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Home , Allium canadense, Allium cernuum, Allium stellatum, Chlosyne nycteis, Cycnia inopinatus, Cycnia tenera

Nodding cernuum Lily family (Liliaceae) Description: This perennial consists of a tuft of basal from which one or more flowering stalks emerge. The basal leaves are erect, ascending, or arching; they are up to 12" long and up to 8 mm. across. The basal leaves are linear in shape, medium green, glabrous, and smooth along their margins; they are solid and flattened. venation is parallel. Each leaf is slightly keeled along its midvein. The flowering stalks are up to 1½' long and more or less erect; they are light green or light reddish purple, glabrous, and terete. Each stalk terminates in a nodding of that emerges from a pair of sack-like membranes; these membranes are deciduous. Each umbel spans about 1½–2" across, consisting of 40-60 pedicellate flowers.

The flowers are individually about ¼" (6 mm.) across, consisting of 6 spreading tepals, 6 exserted , and an ovary with a style. The tepals are white, light lavender, or pink; they are lanceolate in shape. The stamens have white filaments and yellow anthers. The pedicels are ½–1" long; they are light green or light reddish purple, glabrous, and more or less terete. The blooming season usually occurs during mid-summer, lasting 3-4 weeks. There is no noticeable floral scent. Afterwards, the flowers are replaced by capsules; each capsule contains several small black that it splits open to release. The root system consists of a that is longer than it is wide. Both the bulb and foliage of this plant have a typical onion-like scent. Clonal offsets are produced, forming new underground.

Cultivation: The preference is full to partial sun, moist to mesic conditions, and soil containing black loam, sand, or rocky material. While this plant can survive hot dry summers, it does better with more moisture. Foliar disease is rarely a problem. This plant is easy to grow under cultivation, and it will spread gradually under suitable conditions. It is easier to establish by transplanting the bulbs of offsets, rather than by attempting to germinate the seeds.

Range & Habitat: Nodding Onion is an uncommon plant that occurs only in NE (see Distribution Map), where it is native. Habitats include black soil , sandy pannes, and thinly wooded bluffs. Much of the habitat where this plant once occurred has been destroyed by development. Nodding Onion is normally found in high-quality natural areas, although it could escape from cultivation into more disturbed areas.

Faunal Associations: The nectar and of the nodding flowers attract primarily , including honeybees, bumblebees, Anthophorine bees (Anthophora spp.), and Halictid bees (Lasioglossum spp.). that feed destructively on the foliage, bulbs, and other parts of Nodding Onion and other onion (Allium spp.) include the Onion Plant Bug (Lindbergocapsus allii) and a similar plant bug (Lindbergocapsus ainsliei), larvae of the False Japanese Beetle (Strigoderma arbicola), larvae of the Onion Maggot (Delia antiqua), larvae of the Black Onion fly (Tritoxa flava), larvae of the Onion Bulb Fly (Eumerus strigatus), and Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci). Mammalian herbivores usually avoid Allium spp., although cattle and other livestock may browse on their foliage along with the grass in pastures, causing an off- flavor in their milk.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at the wildflower garden of the webmaster in Urbana, Illinois, and at a restored prairie in Meadowbrook Park of the same city.

Comments: This plant is easy to identify because of the nodding habit of its of flowers. Nodding umbels of flowers are an evolutionary adaptation that tends to restrict visitors to bees. Other insects are more reluctant to hang upside down while attempting to feed on nectar or pollen. The nodding habit may also protect the nectar from rain. Compared to 2 other species that are native, the Cliff Onion () and Wild (), Nodding Onion () has wider leaves. Compared to the non-native Field Garlic (), (Allium schoenoprasum), and Cultivated Onion (Allium cepa), the leaves of Nodding Onion are flattened and solid throughout, rather than hollow. Return

Butterfly Milkweed tuberosa Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae) Description: This herbaceous is 1-2½' tall. Young plants develop from a single central stem, while older plants tiller at the base, sending up multiple erect to ascending stems from a large taproot. These stems are unbranched below, becoming branched above where the flowers occur. The stems are light green to dull reddish purple, terete, and more or less covered with spreading hairs. Densely distributed along these stems, are alternate leaves that differ little in size. These leaves are 2½–3½" long and ½–¾" across; they are linear-oblong to lanceolate- oblong in shape, while their margins are entire (toothless). The tips of the leaves are acute, while their bases are slightly cordate, truncate, or rounded. The leaves are sessile, or they have short petioles up to 3 mm. long. The upper leaf surface is medium to dark green and glabrous to sparsely short-pubescent, while the lower leaf surface is light to light-medium green and mostly short-pubescent. Along the lower sides of the major veins, this pubescence is somewhat longer. The foliage of this plant lacks a milky latex. Usually several umbels of flowers develop from the upper stems and the axils of upper leaves. These umbels span 1–2½" across, consisting of 8-25 flowers each; they are slightly dome-shaped and often horizontally adjacent to each other.

Each consists of 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 hoods with horns, and a central reproductive column that is white to light green and short. The sepals are light green, hairy, and lanceolate in shape; they are largely hidden when the flowers open. The petals are more or less orange, lanceolate in shape, and declined (bent downward). The hoods are more or less orange, erect, and curved- ovate, forming open oblique tubes. The horns are more or less orange, sickle-shaped, incurved, and exserted from the hoods (one horn per hood). Usually the petals, hoods, and horns are orange, but sometimes they are reddish orange or yellowish orange. The pedicels are ¾–1½" long, light green or light reddish purple, terete, and more or less covered with spreading hairs. At the base of these pedicels, there are several spreading bracts up to 8 mm. long; they are green, linear-lanceolate in shape, and pubescent. The peduncles of the umbels are ½–2½" long, light green to dull reddish purple, terete, and hairy. The flowers bloom during early to mid-summer and sometimes a second time during late summer to early autumn. The flowers are relatively long-lasting, but they have no noticeable fragrance. Flowers that have been successfully cross- pollinated are replaced by follicles (seedpods that open along one side). These follicles are 4-6" long and ½–¾" across at maturity; they are initially light green, but later turn brown. The follicle surface is smooth and short-pubescent. These follicles eventually split open to release their seeds to the wind. Mature seeds are about 4 mm. long, flattened-oval in shape, brown, and narrowly winged along their margins; the apices of these seeds have large tufts of white hair. The root system consists of a woody taproot that is thick and knobby. This taproot can extend several feet below the ground surface.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, mesic to dry conditions, and an acidic soil that is sandy or rocky. However, this plant will adapt to other kinds of soil, including those that contain loam or clay, if they are well-drained. Although this plant develops somewhat slowly, it is easy to cultivate in open sunny areas once it becomes established. Tolerance to hot dry weather is excellent. If the taproot of a young plant is planted too close to the soil surface, it may become damaged by frost due to heaving of the soil.

Range & Habitat: The native Butterfly Milkweed is occasional to locally common in Illinois, except for the western section of the state, where it is less common (see Distribution Map). Habitats include upland sand prairies, hill prairies, cemetery prairies, sandy savannas, open rocky woodlands, shale and sandstone glades (in southern Illinois), abandoned sandy fields, roadside embankments, and areas along railroads. Because of the showy orange flowers, Butterfly Milkweed is often cultivated in gardens. This milkweed is found in both disturbed areas and high quality natural areas. Occasional wildfires are probably beneficial in maintaining populations of this plant as this reduces competition from woody vegetation and taller herbaceous vegetation.

Faunal Associations: The flower nectar attracts honeybees, digger bees (Melissodes spp.), leaf- cutting bees (Megachile spp.), Halictid bees (including green metallic bees), thread-waisted wasps (Ammophila spp.) and other Sphecid wasps, and butterflies, including Fritillaries (Speyeria spp.), Swallowtails (Papilio spp.), and the Monarch (Danaus plexippus); see Robertson (1929). The Ruby-throated Hummingbird is also attracted to the flowers. Some insects feed destructively on the leaves, flowers and buds, seedpods, and other parts of Butterfly Milkweed. These insects include larvae of the Blackened Milkweed Beetle (Tetraopes melanurus), the Small Milkweed Bug (Lygaeus kalmii), the Large Milkweed Bug (Oncopeltus fasciatus), larvae of a butterfly, the Monarch (Danaus plexippus), and larvae of a , the Unexpected (Cycnia inopinatus). Butterfly Milkweed is the preferred host plant of the preceding moth (see Yanega, 1996; Betz et al., 1997; Wagner, 2005). A polyphagous insect, the Curve-tailed Bush Katydid (Scudderia curvicauda), was observed to feed on the leaves of this milkweed (Gangwere, 1961); it may also feed on the flowers. While the foliage of Butterfly Milkweed lacks the toxic milky latex that is typical of other milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), mammalian herbivores nonetheless appear to avoid it.

Photographic Location: The above photographs were taken at the webmaster's wildflower garden, Urbana, Illinois, and a flower garden at the Anita Purvis Nature Center of the same city.

Comments: This is perhaps the showiest of the milkweeds (Asclepias spp.) because of the long- lasting and colorful flowers. Because Butterfly Milkweed () is the only milkweed in Illinois that has orange flowers, it is easy to identify. This species is also unusual for a milkweed because its leaves are alternate and its foliage lacks a milky latex. Because of the absence of milky latex, it is often referred to as Butterfly Weed, rather than Butterfly Milkweed. The thick and bitter-tasting roots were used for various medicinal purposes in the past, including the treatment of pleurisy. As a result, another common name for this species is Pleurisy Root.

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Common Milkweed Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae) Description: This native perennial plant is 2-6' tall and unbranched, except sometimes toward the apex, where the flowers occur. The central stem is relative stout, pale green, terete, and usually short-pubescent (less often glabrous). The opposite leaves are up to 8" long and 3½" wide, broadly oblong in shape, and smooth along their margins. The upper leaf surface is pale- medium to dark green and hairless above, while the lower leaf surface is densely covered with woolly hairs that are very short. There is a prominent central vein along the length of each leaf, and finer side veins that radiate outward toward the smooth margins. When either the central stem or leaves are torn, a milky sap oozes out that has variable toxicity in the form of cardiac glycosides.

Umbels of flowers, each about 2½-4" across, emerge from the axils of the upper leaves. These flowers are quite fragrant, with a scent resembling violets or pansies, and they range in color from faded light pink to reddish purple. Each flower is about ¼" across, consisting of 5 reflexed petals and 5 raised hoods with curved horns. The hoods are more light-colored than the petals. The pedicels of the flowers are light green to pale red and hairy. The blooming period lasts about 1-1½ months from early to mid-summer. The seedpods (follicles) are 3-4" long, broadly lanceoloid, and covered with soft prickles and short woolly hairs. At maturity, each seedpod split along one side to release numerous seeds that have large tufts of white hair. Dispersion of seed is by wind. The root system has long creeping , promoting the vegetative spread of this plant.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, rich loamy soil, and mesic conditions, but this robust plant can tolerate a variety of situations, including partial sun and a high clay or sand content in the soil. Under ideal conditions, Common Milkweed can become 6' tall and spread aggressively, but it is more typically about 3-4' tall. This plant is very easy to grow once it becomes established.

Range & Habitat: Common Milkweed occurs in every county of Illinois and it is quite common (see Distribution Map). Habitats include moist to dry black soil prairies, sand prairies, sand dunes along lake shores, thickets, woodland borders, fields and pastures, abandoned fields, vacant lots, fence rows, and areas along railroads and roadsides. This plant is a colonizer of disturbed areas in both natural and developed habitats.

Faunal Associations: The flowers are very popular with many kinds of insects, especially long- tongued bees, wasps, flies, skippers, and butterflies, which seek nectar. Other insect visitors include short-tongued bees, various Milkweed plant bugs, and , including Sphinx moths. Among these, the larger butterflies, predatory wasps, and long-tongued bees are more likely to remove the pollinia from the flowers. Some of the smaller insects can have their legs entrapped by the flowers and die. Common Milkweed doesn't produce fertile seeds without cross- . The of Danaus plexippes (Monarch Butterfly) feed on the foliage, as well as the caterpillars of a few moths, including Enchaetes egle (Milkweed Tiger Moth), Cycnia inopinatus (Unexpected Cycnia), and Cycnia tenera (Delicate Cycnia). Less common insects feeding on this plant include Neacoryphus bicrucis (Seed Bug sp.) and Gymnetron tetrum (Weevil sp.); see Insect Table for more common insect feeders). Many of these insects are brightly colored – a warning to potential predators of the toxicity that they acquired from feeding on milkweed. Mammalian herbivores don't eat this plant because of the bitterness of the leaves and their toxic properties.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, Illinois, and along a roadside ditch in Champaign, Illinois.

Comments: Depending on the local ecotype, Common Milkweed is highly variable in appearance. The color of the flowers may be highly attractive, or faded and dingy-looking. This plant is often regarded as a weed to be destroyed, but its flowers and foliage provide food for many kinds of insects. Common Milkweed can be distinguished from other milkweeds by its prickly follicles (seedpods) – other Asclepias spp. within Illinois have follicles that are smooth, or nearly so. Return

Whorled Milkweed Asclepias verticillata Milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae) Description: This perennial is ½–2' tall and more or less erect; it is either unbranched or sparingly branched along the upper half of its central stem. The central stem is yellowish green or medium green and terete; it has vertical lines of short pubescence. Whorls of 4-6 leaves occur along the nodes of the central stem; because the internodes of this stem are fairly short, these leaves are produced in abundance. Relative to the orientation of the central stem, the leaves are usually ascending, although sometimes they are widely spreading or drooping. The leaves are 2-3" long, 2-3 mm. across, and linear in shape; their margins are entire (toothless) and strongly revolute (rolled downward). Sometimes whorls of smaller secondary leaves are produced from short lateral stems that develop from the axils of leaves along the central stem. The upper leaf surfaces are yellowish green or medium green and glabrous to sparsely short-pubescent; they are narrowly grooved along the middle where the midribs occur. The lower leaf surfaces are whitish green and short-pubescent; they are partially obscured by the rolled leaf margins. The leaves are sessile or they have very short petioles (less than 2 mm. long). From the axils of middle to upper leaves, umbels of flowers are produced on short peduncles (flowering stalks); there can be 1-4 umbels of flowers at each node. Individual umbels span ¾– 1½" across, consisting of 7-20 pedicellate flowers.

Each flower is about 5-6 mm. across and 8-10 mm. long, consisting of 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 hoods with horns, and a central reproductive column. The sepals are light green, short-pubescent, and lanceolate in shape; sometimes they are tinted purple toward their tips. These sepals are visible at the bases of flower buds, but they are hidden by the petals when the flowers bloom. The petals are white or greenish white, sometimes with pale purplish tints toward their tips; they are oblong- elliptic in shape and strongly declined (bent downward), curving slightly upward toward their tips. The erect white hoods are open-tubular in shape and somewhat oblique, their lower sides facing the center of the flower. The slender white horns are sickle-shaped and inwardly curved; there is one exserted horn per hood. The short reproductive column is white at its apex and light green below. The slender pedicels of the flowers are light green to nearly white, sometimes becoming purplish at their bases; they are 8-12 mm. long, terete, and short-pubescent. The peduncles are ½–1½" long, light to medium green, glabrous to short-pubescent, terete, and ascending. The blooming period occurs from early to late summer, lasting about 1-2 months. There is little or no floral scent. Afterwards, successfully cross-pollinated flowers are replaced by ascending to erect follicles (seedpods that open along one side). These follicles are 3-4" long and about ½" across; they are narrowly lanceoloid in shape and fairly smooth (lacking warts or soft prickles). At maturity during autumn or winter, these follicles split open to release their seeds to the wind. Mature seeds are about 4-5 mm. long, ovate-flattened in shape, brown, and narrowly winged along their margins; their apices have large tufts of white hair. The root system is fleshy-fibrous and long-rhizomatous. Colonies of clonal plants are often produced from the rhizomes.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, mesic to dry conditions, and soil containing loam, clay- loam, sand, or gravel. Infertile soil is actually preferred because it reduces competition from taller plants. During hot dry weather, the lower leaves may turn yellow and fall off, or the foliage of the entire plant may become yellowish green. In open sunny areas with exposed soil, this plant can spread aggressively.

Range & Habitat: The native Whorled Milkweed occurs occasionally throughout most of Illinois, except for a few southern counties (see Distribution Map), where it is rare or absent. Habitats include upland prairies, sand prairies, gravel prairies, hill prairies, openings in rocky upland forests, sandy savannas, limestone glades, rocky bluffs along major rivers, bluegrass meadows, pastures and abandoned fields, grassy slopes along highways, and waste areas. Whorled Milkweed is a pioneer species that prefers open disturbed areas.

Faunal Associations: The nectar of the flowers attracts many kinds of insects, including honeybees, bumblebees, Halictid bees (Halictus spp., Lasioglossum spp.), Halictid cuckoo bees (Sphecodes spp.), sand-loving wasps (Tachytes spp.), weevil wasps (Cerceris spp.), Sphecid wasps (Sphex spp., Prionyx spp.), Five-banded Tiphiid Wasp (Myzinum quinquecinctum), Northern Paper Wasp (Polites fuscatus), spider wasps (Anoplius spp.), Eumenine wasps (Euodynerus spp., etc.), Syrphid flies, thick-headed flies (Physocephala spp., etc.), Tachinid flies, flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), Muscid flies, Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui) and other butterflies, Peck's Skipper (Polites peckius) and other skippers, Squash Vine Borer Moth (Melittia cucurbitae) and other moths, and Soldier Beetle (Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus); sources of information include Robertson (1929) and personal observations. Among these floral visitors, bees and wasps are usually more effective at cross-pollination. Some insects feed destructively on the foliage, flowers, seedpods, and other parts of Whorled Milkweed. These species include the Small Milkweed Bug (Lygaeus kalmii), Milkweed Leaf Beetle (Labidomera clivicollis), Yellow Milkweed Aphid (Aphis nerii), and a moth, the Delicate Cycnia (Cycnia tenera). Although this insect does not occur in Illinois, in the southwestern , the Horsetail Milkweed Longhorn (Tetraopes discoideus) feeds on Whorled Milkweed and closely related milkweed species (Asclepias spp.); sources of information include Betz et al. (1997), Yanega (1996), and personal observations. Mammalian herbivores usually avoid the foliage of Whorled Milkweed as a food source because it is one of the more toxic milkweed species.

Photographic Location: Photographs were taken at the webmaster's wildflower garden in Urbana, Illinois, and a bluegrass meadow near Parkland College in Champaign, Illinois.

Comments: This small milkweed blooms later in the year than most milkweed species (Asclepias spp.), and its small umbels of flowers attract many kinds of insects, including butterflies. Whorled Milkweed (Asclepias verticillata) superficially resembles the common Field Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) because of its whorled linear leaves. It can be distinguished from this latter species by the milky latex of its foliage and the later development of its flowers and seedpods. Field Horsetail is a spore-bearing plant that lacks true flowers. Whorled Milkweed is readily distinguished from other milkweed species in Illinois by its more narrow leaves (only 2-3 mm. across). Narrow-leaved Milkweed (Asclepias stenophylla) is an exception, because its linear leaves are almost as narrow. However, this latter species has leaves that are alternate to nearly opposite along its stems, rather than whorled. So far, it has been found in only a few counties of western Illinois. Return Calico Aster lateriflorus Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This is a perennial plant about 1-3' tall that branches occasionally, often leaning toward one side. The stems are light green or reddish brown, and they have lines of white hairs. The alternate leaves are up to 4½" long and ½" across, becoming much smaller as they ascend the stems. They are narrowly lanceolate, oblanceolate, or elliptic, becoming linear near the flowerheads. There are usually a few teeth toward the tips of the larger leaves, otherwise they have smooth margins. Some hairs may be present along the major veins on the undersides of the leaves. The upper leaf surface is medium green, while the lower leaf surface is light green. The upper stems and some of the side stems produce panicles of flowerheads up to 10" long and 6" across. Each flowerhead has numerous small disk florets that are surrounded by about 8-12 ray florets. The corollas of the disk florets are initially pale yellow, but they later become brown or reddish purple; they are short-tubular in shape and 5-lobed. The petaloid rays are white and linear-oblong in shape. A typical flowerhead is about 1/3" (8 mm.) across. Each flowerhead is subtended by small green bracts (phyllaries) that are appressed together, or they are only slightly spreading.

The blooming period occurs from late summer to the fall, lasting about 1-2 months. There is little or no floral scent. The small achenes are slightly pubescent and they have small tufts of white hair. Distribution of the achenes is by wind. The root system is fibrous and rhizomatous; an older plant may develop a small caudex. Clonal offsets occasionally develop from the rhizomes. This plant occasionally forms colonies at favorable sites.

Cultivation: The preference is light shade to partial sun and moist conditions. Full sun is tolerated if the site is not too dry. Growth is best in rich organic soil, or a moisture retaining clay- loam. During dry weather, the lower leaves often wither away, and stressed out plants are vulnerable to many kinds of foliar disease.

Range & Habitat: The Calico Aster occurs in most counties of Illinois, where it is native and quite common (see Distribution Map). Habitats include moist meadows near woodlands and rivers, floodplain forests and flatwoods, woodland borders, seeps and swamps, semi-shaded sloughs near fields, and moist depressions in waste areas. This plant is primarily a woodland species, but it often strays into moist sunny areas nearby. It prefers areas with a history of disturbance.

Faunal Associations: The florets of Calico Aster have shorter nectar tubes than many other species of asters, and they seem to attract a wide variety of insects, particularly in sunny areas. More common insect visitors include short-tongued bees, wasps, and flies, and less common visitors include long-tongued bees, small butterflies, skippers, beetles, and plant bugs. These insects seek nectar primarily, although the short-tongued bees may collect pollen, while some beetles and flies feed on the pollen. Caterpillars of the butterflies, nycteis (Silvery Checkerspot) and Phyciodes tharos (Pearl Crescent), feed on the foliage of asters (Aster spp.), as do the caterpillars of many kinds of moths (see Moth Table). The White-Tailed Deer and Cottontail Rabbit browse on the foliage occasionally.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at the webmaster's wildflower garden in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: This aster is more attractive in woodland areas, where it has a delicate appearance. It closely resembles Aster pilosus (Frost Aster), Aster ericoides (Heath Aster), and other species in the genus with small white flowerheads. The Calico Aster (Aster lateriflorus) is a somewhat lanky plant with smaller flowerheads (about 1/3" across) and fewer ray florets per flowerhead (about 10) than many similar asters (Aster spp.). In this regard, it is similar to the Heath Aster, but the latter species is a more compact plant with leaves that are shorter and more narrow than those of the Calico Aster. While the Heath Aster is often found in open prairies, the Calico Aster usually doesn't stray far from woodland and semi-shaded wetland areas. Its common name refers to the diverse colors of the disk florets as they mature. Another common name of this species is the Side-Flowering Aster, and an alternative scientific name is Symphyotrichum lateriflorum Return

New England Aster Aster novae-angliae Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This native perennial plant is up to 4' tall, consisting of a central stem that branches occasionally near the top. The central stem and side branches are covered with short white hairs. The alternate leaves are up to 4" long and 1" wide, becoming smaller as they ascend the flowering stems. They are lanceolate or oblong, pubescent, and clasp the stem at the base of each leaf. Their margins are smooth, but ciliate.

Clusters of composite flowers occur at the ends of the upper stems. Each composite flower consists of numerous gold or yellow disk florets, which are surrounded by 30 or more ray florets that are purple, lavender, or light pink. Each composite flower is about 1½" across. A mature plant may bear two dozen or more of such flowers, putting forth a showy display. There is no noticeable floral scent. The blooming period occurs from late summer to fall, and lasts about 2 months. The root system consists of a stout caudex with fibrous roots, which often produces short thick rhizomes, enabling this plant to spread vegetatively. The achenes are longitudinally ribbed and slightly hairy, with tufts of hair that enable them to be carried off in the wind.

Cultivation: The preference is full or partial sun, and moist to average conditions. The soil can contain loam or clay. This plant can become stressed out by hot dry weather, often dropping its lower leaves in response, while the remaining leaves may turn yellow or brown. Another problem is that the stems often flop over in the absence of supportive vegetation. Powdery mildew often afflicts the leaves during the cool, moist weather of the fall. This is an easy plant to grow in moist conditions, but it is more difficult to maintain in good condition throughout the year. Sometimes it becomes aggressive and spreads vegetatively.

Range & Habitat: Aster occurs throughout Illinois, except in a few southern counties (see Distribution Map). It is a common plant. Habitats include moist to mesic black soil prairies, clay prairies, thickets, moist meadows in woodlands, open areas along rivers and lakes, fens, abandoned fields, open areas along railroads and roadsides, and miscellaneous waste areas. Some populations are probably escapes from cultivated plants. This plant colonizes disturbed areas readily, but it also occurs in high quality habitats.

Faunal Associations: The flowers are visited primarily by long-tongued bees, flies, butterflies, and skippers. Short-tongued bees and Syrphid flies also visit the flowers, but they collect pollen primarily and are non-pollinating. Among the long-tongued bees, are such visitors as bumblebees, honeybees, Miner bees, and large Leaf-Cutting bees. Cross-pollination by these insects is essential, otherwise the seeds will be infertile. The caterpillars of many moths feed on various parts of this and other asters (see Moth Table). Other insects feeding on this plant include Lygus lineolaris (Tarnished Plant Bug), Poccilocapsus lineatus (Four-Lined Plant Bug), Corythuche marmorata (Chrysanthemum Lace Bug), and Macrosiphum euphoriaca (Potato Aphid). The seeds and leaves of this plant are eatened to a limited extent by the Wild Turkey, while deer, livestock, and rabbits occasionally browse on the foliage, sometimes eating the entire plant. However, New England Aster isn't a preferred food source for these .

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at Judge Webber Park in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: New England Aster can be variable in terms of its size, color of the flowers, and other characteristics. This plant has attractive flowers with a long blooming period, but it often appears messy by the fall as a result of drought, insects, and disease. It is easy to distinguish this aster from others, because its compound flowers are larger in size and have more numerous ray florets. Return

Side Oats Grama Bouteloua curtipendula Grass family (Poaceae) Description: This perennial grass is about 2–2½' tall and unbranched. The culms are light green, glabrous, and terete (round in cross-section); later during the autumn after a hard frost, they become light tan. The alternate leaves are more common toward the base of each culm. The leaf blades are up to 8" long and ¼" (6 mm.) across; they are light green to blue-green, mostly hairless, and rough-textured along their margins. However, near the bases of leaf blades, there are often scattered white hairs. The larger leaf blades often have prominent central veins. The open leaf sheaths are light green to blue-green, longitudinally veined, and mostly hairless, although scattered white hairs sometimes occur near their apices and along their upper margins. Each ligule consists of a ring of short fine hairs. The nodes are slightly swollen, rough, and often reddish or brownish green; the portion of the culm near each node may be tinted similarly as well. The culm terminates in a narrow raceme up to 10" long that consists of 25-50 floral spikes that are pendulous; these spikes are pale green, pale red, or greenish red during the blooming period, although they later become light tan.

Each spike is about ½" (12 mm.) long, consisting of 3-7 sessile adjacent spikelets. Each spikelet consists of a pair of linear-lanceolate glumes and a pair of linear-lanceolate lemmas; only one of the lemmas is fertile. Individual spikelets, excluding any awns, are up to 1/3" (8 mm.) long. The glumes have acute tips, while the tips of lemmas are often notched on either side; the infertile lemma has an awn up to ¼" (6 mm.) in length, while the fertile lemma is awnless. The colorful anthers of fertile lemmas are orange to brownish red, while their stigmata are white and feathery. The blooming period occurs from mid-summer to early fall. The spikes of the persist into the autumn, after which they fall to the ground in their entirety. Each fertile lemma produces a single grain. Mature grains are about 4.5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. across, narrowly ellipsoid in shape, and light tan. The root system is fibrous and rhizomatous. Side Oats Grama often forms tight bunches of culms from its rhizomes, although it also occurs as scattered plants. In moist areas where there is little competition, it may form a dense sod.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun and dry conditions. This grass grows readily in various kinds of soil, including those containing clay-loam, loess, gravel, rocky material, and sand. It is quite drought-resistant and adapts well to gentle or moderate slopes.

Range & Habitat: The native Side Oats Grama is locally common in sunny upland areas along the and Illinois Rivers; it is absent in SE Illinois and parts of central Illinois, and uncommon to occasional elsewhere (see Distribution Map). Habitats include various kinds of hill prairies, dry upland prairies (including gravel prairies & dolomite prairies), thinly wooded bluffs and barrens, limestone glades, and areas along railroads. This grass is often used in prairie restorations, from where it occasionally escapes into adjacent areas. As a result, Side Oats Grama is becoming more common in some areas of the state.

Faunal Associations: The leafhoppers Flexamia albida, Flexamia pectinata and Laevicephalus minimus are specialist feeders (oligophages) of Side Oats Grama. Many grasshoppers feed on this prairie grass (see Grasshopper Table), as do the stinkbugs Moromorpha tetra and Mecidea major. Some upland gamebirds and granivorous songbirds are known to feed on the seeds of Bouteloua spp. (Grama grasses), but information for Side Oats Grama in Illinois is unavailable. In and states of the , the McCown Longspur and Wild Turkey eat the seeds of various Grama grasses. Some hoofed mammalian herbivores, including bison, horses, and cattle, graze on these grasses readily, including Side Oats Grama. According to Laughlin (2003), the seeds of Side Oats Grama can cling to the fur of bison, elk, and other mammals. Thus, these mammals may spread the seeds into new areas.

Photographic Location: A prairie at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: Side Oats Grama is the only Bouteloua sp. (Grama grass) that is fairly common in Illinois. Two other species, Bouteloua gracilis (Blue Grama) and Bouteloua hirsuta (Hairy Grama), are shorter grasses that are more common in states of the Great Plains. These latter two species have curious racemes of spikes that are shaped like large eye-lashes; they tend to be held horizontally in relation to the ground. Among the grasses of Illinois, the inflorescence of Side Oats Grama is really quite unique as the spaced out spikes tend to droop on one side of the raceme's rachis. As a result, this interesting grass is easy to identify. Side Oats Grama is a warm- season grass with a C4 metabolism (a trait it shares with other Grama grasses). This enables it to tolerate the hot dry summers of the Midwest and other areas further to the west. Return Purple Coneflower Echinacea purpurea Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This is a perennial plant up to 3½' tall that branches occasionally. The light green stems have small purple streaks and scattered white hairs. The alternate or opposite leaves are up to 6" long and 3" across, becoming smaller as they ascend the stems. The leaves are ovate to lanceolate in shape and their margins have widely spaced teeth (or less often, they lack teeth). The upper leaf surface is olive or dark green with minute appressed hairs. The petioles are short and slightly winged.

Upper stems terminate in individual flowerheads spanning about 2½-4" across. These flowerheads have long naked peduncles (flowering stalks) up to 8" long; the peduncles have scattered hairs like the stems. Each daisy-like flowerhead has 10-20 ray florets that surround a large central cone of numerous disk florets. The central cone is yellowish brown to reddish brown, somewhat flattened, and very prickly. The petaloid rays are purple, narrowly oblong, and they tend to droop downward with age. Around the base of each flowerhead, there are numerous floral bracts (phyllaries) that are arranged in several layers. These bracts are green, hairy, and narrowly lanceolate, becoming recurved when the flowerhead blooms. The blooming period begins in mid-summer and lasts about a month, after which there is a temporary dormancy. Later, some plants may bloom again during the early fall. In bright sunlight, the flowerheads are mildly fragrant. Afterwards, the disk florets are replaced by dark achenes that are narrow and flat; they lack tufts of hair. At this time, the seedhead is prickly and dark-colored. The root system is fibrous and short-rhizomatous. Small dense colonies of plants may form from the rhizomes.

Cultivation: The preference is full to partial sun and moist to mesic conditions. Growth is best in fertile loam, but the soil can contain some gravel or clay. Foliar disease is rarely troublesome. While there is some drought resistance, the entire plant will wilt if the soil becomes too dry, particularly in strong sunlight. This plant is very easy to grow if the preceding requirements are met.

Range & Habitat: The native Purple Coneflower occurs primarily in central and NE Illinois, and a few counties in southern Illinois (see Distribution Map). While often grown in gardens around homes and businesses, it is an uncommon plant in the wild. However, Purple Coneflower is often used in prairie restorations, where it may be locally common. Some populations, particularly in the Chicago area, are probably plants that have escaped from cultivation. Habitats include moist to mesic black soil prairies, edges and openings in woodlands, savannas, thickets, and limestone glades.

Faunal Associations: The flowers are cross-pollinated by long-tongued bees, bee flies, Halictid bees, butterflies, and skippers. Among long-tongued bees, are such visitors as honeybees, bumblebees, digger bees (Melissodes spp.), and leaf-cutting bees (Megachile spp.). Butterfly visitors include Monarchs, Fritillaries, Painted Ladies, Swallowtails, Sulfurs, and Whites. The caterpillars of the butterfly Chlosyne nycteis (Silvery Checkerspot) feed on the foliage, while the caterpillars of several moths feed on the flowerheads. These latter species include Chlorochlamys chloroleucaria (Blackberry Looper), Eupithecia miserulata (Common Eupithecia), aerata (Wavy-Lined Emerald), and Homoeosoma electella (Sunflower Moth). A small songbird, the Eastern Goldfinch, occasionally eats the seeds during the summer and early fall.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, Illinois, and the webmaster's wildflower garden in the same city.

Comments: This is a striking plant when it is in full bloom, as the flowers are large and colorful. There is a cultivated form, called 'White Swan,' that is often grown in flower gardens, but plants with white petaloid rays are very rare in the wild. Purple Coneflower seems to attract more than its fair share of butterflies, particularly in sunny, sheltered areas. It can be distinguished from the similar (Pale Purple Coneflower) by its broader leaves, bushier habit, and later blooming period. Return

Rattlesnake Master Eryngium yuccifolium Carrot family (Apiaceae) Description: This native perennial plant is 2-5' tall. It has a stout central stem that is unbranched, except near the inflorescence. The alternate leaves tend to occur near the base of the plant, although a few smaller leaves occur along the upper portion of the stem. These leaves are long and strap-like, rather stiff in texture, and up to 2½' long and 2½" across. They are narrowly lanceolate, often curve downward, and have parallel venation. There are widely scattered, but stiff, teeth along the margins. The base of leaves clasp or wrap around the stalk. The entire plant is bluish or greyish green, and quite hairless. At the apex of the central stem, and sometimes from the axils of the upper leaves, occurs a long-stalked inflorescence. This consists of several prickly balls of flowers that are individually about ½–1" across. These whitish green balls contain numerous small white flowers that are individually surrounded by prickly bracts. A flower consists of 5 white petals, a divided white pistil, and several white stamens with light brown anthers. Each ball of flowers is subtended by a star-like rosette of small leaves. These flowers have a sickly -like scent in bright sunlight.

The blooming period occurs from mid- to late summer, and the balls of flowers remain attractive for about 2 months. The root system consists of a central taproot. After blooming, a plant will gradually die down, but one or more offsets will develop at its base. Thus, a small clump of plants will eventually form.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun and moist to slightly dry conditions. This plant becomes spindly in shadier conditions, and may topple over while in bloom. The soil can contain significant amounts of loam, sand, clay, or gravel, but the site should not be subject to standing water. This plant is easy to grow, and isn't bothered by foliar disease nor many insect pests.

Range & Habitat: Rattlesnake Master occurs in most of Illinois, except for some western and southern counties (see Distribution Map). It can be locally common in some high quality habitats, otherwise it is fairly uncommon. Habitats include moist to slightly dry black soil prairies, clay prairies, sand prairies, thickets, typical savannas, sandy savannas, and limestone glades.

Faunal Associations: The flowering heads attract many kinds of insects, including long-tongued bees, short-tongued bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, skippers, moths, beetles, and plant bugs. These insects usually seek nectar, although some of the bees may collect pollen for their brood nests. The caterpillars of the rare Papaipema eryngii (Rattlesnake Master Borer Moth) bore into the stems and feed on the pith. The coarse foliage and prickly balls of flowers are not popular as a source of food with mammalian herbivores, although they may nibble off the ends of the leaves.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at the webmaster's wildflower garden in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: This is a very odd member of the Carrot family that resembles a yucca or some other desert plant. However, it is a true tallgrass prairie species with a unique appearance. A close relative is Eryngium leavenworthii (Leavenworth Eryngo), which is an annual plant with a purplish appearance. This latter species doesn't occur in Illinois, but can be found in dry prairies further west. In the past, the dried seedheads of Rattlesnake Master were used as rattles by Amerindians. Pioneers thought the roots could be used as an effective antidote to rattlesnake bite, hence the common name of this plant. However, this belief was erroneous. Return

Wild Bergamot fistulosa Mint family () Description: This native perennial plant is 2½–4' tall, branching frequently in the upper half. The light green stems are four-angled and hairless. The opposite leaves are broadly lanceolate to ovate, and vary in color from light green to dark green, sometimes with yellow or red tints. These color variations are in part a response to environmental conditions. The hairless leaves are up to 4" long and 2" across, and have serrated margins. They exude an scent. At the top of major stems are rounded heads of flowers about 1-3" across. The flowers begin blooming in the center of the head, gradually moving toward its periphery, forming a wreath of flowers. Each flower is lavender or pink, and about 1" long, with an irregular shape. The corolla divides into a tubular upper lip with projecting stamens, and three slender lower lips that function as landing pads for visiting insects. The blooming period occurs during mid-summer and lasts about 1 month. The root system consists of deep, strongly branched roots, and shallow rhizomes that are responsible for the vegetative spread of the plant. These rhizomes typically send up multiple leafy stems in a tight cluster, giving Wild Bergamot a bushy appearance.

Cultivation: The preference is full or partial sun, and moist to slightly dry conditions. Growth is more luxuriant in a moist rich loam, although this can cause the plant to flop around as the growing season progresses. Under drought conditions, the lower leaves will turn yellow and drop off the stems; this reaction is normal. The lower leaves often develop powdery mildew, particularly when the weather is rainy. While this plant is easy to grow, it often becomes rather dilapidated in appearance as the growing season progresses because of these problems. This plant often spreads aggressively.

Range & Habitat: Wild Bergamot occurs throughout Illinois, except for a few southern counties (see Distribution Map). It is occasional to locally common. Habitats include moist to slightly dry black soil prairies, hill prairies, sandy Black Oak woodlands, savannas and woodland borders, thickets, borders of limestone glades, abandoned pastures, and landfills. The rhizomes can survive earth-moving and bulldozing operations, and send up plants in unexpected places. Some local populations may be plants that have escaped cultivation.

Faunal Associations: The nectar of the flowers attracts long-tongued bees, bee flies, butterflies, skippers, and hummingbird moths. Among the long-tongued bees, are such visitors as bumblebees, Miner bees, Epeoline Cuckoo bees, and large Leaf-Cutting bees. A small black bee (Dufourea monardae) specializes in the pollination of Monarda flowers. Sometimes Halictid bees collect pollen, while some wasps steal nectar by perforating the nectar tube. The Ruby- Throated Hummingbird also visits the flowers. The caterpillars of the moths Sphinx eremitus (Hermit Sphinx) and Agriopodes teratophora (Gray Marvel) feed on the foliage. A seed bug (Ortholomus scolopax) is sometimes found in the flowerheads. Mammalian herbivores usually avoid this plant as a food source, probably because of the oregano-mint flavor of the leaves and their capacity to cause indigestion; they may contain chemicals that disrupt populations of beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract.

Photographic Location: Photographs were taken at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: For a member of the mint family, the flowers are large and beautiful. Wild Bergamot can be distinguished from other Monarda spp. by the color of the flowers – they are solid pink or lavender. Other species have flowers with red or pale yellow coloration, or they have dark dots on the lower lobes. Return

Switch Grass Panicum virgatum Grass family (Poaceae) Description: This perennial grass is 3-6' tall and more or less erect; usually it forms tufts of leafy culms that are erect to ascending. The culms are light to medium green (less often light blue and glaucous), terete, glabrous, and fairly stout. Several alternate leaves occur along the entire length of each culm; their blades are ascending to widely spreading. The leaf blades are up to 15 mm. across and 2' long; they are usually medium green (less often light blue and glaucous), hairless to mostly hairless, and either flat or slightly indented along their midveins. The leaf sheaths are about the same color as the blades and hairless; they are open at their apices, forming a V-shape. The ligules have bands of white hairs, while the nodes are swollen and often dark-colored.

Each fertile culm terminates in an inflorescence that is 7-20" long and about one-half as much across when it is fully open. This inflorescence is an airy panicle of spikelets; it is broader toward the bottom than the top and pyramidal in outline. Along the rachis (central stalk) of the inflorescence, there are either solitary lateral branches or pseudo-whorls of 2-3 lateral branches. The ascending to widely spreading branches divide into branchlets and pedicellate spikelets. The rachis, lateral branches, branchlets, and pedicels are light green (rarely light blue and glaucous), glabrous, and slender; they are straight, slightly curved, or slightly wiry. During the period of bloom, the spikelets are 3-5 mm. long, light green to reddish green (rarely light blue and glaucous), lanceoloid in shape, and glabrous. Each spikelet has 2 glumes, 2 lemmas (one fertile and the other sterile), a palea, and a perfect floret. The smaller glume is about two-thirds of the length of the spikelet, while the remaining glume and sterile lemma are the same length as the spikelet. The glumes and sterile lemma are ovate, convex along their outer surfaces, longitudinally veined, and narrowly acute at their tips. The fertile lemma is 2.5–3.5 mm. long, ovate, convex along its outer surface, veinless, membranous, and acute at its tip.

The perfect floret of each spikelet consists of 3 anthers, 2 stigmas, and an ovary. The blooming period occurs during mid-summer, lasting about 1-2 weeks. The florets are cross-pollinated by the wind. Afterwards, the spikelets of the inflorescence become light tan and fall in their entirety to the ground. The grains have adherent pericarps. The root system is fibrous and rhizomatous; it can penetrate up to 10 ft. into the ground. Reproduction is by seed and from clonal offsets of the rhizomes.

Cultivation: The preference is partial to full sunlight, moist to mesic conditions, and deep fertile soil. However, this robust grass can tolerate practically any kind of soil and it will adapt to drier conditions. Most growth and development occurs during the summer. This grass can spread aggressively, therefore it should not be over-planted.

Range & Habitat: The native Switch Grass is a common plant that has been found in most areas of Illinois, except for a few counties in the southern half of the state (see Distribution Map). Habitats include black soil prairies, clay prairies, sand prairies, typical savannas and sandy savannas, open woodlands, rocky bluffs, sand dunes, edges of marshes, sandy pannes, banks of rivers and ponds, prairie restorations, areas along railroads, roadsides, ditches, and abandoned fields. Because of its above-average tolerance of salt, this species can become the dominant grass along little-mowed roadsides where salt is applied during the winter. Like other prairie species, this native grass recovers readily from occasional wildfires. It is more tolerant of disturbance and habitat degradation than most prairie grasses. Sometimes Switch Grass is cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant.

Faunal Associations: Various insects feed on Switch Grass and other Panicum spp. (Panic Grasses). These include the caterpillars of such skippers as Atrytone logan ( Skipper), Hesperia leonardus (Leonard's Skipper), Hesperia sassacus (Indian Skipper), Poanes hobomok (Hobomok Skipper), Polites themistocles (Tawny-edged Skipper), and Wallengrenia egremet (Northern Broken-Dash). Other insect feeders include the larvae of grass leaf-miner moths (Elachista spp.), the larvae of gall flies, plants bugs (Collaria spp.), stink bugs, Sipha flava (Yellow Sugar Cane Aphid) and other aphids, leafhoppers (Graminella spp., Polyamia spp.), leaf beetles, thrips (Chirothrips spp.), and grasshoppers. See the Insect Table for a more complete list of these species. The seeds of Switch Grass and other Panicum spp. (Panic Grasses) are eaten by a variety of birds, including wetland birds, upland gamebirds, and granivorous songbirds (see the Bird Table for a listing of these species). The seeds of these grasses are also eaten by the Prairie Deer Mouse and wild House Mouse (Whitaker, 1966). The very young foliage of this grass is edible to cattle and other hoofed mammalian herbivores (, 1913). Because Switch Grass remains upright during the winter and often forms large clumps, it provides good cover for various birds and mammals during this time of year.

Photographic Location: A wildflower garden at Crystal Lake Park in Urbana, Illinois, and along a railroad in Savoy, Illinois.

Comments: This is one of the dominant grasses of the tallgrass prairie. Like the other dominant grasses, Switch Grass (Panicum virgatum) has a C4 metabolism that enables it to withstand summer weather that is hot and dry. This is the tallest and most robust panic grass (Panicum sp.) in Illinois, and it can be distinguished from most of the others by its size. One common species with a similar appearance that resembles a small specimen of Switch Grass is Fall Panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum). This latter species is hairless or mostly hairless like Switch Grass, but its spikelets are smaller in size (2-3 mm.). Furthermore, the first glumes of Fall Panicum are about one-fourth the length of their spikelets, while the first glumes of Switch Grass are about two-thirds the length of their spikelets. Other tall-growing Panic Grasses have hairier sheaths and/or leaves, and they also have smaller spikelets than Switch Grass. With increases in the price of gasoline, Switch Grass has been evaluated as a possible source of alcohol that could be used as an alternative fuel. Apparently, it can produce more alcohol per acre than corn and doesn't require replanting in the spring because of its perennial habit. However, the bulkiness of its foliage could impede efficient shipping and processing. Return Yellow Coneflower Ratibida pinnata Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This native perennial is up to 4' tall while in flower. The long slender stems are slightly ridged. The basal leaves occur toward the bottom of these stems and are irregularly shaped – the larger leaves are pinnately divided into 3- 7 lobes, sometimes subdividing further into 1-2 secondary lobes. The margins of these leaves are smooth, or sparsely dentate; they are individually up to 8" long and 5" across. The smaller leaves higher up on the stems are usually lanceolate; they are few in number. The texture of these leaves is rough as a result of tiny stiff hairs and bumps. The daisy-like composite flowers occur at the apex of the tall stems. Each composite flower has up to 13 drooping yellow ray florets spanning 1-2½" across, and an oblong head of disk florets that is about ½–¾" tall when mature. This head is initially light green or grey, but later becomes dark brown. The blooming period occurs from early to late summer, and lasts about 1-2 months. There is little or no floral scent – although the seedheads release an anise scent when they are crushed. The root system is rhizomatous, often forming tight clumps of plants. The dark achenes are without tufts of hair.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, mesic conditions, and a loam or clay-loam soil. However, this is a robust plant that will tolerate partial sun, moist to slightly dry conditions, and many kinds of soil. Foliar disease doesn't affect the leaves until after the blooming period. There is a tendency for the flowering stems to flop around if this plant is spoiled by too much water or fertile soil. This plant is easy to grow.

Range & Habitat: Yellow Coneflower is fairly common in Illinois, except in some SE counties (see Distribution Map). Habitats include moist to slightly dry black soil prairies, clay prairies, thickets, woodland borders, limestone glades, and areas along railroads, particularly where remnant prairies occur. Yellow Coneflower tends to colonize the more disturbed areas of these habitats.

Faunal Associations: Many kinds of insects visit the flowers, but especially bees, including Epeoline Cuckoo bees, large Leaf-Cutting bees, Green Metallic bees, and other Halictine bees. Other insect visitors include wasps, flies, small butterflies, and beetles. These insects suck nectar from the flowers, although the bees also collect pollen and some beetles feed on pollen. The caterpillars of the butterfly Chlosyne nycteis (Silvery Checkerspot) feed on Yellow Coneflower, as well as the caterpillars of the moths Eynchlora acida (Wavy-Lined Emerald) and Eupithecia miserulata (Common Eupithecia). Goldfinches occasionally eat the seeds, while some mammalian herbivores eat the foliage and flowering stems, particularly groundhogs and livestock.

Photographic Location: Photographs were taken at a prairie of Parkland College in Champaign, Illinois.

Comments: Yellow Coneflower is an excellent choice for a wildflower garden because of its long blooming period and attractive yellow flowers. The entire plant is delicately constructed, and has a tendency to sway or flutter with each passing breeze. This species can be distinguished from other yellow coneflowers, such as hirta, by its drooping ray florets and the complex structure of the basal leaves. Return Black-Eyed Susan Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This is a native biennial or short-lived perennial plant that is about 1-2½' tall. It occasionally branches near the base, with each stem producing a single composite flower. The stems have long white hairs. The alternate leaves are greyish green and covered with small stiff hairs, providing them with a rough texture. The leaves are up to 7" long and 2" across, and lanceolate, oblanceolate, or ovate. Their margins are ciliate and rather smooth, with or without a few blunt teeth. The basal leaves have long hairy petioles, while the middle and upper leaves have short petioles or clasp the stem. The upper stems are long and devoid of leaves, each producing a single composite flower. This flower consists of many dark brown disk florets, forming a flattened cone, surrounded by 8-20 ray florets that are bright yellow (rarely with patches of maroon near the base). The style-tips of the disk florets are slender and pointed. Each composite flower is about 2-3" across, and has no noticeable scent. Black-Eyed Susan blooms primarily from early to mid-summer for about a month, although some plants will bloom during the late summer or fall. The achenes are black, oblong, finely nerved, and without tufts of hair. The root system consists of a central taproot and is without rhizomes – this plant reproduces entirely by seed.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, and slightly moist to moderately dry soil conditions. Any reasonably fertile soil will be satisfactory. This plant is fast to mature and easy to grow, although short-lived. Occasionally, there may be outbreaks of powdery mildew on the leaves in moist environments, particularly during the fall.

Range & Habitat: This is a common plant throughout Illinois, and occurs in all counties (see Distribution Map). In native habitats, it occurs in mesic to dry prairies, mesic to dry upland forests, particularly in open rocky areas, as well as savannas and limestone glades. In developed areas, it can be found in pastures and abandoned fields, areas along railroads and roadsides, on eroded clay slopes, and miscellaneous waste areas. Black-Eyed Susan colonizes disturbed areas readily, and recovers moderately well from fires.

Faunal Associations: The composite flowers appeal to a wide range of insects, particularly bees and flies, as well as some wasps, butterflies, and beetles. The bees collect pollen or suck nectar, and include Little Carpenter bees, Leaf-Cutting bees, Green Metallic and other Halictine bees, Andrenid bees, and others. Some Andrenid bees, such as Andrena rudbeckiae and Heterosarus rudbeckiae, prefer visiting the flowers of Black-Eyed Susan and closely related plants. Among the flies that visit the flowers, Syrphid flies, Bee flies, and Tachinid flies are well represented. The caterpillars of Chlosyne nycteis (Silvery Checkerspot) feed on the leaves. Many mammalian herbivores are not particularly fond of the coarse leaves – they have low food value, and there have been occasional reports of this plant poisoning cattle and pigs. The seeds are eaten occasionally by goldfinches.

Photographic Location: The above photographs were taken at Meadow Park in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: Black-Eyed Susan is an excellent choice for prairie restorations, or the first-year planting of a wildflower garden, as it may bloom during the first year from seed. Sometimes, this plant will reseed itself with such abandon it can become aggressive, but it will lose ground to the longer-lived perennial plants as they mature. Black-Eyed Susan can be distinguished from other Rudbeckia spp. by its lanceolate hairy leaves and the long hairs on the stems; most of the leaves occur toward the base of each stem, and never have lobes. The species Rudbeckia fulgida (Orange Coneflower) is quite similar in appearance, but usually blooms later, and has style-tips that are shorter and more rounded. Return

Prairie Dock Silphium terebinthinaceum Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This plant has a vase-like rosette of large basal leaves that are spade-shaped (cordate). Each leaf has a thick sandpapery texture, particularly on the underside, and is up to 18" long and 12" wide. On young leaves, the upper surface is relatively hairless and shiny, while older leaves become dull and rough. The lower surface is light green and pubescent. The leaf margins are coarsely serrated or dentate. The petioles are about 6" long, rather narrow and wiry, and light green or brown. The overall appearance is similar to a rhubarb plant, except the petioles are more slender. A naked flowering stalk emerges from the base of the plant, ranging in height from 3' to 10' in height. This stalk is green or red, and largely hairless. The upper part of the stalk divides gracefully into a panicle of yellow composite flowers and spherical green buds. Each compound flower is about 2-3" across, and consists of 15-30 ray florets with rather pointed tips surrounding numerous disk florets. There is no noticeable floral scent. The blooming period usually occurs from late summer to early fall, and lasts about a month for an individual plant. Prairie Dock usually blooms later than other Silphium spp. It has a stout taproot that can penetrate the soil to about 12' deep, and may form offsets only a short distance away from the mother plant. The rather light, flattened achenes can be carried several feet by the wind; they are without tufts of hair.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun, a deep loamy soil, and moist to slightly dry conditions. Rocky or gravelly soil is tolerated. Drought tolerance is very good. Prairie Dock is rather slow to develop, but very reliable and nearly indestructible when mature. Patches of brown may develop when the leaves are damaged by drought, windstorms, or passing animals. It is a long-lived plant.

Range & Habitat: Prairie Dock occurs in most of Illinois, except for a few counties in the south and NW (see Distribution Map). It is a common plant. Habitats include moist to dry black soil prairies, gravel prairies, shrub prairies, hill prairies, savannas, seeps, limestone glades, and prairie remnants along roadsides and railroads. The exceptional height of the flowering stalk is probably useful in keeping the flowers above the taller grasses, such as Andropogon gerardii (Big Bluestem). Recovery from occasional wildfires is very good.

Faunal Associations: The composite flowers attract long-tongued bees primarily, including honeybees, bumblebees, and Miner bees. Other flower visitors include Halictine bees, bee flies, and the Ruby-Throated Hummingbird. The grubs of Okanagana balli (Prairie Cicada) feed on the large taproot; this is an uncommon prairie insect that emerges during mid-summer. Both the larvae and adults of the Silphium Beetle (Rynchites sp.) feed on the flowerheads and stems of this and other Silphium spp. The larvae of Antistrophus rufus and Antistrophus minor (Gall Wasp spp.) feed on the flowering stem of Prairie Dock, forming invisible galls. The larvae of these species attract the hyperparasitic wasp Eurytoma lutea, whose larvae feed on these gall-formers. The larvae of Mordellistena aethiops (Tumbling Flower Beetle sp.) also feed within the stem, while the adults may feed on the flowerheads. The oligolectic Iowana frisoni (Aphid sp.) sucks juices from the flowering stem. Goldfinches eat the seeds, and may help to disperse them. Large mammalian herbivores, such as cattle and the American Bison, readily eat the foliage and stems of Prairie Dock; however, the coarse sandpapery leaves of mature plants are not attractive to the Cottontail Rabbit, which prefers vegetation that is shorter and more tender.

Photographic Location: The photograph of the flowerhead close-up was taken at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, the photograph of the panicles of flowerheads was taken along a railroad in Champaign, while the photograph of the basal leaves was taken at Dave Monk's postage stamp prairie in the latter city. Both Urbana and Champaign are in Illinois.

Comments: This is a typical plant of mesic black soil prairies that competes successfully with tall prairie grasses. It has an impressive and unusual appearance, like something out of the Stone Age when Columbian mastodons and other megafauna inhabited the prairies of North America. Return Grass-Leaved Goldenrod Euthamia graminifolia Aster family (Asteraceae) Description: This native perennial plant is 2-3½' tall. Sometimes it is slender and little branched, while at other times it branches frequently, creating a bushy appearance. The slender stems usually have lines of fine white hairs. The alternate leaves are linear and have smooth margins. The larger leaves have 3 conspicuous veins, although the smaller ones usually have only a single conspicuous vein. They are up to 4" long and 3/8" across, or slightly wider. Sometimes there are a few white hairs near the base of the leaves and along the central vein on the underside. There are clusters of small composite flowers at the apex of the plant and many of the upper side stems. These flower clusters are usually rather flat-headed, but they sometimes assume a round-headed appearance. Each composite flower is yellow, consisting of about 21-35 disk florets and ray florets (when considered together). It is only about 1/8" across – smaller than the composite flowers of other goldenrods.

These compound flowers often bloom gradually, rather than simultaneously, with older flowers turning brown while younger flowers are still in the bud stage. The blooming period is late summer to early fall, and lasts about 1 month. Sometimes there is a mild floral scent. The root system is fibrous, and new plants develop vegetatively from rhizomes. Overall, Grass-Leaved Goldenrod is rather variable across different localities.

Cultivation: The preference is full sun and moist conditions. However, this plant tolerates drier conditions, and can be surprisingly drought tolerant. The soil should contain high amounts of organic matter; some varieties of this plant also grow in moist sandy soil. Powdery mildew seems to bother this goldenrod less often than many others. It is easy to grow, but can spread aggressively in moist sunny places.

Range & Habitat: Grass-Leaved Goldenrod occurs occasionally in most counties of Illinois (see Distribution Map). However, it can be locally common in some wetlands areas. Habitats include moist black soil prairies, edges of marshes, sandy pannes between dunes, calcareous seeps, borders of lakes, abandoned fields, and ditches along railroads. Grass-Leaved Goldenrod occasionally occurs in drier habitats, but it has greater trouble competing with other forbs, such as canadensis ( Goldenrod), in such places.

Faunal Associations: The small flowers attract many kinds of insects, including long-tongued bees, short-tongued bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, moths, and beetles. Various wasps and a few beetle species, such as Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus (Goldenrod Soldier Beetle) and Epicauta pensylvanica (Black Blister Beetle), seem to be especially attracted to the flowers. The caterpillars of several species of moths eat various parts of this and other goldenrods (see Moth Table). The seeds are eaten by the Eastern Goldfinch and Swamp Sparrow to a limited extent, while the foliage is occasionally consumed in limited amounts by the Greater Prairie Chicken, Cottontail Rabbit, and White-Tailed Deer.

Photographic Location: The photographs were taken at Meadowbrook Park in Urbana, Illinois.

Comments: Grass-Leaved Goldenrod has more slender leaves than other goldenrods in Illinois, except for Euthamia gymnospermoides (Plains Grass-Leaved Goldenrod). However, there is only a single conspicuous vein in the largest leaves of this latter species, its stems are hairless, it has only 12-20 disk and ray florets in a compound flower (when considered together), and it is usually more branched and bushy in appearance. Grass-Leaved Goldenrod also differs from the latter species by preferring more soggy habitats. Return