explain more than 80% of the factor ‘sustainability’.  The fifth bunch of elements reveal the underlying construct of being socially considerate and advertising responsibly and are thus labelled under one over- arching factor of ‘Social Empathy’. This factor condenses 6 items together with factor loadings ranging from 0.7 to 0.8. Socially respectful advertising showing Indian values in a good light significantly account for the underlying construct of social empathy and represents an influential index of advertising creativity from the agency’s perspective in India. Given below are the factor loadings from EFA:

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data

Table 6.12: Interpreting Factor Analysis: Factor Extraction

Rotated Component Matrix Factors 1 2 3 4 5 Imaginative 0.812 Original 0.915 Unique 0.895 Exciting 0.896 Freshness 0.912 Surprising/ Amusing 0.878 Novelty 0.811

Convincing 0.878 Meaningful 0.821 Simple/Clear 0.766 Easy to Understand 0.853 Informative 0.81 Believable 0.788

Respectful 0.813 Socially Considerate 0.792 Gentle 0.743 Indian Values 0.802 Sensitive 0.792 Honest 0.811

Timeless 0.876 Indelible Impact 0.843 Inspiring 0.822 Stimulate Purchase 0.818 Universal Appeal 0.789

Melodious Jingle 0.829 Make Consumers Want to Use Product 0.715 Effective Execution 0.757 Appealing 0.815 Product Celebrity Endorser Match 0.834 Entertaining 0.813 Eye Catching 0.816 Product Relevance 0.751

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

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6.9 Assessments of Translation Validity: Content Validity In our study, to estimate the content validity of the instrument, the researcher clearly defined the conceptual framework of advertising creativity by undertaking a thorough literature review and seeking expert opinion. Once the conceptual framework was established, the draft of the hypothesised scale was shown to 15 carefully chosen experts in the areas of advertising, questionnaire design, and research methodology. Since the professionals were specialists in the field of advertising, they gave profound insights on the dimensionality of the variables included, which were imbibed and led to several rounds of refinements in the scale structure. The experts examined in detail whether the scale items adequately cover the domain of the construct being measured, and the degree of relevance to the purposes of this study. They were subsequently asked to review the draft of multiple item scale and other aspects of the questionnaire to ensure it was consistent with the conceptual framework. Each reviewer independently rated the relevance of each item on the scale to the conceptual framework using a 4-point Likert scale (1=not relevant, 2=somewhat relevant, 3=relevant, 4=very relevant). Since several items included in the scale have been extracted through comprehensive literature review, the suitability and credibility of the scale was fairly good. However, several variables were identified by the researcher alone and thus called for validity assessment by experts. Recurrent subjective and detailed interactions with advertising professionals working in India’s thriving advertising agencies was done to ensure constant feedback on the scale development procedure. Each statement in the questionnaire was examined for its relevance and clarity for the purpose of this research work.

6.10 Assessments of Translation Validity: Face Validity For our study, a subjective evaluation of an initial draft of the hypothesized scale was conducted by getting feedbacks from professors in marketing/advertising, students from the department of Business Administration (A.M.U, Aligarh) and advertising specialists.

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6.11 Construct Validity Assessments The assessment of convergent and discriminant validity is a key factor in ensuring construct validity of the measurement items in the study. Construct validity gives an idea of how well the scale measures what it was designed to measure. Construct validity refers to the degree to which the items on an instrument relate to the relevant theoretical construct (Kane, 2001; DeVon et al., 2007). Establishing construct validity shall provide a useful scheme in assessing the quality of research conclusions made. To estimate construct validity the following components were analyzed: 1. Factor Loadings – A good rule of thumb is that standardized loading estimates should be 0.5 or higher. 2. Correlation Matrix Patterns 3. Construct Reliability of 0.70 will be considered the threshold for reliability of a construct. Based on the above criteria, average factor loadings for all factors extracted were found to be more than 0.7, correlation matrix patterns were more strongly correlated within elements of one factor, and less strong inter-factor correlation (thus showing indicative clustering of factors and elements within each factor) and Reliability was greater than 0.7 for our study. This shows that construct validity for the scale items in this study stands verified.

6.11.1 Convergent Validity The most common approach to establishing convergent and discriminant validity is to demonstrate that multiple measures of a construct are (1) related, and (2) more related to each other than to measures of other constructs, even when the two measurement methods are similar (Campbell and Fiske, 1959; Field, 2009). Convergent validity means that the variables within a single factor are highly correlated. This was judged by evaluating the factor loadings of variables contained within each dimension of advertising creativity scale. Adapting the threshold values given by Gaskin (2012), for a sample size of 120 respondents, the minimum threshold value for factor loading is 0.50. Evaluating the factor loadings obtained from the rotated component matrix (Table 6.12), the items loaded (standardised loadings) well on to their respective constructs and were significant with values above 0.70, suggestive of the convergent

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data validity of each factor. Also, the average factor loadings for all 5 factors extracted are more than 0.7 (See table below). This means that Convergent validity of our scale items is established. Table 6.13: Average Factor Loadings Factor Average Loadings 1 0.87 2 0.79 3 0.81 4 0.82 5 0.79

6.11.2 Discriminant Validity Discriminant validity refers to the distinctiveness of different constructs (Campbell & Fisk, 1959; Gaskin, 2012). The concept underlines the condition that different measures of the same trait should correlate highly with each other but should correlate less strongly with measures of distinct traits. The rule observed when evaluating discriminate validity was that variables should relate more strongly to their own factor than to another factor. Convergent validity and discriminant validity have been explored by assessing the correlation matrix generated during using SPSS. Discriminant validity refers to the extent to which factors are distinct and uncorrelated. Two primary methods exist for determining discriminant validity during an EFA. We examined the factor correlation matrix. Variables should load significantly only on one factor. If ‘cross- loadings’ do exist (variable loads on multiple factors), then the cross-loadings should differ by more than 0.2. Another method to judge discriminant validity is to examine the factor matrix for correlations between factors. Correlations between factors should not exceed 0.7. A correlation greater than 0.7 indicates a majority of shared variance (0.7 * 0.7 = 49% shared variance). As assessed from the factor correlation matrix generated for our study, the elements of the 6th factor of ‘exquisiteness’ was merged into factors of ‘originality’, ‘sustainability’ and ‘craftsmanship’. This shows that some elements were too correlated with factors 1, 4, and 5, and thus show clustering tendencies with them. This shows that discriminant validity for the scale items in this study stands verified.

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6.12 Multiple Regression The conceptual model presented in chapter 4 of this thesis presents and overall conceptual framework of the ‘dimensions’ part and the ‘outcomes’ part of advertising creativity. The first part of the analysis has tested the relationships and grouping tendencies between the 32 sub-dimensions pertaining to the 6 main dimensions of advertising creativity, using factor analysis techniques. The assessment of perceived effect of advertising creativity on advertising outcomes forms the second part of the model which shall be tested through regression analysis. Since one of the secondary objectives of this study was to understand the relationship between advertising creativity and its perceived effects on selected advertising outcomes, we employed multiple regression techniques to look into this aspect. In other words, to investigate how advertising creativity affects perceived advertising outcomes. This was considered important for our study because after deciphering what encompasses advertising creativity, we wanted to probe into its perceived effects on key advertising outcomes. This analysis shall lead us to uncover the crucial linkages between the two concepts from the agency’s perspective. It is an important off-shoot of dimensional mapping of advertising creativity to also probe into its effects on advertising outcomes. In a way, it would help in answering the questions: Whether or not the key advertising dimensions have any effect and can predict the occurrence of salient advertising outcomes? How well advertising creativity and its dimensions are able to predict key advertising outcomes? To be able to understand this relationship of advertising creativity and its dimensions with advertising outcomes is an insightful contribution in this field. This step of analysis followed scale-development stage achieved after Factor Analysis. Here, five independent measures representing Advertising Creativity (AC) and one set of dependent measures representing Advertising Outcomes (AO) were tested for relationship possibilities using regression techniques, and specify the relative strength of effect between the two sets of variables. The consolidated group of advertising outcomes consisted of selected salient effect features of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience, memorability. The five independent measures of advertising creativity are: originality, message clarity, social empathy, sustainability

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data and craftsmanship/ aesthetics. Using multiple regression techniques, possible linkages were explored between the predictor variables and the outcome variables. In this context, a total of 5 independent/ predictor variables and one set of dependent/ outcome variable were employed for regression analysis. The multiple regression technique relies upon determining the linear relationship with the lowest sum of squared variances; therefore, assumptions of normality, linearity, and equal variance are carefully observed. The beta coefficients (weights) are the marginal impacts of each variable, and the size of the weight can be interpreted directly. Through the determination of relationship dynamics between advertising creativity and its perceived effects on outcomes, powerful predictions can be made by market researchers, scholars and advertising practitioners. Given below are the diagnostic results obtained after regression analysis in SPSS:

Table 6.14: Multiple Regression Model Summary Output Model Summaryb Model R R Adjusted Std. Error Change Statistics Durbin- Square R of the R Square F df1 df2 Sig. F Watson Square Estimate Change Change Change 1 .729a .531 .518 .28066 .531 4.256 5 113 .000 1.929 a. Predictors: (Constant), O, MC, SE, ST, CA. b. Dependent Variable: ACO (Advertising Creativity Outcomes)

Given below are the respective interpretations of table 6.14. In the column labelled R, the value shows the multiple correlation coefficient between the predictors and the outcome. The correlation between advertising creativity dimensions as predictors and advertising outcomes is 0.729, which implies fairly strong association between the two set of variables. As dimensions of advertising creativity, they can have fairly significant impact on advertising outcomes. The elements of creative advertising like originality, clarity in the execution and message design, aesthetic qualities of advertisements can considerably predict key advertising outcomes like client objectives being accomplished as a result of creative advertising or agency awards, to name a few.

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The next column shows R2 which is an indication of how much variability in the outcome is accounted for by the predictors. This means that around 53% of the variability in advertising creativity outcomes is accounted for by the dimensions of creativity. The adjusted R2 gives an idea of how well the model generalizes and a value of 0.518 indicates that it is very close to the R2 value (0.531) with a difference of (0.531- 0.518= 0.013 or 1.3 %). The shrinkage means that if the model were derived from the population rather than a sample, it would account for approximately 1.3% less variance in the outcome. The Durbin-Watson statistics in the last column informs us about the reasonability of the assumption independent errors. A value close to 2 (here it is 1.929) shows that the assumption has certainly been met. The closer value to 2, the better it is. The next part of the output contains analysis of variance (ANOVA) as shown by table 6.15. Table 6.15: Multiple Regression Model (ANOVA) ANOVAa Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 13302.700 5 13302.700 16.515 .000a

1 Residual 101493.3 113 805.502 Total 114796.0 118 a. Dependent Variable: ACO (Advertising Creativity Outcomes) b. Predictors: (Constant), O, MC, SE, ST, CA.

Analysis of variance tests whether the model is significantly better at predicting the outcome than using the mean as a ‘best guess’. Specifically, the F-ratio shows the ratio of improvement in prediction that results from fitting the model (labelled ‘regression’ in the table above), relative to the inaccuracy that still exists in the model (labell6ed ‘residual’ in the table above). If the improvement due to fitting the regression model is much greater than the inaccuracy within the model then the value of F will be greater than 1 and SPSS calculates the exact probability of obtaining the value of F by chance. Here, the F ratio is 16.52, which is very unlikely to have happened by chance (p< 0.001) as it is highly significant. The interpretation of ANOVA scores means that the model significantly improves our ability to predict the outcome variable. That is, advertising

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data that is creatively rich with the dimensions of originality, message clarity, social empathy, sustainability and craftsmanship enhances the likelihood of better prediction of salient advertising outcomes.

The next output table generated from SPSS shows the parameters of the model.

Table 6.16: Multiple Regression Model Parameters (Coefficientsa) Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Statistics B Std. Beta Tolerance VIF Error (Constant) 1.921 .026 74.665 .000 Originality (O) .450 .021 .378 4.16 .001 1.000 1.000 Message Clarity .367 .031 .292 3.89 .001 1.000 1.000 (MC) Social Empathy .235 .028 .119 1.11 .760 1.000 1.000 (SE) Sustainability (ST) .034 .029 .076 0.45 .537 1.000 1.000 Craftsmanship/ .568 .018 .431 4.87 .001 1.000 1.000 Aesthetics (CA) a. Dependent Variable: ACO (Advertising Creativity Outcomes

In multiple regression, the model takes the form of an equation that contains a coefficient (b) for each predictor. The data can be predicted using the following general equation:

Outcomei= (Model)+ Errori That is, the outcome (advertising creativity outcomes) that we want to predict using advertising creativity dimensions can be predicted by the model we fit to the data plus some portion of error. The model for multiple regression would be:

Yi= (b0+b1xi1+b2xi2+...... bnxn)+εi

Y is the outcome variable, b0 is the intercept, b1 is the coefficient of the first predictor th (X1), b2 is the coefficient of the second predictor (X2), bn is the coefficient of the n predictor (Xn), εi is the difference between the predicted and the observed value of Y for the ith participant. For this study, the individual predictor and outcome variable estimates can be regressed using the following equation:

Advertising creativity outcomes = b0 + b1 (originality)i + b2 (message clarity)i + b3

(social empathy)i + b4 (sustainability)i + b5 (craftsmanship)i + εi.. 241

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The first part of the table gives us estimates for these b values and these values indicate  The individual contribution of each predictor to the model.  The relationship between advertising creativity outcomes and each predictor.  The magnitude of association and the direction of association  To what degree each predictor affects the outcome if the effects of all other predictors are held constant. A positive b value would mean a positive relationship between the advertising creativity outcomes and the predictor and a negative correlation would mean a negative relationship. For these data, all predictors have a positive b value indicating positive relationships. For example, as originality increases in advertising, its impact on advertising outcomes also increases. This analogy can be interpreted for all the 5 dimensional predictor variables of ad creativity. Each of these b values has an associated standard error indicating to what extent these values would vary across different samples, and these standard errors are used to determine whether or not the b values differ significantly from 0. If a test statistic associated with a b value is significant, then the predictor is making a significant contribution to the model (value in the column labelled Sig. is <0.05). The smaller value of Sig. (and the larger value of t) means greater contribution of that predictor. It reflects all the predictors that make a significant contribution to predicting advertising creativity outcomes. For the regression output generated for this study, Originality, t (119) = 4.16, p<0.05; message clarity, t (119) = 3.89, p<0.05; social empathy, t (119) = 1.11, p>0.05; sustainability, t (119) =0.45, p>0.05 and craftsmanship t (119) = 4.87, p<0.05.

Advertising creativity outcomes = 1.921 + 0.450 (originality)i +0.367 (message clarity)i + 0.235 (social empathy)i + 0.034 (sustainability)i +0.568 (craftsmanship)i + εi. A careful inspection of the above values shows that for advertising creativity outcomes as conceptualised in this study, originality (ORG), message clarity (MC) and craftsmanship (CA) appear to be more significant predictors and have slightly more impact on advertising outcomes than other factors. The standardized versions of the b values are also an important estimate as they are free of measurement unit dependency. These values indicate the number of

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data standard deviations that the outcome will change as a result of one standard deviation change in the predictor. Since the standardized Beta values are all measured in standard deviation units, they are directly comparable and offer easier interpretability. They are better indicators of the ‘predictors’ of a model. The standardized Beta values for originality is 0.378, for message clarity is 0.292 and for craftsmanship is 0.431, which also shows that craftsmanship, originality and message clarity have significant contribution in the model and their magnitude of relative impact can be judged in that order. Therefore, the results of the regression model show that craftsmanship has the maximum impact on advertising creativity outcomes, followed by originality and message clarity; while social empathy and sustainability have been found to be less predictive of the advertising creativity and its outcomes.

6.13 Results of Hypotheses The table given below presents a consolidated enumeration of the results of hypothesis relating to proposed advertising creativity dimensions and perceived effects on key advertising outcomes. 8 Hypotheses were unsupported while 30 were supported according to the results obtained.

Table 6.17: Results of Hypotheses (Advertising Creativity Dimensions)

S. No Description Label Conclusion Novelty forms a significant element constituting Originality 1 H1a Supported component of AC Imaginativeness forms a significant element constituting Originality 2 H1b Supported component of AC Unique forms a significant element constituting Originality 3 H1c Supported component of AC Original forms a significant element constituting Originality 4 H1d Supported component of AC Surprising/Amusing forms a significant element constituting 5 H1e Supported Originality component of AC

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Freshness forms a significant element constituting Originality 6 H1f Supported component of AC Convincing forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 7 H2a Supported component of AC. Meaningful forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 8 H2b Supported component of AC. Clear/ Simple forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 9 H2c Supported component of AC. Easy to understand forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 10 H2d Supported component of AC. Informative forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 11 H2e Supported component of AC. Believable forms a significant element constituting Message Clarity 12 H2f Supported component of AC. Respectful forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy 13 H3a Supported component of AC. Socially Considerate forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy 14 H3b Supported component of AC. Gentle forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component 15 H3c Supported of AC. Indian Values forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy 16 H3d Supported component of AC. Sensitive forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component 17 H3e Supported of AC. Honest forms a significant element constituting Social Empathy component 18 H2f Supported of AC. Timeless forms a significant element constituting Sustainability component 19 H4a Supported of AC. Indelible Impact forms a significant element constituting Sustainability 20 H4b Supported component of AC. Ad should stimulate purchase forms a significant element constituting 21 H4c Supported Sustainability component of AC. Universal Appeal match forms a significant element constituting 22 H4d Supported Sustainability component of AC. Melodious jingle forms a significant element constituting 23 H5a Supported Craftsmanship/Aesthetics component of AC. Consumers use product forms a significant element constituting 24 H5b Supported Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics component of AC. Effective Execution forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/ 25 H5c Supported Aesthetics component of AC. Brand Celebrity match forms a significant element constituting 26 H5d Supported Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics component of AC. Product Relevance forms a significant element constituting Craftsmanship/ 27 H5e Supported Aesthetics component of AC. Appealing forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness 28 H6a Unsupported component of AC. Eye-Catching forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness 29 H6b Unsupported component of AC. Exciting forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component 30 H6c Unsupported of AC. Inspiring forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness component 31 H6d Unsupported of AC. Entertaining forms a significant element constituting Exquisiteness 32 H6e Unsupported component of AC. 33 Originality is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7a Supported 34 Message Clarity is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7b Supported 35 Social empathy is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7c Unsupported 36 Sustainability is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7d Unsupported 37 Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics is a significant predictor of AC outcomes. H7e Supported 38 Exquisiteness is a significant predictor of AC outcomes H7f Unsupported

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6.14 Summary This chapter systematically described and presented all aspects of data analysis undertaken for this study. Following statistical analysis, the empirical results were clearly presented in tabulated form and findings were interpreted. Underpinning the statistical analysis for the study was the process of data screening where data was investigated for missing values, outliers and other incomplete information. Appropriate corrective measures were taken to ensure data suitability for statistical analysis. The next part presented an analysis of the sample characteristics using descriptive statistical procedure tools on SPSS. Overall, there was a fair representation of respondents gender-wise, age-wise and agency-wise. Construct assessment was conducted on Reliability indicators using Cronbach’s Alpha estimations for items comprising advertising creativity. The items were found to be consistent and suitable for Exploratory Factor Analysis. Preliminary analysis of scale items conceptualized to represent advertising creativity was done using Mean as a statistical indicator of relative importance of the variables under investigation. Preceding the extraction of the factors, several tests were employed to assess the suitability of the respondent data for factor analysis. These tests include Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity. The correlation matrix was scanned for assessing factorability to gauge suitability to conduct Factor Analysis. From the values obtained from these statistical indicators, the data set was found suitable for Factor Analysis. As next steps, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted in three stages: First, the generation of a correlation matrix for all the variables; second, factor extraction from the correlation matrix based on the correlation coefficients of the variables; and third, factor rotation so as to optimize the variable-factor relationship. Results were interpreted on accounts of Total variance Explained by the factors. Conclusively analysing the values obtained from factor analysis, almost 65% of the advertising creativity map is explained by key dimensions of Originality, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics, Message Clarity, Sustainability and Social Empathy. EFA was employed as focal methodology to extract, condense and group factors that represent dimensions of advertising creativity and develop a comprehensive map. From the Rotated Component Matrix Output generated, the

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Analysis And Interpretation Of Data extracted factors were identified, analysed and interpreted. This resulted in identification of the underlying factor structure related to the over-arching construct of advertising creativity. Thus, structural mapping of creativity elements was evident; with all the variables under investigation been clubbed into five predominant parent factors. The Construct validity of the newly developed factor structure was established on grounds of convergent and discriminant validity. This imparted scientific reliability and soundness to newly developed scale. Thus, the conceptualised advertising creativity scale was developed after being systematically operationalised, empirically tested and was found valid. Since one of the secondary objectives of this study was to understand the relationship between advertising creativity and its perceived effects on advertising outcomes, we employed Multiple Regression techniques to look into this aspect. Five salient effect features of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social change, connectedness with audience, memorability were chosen to explore for linkages with creativity of advertising construct. Subsequently, the relationship between perceived advertising outcomes and creativity was interpreted so that useful insights can be gained. Overall, the purpose of this research initiative, (which was to map the mental modes of what advertising creativity means to the agency professionals of India, to develop a comprehensive map to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity of advertising from the perspective of the agency and its impact on perceived advertising outcomes) was suitably achieved. The next chapter provides conclusions and directions for future research. It shall also highlight the managerial implications and limitations of the study.

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CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS

7.1 Introduction Rust and Oliver (1994) emphatically believed that despite the „death‟ and „resurrection‟ of advertising in the age of internet, creativity will remain the single, core competence sought after from the advertising agencies. Reid et al. (1998) strongly echoed similar sentiments by saying, “Creativity, indisputably, the least scientific aspect of advertising, is arguably the most important.” The absolute importance of creativity has long been recognised, initially by the industry, followed by the academics and then the theorists. It was creativity in advertising that brought about, first a surge in advertising which resulted in advertising clutter, and then demarcated excellence from the ordinary. Wherever they lay a line of distinction to mark the unusual and extraordinary from the routine and commonplace; there lay creativity. Scholars, practitioners and researchers have consistently regarded creativity to be an advertising agency‟s most valuable asset which lies at the very core of the creative business of advertising. Despite its deep-rooted essentiality for the existence of advertising, a thorough understanding of the key dimensions that makeup advertising creativity, especially in the context of the perspective of the advertising agency is mostly uncharted. Overwhelmingly, the focus of advertising research, both nationally and internationally has been more consumer-oriented, with not much attention being given to the creative minds that produce a path-breaking advertisement that consumers find incredible. Unearthing what creativity means to the advertising professionals and its core dimensions is not just an intriguing subject for research but a promising one too that has immense practical applicability. The current academic effort concerns directly with agency-side dynamics of the conceptual, dimensional and perceived effectiveness of advertising creativity, by addressing the aforementioned research gaps. This endeavour is a seminal and systematic research work on defining, understanding, modelling and measuring creativity from two new perspectives: The agency‟s viewpoint and The Indian advertising landscape.

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Our research endeavour offers substantial contribution to the theoretical body of literature in several ways along with having extensive practical relevance as well. By being a relevant research-oriented response to an important yet under-explored territory in the advertising arena, this study is fitting for the current times. Creative masterminds in advertising agencies have a powerful influence in shaping contemporary Indian culture. This study builds a functional structure that merges snippets from anecdotal knowledge, creative practitioner mental modes, academic literature and empirical data analysis into a coherent and organized map representing the multi-dimensional construct of advertising creativity. The summary of our study and a brief account of the findings that have emerged are produced below, followed by a critical discussion, prospective future research possibilities and directions and, of course, the limitations of the study are also indicated at the end.

7.2 Summary of Findings As mentioned above, this research endeavour centred round the most intriguing concept of creativity in advertising and explores it primarily from two perspectives: the agency professionals and the Indian advertising landscape. As pointed out in the introductory chapter, this study was carried out driven by the following main research questions:  What does advertising creativity mean for the agency professionals?  What dimensions constitute advertising creativity in India, from the perspective of the agency? Some very insightful and prominent findings have emerged from the study. Given below is a summary of the key findings: 1. The absolute indispensability of creativity for the business of advertising: In today‟s modern world, where lifestyles are shaped by consumerism and digitisation, where people are becoming more market-literate, and are not only getting easily bored with lacklustre advertising but tend to get confused due to advertising clutter, companies need to advertise more artistically, strategically and inventively. We can hardly imagine a world devoid of advertising, and interestingly so, what really drives something as powerful as advertising is „creativity.‟ The concept and significance of creativity in advertising was

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critically examined and found the nucleus of advertising. Having inferred from the views of the great men and women of advertising and its significance for building brand image, the centrality of creative passion for the advertising business was reinforced from the findings encountered during the course of our research. 2. In-depth understanding of the concept of advertising creativity: The concept, meaning, significance and dimensions of advertising creativity were critically explored and analysed. It was found that creativity as a concept is largely free- flowing, yet when creativity is utilized in the inventive ad-making business, it is bound by a framework of contexts, situations and overall communication strategy. Creativity in advertising is contextualized by many situational factors such as; the client‟s marketing objectives, its strategic direction, and its target audience in order to be effective. What demarcates creativity in general from creativity in advertising is the novelty-relevance framework which was included in our study as a key dimension. This framework was an adaptation of Koslow et al. (2003, 2006) and Kim et al. (2010) „Originality-Appropriateness‟ framework, which was explored empirically in a substantially different settings in our research. We explored it from a completely different cultural milieu, that is, Indian advertising landscape and from another end of the advertising spectrum, that is, the agency‟s viewpoint. The information obtained from a structured analysis of our data reveals another important and central aspect of advertising creativity, which its intermingling attribute of convergent and divergent thinking by the creative practitioners. The divergence should imply new ideas, fresh concepts and vibrant imagination for the ad makers whereas convergence implies the „problem- solving‟ and „goal-directed‟ trait of creativity in advertising. This conceptual insight was initially recognized by researchers like Kilgour (2006) and Toubia (2006) but diagnostic reinforcement has been achieved through our study. This is logically understood by the basic nature of advertising which is to present a communication creatively while sticking to a larger frame of advertising/brand strategy for the client. 3. Is it possible to define creativity? The notion: “When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic, but creatures of emotions.” 249

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stressed by Dale Carnegie, famous American educator, was a key propeller to explore the possibility of defining advertising creativity. It was found that to portray creativity as something that can be bound by a set of definitions is against its very nature. Creativity cannot be conformed to a few definitions and ideas, as that would take away its very essence of being imaginative. It is its inherent abstractness that makes creativity extraordinary and capable of invoking amusement for consumers. After an in-depth journey into perceptual insights of the creative minds of India‟s advertising agencies, we want to strengthen White‟s (1972) theory describing creativity as the „X‟ factor that eludes the understanding of the researcher. Having said that, we have tried to highlight that though there can be no finality in devising a „complete‟ definition of creativity, yet there are common threads of dimensions that run along advertising creativity, as examined through this study. We may not be able to conclusively „define‟ creativity in advertising in the true sense of the word, though we have been successful in having a substantially strong idea of its critical dimensions. It may be argued that creative advertising is too situational, too transient to be described by one set of characteristics. The typology, however, that resulted here is based on an extensive review of the literature, statements about creativity by professionals in advertising agencies, statistical analyses, and map-development procedures. 4. Creativity in advertising requires systematic development and effective management: Garnering stimulus from Blasko and Mokwa‟s (1986), opinion that, “Creativity is usually defined and studied as an elusive phenomenon that defies adequate description and effective management”, we analysed what creativity means to the advertising professionals themselves and how they nurture and develop it, through recurrent in-depth interactions with them. We found that though constructing a crystal-clear definition is not possible, yet unearthing its core dimensions is. It was found that if creativity is seen from the context of advertising, it is very important to find some common grounds of its principles as applied in the world of business and trade. The map developed through our research is indeed a comparatively new and useful foundation to give

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a standardised outlook to an otherwise intangible field of research that is, advertising creativity. A clearer conceptual and operational assessment of creativity would be useful to advertising professionals as it would help in moving evaluations/ assessments beyond subjective judgements to a more common ground. 5. Development of a measurement model for advertising creativity: A conclusive and valid map to represent the underlying dimensions that best describe creativity of advertising from the perspective of agency professionals in India was developed through our study. Statistical procedures resulted in a comprehensive five–factor model comprising of Originality, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics, Message Clarity, Sustainability and Social Empathy. The five major dimensions entailed many sub-dimensions representing each of the main five elements of advertising creativity. Therefore, in essence, a conclusive map for understanding the concept, meaning and dimensions of creativity in advertising from the perspective of the agency was developed and empirically validated. „Originality‟ was found to be a leading dimension of advertising creativity for the agency professionals in India. Around 15% of advertising creativity was found to be controlled by originality, and the factor extraction techniques also generated a cluster of 7 sub-elements comprising „originality‟ in the overall advertising creativity map. It can be conclusively authenticated that originality of ideas is a crucial determinant of creativity for the agency masterminds. It forms a significant part of advertising; and for any advertising that aims to achieve the hallmark of being extremely creative and well-remembered, „originality‟ proves to be a key feature. Ideas that are new, fresh and out-of the ordinary reflect „originality‟ and inventiveness in advertising. For creative professionals who nurture the value of innovative ideas every day, originality forms a key requisite in their mental modes of creative thinking. This insight that has emerged from our study assists us in confidently claiming that „Creativity in advertising is almost synonymous with the idea of originality.‟ „Craftsmanship/ Aesthetics‟ is another decisive dimension, appreciably accounting for advertising creativity for the agency professionals. This aspect revolves around the aesthetics and artistic elements designed, integrated and implemented through creative advertising. Our study showed that an ad which is

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emotionally moving, visually pleasing, beautifully executed, entertaining and humorous speaks of the highly creative qualities of craftsmanship, qualities that are striven to be inculcated in creative strategies for advertising by the ad makers themselves. In the dynamic and volatile advertising environment of today, the ad creators believe that the aesthetic quality of an ad is a mark of its creativity. Interpreting the loadings obtained from the factor analysis, almost 15% of advertising creativity is accounted for by elements of craftsmanship. 8 sub- dimensions have been found to portray craftsmanship and it can be implicated that 82% of it can be explained by the element of „melodious jingle‟ in an advertisement, while „product-celebrity match‟ accounts for an impressive 83% of craftsmanship of an advertisement. 75% of craftsmanship is accounted for by elements of „effective execution‟. Timeless appeals of Indian ads like „Hamara Bajaj‟ or Cadbury Dairy Milk‟s „Kuch Khaas Hai‟ are testimony to the importance of strong message content and impeccable craftsmanship. It is, thus, not surprising to find how critically decisive is this aspect when it comes to the judgment of creativity. „Message Clarity‟ was found to be the third primary dimension representing creativity in advertising from the agency‟s perspective. Our research endeavour found that around 13% of advertising creativity could be explained by elements of message clarity. 6 sub-items symbolizing the concept of clarity and believability loaded strongly onto this factor. Elements like „convincing‟, „meaningful‟, „easy to understand‟ and „informative‟, each explains more than 80% of the message clarity factor. This reflects that clarity in the creative message designed is supreme in advertising, where the marketer‟s got just a few seconds of media-space to make an impact. To break through advertising clutter and carve a niche for itself, a brand‟s advertising communication needs to have elements of both uniqueness and clarity, so that it strikes a chord with the consumers and achieves the goal, „mindshare‟. Advertising practitioners believe that unless the creative element in an ad conveys information about the brand clearly, novelty alone won‟t make it very creative. Therefore, in conformity with the results obtained through our study, elements enhancing message clarity hold considerable influence in assessing advertising creativity. For ad makers, no matter how interesting the „Big Idea‟ is, for it to make an impact and be really creative, it has to be executed in a clear, precise and meaningful manner.

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„Sustainability‟ emerged as the fourth vital dimension of advertising creativity, accounting for around 11% of overall advertising creativity dimensional distribution. 5 sub-elements of creativity, all revolving around the concept of „being remembered‟ or „timeless‟ were found to be encompassing the factor of sustainability. In the factor matrix generated, elements of an ad that evoke „timelessness‟, are „inspiring‟ or leave an „indelible impact‟ on the consumers‟ minds explain more than 80% of the factor „sustainability‟. It can be assertively inferred that invoking long- lasting effects on consumer‟s minds and leaving an indelible impact is a hallmark of creativity, especially in the views of advertising professionals. Advertising that creates favourable associations and which is remembered for a long time, speaks of the creativity entailed in that communication. It can, thus, be said that „sustainability‟ reflects an important part in the overall map of advertising creativity from the agency‟s perspective. The fifth dimension „Social Empathy‟ reflects the culturally unique construct that constitutes a crucial aspect of creativity in advertising. Elements constituting empathy have been found to carry more societal orientations; and are viewed by the agency as a social construct that reflects social considerateness towards the sentiments of the Indian audiences. The factor extraction from the study shows social empathy as a critical dimension to mirror a genuine effort from the advertising world to create culturally and socially responsible communication endeavours. Advertising professionals understand traditions, and values hold a great deal of importance in the Indian Diasporas, and commercial communication tools need to keep this aspect intact in order to be accepted successfully in a multi-cultural collectivist India. A sincere acceptance of this element can evoke strong and long-lasting responses from the audience, and the advertising world can utilize it to their benefit when designing creative campaigns. Dimensions proposed to describe „Exquisiteness‟ in advertising creativity were merged with other factors like originality, sustainability and craftsmanship following factor analysis and in a way, the sixth dimension was removed. This lead to factor reduction in the proposed dimensional map of advertising creativity. Since one of the secondary objectives of this study was to understand the relationship between advertising creativity and its perceived effects on advertising outcomes, we employed Multiple Regression techniques to look into this aspect. Five salient effect features of an ad, namely, client objectives, agency awards, social 253

Summary And Discussions change, connectedness with audience, memorability were chosen to explore for linkages with creativity of advertising construct. Subsequently, the relationship between perceived advertising outcomes and creativity was interpreted so that useful insights can be gained. The results of the regression model show that craftsmanship has the maximum impact on advertising creativity outcomes, followed by originality and message clarity; while social empathy and sustainability have been found to be less predictive of the advertising creativity and its outcomes. Given below is a critical discussion of the ways in which this study augments the extant body of literature by bringing in fresh insights and findings:

7.3 Theoretical Implications Firstly, it contributes richly to conceptual understanding of creativity in advertising, especially from the agency‟s perspective by delving into its meaning, definitions and significance with greater clarity. It extends academic viewpoints of Blasko and Mokwa (1986) and White (1972) who viewed creativity as the „X factor‟ that eludes the understanding of the researcher, by exploring it from perspectives of the first- hand ad-makers who virtually are paid for infusing new creativity everyday into their work. Another important contribution of this study is that it organizes previously incongruent descriptions of creativity from many sources into a coherent structure. Secondly, it offers fresh insights to believe that the apparent subjectivity and abstractness of creativity does not hinder its systematic analysis. It extends advertising knowledge by examining something as free-flowing as creativity in methodical ways. By systematically investigating what creativity of advertising means to the agency professionals in Indian advertising agencies, we have gained perceptual insights into what dimensions entail advertising creativity. The development of a conclusive dimensional map for assessing, understanding and measuring advertising creativity, is a fairly novel attempt in Indian context. Thirdly, this study stands distinctively different in the procedural/statistical treatment of advertising creativity as a field of research. Most previous scholastic attempts have explored creativity in advertising from a conceptual, qualitative standpoint (Nyilasy et al., 2012; Modig, 2012), whereas our study examines it from a quantitative and systematic approach, thus rendering increased reliability of results.

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Fourthly, the current study is a unique attempt to address the deepening research gap of having negligible established measurement maps to represent advertising creativity in India. Although previous researchers have developed models to represent advertising creativity, yet these are predominantly consumer-oriented and more applicable to the Western cultures (Kim et al., 2010; Koslow et al., 2003, 2006; Stuhlfaut & Yoo, 2011). To get round this conceptual failing, most researchers explore it from the consumers‟ perspective or by examining creative advertising effectiveness (Kover et al., 1995; Ang & Low, 2000; Guerin, 2008; Haberland & Dacin, 1992; Daechun, 2013). Comprehensive maps to represent advertising creativity and its dimensions from the agency‟s viewpoint are sparse. While Nyilasy et al., (2012) carried out a profound study on this aspect, it analysed the creativity from a more developmental, qualitative and intrapersonal perspective of agency creatives. This study extends their approach and applies it to a completely different cultural milieu, and focuses on systematic development of a valid map for advertising creativity. In 2005, Taylor highlighted the prospective research areas of creativity from the agency-side and found out that agency professionals „neither respond to the same constructs nor process the measurement map similarly‟. Similarly, Kim et al., (2010) sought to investigate the culturally-unique make up of creativity in Korea, albeit from the consumer‟s side. However, such an endeavour in the context of India and the agency‟s perspective has not been initiated. We have thus developed and validated a map to represent and measure the underlying dimensions that constitute creativity of advertising from the perspective of agency professionals in India. Throughout the perceptive journey of identifying critical dimensions of creativity, we have been able to discover finer-grained insights into agency-side perspectives of advertising creativity, thereby addressing the issue of lack of studies in this area. The development of an advertising creativity map is a novel addition to the repertoire of knowledge in this field. Fifth, the primary measurement map that has been generated as part of this study reveals pertinent characteristics of what is considered to be the essence of advertising: its creativity. A five-factor map has emerged which highlights key dimensions of creativity which the agency specialists consider important for 255

Summary And Discussions advertising. Each of the five representative dimensions (Originality, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics, Message Clarity, Sustainability and Social Empathy) contains several sub-dimensions which recognize the item-wise constitution of the overall advertising creativity map. From a careful analysis of the dimensions generated, we can decipher important interpretations having useful repercussions for the modern Indian advertising industry, and the scholars alike. Originality, Craftsmanship/Aesthetics and Message Clarity dimensions are reminiscent of previously identified factors in the literature (El-Murad & West, 2004; Koslow et al., 2003, 2006, Smith et al., 2007; Modig, 2012; Guerin, 2013; Stuhlfaut & Yoo, 2011). However, Sustainability and Social Empathy dimensions have distinctively emerged from our study and seem to have contextual and cultural connotations. Sustainability reflects elements of an ad that invoke timelessness and are held in high regard by creative practitioners as a hallmark of creativity in the advertisements they design. This finding is reinforced by indelible impressions created by ads for Fevicol, Cadbury‟s or Nescafe to name a few, that are still regarded as India‟s best creative advertising even after decades of release. Similarly, as a unique contribution from this study, Social empathy emerges as a key dimension of advertising creativity, reflecting the importance placed by ad makers to create socially responsible advertising, suited to distinct cultural sensibilities of Indian society. These culturally and contextually „loaded‟ factors have not clearly emerged in past studies. It is important to understand that this study developed dimensions to highlight what advertising professionals value as highly creative expressions, and does not advocate that all types of advertising (especially informational advertising) needs to be this way. It may be argued that not all successful advertising is made of up elements like originality, aesthetics or craftsmanship; and we would also be in agreement. Yet, the pantheons of advertising, such as Ogilvy‟s most creative campaigns stand testimony that most of the top advertisements encompass these elements bespeaking of their high creativity content. Sixth, it is pertinent to emphasize that even though the Indian advertising industry is a towering example of creative excellence, yet there is a paucity of systematic analysis into what makes up advertising creativity. The systematized and comprehensive dimensional model of advertising creativity developed through this

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Summary And Discussions study shall contribute richly to the theoretical and operational needs of the advertising industry, its practitioners and the consumers at large. The advertising creativity map offers an inclusive framework for all advertising and marketing practitioners to utilise while making critical branding and managerial decisions. Seventh, our findings particularly indicate that the whole idea of creativity for the advertising agency practitioners‟ is multifaceted, yet dynamically sewn together through dimensional commonalities. The ingredients that map the mental modes of creative thinking for the agency professionals cannot be viewed as a unitary construct. Consistent interactions with agency professionals opened up candid, profound and many interesting latent insights about their beliefs on creativity in advertising. Leo Burnett‟s concept of creativity was found to be a recurrent underlying theme in the minds of the agency practitioners when discussing their personal creative milestones by referring to „building new and meaningful relationships between brands and communication elements, without losing relevance to the brand‟s personality.‟ This study also found that the agency perspective on creativity in India largely reflects Arthur Koestler‟s (1981) idea that creativity essentially reflects „the combination of previously unrelated structures in such a way that you get more out of the emergent whole than you have put in‟. It is a diverse fusion of patterns, elements of symbolism, conventions, imagination, language, artistry and symbols; applied to conjure up advertisements that are fresh, unique, and appropriate to the product and to the target audience. Such insights open new avenues to researchers, academicians, advertising and marketing professionals for optimizing creative effectiveness. What stands out as an interesting perspective of the practitioners‟ is the co-existence of conceptual innovativeness and artistic craftsmanship as important attributes of creativity. Most ad makers regard „originality‟ and „novelty‟ as foundations for creativity, yet also assert a sense of social empathy, reflective of cultural-specific finding from our study. Their mental modes of what creativity should encompass in advertising are extremely substantive. Eighth, pertinent comparisons with the existing academic knowledge base can be made to have a better all round understanding of the findings from this study. Even though similar dimensions constituting advertising creativity have been conceptualized by previous researchers, the map generated here is substantially 257

Summary And Discussions different in its „angle of perception‟, its structural clustering and its internal characteristics. Koslow et al. (2003) report qualitative results that are linked to the core dimensions of creativity as analysed in this research effort, but we discover some important divergences and some convergence to their work. The first distinctive finding lies in the perception of craftsmanship which Indian agency practitioners view as being critical for creativity. Contrastingly, Koslow et al. (2003) suggested that „artistry‟ is perceived negatively by practitioners. Additionally, in a similar study by Stuhlfaut and Yoo (2011), no reference was made to artistry as a desirable characteristic of advertising creativity for the agency. By our analysis, execution of core conceptual design is effectively possible if aesthetical elements are employed for creative expression which is substantiated by the fact that artistic elements are important components of advertising creativity map developed in this study. A possible explanation for this distinctiveness could be that unique executional skills like melodious jingles, visual rhetoric and engaging dialogues can create long-lasting impact on the consumer‟s minds and thus achieve differentiation for the brands being advertised. Moreover, as Nyilasy et al. (2012) pointed out that artistry is in a „dialectical tension‟ with conceptual creativity, similarly for the Indian advertising agency mindsets, it is all about using artistry in the right amounts so that it makes the „big idea‟ be communicated much more effectively. On the other hand, elements of originality form a critical dimension of advertising creativity for the practitioners, which compares with Koslow et al.‟s (2003, 2006) definition of creativity. This study also extends the applicability of Kim et al. (2010), Koslow et al. (2003,2006) and El-Murad & West (2004) „originality–appropriateness‟ framework to a substantially different setting. Our study suggests that an important component of advertising creativity- „social-empathy‟ (which has elements of appropriateness and considerateness), is culturally oriented, which reasonably corresponds with Kim et al. (2010) analysis of creativity in Korea where they found „appropriateness‟ to be culturally-dependent. The contextual background here is an altogether different country (India), which makes our findings even more useful for cross-cultural analysis of advertising creativity.

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Koslow et al. (2003,2006) found „appropriateness‟ to be role-dependent and not culture-dependent, which highlights that Western notions of advertising creativity may be significantly different from Eastern counterparts, as their cultural norms are different. Moreover, our map was developed after consultations with account managers, media specialists, and creative specialists; whereas the model developed by Kim et al. (2010) was solely from statements by creative specialists. This gives our map more all-round applicability. Connections have been found with Ang and Low‟s (2000) three-dimensional model of creativity, but the labelling and sub-elements of core dimensions in this map are different. Here, utility was not found to be a core characteristic of creativity, instead it was mapped under craftsmanship dimension as „product relevance‟. Ninth, the inclusion of „product relevance‟ as a sub-dimension of „craftsmanship‟ in the advertising creativity map developed through our study, matches with Kover et al.‟s (1995) description of copywriters‟ implicit theories where „relevance‟ is a reference for creative imagination. Our study also substantiates Bergh and Stuhlfaut‟s (2006) vision of creativity in advertising being not just an individual but a social process, with social empathy emerging as one of the main dimensions entailing creativity for agency practitioners. The newly developed map also corroborates Friestad and Wright‟s (1994) persuasion knowledge model by emphasizing on the need to have imaginative, divergent and surprising ways of developing creative communication to break through the consumer‟s avoidance shields borne out of over-exposure. The agency views gathered from our survey highlight that the ad makers themselves agree that inventiveness forms a crucial aspect of creativity, as it is an effective way to break away from formulaic advertising and create a lasting mark.

7.4 Practical Implications The findings from this study have considerable implications for all the key stakeholders in the business of marketing and advertising. The production side, that is, the agency practitioners as well as the marketing and brand managers of the client side can constructively benefit from the insights and map developed through our study.

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Stubbart (1989) rightly stressed that manager‟s mental make-up of creative thinking are associated with a company‟s performance. Therefore, it becomes even clearer as to why it is imperative to understand the creative ideologies behind advertising agency professionals‟ perspectives. Critical strategic decisions related to branding and advertising campaigns can only be taken effectively if elements that make up advertising creativity are clearly decoded, so that they can be managed according their fundamental nature. The advertising creativity map can be utilised as a frame of reference when designing marketing strategies for brands, especially advertising campaigns that run into millions of dollars. A conceptually and empirically solid map can help in identifying, measuring, comparing and forecasting elements of creativity that are quintessentially needed to achieve creative differentiation. With the map developed through this study, the agency practitioners may themselves find common grounds between the diverse, rich and complex dimensions of creativity as held by other advertising specialists in India. In a way, this map coherently consolidates varied fragments of „what creativity means‟ to the people working in advertising agencies in India into one whole, meaningful, operational model, with substantial practical applicability. This undoubtedly adds some stability to risky and expensive advertising decisions, where the stakes are high and repercussions long-lasting. As mentioned above, our data reveals that creativity in advertising is sculpted by a diverse yet an integrated system of dimensions. This signifies that advertisers, brand managers and other creative practitioners must treat all facets of creativity with requisite importance and not just focus on their natural style. To be able to capture extraordinary connections with the brand‟s advertising and the consumers, creativity must be recognised for its vibrancy and versatility. A rigid creative strategy may prove to be detrimental in the management of a brand‟s long-term advertising image. As multifaceted as this phenomenon is, the approach needs to be equally multifaceted, to carve a niche in the competitive advertising space. Our results also show that management of creativity is a slippery road, where striking the right balance between the creative elements is crucial to make an impression. Not only the agency executives, but the brand managers responsible for building a strong future for their brands must utilise the map developed to understand creativity in completeness. More often than not, brand managers downplay the power

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Summary And Discussions of creativity over other strategic objectives, and are thus unable to garner maximum creative prowess from the advertising agencies‟ creative masterminds. Advertising specialists and managers can also realise from the current study that merely focusing on the innovativeness of core concepts (the „big idea‟) and not on artistic craft or message clarity may result in unsatisfactory campaigns. Moreover, the integrative dimensional map generated for advertising creativity as seen from the advertising practitioners‟ perspective shows the way for addressing client-agency conflicts (Kennedy, 1995; Hackley & Kover, 2007; Michell et al. 1992). Having awareness that there is something as powerful as creativity that binds all advertising executives, and that the practitioners share inextricably linked perceptions of creative dimensions essential for advertising, can lead to an overall conducive environment for creative incubation. The conceptual and dimensional analysis of creativity from the canvas of the Indian advertising landscape not just generates clarity but reinforces the value of the business maxim of „Think Global and Act Local‟ for modern industries. With a spurt in award festivals like Cannes, Goafest and EFFIES to honour outstanding creative advertising, the Indian business world has realised the crucial role of creative advertising and insights from this study can assist in strengthening that realization even further. Furthermore, having clarity on what comprises creativity in advertising actually reduces the ambiguity associated with this concept to some extent. This is an important step in achieving more collaborative and fruitful brainstorming sessions amongst advertising strategists when discussing a brand‟s advertising campaign, without getting puzzled into fuzzy concepts. This dimensional map‟s predictive value may assist in the evaluation of alternative creative concepts before extensive testing with audiences. This can be achieved if advertising specialists conceptualize the „big idea‟ and the execution strategy for a brand by paying attention to the dimensions outlined in the map developed. Researchers, managers and advertising specialists can utilize this map as an effective „filtering‟ tool to evaluate creative qualities of advertising, and as a measurement benchmark to assess a campaign‟s strengths and weaknesses. As a standardised and empirically generated map for representing creativity, it makes for a credible tool to strengthen an advertising agency‟s brand propositions during competitive pitching presentations, to win accounts for their agency. 261

Summary And Discussions

We do understand that some professionals may defy the use of standard tools for creativity, however, if they want to achieve better conceptual clarity and consistency in their campaign ideation, then the cluster of dimensions developed through this map may serve to be useful indicators and a wise tool to keep handy. Aspiring students wanting to get into the world of advertising may keep sight of the map as a requisite standard that could be expected from their work in future. Lastly, we can confidently assert that the map is important for the insight it offers into creativity of advertising communication in and of itself, because creativity is such an essential part of the industry that understanding it is „important in its own right‟ (Koslow et al.,2003).

7.5 Limitations and Possibilities for Future Research Some of the limitations associated with this study include the typical issues related to time, methodology and access of a survey-styled research. Since this study is centred on the responses from advertising professionals, getting adequate attention and time from them has been an inevitable issue. The sample is essentially an advertising sample, which renders some unavoidable limitations to the results of the study. Previous studies have reported that this subgroup of people is hard to identify, reach, and to motivate for research (Koslow et al., 2003). However, the sample was designed after much thought stratification and was carefully selected. Efforts were made to include as much representativeness of agencies and advertising specialists as was practically possible. It is important to realise that limitations of this study may prove to constructive directions for future researchers. The sample design, elements and scope can be extended by other researchers as a prospective field in the future. Our study responds to recent calls to strengthen research into advertising practitioners‟ understanding of creativity (Taylor, 2005; Stuhlfaut & Yoo, 2011; Wierenga, 2011). By systematically developing a comprehensive map to represent advertising creativity, we have discovered its complex, multi-faceted elemental dimensions. This study can facilitate the development of more symmetrical analyses of cross- cultural populations in which significant comparative findings may emerge. Clearly, this stream of investigations should continue.

262

Summary And Discussions

The study can be extended to explore advertising creativity from the perspective of the consumers, and consequently also draw a comparative model between the advertising agency‟s and the consumer‟s perception of creativity. This can open up wonderful avenues for scholarly researches and practical simulation studies. Another promising arena of investigation can be to study the effects of the creativity dimensions as developed in this research, on actual advertising effectiveness by predictive ad testing. This map must not be limited for application to a specific country or culture, as this would prove to be counter-productive. Researchers can carry out studies to verify the „cross-country‟ applicability of this map, and striking comparisons may emerge as a valuable impetus to international advertising scene. Given the growing influence of multinational advertising agencies, discovering the perception of advertising creativity in the global marketplace shall be an interesting field of research. Such research could have also far-reaching implications for creativity in contexts beyond advertising. Lastly, consumers may not understand or care about an ad‟s strategic value; but it would be interesting to see if ads, which are viewed as highly creative using the model, are found also to be highly attractive to consumers. If so, this additional test would help to establish the model‟s external validity.

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7.6 Conclusion/ Afterthoughts The mystique surrounding advertising creativity is perhaps its biggest charm. By its very nature, it is a challenging research initiative to attempt to coherently map the multi-dimensional phenomenon of advertising creativity. Having said that, to unearth creativity in completeness is to take away its charisma, and we must remember that creativity will never be represented in totality by any simplistic model. There will always be some elements that elude our understanding as researchers and creativity will continue to fascinate by having an „X‟ factor. Nonetheless, we hope that this research is a promising step towards a better understanding of the predictors, meaning, dimensions, significance, measurement and perceived effectiveness of advertising creativity. We also wish that this exploration shall incite new intellectual interest in this field of research and open new avenues to practice this crucial element of advertising and marketing. Managers and advertising specialists must view creativity as an infusion of integrated dimensions, and not in isolation. All dimensions form important elements of creativity in advertising and must be viewed holistically.

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Appendix

APPENDIX

Questionnaire

A survey on ‘Advertising Creativity: A study of Advertising Agencies in India’

Dear Respondent, The following set of questions attempt to study the dimensions and meaning of creativity of advertising from the perspective of agency professionals in India. This questionnaire is purely for academic purpose. There are no right or wrong answers. It is only your valued opinion that we are interested in. Your response is very important and we will greatly appreciate it. Thank you. Section A Q.1) The table given below lists some dimensions of the creativity of advertising. On a scale of 1-5, please rate these dimensions on their level of importance for you as an advertising professional/ad maker. (Where 1 is the most important and 5 the least important) Ads which are/have: Novelty Surprising/ Amusing Imaginative Original Unique Exciting Fresh Easy to understand for audience Meaningful for audience Clear/ Simple Eye-catching Melodious jingle Believable Convincing Product-Relevant Informative Appealing Effective execution Brand-Celebrity Endorser match Make consumers want to use the product Sensitive Gentle Socially considerate Suited to Indian value system/ traditions Respectful towards people’s sentiments Honest Timeless/evergreen Indelible impact on audiences’ mind Ad should Stimulate purchase Inspiring Universal appeal Entertaining

Appendix

Section B Q.2) The creative ad must deliver the core message in an unexpected, unusual manner. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.3) Creative advertising leads to an ‘AHA’ moment of association with the audience. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.4) Ads attract more attention if they are artistic. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.5) Use of emotional appeal in an ad makes it more creative. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.6) Use of humour appeal in an ad makes it more creative. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.7) Use of ‘slice of life’ appeal in an ad makes it more creative. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.8) The presence of a clear USP ‘Unique Selling Proposition’ and ‘Big Idea’ is very essential for an ad to be creative and worth remembering. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.9) Creative advertising leads to social change. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.10) Creative advertising leads to winning agency awards. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.11) Artistic advertisements increase perceived creativity and enhance advertising effectiveness? a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Q.12) Creative advertising leads to meeting client objectives. a.)Strongly Agree b.)Agree c.) Neither agree nor disagree d.)Disagree e.) Strongly disagree

Appendix

Section C Name: Agency Name: Gender: Male ( ) Female: ( ) Age (in years): 20-29( ) 30-39( ) 40-49( ) 50 and above( ) Designation: Work Experience (in years): Designation: