Enbridge Northern Gateway Project Joint Review Panel

IN THE MATTER OF : ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT JOINT REVIEW PANEL

NORTHERN GATEWAY PIPELINES INC.

Application for ENBRIDGE NORTHERN GATEWAY PROJECT Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity

Hearing Order: HO-4-2011

“…it’s going to gain for somebody, but it’s not going to gain for any of us that live here.”*

WRITTEN EVIDENCE OF THE INTERVENORS UNITED FISHERMEN AND ALLIED WORKERS’UNION-CAW (UFAWU-CAW)

January 2012

Submission: UFAWU-CAW 1.4 Fish and Fisheries: Salmon Sockeye-Coho

Pages 40- 63

UFAWU-CAW 869 Fraser Street Prince Rupert, B.C. V8J 1R1 Phone: 250 624 6048 Head Office: Fax: 250 627-7951 United Fishermen and Allied Workers’ Union-CAW E-mail [email protected] First Floor 326 12th Street New Westminster, B.C. TABLE OF CONTENTS

SOCKEYE SALMON (Oncorhynchus nerka): ...... 40 Central/north coast sockeye harvests ...... 46 Catch figures: ...... 46 Sockeye salmon products: ...... 46 Conservation and Escapements ...... 47 Spawning barrier overcome ...... 51 COHO SALMON (Oncorhynchus kisutch) ...... 57 Central/north coast coho harvests ...... 59 Catch figures: ...... 62 Coho salmon products: ...... 62 Conservation and Escapements ...... 62

SOCKEYE SALMON (Oncorhynchus nerka):

Tyee Test Net: - Gillnetter test boat fishing on the Skeena at Tyee. DFO uses the sockeye catch figures to determine sockeye escapements and run size75

113 Sockeye salmon on the central/north coast is the second most abundant salmonid after pink salmon. It is the most sought after salmon by the net (gillnet and seine) fleet due to its relatively high price, weight and abundance. Sockeye return as 3-6 year old adults weighing 1.5 – 3.5 kg and spawn from June to October. Most fisheries for sockeye on the central/north coasts occur in June, July and August. From July -September, inland fisheries take place on Nass and Skeena sockeye.

114 Sockeye exhibit a greater variety of fresh-water life history than the other salmonids. Most sockeye spawn in moving water, although there are a fair number of stocks that spawn on lake bottoms (lake spawners). The vast majority of sockeye fry, after hatching, are genetically programed to swim to a lake where they will feed and grow from 1-3 years. Of these stocks, some spawn below a lake and their fry must swim upstream to reach the lake, other sockeye stocks will spawn in a tributary above a lake and their fry swim downstream to the lake. A few stocks (ocean type) will, like pinks and chum, after hatching migrate directly to sea.

115 Sockeye fry live in their nursery lake for 1-3 years, the length of time generally dependent on the amount of food in the lake, and then out-migrate to the ocean. Sockeye leave the lakes as smolt after they have reached a certain size in the lake. Some sockeye will not out-migrate and will remain in the lake and are called residual sockeye and Kokanee.

116 When the eggs hatch, like pinks, sockeye fry must swim to the top of the water and gulp air to create neutral buoyancy. (p34) They then swim to the lake, generally alongside the edge of the river if they are swimming up-stream. Once in the lake, for the first month or so most fry will feed along the shallow edges of the lake on dipteran insect larvae then move into the limnetic or upper lake water away from shore and feed on copepods, particularly Diaptomus and Cyclops. Late spring or early summer, most sockeye fry become pelagic feeders and target Daphnia, Bosmina and Cyclops. Sockeye fry feeding habits are varied between lakes particularly due to predator avoidance from birds 76 as well as trout, coho and sticklebacks. (Burgner 1991)

117 After one year or more in the nursery lake, sockeye undergo physiological changes and change from fry to smolt normally in late winter or early spring. Once they become smolt, usually between March-May, they migrate in large schools out of the lake downstream to the ocean. By this time they are much larger than pink and chum fry who out-migrate in a very tiny state. Salmon that have hatched from eggs the same spring do not necessarily smolt out in the same year. Fry from the same age class of eggs can remain in the lake for one, two and three years, creating a mix of genetic material as they may very well return to spawn in different years than their ‘nest mates’ due to differing lengths of time in the nursery lake.

118 Once in the marine environment, sockeye smolts usually remain for a month in the estuary of their natal river where they become acclimatized to salt water and feed on the ample food usually found in estuaries. They remain in the nearshore environment while migrating north, normally migrating alongside juvenile chum and pink salmon. Studies in the Gulf and Strait of Georgia have shown that there are interspecific differences in diet between the three species of salmonids: chum concentrated on Oikopleura larvae, pink on small copepods and invertebrate eggs and sockeye on copepods, 77 amphipods and insects. (Burgner 1991)

119 There have been at least three recent important study areas on sockeye juvenile migrations. There are studies on sockeye smolts and sea lice, sockeye juveniles and POST array, and Rivers and Smith sockeye. Data from these studies show that for the most part, juvenile sockeye travel northward feeding mainly on planktonic food, from May to September, co-migrating with many other sockeye stocks and co-mingling with chum and pinks as they travel.

120 Tucker et al (2009) wrote a report on juvenile sockeye DNA samples taken from Washington to Alaska from May-February 1996-2007. This study reports that in spring and summer, sockeye juveniles are found close to their natal rivers, by fall most sockeye juveniles had moved north and were found between central BC and SE Alaska. Most Fraser sockeye juveniles migrate northward through Johnstone Strait into Queen Charlotte Sound by May-June and then through Hecate Strait in northern BC to Alaska. Fraser sockeye are prevalent from July to October/November on the BC central and north coasts. Juvenile Fraser sockeye presence was highest on the central coast in May- June and declined in July-August although still present in large numbers. There are interesting exceptions - one is that juveniles from Rivers and Smiths Inlets on the central coast remain and rear in the coastal region (central coast) for at least six months – from May to November - and do not

migrate north with the other sockeye stocks. This study has no data from November to May.(Tucker 78 2009)

121 Sockeye from Rivers and Smiths Inlets on the central coast used to return in numbers that supported a large commercial fishery. In 1996 the stocks collapsed and scientists have been studying these sockeye to determine why they collapsed and why, in the absence of fishing, they have not rebuilt. The current hypothesis is that there is a lack of food available for these stocks in their early marine life. Juvenile sockeye feed on plankton and the quality and quantity of available plankton is critical to their growth and survival in coastal waters before migration into the open ocean. If plankton feed has been reduced for any reason, it is expected that the juvenile Rivers and Smith sockeye would 79 have very poor survival rates. (RIES)

122 Allan Gottesfeld et al studied juvenile salmon at the mouth of the Skeena River in 2004 and 2005 to determine baseline data for the number of sea lice that would normally be attached onto Skeena area juvenile salmonids and other species. The study was focused on pinks; comparatively few juvenile 80 sockeye were found. (Gottesfield et al 2006) The sockeye juveniles that were caught were found concentrated in relatively large numbers in Ogden Channel in late May and early June. In mid-June, the study found that the sockeye were more spread out over the entire Skeena area in a migration to open sea.

123 Figure 23 shows the distributions of juvenile sockeye indicated by CPUE in 2004 and 2005(Gottesfield et 81 al 2006) .

124 In 2007, further studies were done in the Skeena and Nass estuary areas concentrating on sockeye 82 juveniles. (Gottesfield et al 2008) Sockeye stomachs were examined for food content and type. Plankton tows were made to compare the plankton in the area to the food content.

125 Studies on salinity and current patterns driven by the Skeena and Nass discharges in 2007 confirmed those found by Gottesfield et al in 2004 and 2005 and Trites (1952) study on Skeena and Nass flows. The Skeena River flows out until it meets Kennedy and Porcher Islands where the fresh water outflow divides with 25% flowing south down Ogden Channel and 75% travelling north along Digby Island and northwest into Chatham Sound (Trites 1952). (Gottesfield 83 et al 2006)

84 (Gottesfield et al 2006)

126 The large volumes of water from the Skeena outflow and the high tide range on the north coast result in tidal velocities often greater than 1 knot on inflows and 2 knots on outflows. The flows exceed the swimming speeds of pink fry and chum, sweeping them along in the outward flow of the Skeena and then the inward flows of the tide. These velocities are equivilent to the peak sustained swimming 85 velocities of the larger chinook, coho and sockeye smolts.( Gottesfield et al 2008)

127 In mid to late June, high discharge from the later melting Nass pushes up against the Skeena outflow , directing more of the Skeena River water south via Grenville and Ogden Channels through Beaver and Schooner Passages and Petrel Channel to Hecate Strait. This greater southward flow of water 86 comes just as the Skeena sockeye smolts are out-migrating. (Gottesfield et al 2006)

128 Sockeye smolts were found in large numbers in late May and early June, in May closer in to the Skeena estuary and later in June moving northward and southward with the bifurcated flow pattern of the Skeena River. Mid-June sockeye are found only in the seaward half of Ogden and along the shore half way to the Nass. By the last week of June and the first week of July, few sockeye smolts were left in the near estuary shore; a small number were found on the south Porcher shore and mid- 87 Chatham Sound. (Gottesfield et al 2008)

(Gottesfield et al 2008) Juvenile sockeye catches by trawl May 26 – June 6, 20. These were the weeks of the greatest out- migration of sockeye smolts.

129 Other important points from the Gottesfield et al 2008 Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound:

 Several hundred million juveniles leave the Nass and Skeena Rivers each spring.  Most of the sockeye juveniles found in the Skeena estuary area were from the Skeena River.  A significant number of Nass sockeye smolts were found in northern and western Chatham Sound. A few Nass juveniles were found near Port Edward just north of the mouth of the Skeena; it is believed that these sockeye were pushed down by the Nass River flood.  Coastal lake sockeye from Fisheries Management Area 5 and 6 were found later in the season, mostly in Ogden Channel  A small number of central coast sockeye juveniles were found at Kennedy Island  Sockeye actively feed and grow during their four to six weeks in the Skeena estuary  Sockeye juveniles ate primarily freshwater cladocerans when immediately adjacent to the Skeena River.  Further seaward at Kennedy Island, Calanoid copepods and oikopleuran larvaceans were the major food source  In Ogden Channel and South Chatham Sound, further seaward again, and therefore further into June and July when the sockeye were larger, Oikopleurans and barnacle cyprids were common foods along with small fish.  Sockeye juveniles were selective feeders; the food eaten differed from the composition of food available (as taken in the plankton trawl surveys in the same area 89 (Gottesfield et al 2008 )

130 By fall, most sockeye juveniles have migrated to the Gulf of Alaska or the North Pacific Ocean, except for juveniles from River and Smith Inlets most of whom seem to spend their first winter on the central coast and possibly migrate to the North Pacific in the following spring.

131 Sockeye live from 2-3 years in the North Pacific with the majority returning to spawn as 4 or 5 year olds. Some central/north coast sockeye return as 3 year olds (jacks) or 6 year olds (from lakes with poor food supply). Because of their complex fresh water out-migration timing (over 1-3 years) and their different times at sea, sockeye are quite diverse within the same stock. However, sockeye show some of the strongest ‘homing’ behaviour and seldom spawn in a different place from where they were hatched, where as the much less age diverse pink salmon evidence more ‘straying’ behaviour in that they will spawn close to but not necessarily in their natal system.

132 While at sea, sockeye adults eat mainly eat small fish, squid, euphausids, other crustaceans and 90 macrozooplanktons. (Burgner 1991)

133 The following charts show the food available and the food eaten by sockeye juveniles in 2007

91 (Gottesfield el al 2008)

The sockeye smolts changed their choice of food as they grew larger and moved further out to sea

Central/north coast sockeye harvests

134 Central/north coast sockeye are harvested solely by the net (gillnet and seine) fleet in the marine environment as trollers are unable to hook central/north coast sockeye. Much sockeye is now harvested in Nass and Skeena inland commercial fisheries by gillnets, dipnets, beach seines and fish wheels. Sharing arrangements between the seine and gillnet fleet are 75% gillnet and 25% seine. Sockeye from Rivers and Smiths Inlets are traditionally harvested by gillnetters and Gardner Canal sockeye is normally retained as seine bycatch, although in some years it makes a good part of the seine fleets’ income.

2001-2007 average sockeye harvest sorted by gear and.quantile

92 93 BCMCA Atlas Commercial fisheries sockeye (seine) 2001-2007 BCMCA Atlas Commercial fisheries sockeye (seine) 2001-2007

Catch figures:

135 Please refer to the attached appendix for information on harvest statistics

Sockeye salmon products:

136 Most sockeye caught on the central/north coasts is canned in high end canned products. An increasing amount, however, is being marketed dressed (cleaned) fresh or fresh frozen or as fillets.

Sockeye eggs are an important product for terminal fisheries and some sockeye from inland fisheries is being smoked.

Conservation and Escapements

137 Due to their complex life history and the fact that they fastidiously return to their natal stream, sockeye have the highest number of Conservation Units of any salmonid. Almost every individual lake that supports a juvenile sockeye stock has a different sockeye CU. There are also a few CUs for stocks that go directly to the ocean and do not rear in a lake.

There are 10 River-type CUs

The above map contains the Lake-type Sockeye Conservation Units for the inland north coast (Skeena and Nass systems). There are a total of 141 Sockeye CUs in the central/north coast (each number represents a CU):

131 Lake type Lake-type Sockeye CUs for and the central coast and Haida 10 River-type Gwaii (CUs: Holtby/Ciruna 2007)94

138 The 141 central/north coast sockeye stocks are not all commercially targeted. Many coastal CUs are too small to support a directed commercial harvest and so any sockeye caught from these systems are inadvertant by-catch. However, coastal sockeye stocks support First Nations Food Social and Ceremonial (FSC) fisheries and some First Nations are identifying sockeye stocks close to home where small commercial ‘pocket’ fisheries can take place.

139 Most sockeye stocks on the Skeena return between July and August and the commercial net fisheries take place during the summer months. Because there are so many CUs on the Skeena and the Nass, there are weak stocks that co- migrate with plentiful stocks. The management problem is how to harvest the strong stocks and avoid the weak ones – or what harvest rate (percent of fish caught) can the smaller runs handle without spiralling downward. Of all fish, sockeye is the most difficult to manage due to the plethora of CUs and one small run can that is doing poorly can shut down the whole fishery and cost the fishing industry millions of dollars in foregone harvests.(See Terrace Standard article below) Some of the larger runs can be harvested terminally but markets for terminally caught sockeye have not been fully developed.

140 The DFO is in the midst of developing benchmarks for sockeye – to guide them on how many sockeye must return to the spawning grounds for each CU in order to ensure that none extripate.

141 The following charts were created by the UFAWU-CAW using DFO fisheries statistics.

The total Skeena Sockeye run has had a smaller number of spawners in the past decade. However, when normal levels of ocean productivity return, we have enough sockeye on the spawning grounds to see a return to past years’ production levels

142 The following graphs show the drop in Exploitation Rate endured by the commercial net fleet since 2002.

Skeena Sockeye Commercial Exploitation Rates Sockeye marine commercial % catch 60 (exploitation rates) have been decreasing. 50 Since 2002 DFO has 40 cut catch rates in half 30 to ensure that more spawners from weaker 20

Exploitation Rate Exploitation stocks are making it 10 past the fishery. 0 1.0M 1.5M 2.0M 2.5M 3.0M 3.5M 4.0M 4.5M 5.0M 5.5M 6.0M Run Size 95 (UFAWU-CAW)

Commercial marine Exploitation Rate as compared to the total Exploitation Rate

96 Exploitation rates (% caught) are (UFAWU-CAW) decreasing on Skeena salmon

stocks. However, the marine fishery harvest has born the greatest burden of conservation.

Skeena sockeye run – catch and escapement. Escapement as a percentage of run is increasing

Escapement and Total Return to Canada

8,000,000 90

Total RTC 7,000,000 80

70 6,000,000 escapement

60 5,000,000 % escapement 50 4,000,000 Linear (% 40 escapement) 3,000,000 30

2,000,000 20

1,000,000 10

0 0 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006

97 (UFAWU-CAW)

143 The green bars represent the total number of sockeye that return to Canada each year from the North Pacific Ocean. The purple bars represent the number of sockeye that make it to the spawning grounds up the Skeena River. The blue line shows the percentage of the Skeena sockeye that is making it to the spawning grounds and the black straight line is a trend line. What this shows is the escapements (number of spawners that ‘escape’ to the spawning grounds) has remained relatively the same, numerically, but is increasing as a percentage of the total run.

144 The marine commercial salmon fishery is not doing as well as the past in the numbers of fish harvested or in the percentage harvested by the marine fleet. Sockeye has been allocated, by policy, to inland or terminal fisheries and of course, this has reduced the marine harvest. The DFO is, also by policy, in particular the Wild Salmon Policy, reducing harvests of plentiful sockeye stocks in order to put more spawners from weaker stocks on the spawning grounds.

145 In accordance with the Wild Salmon Policy, if DFO identifies that there is a problem with even only one sockeye stock, it will shut down the whole commercial fishery to ensure that enough sockeye will make it up to spawn, even if it costs the commercial industry millions of dollars.

146 For example, in 2010, DFO identified a problem with a stock of sockeye on the Nass River, called the Kwinageese stock. They shut down the entire commercial salmon fishery on the Nass River for 98 three weeks (July 8-28, 2011) (DFO NC Update 2011) to ensure that as few Kwinageese sockeye as possible would be intercepted in the fishery and the greatest number would make it up the Nass River to the Kwinageese River. Luckily, Nisga’a Fisheries located a barrier on the Kwinageese and rectified the problem, allowing the Kwinageese sockeye to swim pass the barrier in 2010 and reach the spawning grounds. However, DFO will restrict the fishery for three more years to ensure that the Kwinageese sockeye have enough spawners on each cycle year.

Spawning barrier overcome Published: August 24, 2011 6:00 AM CONTRIBUTED PHOTO

LARGE concrete blocks lowered by helicopter into a pool on the Kwinageese River have raised the pool, allowing salmon to leap over a tall waterfall that had been blocking passage to spawning grounds located upriver.

KWINAGEESE RIVER salmon are once more making their way to their spawning grounds after biologists and engineers crafted a plan to help them clear a waterfall that had been blocking their passage.

A helicopter was used to place heavy concrete blocks in a pool at the bottom of the waterfall, thus raising it so the salmon would not have to leap as far to clear the waterfall.

The waterfall was caused when slabs of rock sheared off and tumbled into the river. Bob Bocking, a biologist with the environmental consulting firm LGL which is contracted to the Nisga’a Fish and Wildlife Department, said everything from permits to stockpiling the concrete blocks as close to the waterfall as possible came together perfectly.

“It’s pretty exciting,” said Bocking of figures indicating 4,700 sockeye and more than 600 chinook had passed a counting weir within several days of the blocks being placed late in the afternoon of Aug. 12. By Aug. 1The pool was raised approximately one meter, meaning the salmon had to leap approximately two metres which is within their capabilities.

Biologists began wondering what was wrong with the Kwinageese River salmon run, which is part of the Nass River run, after returns dropped off dramatically beginning in 2009. “We knew by DNA at the fish wheels there were lots but they didn’t make it to spawn,” said Bocking. Biologists first thought low water might be a reason but soon turned their thinking to the possibility of some sort of blockage. A survey of the Kwinageese resulted in finding the blockage on July 26.

Large concrete blocks weighing 4,500 pounds commonly used to stabilize slopes were chosen. “The first one was placed at noon and we were done by 6 pm,” said Bocking.

Even though the Kwinageese run is only about 5 per cent of the entire Nass run, the impact of having so few spawners return home was widespread. That’s because DFO and Nisga’a fisheries officials both restricted Nass sockeye openings in order to have as many Kwinageese salmon as possible return to spawn.

“Fishing plans are now structured to protect all stocks so to protect a weaker run like the Kwinageese, the larger fishery was affected,” said Bocking.“So a lot of commercial fishermen should be breathing a sigh of relief,” he added of the success of the project. (Terrace 99 Standard Aug 24,2011)

[We have edited this article for brevity. Emphasis is ours - UFAWU-CAW]

147 Haida Gwaii sockeye are not commercially harvested. Areas 1, 2E and 2W have not had commercial sockeye fisheries for over 40 years.

148 Area 3 (Nass) has 14 sockeye CUs; 12 are tributaries to the Nass and two others empty into Area 3. The major producers are the Meziadin, Bowser, Damdochax, Kwinageese, Gingit and the mainstem Nass, itself. The Nass has been managed to aggregate escapements driven by the largest stock (Meziadin). The DFO has recently completed a survey of the sockeye CU stock status and is now reducing the total Nass sockeye fishing time in order to protect two stocks of concern. DFO plans to manage the Nass sockeye stocks to ensure that the weakest CUs rebuild to some as yet known level.

Sockeye escapements to the Kwinageese River have been extremely poor for at least the previous two years. Management actions were taken in 2011 to reduce harvest impacts on Kwinageese sockeye reducing marine commercial fishing opportunities from July 8th to July 28th (peak migration timing of Kwinageese sockeye through the 100 commercial fishery based on DNA analysis) in Area 3 (DFO NC Post Season Review 2011)

149 Area 4 (Skeena) has the largest return of sockeye north of the Fraser River. There are 30 sockeye Lake-type Conservation Units in Area 4. Skeen sockeye, up to 10 years ago, was managed by aggregate sockeye escapements driven by Babine Lake sockeye, the largest run. DFO is now managing to the weakest stocks, reducing the commercial marine harvests on all stocks in order to protect the weakest stocks. Many issues have impacted Skeena sockeye, habitat impacts from logging, mining, ranching, farming and rural/urban development. High fishing pressures by commercial marine and inland fisheries, have exacerbated negative environmental impacts.

150 However, the biggest negative impact on the commercial marine fleet is DFO’s determination to reduce the percentage catch of Skeena sockeye in order to increase less productive, smaller stocks.

151 As sockeye stocks return to the Skeena in ‘waves’ with fish from the same destination travelling together in one run timing, the marine fishery has been able to shape it’s fishery to some extent to successfully avoid some weak stocks. For example, Lakelse Lake sockeye return in June and Morice/Nanika Lake sockeye return the first two weeks of July. The commercial fishery avoids fishing during these weeks to ensure that a maximum number of these weak stock sockeye make it to the spawning grounds. Late in the sockeye season, Kitwanga sockeye, another weak stock, passes through the fishing area. Fishing is reduced or halted at this time to allow a greater escapement of the 101 Kitwanga.(IFMP 2011) Of concern is an oil spill that impacts these weak stocks that we are protecting and further worsening their weak status.

152 The Northern B.C. Integrated Management Fisheries Plan 2011 says under Section 5 Objectives:

5.1.2 Skeena River Sockeye The aggregate Skeena sockeye return consists of runs from 25 different sockeye stocks. The objective for Skeena River sockeye is to harvest any surplus in a sustainable fashion, to enable rebuilding individual sockeye stocks of concern.

To achieve the objective, Canadian commercial exploitation rates will be based on run size, starting from zero at any run size below 1,050,000, climbing to 20% at run sizes of 2.0M, to 30% at run sizes of 5.0M, and thereafter maintaining a 30% 102 Canadian commercial exploitation rate. (IFMP 2011)

153 DFO, as a policy decision, has is also developing new commercial fisheries on the river, inland hundreds of kilometres. Fish is removed from the commercial marine fishery and transferred inland for up-river harvests. Capacity is growing both for harvesting and marketing this inland harvest and it is now a permanent part of the Skeena fishery.

154 The complexity of managing the sockeye fishery on the Skeena to meet all of the Department of Fisheries and Ocean’s objectives makes for a delicate balancing act for the marine commercial fishery. Especially of serious concern is any increase in conservation problems for inland sockeye stocks, perhaps by the effects of an oil spill.

155 Area 5, 6 and 7 sockeye are coastal sockeye and the sockeye CU map above identifies the huge number of Conservation Units on the central/north coasts. Pretty well every lake that sockeye return to is a separate CU; and DFO manages to each individual sockeye CU. Therefore, any sockeye fishery on local Area 5, 6, 7 or 8 stocks has to make sure that the CU has met the DFO pre- determined escapement target before it is opened for commercial harvest.

156 Some bycatch in pink directed seine fisheries in these Areas is permitted; some years there is a fair bycatch of Gardner Canal sockeye mixed in with Area 6 pinks.

157 The IFMP (fishing plan) permits harvest of coastal sockeye if First Nations FSC fisheries are over and the First Nation believes that there is enough sockeye to support a marine commercial fishery:

103 (IFMP 2011)

158 Area 8 has and important sockeye stock that returns to spawn in the Atnarko River. Unfortunately, productivity has been down for a number of years and although there is no directed fishery impacting the Atnarko sockeye it has had a serious decline.

159 Area 9 Rivers Inlet has important sockeye stocks which supported very large gillnet fisheries from the late 1800s to the mid 1990s. Then in 1996 Rivers Inlet was closed to sockeye fishing because the Owikeno Lake sockeye CU had collapsed.

104 (Wagner DFO)

160 After 15 years with no commercial fishery and for no apparent reason, in 2011, the sockeye run came back in large numbers to Rivers Inlet and Owikeno Lake. Desired escapements were in the two hundred thousand to six hundred thousand range, and the run size came back at over 400,000 sockeye. No fishery was permitted but if productivity has returned, we will be hopeful for near-future opportunities.

161 Many scientists have now come to the conclusion that the collapse and continued severe depression of the Rivers (and Smith Inlet) sockeye stocks is because of available feed when the juvenile sockeye are entering the saltwater environment in early spring.

The Rivers Inlet Ecosystem Study (RIES), funded by the Tula foundation, was created in 2008 as a collaboration between SFU and UBC, to examine the impacts of spring productivity (the bio-physical things that happen in spring time like increasing sunlight for photosynthesis, spring winds mixing the sea surface, freshwater runoff ) and its impacts on ocean conditions. Juvenile sockeye are impacted by the results of spring productivity because they feed on the zooplankton that feed on the phytoplankton that are influenced by what happens in the spring. An understanding of the dynamics of spring production, and how it affects juvenile sockeye growth may give some understanding why the collapse of the Rivers Inlet sockeye. Currently, one of the leading hypotheses for sockeye declines in British Columbia, including the Rivers Inlet population, is increased mortality in the early marine phase of their life cycle. Juvenile sockeye salmon feed on plankton and it is therefore expected that changes in the seasonal timing of plankton blooms, affecting the quality and quantity of plankton prey available to them, is critical to their growth and development in 105 coastal waters before migration into the open ocean. (RIES)

162 The importance of plankton to juvenile salmonids cannot be understated. There are serious concerns about the impact of oil on plankton and the resultant negative impacts on salmon as evidenced in the problems that Rivers sockeye have faced.

106 (Wagner DFO)

163 Area 10, Smith Inlet is the next major inlet south of Rivers inlet. Smith Inlet-Long Lake sockeye suffered the same precipitous decline at the same time as Owikeno sockeye.

As the graph shows, Smith Inlet sockeye collapsed in the early-mid 1990s and has had no fishery since that time. Long lake used to be fertilized so that increased number of sockeye could rear in the lake. DFO stopped fertilizing the lake and have dropped the escapement requirements correspondingly.

164 In 2011, with required escapements of 100,000, DFO opened the inlet for the first fishery in 15 years. Gillnetters harvested over 43,000 sockeye and the escapement was 140,000 – well over escapement targets. This unexpected run was worth $600,000 to the fishermen alone.

165 Both Rivers and Smith Inlet sockeye exemplify the resilience of salmonids. Here are two stocks which been at very low levels of production and productivity to a point close to extirpation and something goes right and the rebound is instantaneous. This is why we are concerned that the prevailing thought by many in the public is that the salmon fishery is almost defunct- the resource is not just renewable but can rebuild exceedingly quickly if conditions are right. As seen earlier, sockeye from Rivers and Smith Inlet do not migrate to the Gulf of Alaska right away as do most other sockeye juveniles, but spend their first winter feeding on the central coast. Our concern is that an oil spill could reduce their feed and send these fish back on a downward spiral.

MAP NO.3 ADULT PINK, CHUM AND SOCKEYE SALMON MIGRATION ROUTES

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Pacific Region Habitat Management Division February 1985 107

COHO SALMON (Oncorhynchus kisutch)

166 Coho salmon is the most widely dispersed salmon throughout central/northern B.C. watersheds. Coho spawn in the headwaters of Nass and Skeena tributaries as well as in short coastal streams; almost all systems have coho populations. However, coho numbers are relatively small compared to the fresh water areas that they are found in. Coho return generally return as 2-3 year old adults from mid-July to November weighing from 2.5-6.5 kilograms; upper tributary coho entering earlier and short stream coastal coho entering later. Fisheries take place mid-July to late September on the central/north coasts. In the commercial fleet, coho are mostly harvested by trollers.

167 Coho spawn in September to December and are usually the last salmon to spawn; coastal coho spawn later than coho that travel far inland up the Nass and Skeena.(Gottesfield and Rabnett)108 Coho lay their eggs in moving water which hatch in early spring. Unlike pink and chum, whose fry immediately migrate downstream to the ocean, and more similar to sockeye, coho fry in live fresh water for their first year of life. Unlike sockeye, however, coho fry utilize a large number of habitats during their fresh water period- streams, back or side channels, ponds and lakes. Coho fry spread out, they will migrate both up and downstream and stream coho fry will establish a territory which they will defend from other small fish including other coho fry. In lakes, coho usually rear in the litteral zone. (Sandercock 1991)109

168 The size of a coho fry’s territory is dependent on the food supply of benthic organisms and that territories were smaller when intruder presser was high. As the fry grow, so does there need for larger territory and coho will be chased out or leave a crowded area as they grow. Coho depend on sight for locating and capturing food and usually feed on food in suspension or pick food off the water’s surface or jump into the air after flying insects. Coho fry eat insects (especially chironomids, dipterans) in all stages from larval to adult fly. As juvenile coho grow larger and especially as yearlings, salmon fry become a favored food, particularly pink,chum and sockeye fry although they will eat any small fish.(Sandercock 1991)110

169 Coho juveniles in fresh water are food to trout and birds and because of their larger size by mink and otter in the winter. According to Larkin if coho fry are reduced to small numbers in an area, predators can eliminate coho juveniles entirely. (Sandercock 1991)111

170 Coho fry grow quickly over the summer months, their growth slows over winter and then in the spring they feed heavily on insects and small fry and complete their pre-smolt phase before out- migrating to the ocean. Coho juveniles will remain in fresh water for one to three years before out- migrating, depending on how long it takes to reach smolt size of 10 cm long or greater. On the central north coast, one to two winters are the normal time for coho to spend in streams or lakes.

171 When coho smolts arrive in the estuary they remain in the estuary or near shore environment for as long as two months to feed and grow. (Spence and Hall 2009)112:

It is important that juvenile coho grow rapidly in their first months at sea; it is believed that those that do not meet a critical size after first summer at sea are less likely to 57

survive the following winter because they are unable to meet minimum metabolic demands. There is a temporally limited “window of opportunity” in the ocean environment, a period when conditions for growth and survival are most favorable.

172 Although the Spence and Hall 2009 study did not examine central/north coast coho, they looked at coho stocks from Alaska to Oregon and concluded that there is a regular temporal migration pattern for fresh water coho smolt out-migration that does not vary much from year to year. The timing of the coho smolt out-migration is thought to be linked to a period of high estuarine and near-shore ocean productivity of coho food. If the timing of the window of opportunity changes due to changing ocean conditions or other factors rendering poor food sources, coho smolts have poor survivals. Alaskan coho have short fresh water out-migration periods because they have adapted to a narrow, but highly predictable window of favourable ocean conditions whereas southern BC and US coho have a longer and more variable out-migration period which is believed to be a hedge against 113 unpredictable ocean conditions and food sources.(Spence 2009) There is no reason to believe that central/north coast coho smolt have differing behavior; therefore, if they out-migrate during a period of no food, when there should be food, their survivability will be poor.

173 There are two classes of coho: some coho juveniles, after spending a shorter time in nearshore waters migrate north to the Gulf of Alaska, while others remain as adults in near shore marine areas not far from their natal stream. Juveniles from the same year class and the same stock can be found to both migrate northward and remain closer to home in inshore waters; the likely reason linked to the availability and competition for food. Gottesfield estimates that one half of Skeena coho remain in the coastal waters off BC while the other half migrate to SE Alaska. Coho reside and feed in surface 114 waters off the coastal areas. (Gottesfield and Rabnett 2008)

174 Coho juveniles from California, Oregon, Washington and the Fraser River migrate up the west coast of Vancouver Island, across Queen Charlotte Sound into Hecate Strait, Chatham Sound and out through Dixon Entrance from July to September. (DFO Responses 1985)115 Coho juveniles from Washington and Oregon make up a significant proportion of the coho stocks that follow the coastal migration belt to Gulf of Alaska. (Sandercock 1991) 116

175 According to Gottesfield et al 2006, juvenile coho out-migrate to marine areas from local watersheds near the end of May.

176 In 2004, coho juveniles were only found at Anger Island. In 2005, coho juveniles were found in Ogden Channel and near the Kinahan Islands. (see figures at left - light green dots). (Gottesfield et al 117 2006)

177 Whether the ocean or stay near home type of coho, juveniles start feeding on marine invertebrates but as they grow larger they feed on fish. Coho, during their estuarine and early marine life, are important predators of chum and pink fry as well as other small fish such as juvenile herring, sand lance and smelt. Coho also eat marine invertebrates including amphipods, isopods and crab megalops. Crab megalops and herring larvae are a preferred larval food on the north coast. The diet of adult coho is similar to that of chinook as they are both piscivorous salmonids eating many types of fish and squid, however, a coho’s diet includes a higher percentage of invertebrates (20% as 118 compared to a chinook’s invertebrate diet of 3%) (Sandercock 1991)

178 After 16 months at sea, coho return to spawn. Many adult coho will return to the marine area in the vicinity of their natal river in late spring or early summer and feed until they move into fresh water to spawn. On the north coast coho are well known for doubling their weight between June and September.

179 Unlike chum, sockeye and chinook, coho exhibit straying behavior; they do not necessarily spawn in the stream where they hatched. Coho will spawn in their natal streams or in other streams or tributaries close to their natal streams. It is postulated that this is a survival mechanism because as coho spawn in a plethora of small coastal streams and in the small headwaters of inland tributaries, these shallower streams can dry up or change structure from year to year.

Central/north coast coho harvests

180 In Canada, the vast majority of central/north coast coho are harvested by two fisheries: commercial troll and recreational fisheries. The largest commercial troll fishery for coho is off Haida Gwaii and harvests coho stocks from all over the west coast of North America. Trollers in Areas 1, 2 East and 2 West will harvest coho from Alaskan, Haida Gwaii, Skeena and Nass, central/north coastal stocks, BC south coast and Washington and Oregon stocks.

119 (Walters et al 2008 Addendum)

181 Presently, Alaskan troll and net fisheries take 63% - 80% of the total harvest of Skeena coho in their 120 fisheries. (Walters et al 2008 Addendum)

182 Alaska takes a higher percentage of the Nass coho and a smaller percentage of the central coast coho; Alaskan take of BC coho diminishes the further south the stock spawns.

183 The Canadian troll fishery portion is 25% of the total Skeena coho catch. See graph below.

184 Coho total exploitation rates (percentage of the stock that is harvested) from all fisheries – Alaskan and Canadian were between 60%-70% throughout the 1980s to the mid-1990s.

185 In 1997, coho stocks crashed, both from a period of low ocean productivity and high exploitation rates.

121 (Walters et al 2008 Addendum)

186 DFO responded by halting all Canadian fisheries on any coho anywhere by recreational and commercial fisheries and First Nations were asked to reduce their harvests or avoid coho altogether. (Dotted line above is the Canadian sports, commercial land First Nations combined Exploitation Rate 122 – the percentage of the total catch taken by all Canadians) (Walters et al 2008 Addendum)

187 From 1998 –2000, Canadian commercial and recreational fishermen did not take any coho; Canadian exploitation rates were at zero to three percent. The Alaskan graph above shows that for these years the Alaskans were taking close to 100% of the Skeena coho catch.

188 With Ocean productivity increasing to normal levels and with no fishing, coho stocks rebuilt rapidly. DFO allowed recreation retention in 2001 then by 2002, trollers were allowed to harvest coho again, although at reduced levels.

189 However, the impact of the ‘coho crisis’ was not just that the commercial fleet had to forgo coho harvests, marine commercial fishermen were also prevented from harvesting Skeena sockeye and pinks. From 1998-2000, the net fleet was not permitted to fish Skeena sockeye and pinks after July 18th when 5% of the Skeena coho entered Area 4. This was at the peak of the sockeye run and before the pink run and meant that Skeena sockeye and pink salmon was not harvested in the marine

environment after July 18th because of the ‘coho crisis’. The net fleet had to develop methods to avoid or revive and release coho alive in order to get back into the water after July 18th.

190 This example of the ruthlessness of DFO managers and policy makers is in the minds of all commercial fishers. Fishermen and shoreworkers are very concerned that an oil spill will affect one stock or species of fish (in this example, coho) and the Department of Fisheries will prevent the harvest of other species (sockeye and pinks) in order to protect the impacted fish.

2001-2007 average coho harvest sorted by gear and.quantile

123 124 (BCMCA Atlas) (BCMCA Atlas) 2001-2007 average Seine coho harvest sorted by gear and.quantile 2001-2007 average Gillnet coho harvest sorted by gear and.quantile

The salmon catch data for each gear has been compiled into a geographic unit called a Salmon Catch Estimate Area which represents areas that can be open for commercial fishing.

The catch data is presented in the manner because salmon openings and the opened areas are not static and can vary over time. The areas have been divided into 5 groups (quintiles) which are coloured as to catch history.

(2001-2007 average Troll coho harvest sorted by gear and 125 quantile BCMCA Atlas)

Catch figures:

191 Please refer to the attached appendix for information on harvest statistics.

Coho salmon products:

192 Most coho is caught by the troll fleet and is either delivered to processing companies as a dressed (cleaned) fresh product or a dressed Frozen at Sea (FAS) salmon. Both products command a premium price. Net caught coho also are marketed fresh or frozen or sold as portions. Little coho is canned.

Conservation and Escapements

193 Although coho have relatively complex life histories, because they have a propensity to stray from their natal stream they have far fewer conservation units than sockeye but more than pinks or chum salmon.

194 There are 19 coho conservation areas on the central/north coasts.

195 There are 5 on Haida Gwaii, which has large numbers of individual coho stocks spawning in many of small streams.

196 The Nass has 4 coho CUs, including Portland Inlet, and the Skeena has 4 including an estuary CU. Both the Nass and Skeena have Cus for their upper, the mid- river, and the lower river watersheds.

197 The DFO escapement database (NUSEDS) has entries for 218 coho spawning localities within the 4 Skeena River CUs

198 The other 6 Cus are located on central and north coast coastal areas and have hundreds of spawning streams

(DFO Conservation Units for Pacific Salmon under the Wild Salmon Policy)126 62

199 Coho fishing takes place in Fishing Management Areas 1, 2 East and 2 West mostly by the troll fleet. Coho is a bycatch for the net fisheries except on the few occasions where terminal coho surpluses are identified. Most coho stocks are in good shape; with the Ain, Mamin, Yakoun, Tlell, Deena, Copper, and Pallant being the large producers with many small streams producing from 500 – 2,000 coho.

200 Area 3 Nass coho are very healthy. Nass coho are not usually targeted until late in the season, but are caught in the Area 1 and 2 East troll fisheries as well. In August, trollers usually move into Area 3 and target Nass coho. Coho are found throughout the Nass watershed and many coho spawn in the headwater tributaries hundreds of kilometres from the ocean.

201 Area 4 (Skeena) coho is in good condition with large sport fisheries taking place in marine and fresh water. Coho escapements have remained well within production targets for the past decade, although individual systems vary within a CU. Again, most coho systems are small producers and it is the combined total for an area that provides the production.

202 Area 5 -10 have many small coastal coho systems that in many years that can support targeted gillnet and seine fisheries as well as a fall troll fishery. In recent years central coast coho has not been as productive as north coast stocks.

203 Most coho CUs on the central/north coasts are in good shape. There may be few stocks within a CU that have lower escapements, but we are not aware of any stream with consistently low returns. Habitat, however, is an issue and because juvenile coho rear in slow moving fresh water creeks and ponds, they are susceptible to logging, farming and urban development which may not recognize a small water body as containing coho fry.

Endnotes:

*Angel, Eric. Potential Impacts of the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline Project on Commercial Fishing and Fishing Communities on BC’s north coast. 2011 (p 26) Prepared for UFAWU-CAW

75 Richard Kristmanson on the Crises: photo courtesy of Don Roberts.

76 Burgner, Robert L. Life History of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p37)

77 Burgner, Robert L. Life History of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p65)

78 Tucker et al. 2009. Seasonal Stock-Specific Migrations o Juvenile Sockeye Salmon along the West Coast of North America: Implications for Growth:. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 138:6 1458- 1480

79 Rivers Inlet Ecosystem Study. UBC / SFU/ UFV. http://riversinlet.eos.ubc.ca/about_rivers_inlet.html

80 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission

81 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission. (p32)

82 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008

83 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission. p 53

84 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission. p 33

85 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008. p.9

86 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission. p53

87 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008. pp 10-15,24

88 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008. pp 11-12

vii

89 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008.

90 Burgner, Robert L. Life History of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (pp 83-84)

91 Gottesfield et al 2008. Sockeye Salmon Juveniles in Chatham Sound 2007. Report to Pacific Salmon Forum July 2008. pp 11-12

92 British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis. 2011. Marine Atlas of Pacific Canada: a product of the British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA), Commercial Fisheries –Sockeye Salmon (Seine) Available online at www.bcmca.ca

93 British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis. 2011. Marine Atlas of Pacific Canada: a product of the British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA), Commercial Fisheries –Sockeye Salmon (Gillnet) Available online at www.bcmca.ca

94 Holtby, L.B. and Ciruna, K.A. Conservation Units for Pacific Salmon under the Wild Salmon Policy. Cnadian Science Advisory Secretariat (CSAS) Research Document 2007/070. Pp 280-287 http://www.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/CSAS/Csas/DocREC/2007/RES2007_070_e.pdf

95 UFAWU-CAW Presentation to NSERC Canadian Capture Fisheries Network Feb.2011. Data from DFO published harvest and runsize information.

96 UFAWU-CAW Presentation to NSERC Canadian Capture Fisheries Network Feb.2011. Data from DFO published harvest and runsize information.

97 UFAWU-CAW Presentation to NSERC Canadian Capture Fisheries Network Feb.2011. Data from DFO published harvest and runsize information.

98 DFO North Coast Salmon Update July 19th 2011. Home > Pacific > Fisheries > North Coast Resource Management > Salmon Updates. http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/inseason-saison/nc-cn/comm- smon/reports-rapports/2011-07-19.htm

99 Terrace Standard .com. Published: August 24, 2011 6:00 AM. Black Press B.C. http://www.bclocalnews.com/lifestyles/128125773.html?mobile=true 100 DF0 North Coast 2011 Post Season Review p42 .http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/northcoast/post- seasonreview/docs/2011/2011-Salmon_Post_Season_Review.pdf

101 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Pacific Region Integrated Fisheries Management Plan. Salmon Northern B.C. June 1, 2011 –May 31, 2012 p.74 http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/343940.pdf

102 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Pacific Region Integrated Fisheries Management Plan. Salmon Northern B.C. June 1, 2011 –May 31, 2012 p.45 http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/343940.pdf

viii

103 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Pacific Region Integrated Fisheries Management Plan. Salmon Northern B.C. June 1, 2011 –May 31, 2012 p.74 http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/343940.pdf

104 Wagner, Dan. Resource Manager. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Central Coast Catch and Escapement Stat Areas 7-10 presentation to the Salmon Post Season Review 2011 http://www.pac.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/northcoast/post-seasonreview/docs/2011/Central_Coast_Areas_7-10-Wagner.pdf

105 Rivers Inlet Ecosystem Study. UBC / SFU/ UFV. http://riversinlet.eos.ubc.ca/about_rivers_inlet.html#mozTocId238892

106 Wagner, Dan. Resource Manager. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Central Coast Catch and Escapement Stat Areas 7-10 presentation to the Salmon Post Season Review 2011 http://www.pac.dfo- mpo.gc.ca/northcoast/post-seasonreview/docs/2011/Central_Coast_Areas_7-10-Wagner.pdf

107 Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Pacific Region, Habitat Management Division. February 1985. Map No. 3 Adult Pink, Chum and Sockeye Salmon Migration Routes. Courtesy of Allen Gottesfield.

108 Gottesfield, Allen and Rabnett, Ken. Skeena River Fish and their Habitat. Skeena Fisheries Commission 2008. Published by Ecotrust Portland (p25)

109 Sandercock, F.K. Life History of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p416)

110 Sandercock, F.K. Life History of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch ) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (pp 418-419)

111 Sandercock, F.K. Life History of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p421)

112 Spence, Brian C. and Hall, James D. 2009 Spatiotemporal patterns in migration timing of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) smolts in North America . ( p2) Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjfas.nrc.ca July 2010

113 Spence, Brian C. and Hall, James D. 2009 Spatiotemporal patterns in migration timing of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) smolts in North America . ( p16) Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjfas.nrc.ca July 2010

114 Gottesfield, Allen and Rabnett, Ken. Skeena River Fish and their Habitat. Skeena Fisheries Commission 2008. Published by Ecotrust Portland (p24)

115 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Government Responses to Requirements for Additional Information West Coast Offshore Oil Exploration. Government of Canada and Province of British Columbia. February 1985. Prepared for West Coast Offshore Exploration Panel (p54 s2-3)

116 Sandercock, F.K. Life History of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p426) ix

117 Gottesfield, Allan et al. 2006 North Coast Marine Baseline Survey and Sea Lice Research 2004 and 2005 Final Report April 2006. Skeena Fisheries Commission. (pp 31,32)

118 Sandercock, F.K. Life History of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus Kisutch) in Groot C. and Margolis L. ed. Pacific Salmon Life Histories. UBC Press in cooperation with DFO. Vancouver. 1991 (p429)

119 Walters, C.J., Lichagtowich, J.A., Peterman, R.M., and Reynolds, J.D. Addendum to the Skeena Independent Science Panel Report. June 18, 2008 Appendix D 2008 Report of the Skeena Independent Science Review Panel.DFO and MOE. http://www.sfu.ca/biology/faculty/reynolds/The_Reynolds_Lab/Publications_files/Skeena_Review_Addendu m_2008.pdf

120 Walters, C.J., Lichagtowich, J.A., Peterman, R.M., and Reynolds, J.D. Addendum to the Skeena Independent Science Panel Report. June 18, 2008 Appendix D 2008 Report of the Skeena Independent Science Review Panel.DFO and MOE. http://www.sfu.ca/biology/faculty/reynolds/The_Reynolds_Lab/Publications_files/Skeena_Review_Addendu m_2008.pdf

121 Walters, C.J., Lichagtowich, J.A., Peterman, R.M., and Reynolds, J.D. Addendum to the Skeena Independent Science Panel Report. June 18, 2008 Appendix D 2008 Report of the Skeena Independent Science Review Panel.DFO and MOE. http://www.sfu.ca/biology/faculty/reynolds/The_Reynolds_Lab/Publications_files/Skeena_Review_Addendu m_2008.pdf

122 Walters, C.J., Lichagtowich, J.A., Peterman, R.M., and Reynolds, J.D. Addendum to the Skeena Independent Science Panel Report. June 18, 2008 Appendix D 2008 Report of the Skeena Independent Science Review Panel.DFO and MOE. http://www.sfu.ca/biology/faculty/reynolds/The_Reynolds_Lab/Publications_files/Skeena_Review_Addendu m_2008.pdf

123 British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis. 2011. Marine Atlas of Pacific Canada: a product of the British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA), Commercial Fisheries –Coho Salmon (Seine) Available online at www.bcmca.ca

124 British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis. 2011. Marine Atlas of Pacific Canada: a product of the British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA), Commercial Fisheries –Coho Salmon (Gillnet) Available online at www.bcmca.ca

125 British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis. 2011. Marine Atlas of Pacific Canada: a product of the British Columbia Marine Conservation Analysis (BCMCA), Commercial Fisheries –Coho Salmon (Troll) Available online at www.bcmca.ca

126 Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Salmon and Freshwater Ecosystems Division. Science Branch. Power point presentation 2008 Conservation Units for Pacific Salmon under the Wild Salmon Policy. http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/consultation/ wsp-pss/2008/docs-eng/strat1.pdf x