A History of Homeland Security

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■■ Understand the context of 9-11 from a historical perspective ■■ Learn how domestic security has developed in the 20th century ■■ Understand the concepts of civil defense, emergency management, and homeland security and how they are © Jones & Bartlettsimilar/different Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHAPTER OUTLINE © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC HISTORY OF DOMESTICNOT FOR SECURITY SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONCivil Defense and the ColdNOT War: FOR 1946–1991 SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Early History: 1776–1916 Emergency Management: 1979–2001 Civil Defense and Two Hot Wars: 1917–1945 CHAPTER SUMMARY

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

2 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

© Jones On& Bartlettthe morning Learning, of February LLC22, 1974, “a burly, middle-aged© man” Jones by the & name Bartlett of Samuel Learning, Byck entered LLC the Baltimore– NOT FORWashington SALE OR International DISTRIBUTION (BWI) Airport with a briefcase inNOT hand. FOR1 He walked SALE to ORthe frontDISTRIBUTION of the line at Gate C. The people in line were waiting to board Delta Flight 523 bound for Atlanta, Georgia. A security guard by the name of George Ramburg stood nearby, his back turned to the passenger line. Byck pulled a .22 caliber pistol from underneath his raincoat and fired twice into the security guard’s back, killing him instantly. As Ramburg’s body crumpled to the ground, people began screaming and running in all directions. Byck leaped over the security chain, ran down the boarding ramp, and boarded© Jones the airplane. & Bartlett Delta FlightLearning, 523 had LLC just been hijacked, and its destination© Jones was & the Bartlett White Learning, LLC House. Samuel Byck intendedNOT FOR to use SALE the plane OR as DISTRIBUTION a missile, flying it into the White House,NOT in order FOR to assassinateSALE OR DISTRIBUTION President Richard M. Nixon.2 Samuel Byck was born on January 30, 1930, in South Philadelphia. His parents were poor, and Byck dropped out of high school in the ninth grade in order to help support the family. After a series of odd jobs, he enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1954 and was honorably discharged 2 years later. He married and had four children, but he struggled with employment, attempting© Jones to start & several Bartlett businesses, Learning, all of which LLC failed. While working as a tire© salesman, Jones he& appliedBartlett for aLearning, Small Business LLC AdministrationNOT FOR loan SALEto start yetOR another DISTRIBUTION business but was turned down. He becameNOT depressedFOR SALE and blamed OR DISTRIBUTION his troubles on President Nixon.3 His depression led to marital troubles, which led to divorce, and finally, he ended up in a psychiatric clinic. A year later, in 1973, he began plotting to assassinate President Nixon. Byck began a series of tape recordings threatening the president, which he mailed to various public officials. The Secret Service was notified and they investigated, but © Jones after& Bartlett speaking Learning, with Byck’s psychiatrist, LLC they determined he© was Jones harmless. & BartlettBy late 1973, Learning, Byck had formulated LLC a plan to NOT FORassassinate SALE OR the president.DISTRIBUTION Then, on February 20, 1974, he wroteNOT hisFOR last willSALE and testament,OR DISTRIBUTION writing, “I will each of my children . . . the sum of one dollar each. They have each other and they deserve each other.”4 Since he knew he would not be able to purchase a gun, he stole a .22 caliber pistol from a friend, and on the morning of February 22, 1974, he drove to BWI. Along the way, he tape recorded his complaints against President Nixon and explained that his plans were to hijack a plane, fly it into the White House, and assassinate the president. Byck even gave his mission a name: Operation Pandora’s Box. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC As Byck entered theNOT plane, FORhe fired SALE one round OR insideDISTRIBUTION the cabin of the plane and then enteredNOT the FOR cockpit SALE through OR DISTRIBUTION the open door. He screamed at the pilot, “Fly this plane out of here!”5 The pilot, after regaining his composure, explained that he could not roll back from the gate until the ground crew removed the wheel blocks. Byck became enraged and shot the copilot in the stomach. He then turned back to the pilot and screamed, “The next one will be in the head.”6 Byck then returned to the passenger cabin and grabbed a female passenger and dragged her into the cockpit, telling her to help the© Jones pilot fly the& Bartlett plane. At this Learning, point, two shotsLLC from outside of the plane ©exploded Jones through & Bartlett the windshield, Learning, causing LLC Byck toNOT shove FOR the woman SALE out OR of the DISTRIBUTION cockpit. He then turned back into the cockpitNOT and FOR fired SALE twice. OneOR bullet DISTRIBUTION struck the already-wounded copilot in the eye, and the other entered the pilot’s right shoulder.7 The pilot then radioed ground control: “Emergency, emergency, we’re all shot . . . ah . . . can you get another pilot here to the airplane . . . ah . . . this fellow has shot us both.”8 The pilot also asked that the wheel blocks be removed so the plane could taxi away from the gate. He then passed out. © Jones & BartlettWith his rage Learning, now growing, LLC Byck grabbed another female© passenger, Jones dragged& Bartlett her into Learning, the cockpit, LLCand ordered her to NOT FORfly SALE the plane. OR He DISTRIBUTION then fired two more shots in anger: One intoNOT the FORcopilot SALE and another OR intoDISTRIBUTION the pilot. The woman became hysterical after seeing the two pilots shot and tried to flee the cockpit. Two more shots rang out and the cockpit windows again shattered, as two more bullets entered from outside of the plane. Byck began firing wildly at the windows, which made him more of a visible target to the snipers outside. They fired two more shots. The first one entered Byck’s stomach and the second entered his chest. He fell to the floor.9 When Byck fell, he lost© holdJones of his & weapon. Bartlett While Learning, on the floor, LLC he frantically searched for the ©lost Jones gun. He &found Bartlett it, sat Learning, LLC up, and put the .22 pistolNOT to his FOR temple SALE and fired. OR The DISTRIBUTION carnage was over. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Police entered the airplane and found Byck dying. He only lived a few more minutes. They found the briefcase he had carried aboard the plane. Inside was an improvised gasoline bomb with an igniter. The media reported on the hijacking but did not disclose Byck’s intent of flying the plane into the White House to assassinate President Nixon. They wanted to avoid any potential copycats. Apparently, no one had ever thought about hijacking© Jones an airplane & Bartlettand using itLearning, as a missile, and LLC it was not something anyone© wantedJones to & share. Bartlett Learning, LLC InNOT 1987, FORan FAA SALE Report ORtitled, DISTRIBUTION Troubled Passage: The Federal Aviation AdministrationNOT FOR DuringSALE the OR Nixon–Ford DISTRIBUTION Term 1973–1977, revealed Byck’s intent.10 It chillingly predicted, “though Byck lacked the skill and self-control to reach his target, he had provided a chilling reminder of the potential of violence against civil aviation. Under a more relaxed security system, his suicidal rampage might have begun when the airline was aloft.”11 Fourteen years later, on September 11, 2001, Byck’s suicidal intent was realized when the four airplanes were aloft. In © Jones the& Bartlett wake of the Learning, attacks that day,LLC many remarked that no one© had Jones ever thought & Bartlett this possible. Learning,12 LLC NOT FOR SALEHistory ORknows DISTRIBUTION better. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

History of Domestic Security 3

© Jones & Bartlett▸▸ History Learning, of Domestic LLC Security © JonesEarly & Bartlett History: Learning, 1776–1916 LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORThe SALE Founding OR Fathers DISTRIBUTION had to deal with issues relat- In the aftermath of September 11, 2001, a recurring ing to America’s defense, both foreign and domestic, lament by the media was the fact that no one had from the very beginning. After declaring itself free imagined that a small group of men would be able of England, the new government was forced to deal to commandeer a passenger jet and use it as a mis- with the British government while operating under sile to target American© Jones landmarks & Bartlett such as Learning, the World LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the Articles of Confederation. After winning the Rev- Trade Towers, theNOT U.S. FORCapitol, SALE the Pentagon, OR DISTRIBUTION or the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION olutionary War and settling into the new system of White House. Even government offi als made simi- government, it became clear that the Articles were lar statements, including the acting Chairman of the no longer working, and a Constitutional Convention Joint Chiefs of Staff at the time, Air Force General was convened in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787. Richard Myers, who said, “You hate to admit it, but © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC While the© Jones right of & the Bartlett national Learning, government LLC to deal we hadn’t thought about this.”13 The reality, however, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION with foreignNOT enemiesFOR SALE was readily OR DISTRIBUTION accepted by all, an as history will show, is very different. As is illus- issue arose over how to deal with domestic insurrec- trated in the previous, short vignette, Samuel Byck tions. If there are internal threats, does that fall under had already considered the idea in 1974. While it is the purview of the states or the national government? recognized that the reasons for Byck’s attack on the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesTh &e questionBartlett was Learning, an important LLC one for Shays’ Rebel- passenger airline that morning were concealed for BOX 1.1 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORlion SALE (see OR) DISTRIBUTIONand was still on the minds of those in some time from the public, the concept was consid- attendance that summer.15 ered by others. Twenty years later, on September 12, In 1786, the United States, still operating under the 1994, Frank Eugene Corder, a 38-year-old truck Articles of Confederation, was suffering from a mon- driver who faced mental and fi ancial issues and etary crisis.16 Many farmers were grossly in debt, and suffered from both© alcoholJones and & Bartlett drug addictions, Learning, fl w LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 14 more than 4,000 were forced to enter debtors’ prisons a Cessna 150 intoNOT the FORWhite SALEHouse. OR Although DISTRIBUTION he until their debts could NOTbe paid. FOR The SALErebellion OR started DISTRIBUTION was only successful in killing himself, it highlighted with petitions to the government for paper currency, the potential threat that an aircraft could have on lower taxes, and judicial reform. When this failed, the American government. It is also interesting to the farmers in western Massachusetts united under note that 1 month prior to Corder’s plane crash into © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the reluctant© Jones leadership & Bartlett of Daniel Learning, Shays, a bankruptLLC the White House, bestselling author Tom Clancy farmer and former captain in the Revolutionary War. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION released the book Debt of Honor, in which a plane is Shays and his followers, many of whom were also vet- deliberately crashed into the U.S. Capitol during the erans, donned their old uniforms and began marching State of the Union speech. in Massachusetts courts to prevent them from holding The type of scenario in Debt of Honor (in real life) session and throwing more of their own into prison. © Jones & Bartlettis examined Learning, in this chapterLLC along with the history© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEof homeland OR DISTRIBUTION security by reaching further back intoNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION American history, both before the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, and before the term homeland security entered the American lexicon. It does so to highlight the reality that homeland security was not created in a vacuum© Jones in the wake& Bartlett of 9-11, Learning, but rather, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC developed acrossNOT all ofFOR American SALE OR history: DISTRIBUTION From NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the early threats to American settlers and the quan- dary of which level of government was responsible for responding to natural disasters, through changes wrought© Jones by & two Bartlett world Learning, wars and the LLC birth of the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC termNOT civil FOR defense SALE, andOR intoDISTRIBUTION the modern age when NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Americans saw the multi-decade Cold War come to an end, only to be replaced by terroristic threats from both rogue nations and organizations. The focus of the chapter will remain on our federalist system, assessing © Jones & Bartletthow the nationalLearning, and stateLLC governments responded© to Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEthreats OR and DISTRIBUTION then dealt with both terrorism and naturalNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION disasters prior to 9-11. Courtesy of WPClipart. Acessed at, https://www.wpclipart.com/ © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

4 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesLegislature & Bartlett cannot beLearning, convened) LLC against domestic BOX 1.1 George Washington on Shays’ Rebellion Violence.”19 Th s particular article and the concerns NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of the Constitutional Convention did not take long to Letter to Henry Knox make real the problems foreseen. Mount Vernon, 25th Feb. 1787 Another group of farmers, this time in western Pennsylvania during President Washington’s fi st term . . . On the prospect of the© happyJones termination & Bartlett of this Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC insurrection I sincerely congratulate you; hoping in offi , protested the tax his administration imposed 20 that good may result fromNOT the cloudFOR of SALE evils which OR DISTRIBUTIONon whiskey. The protests beganNOT in 1791FOR and SALE reached OR DISTRIBUTION threatened not only the hemisphere of Massachusetts a climax in July of 1794 when a U.S. Marshal came but by spreading its baneful influence, the tranquility with warrants to arrest tax derelicts and was attacked, of the Union. Surely Shays must be either a weak followed by an attack on the local tax assessor in his man—the© Jones dupe of & some Bartlett characters Learning, who are yet LLC own home. As© PennsylvaniaJones & Bartlett could not Learning, get the rebel LLC- behind the curtain—or has been deceived by his lion under control, a request was made to President NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION followers. Or which may yet be more likely, he did Washington for the national government to assist, who not conceive that there was energy enough in the responded with 12,000 military soldiers. The Whiskey Government to bring matters to the crisis to which Rebellion quickly fell apart, but its legacy would be they have been pushed. It is to be hoped the General everlasting, for it demonstrated the centralized power Court of that State concurred in the report of the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesof the new & Bartlettgovernment Learning, to suppress LLC not only foreign Committee that a rebellion did actually exist. This BOX 1.2 NOT FORwould SALE be decisive,OR DISTRIBUTION and the most likely means of NOTthreats FOR but SALE also domestic OR DISTRIBUTION threats (see ). putting the finishing stroke to the business . . . While the national government’s role in foreign George Washington threats was primary, and against domestic threats secondary (only after the state government, which © Jones & Bartlett Learning,includes LLC local government, had© exhaustedJones & its Bartlett capabil- Learning, LLC ities), what was unclear was the government’s role in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION After 11 rebellion leaders were arrested and indicted responding to natural disasters. The U.S. Constitution on disorder charges, approximately 1,200 farmers has no clause stating that it is the role of the govern- went to the Springfi ld Court House to prevent the ment to assist states in recovery from natural disasters. Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from hold- In fact, the 9th and 10th amendments subsume this ing session.© Jones These & types Bartlett of protests Learning, continued LLC until notion, meaning© Jones that since & Bartlettthe power Learning,is not delegated LLC JanuaryNOT of 1787, FOR when SALE the protesters OR DISTRIBUTION made their bold- to the UnitedNOT States FOR by the SALE Constitution, OR DISTRIBUTION it would be est move, seizing the federal arsenal in Springfi ld. reserved for the states. However, because it was not Within 2 weeks, the governor of Massachusetts sent in prohibited, it raised a reasonable question regarding the militia, some 4,000 strong, to rout the 2,000 mem- the federal government’s role in helping with recovery. bers of Shays’ Rebellion. Several were killed and some © Jonesof & the Bartlett leadership, Learning, including Shays,LLC were arrested. They © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORwere SALE then triedOR DISTRIBUTION and sentenced to death for treason. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Two of these men, John Bly and Charles Rose, were BOX 1.2 Whiskey Rebellion Proclamation hanged, but with the election of a new governor, John 17 By the President of the United States of America Hancock, the rest were granted pardons. A Proclamation, August 7, 1794 Shays’ Rebellion was not unique, but its tim- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ing is of the utmost importance. That summer in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONI, George Washington, PresidentNOT of FORthe United SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Philadelphia, members of the Constitutional Conven- States, do hereby command all persons, being tion considered the implications of Shays’ Rebellion, insurgents, as aforesaid, and all others whom it may for it “reminded everyone attending in Philadelphia concern, on or before the 1st day of September next that the Confederation, as it stood, was powerless to to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective protect© itself, Jones or any& Bartlett of the states, Learning, from large-scale LLC abodes. And© I do Jones moreover & warnBartlett all persons Learning, LLC domesticNOT violence, FOR andSALE that OR this DISTRIBUTIONabsence of a central whomsoeverNOT against FOR aiding, SALE abetting, OR or DISTRIBUTIONcomforting power was itself a limitation on state sovereignty.”18 As the perpetrators of the aforesaid treasonable acts; and a result, the framers, in Article 4, Section 4, of the U.S. do require all officers and other citizens, according to their respective duties and the laws of the land, to Constitution, would resolve this issue by stating that exert their utmost endeavors to prevent and suppress “the United States shall guarantee to every State in this © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonessuch dangerous & Bartlett proceedings. Learning, LLC Union a Republican form of Government, and shall NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONG. Washington, protect each of them against Invasion; and on Appli- By the President, Edm. Randolf cation of the Legislature, or the Executive (when the © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

History of Domestic Security 5

© Jones & BartlettThe “FatherLearning, of the LLC Constitution” would, on sev© Jones- & Bartlett Learning, LLC eral occasions, have the opportunity to address this NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION particular issue. In 1794, while James Madison was serving in the U.S. House, Congress had appropriated $15,000 in relief for French refugees who had fl d from an insurrection in Santo Domingo to both Balti- more and Philadelphia.© Jones Madison & Bartlett voted against Learning, the bill LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and noted, “I cannotNOT undertake FOR SALE to lay OR my DISTRIBUTION fi ger on NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION that article of the Constitution which granted a right to Congress of expending, on objects of benevolence, the money of their constituents.”21 While this was relief© Jones being granted& Bartlett to foreign Learning, refugees, LLC the question © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC raisedNOT wasFOR whether SALE he OR would DISTRIBUTION offer the same response NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION when it involved Americans. In 1803, while serving as © Everett Historical/Shutterstock. Secretary of State, a bill came before Congress to provide relief for the victims of a major Christmas (1802) fi e in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Madison railed © Jones & Bartlettagainst theLearning, idea, and LLC Madison’s replacement in © the Jones &A Bartlettfter a compromise, Learning, the LLC military was removed, NOT FOR SALEHouse OR of Representatives,DISTRIBUTION William Giles, wrote thatNOT it FORbut SALEin order OR to prevent DISTRIBUTION such future transgressions, the was not the role of Congress to “attend to what gener- U.S. Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878 BOX 1.3 osity and humanity require, but to what the Constitu- (see ). The purpose of the act was to limit the tion and their duty require.”22 The legislation passed, powers of the federal government in using the military to enforce domestic law unless Article IV, Section IV allowing for the payment© Jones of local& Bartlett bonds to Learning, be delayed LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC by 1 year.23 of the Constitution had been invoked. Th s is why the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmilitary can only serve NOTin advisory FOR andSALE support OR rolesDISTRIBUTION Similar resolutions would arise occasionally for state and local law enforcement and never in a throughout the 19th century, but they tended to be direct law enforcement role.24 the exception and not the rule. One particular excep- Between the end of the Civil War (1865) and before tion, however, was the American Civil War. After the U.S. entry into World War I (1917), a number of America© Jones split & intoBartlett the Union Learning, versus the LLC Confederacy, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC natural disasters helped to shape America’s response to manyNOT peopleFOR SALE remaining OR in DISTRIBUTION the north were southern NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION future events, both man-made and natural. One of the sympathizers. Realizing the dangers to the Union of subversive activity and sabotage, President Lincoln authorized the suspension of habeas corpus, meaning © Jones & Bartlettthat people Learning, deemed a LLC threat to the U.S. government© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEcould OR be arrested DISTRIBUTION and kept in jail indefin tely withoutNOT FORBOX SALE 1.3 TheOR Posse DISTRIBUTION Comitatus Act a hearing. Although the constitutionality of the suspension was challenged, it was not resolved until after Section 15 of chapter 263, of the Acts of the 2nd the war, fi ding in the case Ex Parte Milligan (1866) session of the 45th Congress. that neither Congress nor the president had the right Sec. 15. From and after the passage of this act it shall not be lawful to employ any part of the under the U.S. Constitution© Jones & to Bartlett impose Learning, martial law LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONArmy of the United States,NOT as a FORposse comitatus,SALE OR or DISTRIBUTION and suspend habeus corpus when civilian courts were otherwise, for the purpose of executing the laws, functioning. except in such cases and under such circumstances The Civil War also generated another issue as such employment of said force may be expressly regarding the powers of the national government and authorized by the Constitution or by act of Congress; states© Jones in times & Bartlett of insurrection. Learning, After LLC the Civil War, and no© moneyJones appropriated & Bartlett by thisLearning, act shall be LLC used to duringNOT FOR Reconstruction, SALE OR whenDISTRIBUTION the southern states pay anyNOT of the FOR expenses SALE incurred OR in DISTRIBUTION the employment were undergoing the process of rejoining the union, of any troops in violation of this section and any the states were often patrolled by the U.S. military. In person willfully violating the provisions of this section part, the issue had to do with the rise of the Ku Klux shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by fine not Klan and its acts of terrorism on southern blacks, but © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones exceeding& Bartlett ten Learning,thousand dollars LLC or imprisonment it also had to do with the national government using NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORnot SALE exceeding OR 2 years DISTRIBUTION or by both such fine and the military as a police force, which weighed against imprisonment. the U.S. Constitution. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

6 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesfor establi &shing Bartlett some Learning, form of civil LLC defense along the BOX 1.4 American Red Cross Congressional U.S.-Mexico Border. General “Black Jack” Pershing NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Charter, 1905 was sent into Mexico to pursue Villa, while additional consideration was given to enhancing the mounted To continue and carry on a system of national and watchmen of the United States Immigration Service, international relief in time of peace and to apply the although it was not until May 28, 1924, that this group same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, © Jones & Bartlett Learning,would LLC become the United States© JonesBorder Patrol. & Bartlett28 Learning, LLC famine, fire, floods, andNOT other FOR great naturalSALE calamities, OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and to devise and carry on measures for preventing At the time that Pancho Villa attacked the United the same. States, the world had already been at war for several years. World War I began on July 28, 1914, and very quickly came to include all of the major empires at the time, including the German, Austro-Hungarian, worst disasters© Jones in American& Bartlett history Learning, came on LLC May 31, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Ottoman, Russian, and British empires.29 President 1889, withNOT the FOR Johnstown SALE OR Flood. DISTRIBUTION25 The Johnstown NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Flood was the result of a catastrophic failure of a dam Woodrow Wilson took a strong noninterventionist above Johnston, Pennsylvania, after several days of stance, and the United States remained on the side- heavy rain, nearly wiping out the entire town. The lines trying to broker a peace settlement. After his estimated damages were $17 million, and 2,209 people reelection in 1916, the sinking of seven U.S. merchant © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesships, and & theBartlett interception Learning, of the famous LLC Zimmerman NOT FORlost SALEtheir lives. OR In DISTRIBUTION the aftermath, a relatively new orga- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION nization, the American Red Cross (see BOX 1.4), led by telegram (in which Germany encouraged Mexico to 30 its founder Clara Barton, descended upon Johnstown join the war as an ally against the United States ), and handled the disaster recovery. The American Red President Wilson asked for a declaration of war. Con- Cross was there for 5 months. gress deliberated for several months but declared war Another major event© thatJones had a& signifi Bartlett ant impact Learning, on LLC April 6, 1917. Pershing was© recalled Jones from & Bartlett his hunt Learning, LLC on disaster response inNOT America FOR was SALE the GreatOR DISTRIBUTION San for Pancho Villa and was establishedNOT FOR as SALE the com OR- DISTRIBUTION Francisco Earthquake and Fire of 1906. Initially, the mander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). local police and fi e responded, but soon the military America was about to step onto the world stage. located at the Presidio military post took charge of the During this time, there was concern back home about the safety of the American people. While the response© inJones violation & Bartlettof Posse Comitatus. Learning, Military LLC sol- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC diers were directed to help fi ht the fi es, prevent loot- United States did not have to fear the aerial bombard- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ing, provide relief, and police the streets.26 In addition, ments that European citizens now suffered, there was the American Red Cross once again responded, serv- a perceived need to protect the general public from ing alongside the army as a relief agency. In fact, as a future attacks. In fact, consideration had already been result of the San Francisco Earthquake, the American given to this possibility. Tucked into an army appro- © JonesRed & Bartlett Cross, now Learning, chartered LLC by Congress, began to © Jonespriations & bill, Bartlett on August Learning, 29, 1916, LLCthe federal govern- 31 NOT FORserve SALE as the OR primary DISTRIBUTION relief agency in catastrophic NOTment FOR established SALE OR the CouncilDISTRIBUTION of National Defense. events, freeing the military to engage in those duties The Council was a presidential advisory board that necessary to reestablish order—a symbiotic relation- included the Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agri- ship that continues to this day. culture, Commerce, and Labor, and was assisted by an Advisory Committee appointed by the president. Its © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Civil Defense and Two Hot Wars: responsibilities included “coordinating resources and NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONindustries for national defense”NOT and “stimulatingFOR SALE civil OR- DISTRIBUTION 1917–1945 ian morale.”32 Prior to World War I, the United States was largely an When the United States declared war in 1917, the isolationist country, protected by the vast expanse of work of the council escalated. The federal government two vast© oceans.Jones Th &ere Bartlett was one Learning,occasion on AmericaLLC n asked state governors© Jones to & create Bartlett their Learning,own councils LLC in soil thatNOT raised FOR the SALE issue ofOR America’s DISTRIBUTION defenses just order to supportNOT the FOR National SALE Council’s OR DISTRIBUTION efforts. Every prior to the war, and that was when Pancho Villa and state responded by organizing its own state-level his Villistas bandits crossed into the United States on council of defense, and by the end of the war, 182,000 March 9, 1916, and entered the town of Columb us, local civil defense councils had been formed across New Mexico.27 They attacked the American 13th the United States. These local councils conducted civil © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Cavalry, looted houses, and fought with civilians. defense patrols, funded and deployed air raid sirens, NOT FOREight SALE American OR DISTRIBUTION soldiers and 10 civilians died, rais- NOTand FOR practiced SALE safety OR drills.DISTRIBUTION After the war ended on ing not only a military response but also a concern November 11, 1918, the National Council switched © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

History of Domestic Security 7

Traditional Responsibilities New Threats and Evolving Hazards © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Maritime LLC security Financial system security© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Foreign agricultural threats Trade facilitation Weapons of mass destruction NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONAviation security Migration securityNOT FOR SALE ORGlobal terrorismDISTRIBUTION Land border security Emergency management Cyber attacks Transportation security Immigration administration and Pandemics and natural disasters Leadership protection enforcement Illegal trafficking and related transnational crime Intelligence and law enforcement Smaller scale terrorism

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Core Homeland Security Mission Areas NOT FOR SALE OR PrDISTRIBUTIONeventing terrorism and enhancing security NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Securing and managing our borders Enforcing and administering our immigration laws Safeguarding and securing cyberspace Ensuring resilience to disasters

FIGURE© Jones 1.1 Flowchart & Bartlett of Civil Learning, Defense, Emergency LLC Management, & Homeland© Jones Security. & Bartlett Learning, LLC Data from: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. (1975). Signifi ant Events in United States Civil Defense History. Washington, D.C.: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency; Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A ShorNOTt History of FORNational Preparedness SALE Efforts. Washington, OR D.C.: DISTRIBUTION U.S Department of Homeland Security. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

its focus to demobilization efforts until their opera- between the federal and state governments and estab- © Jones & Bartletttions were Learning, suspended LLC in June of 1921. Although ©the Jones lished & Bartlett defense Learning, councils at LLC the local level. Some of NOT FOR SALENational OR Council DISTRIBUTION ceased operations, many of the localNOT FORthe SALE more renowned OR DISTRIBUTION initiatives related to the OCD councils continued to operate over the next decade included the creation of civil defense plans, air raid (see FIGURE 1.1.). drills, urban blackouts, and sand bag stockpiling. As For that next decade, the federal government World War II came to a close in 1945, so too did the did little with regard to civil defense, but after Hitler Office f Civilian Defense. came to power in ©1933, Jones the White & Bartlett House becameLearning, con- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC cerned. That year,NOT President FOR SALE Franklin OR D. DISTRIBUTIONRoosev elt NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION created the National Emergency Council by exec- Civil Defense and the Cold War: 1946–1991 utive order. The focus of the council was essentially Immediately after the end of World War II, the Tru- war preparation without calling it that, and only one man administration began bringing troops home aspect© Jones of its & mission Bartlett was Learning, the coordination LLC of emer- and drawing© Jones down & the Bartlett military. Learning, Civil defense LLC was no gencyNOT FOR programs SALE among OR DISTRIBUTION all agencies involved in longer NOTdeemed FOR an important SALE OR issue. DISTRIBUTION That was the case national preparedness.33 Once World War II ignited in until the beginning of the Cold War, when the Soviet Europe, Roosevelt resurrected the National Defense Union turned hostile toward the United States and Council in 1939, and shortly after in 1940, converted began developing the atomic bomb. The War Depart- the National Emergency Council into the Offic of ment’s Civil Defense Board reviewed the issue of civil © Jones & BartlettEmergen Learning,cy Management. LLC34 © Jonesdefense & Bartlett and deemed Learning, it a local LLC issue but did note that NOT FOR SALEAn OR issue DISTRIBUTION of federalism quickly arose betweenNOT FORthe SALEmajority OR of the DISTRIBUTION necessary resources could be pro- the national government and the states. The federal vided by the federal government. In 1947, Congress funding for civil defense was only for dealing with passed the National Security Act, which, in addition attacks such as the bombing of civilians in Europe. to creating the Central Intelligence Agency, created The states and many of the large metropolitan cities the National Security Resources Board (NSRB). The © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC were concerned with nonattack disaster prepared- NSRB was tasked with mobilizing civilian and mili- ness. New York NOT City FOR Mayor SALE Fiorello OR La DISTRIBUTION Guardia tary support and maintainingNOT FOR adequate SALE supplies OR DISTRIBUTION for wrote to Roosevelt and argued, “there is a need for use in the event of a war, specifi ally a nuclear attack a strong Federal Department to coordinate activi- on the United States. Additionally, the following year, ties, and not only to coordinate but to initiate and get Truman created the Offic of Civil Defense Planning things© Jones done. & Please Bartlett bear Learning,in mind that LLC up to this war within ©the Jones newly restructured & Bartlett Department Learning, of LLC Defense andNOT never FOR in SALEour history, OR hasDISTRIBUTION the civilian population (also createdNOT byFOR the SALENational OR Security DISTRIBUTION Act of 1947). been exposed to attack. The new technique of war has At this point, the Truman administration had created the necessity for developing new techniques a variety of organizations focused on civil defense, of civilian defense.”35 President Roosevelt agreed and state and local governments demanding more assis- responded with the creation of the Offic of Civil- tance, and a public growing ever more concerned © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ian Defense (OCD) within the Offic for Emergency with national security. The NSRB was tasked with NOT FOR SALEManagement, OR DISTRIBUTION and he named Mayor La Guardia asNOT the FORcoming SALE up OR with DISTRIBUTION a plan that was fi ally released in Director.36 The OCD coordinated attack prepar edness 1950 and became known as the Blue Book.37 Th © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

8 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesproposed & a Bartlett “nationwide Learning, long-range LLC program of iden- tifying present fallout shelter capacity and providing NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION shelter in new and existing structures.”41 To accom- plish these goals, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10952 on July 20, 1961, which divided the Offic of Civil Defense and Mobilization into two new organi- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,zations: LLC The Offic of Emergency© Jones Planning & (OEP) Bartlett and Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe Offic of Civil Defense (OCD).NOT FOROEP wasSALE part OR of DISTRIBUTION the president’s Executive Offic and was tasked with advising and assisting the president in determining policy for all nonmilitary emergency preparedness, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC including civil© defense. Jones OCD & Bartlett was part Learning, of the Offic LLC of NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the Secretary NOTof Defense FOR and SALE was tasked OR DISTRIBUTION with oversee- ing the nation’s civil defense program. Although the creation of fallout shelters was initiated during the Kennedy administration, adequate funding began to dwindle during the Johnson administration due to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesfunding & needs Bartlett for both Learning, his Great LLC Society programs NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTand FOR the Vietnam SALE War.OR ThDISTRIBUTIONe importance of civil defense and emergency planning had been greatly diminished. In 1969, President Richard M. Nixon entered offi , and shortly thereafter, a series of natural disas- Reproduced from America calling–Take your place in civilian defense–Consult your nearest defense council. United States, 1941. [Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office] Retrieved© from theJones Library of Congress, & https://www.loc.gov/item/96507339/. Bartlett Learning,ters LLC struck, with the most devastating© Jones coming& Bartlett from Learning, LLC 42 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONHurricane Camille. Nixon NOT charged FOR the SALE Offic OR of DISTRIBUTION overall recommendation was to create one agency to Emergency Planning to conduct a review, which deal with coordinating civil defense in America. In released its results in 1970. As a result, several new fed- response, Congress enacted the Federal Civil Defense eral agencies arose. The Offic of Civil Defense would Act of 1950, which placed most of the civil defense fold into the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency under © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the Department© Jones of Defense. & Bartlett Th s agency Learning, was respon LLC- burdenNOT on the FOR states SALE and createdOR DISTRIBUTION the Federal Civil NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Defense Administration (FCDA) as the one agency to sible for a military response to natural and man-made formulate national policy to guide the states’ efforts.38 disasters. The Offic of Emergency Planning became Th oughout the 1950s, the FCDA led shelter-building the Offic of Emergency Preparedness, which was to programs, sought to improve federal and state coordi- handle the civilian side of these events. However, a © Jonesnation, & Bartlett established Learning, an attack LLC warning system, stock- © Jonesnumber &of Bartletttasks were Learning, given to other LLC agencies, includ- NOT FORpiled SALE supplies, OR and DISTRIBUTION started a well-known national civic NOTing FORthe Offic SALE of ScienceOR DISTRIBUTION and Technology Policy, the education campaign, which included Bert the Turtle Department of the Treasury, and the Federal Disaster in “Duck and Cover.”39 Assistance Administration under Housing and Urban In 1953, when former World War II General Development (HUD). While the decentralization of Dwight D. Eisenhower was sworn in as President the planning did allow each agency to concentrate on © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC of the United States, the new president realized that its area of expertise, coordination between these agen- civil defense would be NOT an expensive FOR SALE venture OR on DISTRIBUTION the cies was lacking and there wasNOT an inordinate FOR SALE amount OR DISTRIBUTION part of the federal government, and so he minimized of overlap, leading to wasteful spending.43 the responsibility and requested less funding for the One complicated issue, how and under what cir- FCDA.40 Then, in 1958, to highlight the diminished cumstances the federal government would assist state role that© Jones the federal & Bartlett administration Learning, would LLC play in and local governments© Jones in & the Bartlett case of disaster, Learning, started LLC to Eisenhower’sNOT FOR second SALE term, OR the DISTRIBUTION FCDA was down- see resolutionNOT under FOR the Nixon SALE Administration OR DISTRIBUTION when graded to the Offic of Defense and Civilian Mobili- Congress passed the Disaster Relief Act of 1974. The act zation. Then, as if to highlight the greater emphasis on was amended in 1988 as the Robert T. Stafford Disaster civil defense, the name of the offic was changed again Relief and Emergency Assistance Act and is commonly to the Office f Civil Defense and Mobilization. known as the Stafford Act. It was named for a U.S. Sen- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC In 1961, when President John F. Kennedy took ator who was instrumental in its passage. The Stafford NOT FORoffi SALE , he hadOR aDISTRIBUTION different approach and embraced NOTAct FOR established SALE the OR procedures DISTRIBUTION by which states can federal involvement in emergency planning. He apply for disaster relief from the federal government. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

History of Domestic Security 9

© Jones & BartlettIt did not Learning, cover all disasters,LLC such as public health© Jones (FRP) & Bartlett as a means Learning, of improving LLC performance. Drawing emergencies or fl od control and coastal emergencies, from the Incident Command System and Incident NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEas other OR acts DISTRIBUTION covered these types of disasters, nor did it Management System Framework, the FRP defi ed cover foreign disasters. It did, however, streamline the how 27 federal agencies and the American Red Cross process for declaring and ending a disaster and how would respond to the needs of state and local govern- the federal government would provide assistance. At ments when they were overwhelmed by a disaster. The the time when the© act Jones was passed; & Bartlett however, Learning, there were LLCnational government now© hadJones an all-hazards & Bartlett plan. Learning, LLC more than 100 diffNOTerent FOR federal SALE agencies OR tasked DISTRIBUTION with Just prior to the 1992NOT presidential FOR SALE election, OR HurDISTRIBUTION- providing disaster relief without one necessarily being ricane Andrew struck South Florida and once again in charge. President Carter was about to change that. highlighted the poor performance of the government in its response. As one report noted, “government at Emergency© Jones & Management:Bartlett Learning, 1979–2001 LLC all levels© wasJones slow & to Bartlett comprehend Learning, the scope LLC of the disaster.”46 Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton won the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION President Jimmy Carter entered offic in 1977 with the election and entered offic in 1993. Clinton brought goal of reining in federal bureaucracy by making it more with him from Arkansas James Lee Witt, who had been effici t. Carter ordered a review of civil defense agen- the Director of Emergency Management for the State cies and programs, and the review found an enormous of Arkansas (see BOX 1.5). He was the fi st appointee © Jones & Bartlettamount ofLearning, duplication LLC of effort and wasteful spend© Jones- to & the Bartlett position Learning, who had an LLC emergency management NOT FOR SALEing. Th ORe recommendation DISTRIBUTION was to consolidate all civilNOT FORbackground. SALE OR He DISTRIBUTIONcreated three functional directorates defense spending under one agency in order to better corresponding to the major phases of emergency man- coordinate the federal response to natural disasters. The agement: Mitigation, preparedness, and response and result was Executive Order 12148, dated July 20, 1979, recovery. These three directorates were all then focused which created the Federal Emergency Management © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCon creating and implementing© Jones an all-hazards & Bartlett plan. Learning, LLC Agency (FEMA) as the lead agency for coordinating The implementation of the plan would prove nec- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION federal disaster relief. FEMA also absorbed a number of essary for one bombing and fortuitous in the wake of agencies such as the Federal Insurance Administration, a second. The fi st bombing was of the World Trade the National Fire Prevention and Control Administra- Center by international terrorists on February 26, 1993, tion, and the National Weather Service Community and the second was of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Preparedness© Jones & Program.Bartlett AtLearning, the time, LLC the creation of Building© inJones Oklahoma & Bartlett City by Learning,domestic terrorists LLC on FEMA represented the single largest consolidation of April 19, 1995. In many ways, both of these bombings NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION44 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION civil defense efforts in U.S. history. caught America—its public, media, and law enforce- Although civil defense had now given way to ment community—off guard: The World Trade Center emergency management under the Carter admin- bombing, because America was shocked by such an istration, the sole purpose of FEMA was to respond international terrorist bombing occurring inside the © Jones & Bartlettto natural Learning, disasters, LLC not man-made attacks. When© Jones United & Bartlett States and Learning, the Oklahoma LLC City Bombing, because NOT FOR SALEPresident OR RonaldDISTRIBUTION Reagan entered offi , he changedNOT FORno oneSALE suspected OR DISTRIBUTION it was a case of domestic terrorism. that and made FEMA a dual-use agency, enabling all What both of these bombings did was to galvanize future emergency management funds to be used for policy makers and the law enforcement community to 45 natural disasters as well as attacks on the homeland. start looking at both international terrorist threats and FEMA then began working toward the development of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCdomestic terrorism from© homegrown Jones & radicals. Bartlett Learning, LLC a full all-hazard preparedness plan at the federal level NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION At the federal level, theNOT immediate FOR SALE actions OR of these DISTRIBUTION known as the Integrated Emergency Management two bombings led to President Clinton elevating the System (IEMS). Despite all of the efforts by FEMA to launch this all-hazards plan, Congress would not fund the system and the idea was shelved. © JonesAfter President & Bartlett George Learning, H.W. Bush LLC (Bush I) took © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC officNOT in FOR 1989, SALE a number OR of disastersDISTRIBUTION occurred that once NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION again galvanized the emergency management community. The Exxon Valdez oil spill, Hurricane Hugo (which struck the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and South Car- olina), and the Loma Prieta earthquake (which hit © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC southern California) all struck in 1989, and the federal NOT FOR SALEresponse OR was DISTRIBUTION criticized as poor. FEMA dusted offNOT the FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION IEMS plan and developed the Federal Response Plan Courtesy of Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

10 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonescommission & Bartlett became known Learning, more simply LLC as the Gilmore BOX 1.5 James Lee Witt Biography Commission. It developed a series of five reports to the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION president and Congress, starting in 1999, which made James Lee Witt was born in Paris, Arkansas, in 1944, numerous recommendations, including the creation of and met former President Bill Clinton in 1974. He a fusion center to integrate and analyze all intelligence eventually founded his own construction business in pertaining to terrorism and counter-terrorism and the 1968, and then years later,© heJones was elected & Bartlett as County Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Judge in Yell County. In 1988, while Bill Clinton served creation of a civil liberties oversight board. In the com- as Arkansas Governor, WittNOT was FOR appointed SALE as the OR DISTRIBUTIONmission’s fi st several years, mostNOT of theFOR recommenda SALE OR- DISTRIBUTION head of the Arkansas Office of Emergency Services tions were considered, but very few were acted upon. and he successfully reorganized that organization. Another influential commission was The U.S. After Bill Clinton was elected president in 1992, he Commission on National Security in the 21st century, appointed© Jones Witt to &serve Bartlett as the head Learning, of the Federal LLC chartered by ©the Jones Department & Bartlett of Defense Learning, and known LLC Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), making him as the Hart–Rudman Commission. It began a compre- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the first director to have any emergency management hensive re-examination of U.S. national security pol- experience. In 1996, the agency was elevated icies. One of the commission’s recommendations was to cabinet status, giving it far more importance the creation of a Cabinet-level National Homeland and visibility. Witt’s reorganization of FEMA was Security Agency responsible for planning, coordinat- considered highly successful because he turned a © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesing, and & integrating Bartlett variousLearning, U.S. governmentLLC activi- very weak agency into a strong agency by ceasing NOT FORpolitical SALE appointments, OR DISTRIBUTION removing excessive layers of NOTties FOR involved SALE in “homeland OR DISTRIBUTION security.” The commission bureaucracy, and creating an agency that was seen defi ed homeland security as “the protection of the as responsive to the needs of the people in the wake territory, critical infrastructures, and citizens of the of a disaster. Witt set the standard by which all future United States by federal, state, and local government directors and the agency© itself Jones would & be Bartlett evaluated. Learning,entities LLC from the threat or use© of Jones chemical, & biological,Bartlett Learning, LLC radiological, nuclear, cyber, or conventional weapons NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION by military or other means.”47 Legislation toward this end was actually introduced on March 29, 2001, but hearings continued through April of 2001 without the passage of any legislation. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Then came© JonesSeptember & Bartlett11, 2001, andLearning, the concept LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION of emergencyNOT management FOR SALE in the UnitedOR DISTRIBUTION States would quickly give way to the concepts of homeland security.

▸▸ Chapter Summary © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTAlthough FOR SALEthe United OR States DISTRIBUTION has always been concerned with securing the homeland, it is evident from the historical record that this effort has gone through many Courtesy of FEMA. stages. Initially, it would appear that under the strict constructs of federalism, states were seen as being © Jones & Bartlett Learning,responsible LLC for dealing with all© natural Jones disasters & Bartlett them- Learning, LLC FEMA directorship to NOT Cabinet-level FOR SALE status OR in order DISTRIBUTION selves, and that resources fromNOT the FORnational SALE govern OR- DISTRIBUTION to improve the line of communication between the ment would only be applied when Article 4, Section 4 director and the president. What then followed was of the U.S. Constitution was invoked (see BOX 1.6). a series of Congressional hearings, commissions, and recommended© Jones policies & Bartlett where policymakersLearning, LLCbegan to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC determineNOT how FOR best SALE to deal OR with DISTRIBUTION domestic prepared- BOX 1.6 U.S.NOT Constitution FOR SALE Article 4,OR Section DISTRIBUTION 4 ness and national security. One of the more influential commissions was The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and formed by the Clinton administration and was known shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on formally as the Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesApplication & Bartlett of the Legislature, Learning, or of theLLC Executive Response Capabilities for Terrorism Involving Weapons NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT(when FOR the SALE Legislature OR cannotDISTRIBUTION be convened) against of Mass Destruction. Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore domestic Violence. was appointed as the commission chair, hence the © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

Endnotes 11

© Jones & BartlettTwo World Learning, Wars would LLC subtly begin to change that© Jones World & Bartlett War I brought Learning, about LLCcivil defense. The World mindset in the fi st half of the 20th century, when the Trade Center and Oklahoma City bombings brought NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEnational OR government DISTRIBUTION embraced a cooperative, albeit about the elevation of FEMA to a Cabinet-level limited, response in the name of civil defense. As the agency. Yet, it should also be noted that the ideas for United States shifted to a Cold War in the fi ht against these changes tended to exist prior to the events; it was communism, a more cooperative response evolved only after the natural or man-made disasters that these with a division between© Jones civil & and Bartlett military Learning, responses. LLCchanges came about. Th©e ultimateJones evidence& Bartlett for thisLearning, is LLC In 1979, a consolidatedNOT FOR approach SALE under OR the DISTRIBUTION Federal the 21st-Century Commission’sNOT FOR ideas SALE about creatingOR DISTRIBUTION a Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) saw civil “Cabinet-level National Homeland Security Agency,” defense evolve into emergency management, and which did not come about until after September 11, eventually, a dual response policy for responding 2001.48 And fi ally, it would seem that the federal gov- to© naturalJones and& Bartlett man-made Learning, disasters. LLC As emergency ernment© apparatusJones & has Bartlett waffled Learning, between strong LLC cen- management evolved in the 1990s, its elevation to tralization and consolidation, to a more decentralized NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Cabinet-level status marked its signifi ant rise as a and multi-agency response. policy issue and the importance the federal govern- In brief, the evolution of the homeland security ment now paid to the issue. apparatus (also call it civil defense or emergency man- Most of the evolution from civil defense to emer- agement) has generally resulted from disasters (natu- © Jones & Bartlettgency management Learning, has LLC been marked as a reaction© Jones- ral & and Bartlett man-made) Learning, but was based LLC on ideas that existed NOT FOR SALEary response OR DISTRIBUTION to some natural or man-made disaster.NOT FORprior SALE to these OR events. DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Review/Discussion Questions 1. In the aftermath of September 11, 2001, it was 4. What is emergency management, how did said that no one had ever thought planes could it develop, and how is it different from civil © Jonesbe used & asBartlett weapons. Learning, Why is this LLC not the case? defense?© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT2. Describ FOR SALEe domestic OR security DISTRIBUTION in the 18th and 5. WhatNOT wer FORe the SALE antecedents OR DISTRIBUTION to the development 19th centuries. Why was domestic security not of homeland security in America prior to the so much an issue? terrorist attacks on September 11? 3. Detail the development of civil defense, © Jones & Bartlettespecially Learning, describing LLC the development during© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORboth DISTRIBUTION World War I and World War II. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Additional Readings Defense Civil Preparedness© Jones Agency. & (1975). Bartlett Signifi Learning,cant Events in LLC Preparedness Effo ts. Washington,© Jones DC: & U.S. Bartlett Department Learning, of LLC United States Civil Defense History. Washington, DC: Defense Homeland Security. Civil PreparednessNOT Agency. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONMaxwell, Bruce. (2004). HomelandNOT FOR Security: SALE A Documentary OR DISTRIBUTION Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. (2006). Civil History. Washington, DC: CQ Press. Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC EndnotesNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. Melanson, P. H. & Stevens, P. D. (2002). The Secret Service: 4. Melanson, P. H. & Stevens, P. D. (2002). The Secret Service: The Hidden History of an Enigmatic Agency. New York, NY: The Hidden History of an Enigmatic Agency. New York, NY: Carrol & Graff, p. 107. Carrol & Graff, p. 109. 2. Oliver, W. M. & Marion, N. E. (2010). Killing the President: 5. Clarke, J. W. (1982). American Assassins: The Darker Side © Jones & BartlettAssassinations, Learning, Attempts, LLC and Rumored Attempts on © U.S. Jones &of Bartlett Politics. Princeto Learning,n, NJ: LLC Princeton University Press, NOT FOR SALECommanders-in-Chief. OR DISTRIBUTION Santa-Barbara, CA: Praeger. NOT FOR p.SALE 128. OR DISTRIBUTION 3. Sifakis, C. (2001). Encyclopedia of Assassinations. New York, 6. Clarke, J. W. (1982). American Assassins: The Darker Side of NY: Checkmark. Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 128. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

12 Chapter 1 A History of Homeland Security

7. Oliver, W. M. & Marion, N. E. (2010). Killing the President: 28. Welsome, E. (2007). The General and the Jaguar: Pershing’s © Jones &Assas Bartlettsinations, Learning, Attempts, and LLC Rumored Attempts on U.S. © JonesHunt for& PanchoBartlett Villa. Learning,Lincoln, NE: Bison LLC Books. NOT FOR Commanders-in-Chief.SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. NOT29. BumgarnFOR SALEer, J. B. OR (2006). DISTRIBUTION Federal Agents: The Growth of 8. Melanson, P. H. & Stevens, P. D. (2002). The Secret Service: Federal Law Enforcement in America. Westport, CT: Praeger The Hidden History of an Enigmatic Agency. New York, NY: Publishers. Carrol & Graff, p. 108. 30. Keegan, J. (2000). The First World War. New York: Vintage; 9. Oliver, W. M. & Marion, N. E. (2010). Killing the President: Meyer, G. J. (2007). A World Undone: The Story of the Great Assassinations, Attempts,© andJones Rumored & Bartlett Attempts onLearning, U.S. LLCWar, 1914 to 1918. New York: A Delta© Jones Book. & Bartlett Learning, LLC Commanders-in-Chief. SantaNOT Barbara, FOR CA: SALE Praeger. OR DISTRIBUTION31. Tuchman, B. W. (1985). The ZimmermanNOT FOR Telegram. SALE New York: OR DISTRIBUTION 10. Preston, E. (1987). Troubled Passage: The Federal Aviation Ballantine Books. Administration During the Nixon-Ford Term, 1973–1977. 32. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Offi . (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History 11. Preston, E. (1987). Troubled Passage: The Federal Aviation of National Preparedness Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. Administration During the Nixon-Ford Term, 1973–1977. Department of Homeland Security. Washington,© Jones DC: U.S.& BartlettGovernment Learning, Printing Offi .LLC 33. Homeland © Security Jones National & Bartlett Preparedness Learning, Task Force. LLC 12. NationNOTal Commission FOR SALE on Terrorist OR AttacksDISTRIBUTION Upon the United (2006). Civil NOTDefense FOR and Homeland SALE Security: OR DISTRIBUTION A Short History States. (2004). The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the of National Preparedness Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States Department of Homeland Security, p. 5. (Authorized Ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 34. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. 13. Pinkerton, J. (2002). “Our Homeland Securitizers Should Read (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History © Jones &More Bartlett .” New American Learning, Foundation. LLC Retrieved from http://www © Jonesof National & Bartlett Preparedness Learning, Efforts. Washington,LLC DC: U.S. NOT FOR .newamerica.net/publications/articles/2002/our_homelandSALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT DepartmentFOR SALE of Homeland OR DISTRIBUTION Security. _securitizers_should_read_more 35. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. (1975). Significant Events 14. Oliver, W. M. & Marion, N. E. (2010). Killing the President: in United States Civil Defense History. Washington, DC: Assassinations, Attempts, and Rumored Attempts on U.S. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. Commanders-in-Chief. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. 36. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. 15. Szatmary, D. P. (2002). Shays’ Rebellion: The Making of an (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History Agrarian Insurrection. Boston:© Jones University & Bartlett of Massachusetts Learning, LLCof National Preparedness Efforts.© Jones Washington, & Bartlett DC: U.S. Learning, LLC Press. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONDepartment of Homeland Security,NOT p. 5. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 16. Oliver, W. M. & Hilgenberg, J. F., Jr. (2010). A History of Crime 37. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. (1975). Significant Events and Criminal Justice in America. 2nd ed. Durham, NC: Carolina in United States Civil Defense History. Washington, DC: Academic Press. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. 17. Richards, L. L. (2002). Shays’ Rebellion: The American 38. Defense Civil Preparedness Agency. (1975). Significant Revolution’© Joness Final Battle. & Bartlett Philadelphia: Learning, University of Pennsylvania LLC Events in United© Jones States Civil& Bartlett Defense History. Learning, Washington, LLC Press. DC: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency; Homeland Security 18. JohnsoNOTn, P. (1997). FOR A SALEHistory of OR the American DISTRIBUTION People. New York: National PreparednessNOT FOR Task SALEForce. (2006). OR CivilDISTRIBUTION Defense and HarperCollins, p. 188. Homeland Security: A Short History of National Preparedness 19. Article 4, Section 4, United States Constitution. Effo ts. Washington, DC: U.S Department of Homeland 20. Hogeland, W. (2006). The Whiskey Rebellion. New York: Security. Scribner; Slaughter, T. P. (1986). The Whiskey Rebellion: 39. Kerr, T. (1983). Civil Defense in the U.S.: Bandaid for a © Jones &Frontier Bartlett Epilogue Learning, to the American LLC Revolution. New York: © JonesHolocaust. & Bartlett Denver, CO: Learning, Westview Press. LLC NOT FOR OxfordSALE University OR DISTRIBUTION Press. NOT40. HomelFORand SALE Security OR National DISTRIBUTION Preparedness Task Force. (2006). 21. As quoted in Williams, W. E. (2006). “Constitution Day.” Ideas Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National on Liberty. Retrieved from http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/wew Preparedness Effo ts. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of /articles/fee/constitution.html Homeland Security. See Duck and Cover (1951). Available 22. As quoted in Williams, W. E. (2006). “Constitution Day.” Ideas online at http://archive.org/details/DuckandC1951 on Liberty. Retrieved from© Jones http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/wew & Bartlett Learning, 41. LLC Homeland Security National © Preparedness Jones & TaskBartlett Force. Learning, LLC /articles/fee/constitution.html (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History 23. Sauter, M. A. & Carafano,NOT J. J. FOR (2012). SALE A Complete OR Guide: DISTRIBUTION of National Preparedness Efforts.NOT Washington, FOR SALE DC: U.S.OR DISTRIBUTION Homeland Security. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill. Department of Homeland Security. 24. Hendell, G. B. (2011). Domestic use of the armed forces 42. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. to maintain law and order—posse comitatus pitfalls at the (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History inauguration of the 44th president. Publius: The Journal of of National Preparedness Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. Federalism,© Jones 41(2), 336–348.& Bartlett Learning, LLC Department© of HomelandJones &Security, Bartlett p. 12. Learning, LLC 25. The NOT Posse Comitatus FOR SALE Act of 1878,OR DISTRIBUTION Section 1385 of Title 18, 43. Hearn, P. D.NOT (2004). FOR Hurricane SALE Camille: OR Monster DISTRIBUTION Storm of the United States Code. Gulf Coast. Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press. 26. McCullough, D. (1968). The Johnstown Flood. New York: 44. Lanouette, W. (1978). “The Best Civil Defense May Be the Simon & Schuster. Best–Or Worst–Offense.” Th National Journal, September 9. 27. Barker, M. E. (1998). Three Fearful Days: San Francisco 45. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. © Jones &Memoirs Bartlett of the Learning, 1906 Earthquake LLC & Fire. San Francisco, CA: © Jones(2006). & Civil Bartlett Defense andLearning, Homeland Security: LLC A Short History Londonborn Publications; Thomas, G. & M. M. Witts. (1971); of National Preparedness Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. NOT FOR ThSALEe San Francisco OR DISTRIBUTION Earthquake. New York: Stein and Day. NOT DepartmentFOR SALE of Homeland OR DISTRIBUTION Security. © Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, an Ascend Learning Company. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

Endnotes 13

46. Blanchard, B. W. (1986). “American Civil Defense 1945-1984: 48. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. © Jones & BartlettThe Evo Learning,lution of Programs LLC and Policies.” Federal Emergency© Jones &(2006). Bartlett Civil Defense Learning, and Homeland LLC Security: A Short History NOT FOR SALEManagement OR DISTRIBUTION Agency Monograph Series, 2, 1–29. NOT FOR ofSALE National OR Preparedness DISTRIBUTION Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. 47. Homeland Security National Preparedness Task Force. Department of Homeland Security, p. 24. (2006). Civil Defense and Homeland Security: A Short History of National Preparedness Efforts. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, p. 22. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION