FIELD GUIDE BOOK FIELD TRAVERTINE-TUFA WORKSHOP

1- Introduction This field trip guide book includes brief description of the region of the and its main travertine localities which will be visited during Travertine-Tufa Workshop, 5-8 November 2015. Denizli is situated on the south-west of ; at the south-east part of the and it is a passage way between the Aegean, Central and the Mediterranean regions. The province of Denizli has an uneven surface with 428 m in altitude. Lowlands plateau and mountains complete one another.

2- Geologic Setting of the Denizli Basin and Travertines The Denizli basin is located to the Turkish sector of the Aegean extensional province (Fig. 1). It is one of the most rapidly extending region in the NNE-SSW direction in the world. In addition, the basin is one of the most important region in point of travertine precipitation and geothermal potential (Gökgöz, 1998). The depression 50 km long and 25 km wide located at the eastern end of junction locality of B. Menderes and Gediz grabens. It was named as “Denizli Basin” by Westaway (1990, 1993). Pre-Neogene basement rocks of the basin that crop out at the horst areas are mainly consisted of schist, calcschist and marble of Menderes massif and allochthonous Mesozoic carbonates, ophiolites and evaporates (Gündoğan et al., 2008).

Fig. 1. Simplified tectonic map of Aegean region and western Turkey showing major neotectonic structures (modified from Bozkurt 2003).

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The basin is located especially along the northern margin. The total area occupied by modern and old travertines is more than 100 km2 in the basin and their thickness is up to over 100 m (Fig. 2). Some of the old travertines have been quarrying by natural stone industry for a long time. Most of the studies made on the Denizli travertines are generally focused on modern travertine and thermal waters, geothermal potential of the basin and wasting and conversation. (Koçak, 1971; Şentürk et al., 1971; , 1978; Eşder and Yılmazer, 1991; Gökgöz, 1994; Gökgöz and Filiz, 1998; Ekmekçi et al., 1995). Some studies have been subjected the stratigraphical position of travertines in the basin, dating, morphological classification, relationships between travertine and neotectonic-seismicity of the region (Altunel and Hancock, 1993a, b and Altunel, 1996), travertine bulk geochemisty and physico-mechanical features (Demirkıran and Çalapkulu, 2001 and Özpınar et al., 2001; Çobanoglu and Celik, 2012). Pentecost et al. (1997) investigated phototrophic microorganisms, their distribution and influence on the travertine deposition. The basin filled by Neogene-Quaternary deposits was bounded by normal faults both in the north and south margins (Fig. 2). The Neogene sequence, which was deposited in alluvial, lacustrine and fluvial environments during Miocene-Pliocene (Alçiçek et al., 2007), exposes commonly at the basin margins and some uplifted areas in the middle. According to Westaway (1993), the extension has begun in the Middle Miocene (ca 14 Ma. ago). Travertine masses in the Denizli basin have deposited where dip-slip normal fault segments display step over along strike (Çakır, 1999). The spring waters take required ions from the basement carbonate rocks and for the travertine precipitation. The travertines deposited by emerging thermal waters along the normal faults and extentional fissures unconformably rest on the Neogene sediments.

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Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Denizli basin and distribution of the travertine masses (compiled from Sun 1990; Özkul et al., 2002, 2013).

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3. FIELD TRIP LOCALITIES

7th November 2015, Saturday Leaders: M. Özkul, H. Kumsar, S. Kele

3.1. Pamukkale-Karahayıt Travertine Complex and Ancient City 3.1.1. Hierapolis Ancient City It's about 20 km north of Denizli and called as a Holy City in archaeological literature, because there were many temples and religious buildings in Hierapolis. The ancient city is situated between several historical areas. According to the ancient geographers, Strabon and Ptolemaios, Hierapolis was very close to Laodicea and Tripolis which was in Kario's Border. That's why it was a Phrygian City. There is no information about Hierapolis' history before the Hellenistic Era, but we know there was a city there before then. It's called Hierapolis because of its Mother goddess Cult. Information about Hierapolis is limited. It is known that the king of Pergamum, Eumenes II, founded the city in 190 BC. It was named Hierapolis after the Amazon's Queen Hiera, the wife of Telephos, the founder of Pergamum (Pergamum is also called or Pergamos). Hierapolis was completely destroyed by the earthquake in 60 A.D. during the time of Roman Emperor Nero (Ergin et al., 1967; Altunel, 2000) Therefore, it is also known as “Neronian earthquake” (Piccardi, 2004) During the reconstruction after the earthquake, the city lost its Hellenistic Style and became a typical Roman City. Right after the Roman period started, Hierapolis became an important center because of its commercial and religious position. In 80 A.D. St. Philip came to Hierapolis and was murdered by the Jewish inhabitants. Hierapolis was conquered by the Turks at the end of the 12th century A.D. Entrances and Main Street: The ancient city is divided by the main street which is about 1 km long. There are columnar governmental galleries on both sides. There are also monumental entrances at the beginning and at the end of the main street. The area is outside of the Byzantine city walls, because the gates, most of the main street, and most of the side streets were built in the Roman Period. The South Byzantine Gate on the south edge of the city is dated at 5 A.D. The well-preserved North Gate has two round towers and inscriptions in Greek and Latin honoring Emperor Domitian. That's why the gate is also called the 5 TRAVERTINE-TUFA WORKSHOP

Domitian Gate. The gate was built in 82-83 A.D. by Julius Sextus Frontinus. The gate is also called Frontinus Gate because of its architect. The gate is situated where the city walls cross the street.

3.1.2. Pamukkale - Karahayıt Travertines Pamukkale is 20 km north of Denizli city center and located in a seismically and tectonically active zone at the northern margin of the NW- trending Denizli Basin that is one of the western Anatolian grabens (Fig. 1, 2). The basin is an important region in aspect of travertine precipitation both in Turkey and the world. There are many travertine masses, most of which are inactive, in the region. Pamukkale is the most prominent and famous travertine precipitation site over there. The dazzling white modern travertines are precipitated by warm spring waters of 34 to 58ºC (Table 1) rising up along the Pamukkale fault and associated extensional fissures (Fig. 3). Therefore, Pamukkale means cotton castle in Turkish. According to Özkul et al. (2013), the first U–Th ages from the fossil travertine at Pamukkale, yielded by Altunel (1994, 1996), ranged from 24 to 400 ka. More recently, a U–Th age of 55.4 ka was obtained from the vertically banded travertines along the scarp of the Pamukkale fault (Uysal et al., 2007).

Fig. 3. A schematic cross section along (A–A′) between Pamukkale and Mount (from Özkul et al., 2013, their Fig. 1B).

Pamukkale travertines forming a plateau of 300 m high display various depositional morphologies such as slope (smooth and terraced), fissure ridges and self-built channels and some restricted depressions located to the terminations of the lower slopes and around fissure ridges (Fig. 3), (Altunel and Hancock, 1993a; Özkul et al., 2002; Kele et al., 2011). The terraced

6 TRAVERTINE-TUFA WORKSHOP slopes have a series of pools and cascades in different sizes (Ekmekçi et al., 1995). Crystalline crust is a dominant travertine lithotype, formed mostly of calcite in slope setting. There are a lot of travertine fissure ridges at the Pamukkale-Akköy-Karahayıt triangle (Fig. 3, 4), most of them are inactive.

Stop 1. Pamukkale thermal springs and travertine terraces There are 17 thermal springs having temperatures of 34-35°C and total flow of 350 l/s discharged from extensional fractures in this special area. Main thermal springs are named as Özel İdare, Beltas, Jandarma and İnciraltı. The Özel İdare spring will firstly be visited among them. The origin of the spring waters is meteoric. The reservoir rocks for the thermal waters in the Karahayıt and Çukurbağ sites are Palaeozoic marble, whereas the main aquifers supplying warm and mineralized water to the Pamukkale thermal springs are Palaeozoic marbles and Mesozoic limestones (Şimşek et al., 2000; Kele et al., 2011; Özkul et al., 2013). The type of the thermal waters is of Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4 (Table 1). CO2 and pH values of the waters are about 400 mg/l and 6.0, respectively. The thermal waters flow to the top of the terraced slopes (cascades) by concrete channels and then flows on the cascades about 240-300 m. During the flow, CO2 in the water degases to the atmosphere, pH turns to basic character and CaCO3 begins to precipitate on the cascades. In the beginning the precipitate is soft like gel. It dries and hardens in time. The white precipitates almost formed of calcite. In order to protect the fresh cascades from destruction and to preserve their natural beauty, entrance to the white travertine area has been prohibited since 15 May 1997.

Stop 2. Çukurbağ travertine fissure ridge The largest travertine bodies at Pamukkale are the numerous travertine fissure ridges located in a roughly NW- trending zone, called the Pamukkale fissure zone, between Pamukkale and Karahayıt (Fig. 4). Their long axes trend in various directions, but mainly between E-W and NNW- SSE (Altunel, 1994).

The E–W trending Çukurbağ fissure ridge (Fig. 4), is ~400 m long, 10 m high, and 40 m wide (Altunel, 1994; Brogi et al., 2014). Past quarrying has exposed the central part of the ridge (Fig. 4, 5). Samples from the vertical bands, consisted mostly of calcite and less aragonite that fill the

7 TRAVERTINE-TUFA WORKSHOP central fissure space (Fig. 4) yielded U-series ages of ~24.7 to 152 ka (Uysal et al., 2007, 2009; Özkul et al., 2013).

There is another thermal spring named as ‘Çukurbağ thermal spring’ in the southwest foot of the white travertine slope (Fig. 3, 4). The thermal spring with temperature of 57°C (Table 1) have higher ionic concentration in comparison with the Pamukkale thermal waters and precipitates red travertine.

Table 1. Physicochemical parameters and stable isotopic composition of travertine precipitating thermal waters in the Denizli Basin (Özkul et al., 2013; their Table 2).

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Fig. 4. Map of the distribution of morphological varietes of travertine mass, faults and fissures in the Pamukkale area (redrawn from Fig.3 of Altunel and Hancock, 1993a).

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Fig. 5. E-W-trended Çukurbağ fissure ridge (see Fig. 3 for location). View from east to west.

Fig. 6. An antique quarry face observed along the main axis of the Çukurbağ fissure ridge.

08 November 2015, Sunday Leaders: M. Özkul, R. Swennen

3.2. Ballık Travertine Field and Kaklık Cave The Ballık travertine field, located to ~5 km northwest of Kaklık (Fig. 6), has travertine deposits that exposed on a stepped southwest-facing slope that ranges from 500 to 1000 m asl (Özkul et al., 2002, 2013). It is the largest travertine site in the basin with thickness up to 120 m (average 75 m) that covers an area of 12.5 km2. Today, there are many quarries (up to 50) operating in this area. The wire cut surfaces of the quarry walls allow to investigate spatial architecture of travertine deposition. The travertines of the Ballık field give ages of 0.51  0.05 Ma at 1000 m, 0.49  0.05 Ma at 600 m and 0.33  0.03 Ma at 450 m based on the thermoluminescence dating method (Özkul et al., 2004). These absolute age data are in agreement with the vertebrate fossil records indicating a middle Pleistocene age in the area (Erten et al., 2005).

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Fig. 7. Locations of some travertine occurrences in the Denizli Basin. Red circled area is the Ballık travertine field.

Fig. 8. Aerial view of the travertine qurries in the Ballık area.

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Stop-1, 2. Faber and Çakmak quarries Faber, Ece and Çakmak quarries are the most leading quarries in the Ballık area (Figs. 6, 7). In a recent study, an age range of 1.1 to 1.3 Ma was obtained from the travertine sequence in the Faber quarry (Lebatard et al., 2014). The travertine sequence of Ece, Faber and Çakmak quarries are mostly represented by peloidal, phyto and dendritic lithotypes (Claes et al., 2015). The environment of travertine precipitation evolved from dominantly sub-aqueous, as represented by the sub-horizontal (with conglomerate intercalations) and biostromal reed travertine facies, to dominantly sub-aerial in a thin water film, resulting in the cascade, waterfall (Fig. 13) and biohermal reed travertine facies (Özkul et al., 2002, 2013; Claes et al. (2015).

Fig. 9. Panoramic view of the Ece and Faber quarries.

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Fig. 10. A general view of travertine sequence in the Faber quarry (a), with conglomerate interlayer in the middle (b). (c) is close view of the detrital intercalations.

A structural analysis is performed in order to determine the tectonic overprinting of the travertine body and to derive the stress states of the basin after travertine deposition. A paleostress inversion analysis performed on kinematic indicators such as striations on the clayey fault infill and the sinistral displacement of paleosols shows that some of the normal faults were reactivated causing left-lateral deformation in a transient strike–slip stress field with a NE–SW oriented σ1 (Van Noten et al., 2013).

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Stop 1- Faber (fault zone central part)

Fig. 11. Detailed fault/fracture map of the Faber and Ece quarries. Joint, fracture and fault orientation are displayed on lower-hemisphere, equal-area stereographic projections. The Faber quarry is characterised by two steeply S-dipping, left-lateral strike–slip faults. Between both faults, the travertine mass is densely fractured. The rose diagrams display joint orientation and visualise one distinct fault-parallel joint set (Van Noten et al., 2013, their Fig. 12).

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Fig. 12. Joint and fracture morphology in the Faber quarry, (a) Photograph and (b) interpretative drawing of the northeastern part of the Faber quarry. The northern footwall of the L2.200 strike–slip fault is more densely fractured compared to its southern hanging wall. Width of picture 200 m (Van Noten et al., 2013, their Fig. 13)

Stop 3. Kaklık cave Kaklık cave is 30 km away from Denizli city centre (Fig. 6, 7a). The cave is located at an elevation of 528 m. The cave has occured as a result of collapse in an old travertine mass. The cave has a length of 65 m in northwest - southeast direction and 40 m in northeast direction and a circular entrance of 13x11 m size. The cave whose ceiling height varies between 2-5 meters has a second section in the southwest end of the cave. This section, which goes for approximately 40m, is covered with collapsed blocks inside. It is uniquely beautiful in respect of its formation and development as well as its interesting underground terrace pools similar to the surfacial counterparts at Pamukkale (Fig. 14). The almost whole area of the main gallery is covered with travertines in beautiful colours that are

15 TRAVERTINE-TUFA WORKSHOP formed by the water discharging (80 l/s) into the cave through an outside well. There are two springs having the total flow of 300 l/s in the cave.

a

b

Fig. 13. (a) Cascade and waterfall facies from the Ece quarry, Ballık area, (b) Close view from the waterfall facies.

The temperatures of warm thermal waters are about 23.5°C. The waters are slightly acidic; include H2S gas and the type of Ca-Mg-SO4-HCO3 (Özkul et al., 2013).

Fig. 14. Underground travertine terraces in the Kaklık cave.

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REFERENCES Altunel, E., 1994, Active Tectonics and the Evolution of Quaternary Travertines at Pamukkale, Western Turkey, PhD thesis, University of Bristol, 236p. Altunel, E., 1996, Pamukkale travertenlerinin morfolojik özellikleri, yaşları ve neotektonik önemleri. MTA Derg., 118, 47-64. Altunel, E., 2000, L’attivvita sismica a Hierapolis e nelle zone limitrofe (Hierapolis ve yakın çevresinde tarihsel deprem aktivitesi), (Eds: Francesco D’Andria e Francesca Silvestrelli.), Ricerche Archeologiche Nella Valle Del Lykos - Lykos Vadisi Türk Arkeoloji Araştırmaları, Universita Di Lecce, Scuola Di Specializzazione in Archeologia Classica e Medioevale, Congedo Editore, 299-325 (in Italian and Turkish). Altunel, E., and Hancock, P. L., 1993a, Morphology and structural setting of Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, Turkey: Geological Journal, 28, 335 – 346. Altunel, E. and Hancock, P. L., 1993b, Active fissuring and faulting in Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, western Turkey: Z. Geomorph. N. E. 285 - 302. Bozkurt, E. 2003. Origin of NE-trending basins in western Tukey. Geodinamica Acta 16, 61-81. Bozkuş, C. Kumsar, H. Özkul, M. and Hançer, M., 2000, Seismicity of Active fault under an extensional tectonic regime. In International Earth Science Colloquium on the Aegean Region, Dokuz Eylul Univ., Dept. of. Geology, Izmir-TURKEY. (Edited by O. Ö. Dora, İ. Özgenç and H. Sözbilir), Proceedings, p. 7-16. Brogi, A., Capezzuoli, E., Alçiçek, M.C., Gandin, A., 2014. Evolution of a fault-controlled fissure-ridge type travertine deposit in the western Anatolia extensional province: the Çukurbağ fissure-ridge (Pamukkale, Turkey). Journal of the Geological Society 171, 425-441. Canik, B., 1978, Denizli - Pamukkale sıcak su kaynaklarının sorunları. Jeoloji Mühendisliği Derg, 5, 29 -33. Claes, H., Soete, J., Van Noten, K., El Desouky, H., Erthal, M.M., Vanhaecke, F., Özkul, M., Swennen, R., 2015. Sedimentology, three-dimensional geobody reconstruction and carbon dioxide origin of Pleistocene travertine deposits in the Ballık area (south- west Turkey). Sedimentology 62, 1408–1445. Çakır, Z, 1999, Along-strike discontinuity of active normal faults and its influence on Quaternary travertine deposition: Examples from western Turkey: Tr. J. of Earth Sciences 8, 67-80. Demirkıran, Z. and Çalapkulu, F., 2001, Kaklık-Kocabaş travertenlerinin litolojik, morfolojik özellikleri ve sınıflandırılması: Mersem 2001, Türkiye III. Mermer Sempozyumu Bildiriler kitabı, 17-31, TMMOB Maden Müh. Odası Afyon Il Temsilciliği, Afyon. Ekmekçi, M. Günay, G. and Şimşek, Ş., 1995, Morphology of rimstone pools, Pamukkale, western Turkey: Cave Karst Sci., 22, 103-106. Ergin, K., Güçlü, U., Uz, Z., 1967, A catalogue of earthquake for Turkey and surrounding area (11 A.D. to 1964 A.D.), Technical University, Faculty of Mining Engineering, Istanbul. Erten, H., Sen, S. and Özkul M., 2005, Pleistocene mammals from travertine deposits of the Denizli basin (SW Turkey). Annales de Paléontologie, 91, 3, 267-278.

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Eşder, T. and Yılmazer, S., 1991, Pamukkale jeotermal kaynakları ve travertenlerin oluşumu: (Editör: N. Özer) Tıbbi Ekoloji ve Hidroklimatoloji Dergisi, Özel sayı. Glover, C.P., Robertson, A.H.F., 1998. Neotectonic intersection of the Aegean and Cyprus tectonic arcs: extensional and strike-slip faulting in the Angle, SW Turkey. Tectonophysics 298, 103-132. Gökgöz, A., 1998, Geochemistry of the Kızıldere-Tekkehamam-- Pamukkale Geothermal fields, Turkey. The United Nations University, Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavik, Iceland, Report Number 5, 115-156. Gökgöz, A. and Filiz, Ş., 1998, Pamukkale- Karahayıt dolayındaki sıcak ve mineralli sularla travertenleri kirleten etkilerin değerlendirilmesi ve bunların önlenmesi: Yerbilimleri (Geosound), 32, 29-43. Gökgöz, A., 1994, Pamukkale-Karahayıt-Gölemezli Hidrotermal Karstının Hidrojeolojisi: Doktora tezi, Süleyman Demirel Üniv. Fen Bil. Enst. 263s., Isparta. Gündoğan, İ., Helvacı, C., Sözbilir, H., 2008. Gypsiferous carbonates at HonazDağı (Denizli): first documentation of Triassic gypsum in western Turkey and its tectonic significance. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 32, 49–65. Horvatinčić, N., Özkul, M., Gökgöz, A. & Barešić, J., 2005. Isotopic and geochemical investigation of tufa in Denizli province, Turkey. Proceedings of International Travertine Symposium, 21-25 Sept. 2005, Denizli, Türkiye. Kele, S., Özkul, M., Gökgöz, A., Fórizs, I., Baykara, M.O., Alçiçek, M.C., Németh, T., 2011. Stable isotope geochemical and facies study of Pamukkale travertines: new evidences of low-temperature non-equilibrium calcite-water fractionation. Sedimentary Geology 238, 191–212. Özkul M. Varol B. & Alçiçek M.C. 2002. Depositional environments and petrography of Denizli travertines). Bulletin of Mineral Research and Exploration of Turkey, 125, 13- 29. Özkul M. Engin B. Alçiçek M.C. Koralay T. Demirtaşli H., 2004. Thermoluminescence dating of Quaternary hot spring travertines and some implications on graben evolution, Denizli, Western Turkey. 32nd International Geological Cogress, 20-28 August, 2004, p.1474 (335-9), Florence, Italy. Özkul, M., Kele, S., Gökgöz, A., Shen, C.C., Jones, B., Baykara, M.O., Fόrizs, I., Nemeth, T., Chang, Y.-W. and Alçiçek, M.C., 2013. Comparison of the Quaternary travertine sites in the Denizli Extensional Basin based on their depositional and geochemical data. Sedimentary Geology, 294, 179–204. Özpınar, Y., M., Heybeli, H., Semiz, B., Baran, H. A. and Koçan, B., 2001, Kocabaş ve Denizli travertenlerinin jeolojik, petrografik özellikleri ve oluşumunun incelenmesi, teknik açıdan değerlendirilmesi: Mersem 2001, Türkiye III. Mermer Sempozyumu Bildiriler kitabı, 133-148, TMMOB Maden Müh. Odası Afyon Il Temsilciliği, Afyon. Pentecost, A., Bayari, S. and Yesertener, C., 1997, Phototrophic microorganisms of the Pamukkale Travertine, Turkey: Their distribution and influence on travertine deposition. Geomicrobiology Jour., 14, 269-283. Piccardi, L., 2004, The A.D. 60”Neronian Earthquake” and the apparition of archancel Michael at (Denizli Basin, Aegean Turkey), 32nd International Geological Congress, Session 183, Agust 20-28, 2004, T17.05-Myth and Geology, Florence, Italy.

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Sun, S., 1990. Denizli-Uşak arasının jeolojisi ve linyit olanakları (geology and lignite potential between Denizli and Uşak). Scientific report of the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration of Turkey; No: 9985, , Turkey (in Turkish), p. 92. Şentürk, F., Sayman, Y., Yalçın, H. and Ağacık, G., 1971, Pamukkale sıcak suları ve travertenleri üzerinde araştırma, D. S. İ. Araştırma Dairesi Başkanlığı, Ara rapor. Rapor No. Ki - 507, Ankara. Van Noten, K., Claes, H., Soete, J., Foubert, A., Özkul, M., Swennen, R., 2013. Fracture networks and strike-slip deformation along reactivated normal faults in Quaternary travertine deposits, Denizli Basin, western Turkey. Tectonophysics 588, 154–170. Westaway, R., 1990, Block rotationin western Turkey. 1. Observational evidence: Journal of Geophysical Research, 95,19857-19884. Westaway, R., 1993, Neogene evolution of the Denizli region of western Turkey: Journal of Structural Geology, 15, 37-53.

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