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Métis Families and Schools: the Decline and Reclamation of Métis

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Métis Families and Schools: the Decline and Reclamation of Métis MÉTIS FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS: THE DECLINE AND RECLAMATION OF MÉTIS IDENTITIES IN SASKATCHEWAN, 1885-1980 A Dissertation Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By Jonathan Anuik © Jonathan Anuik, March, 2009. All rights reserved. Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l’édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-62605-4 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-62605-4 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l’Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L’auteur conserve la propriété du droit d’auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protège cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author’s permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n’y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I also agree to allow Library and Archives Canada to scan a microfiche copy of the dissertation. I further agree that permission for copying of this dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the faculty members who advised my dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my dissertation work was done. It is understood that any copying, publication, or use of this dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material from this dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or make use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head, Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5 Telephone: (306) 966-5792 Fax: (306) 966-5852 E-mail: [email protected] i ABSTRACT In the late-nineteenth century, Métis families and communities resisted what they perceived to be the encroachment of non-Aboriginal newcomers into the West. Resistance gave way to open conflict at the Red River Settlement and later in north central Saskatchewan. Both attempts by the Métis to resist the imposition of the newcomer’s settlement agenda were not successful, and the next 100 years would bring challenges to Métis unity. The transmission of knowledge of a Métis past declined as parents and grandparents opted to encourage their children and youth to pass into the growing settler society in what would become Saskatchewan. As parents restricted the flow of Métis knowledge, missionaries who represented Christian churches collaborated to develop the first Northwest Territories Board of Education, the agent responsible for the first state-supported schools in what would become the province of Saskatchewan. These first schools included Métis students and helped to shift their loyalties away from their families and communities and toward the British state. However, many Métis children and youth remained on the margins of educational attainment. They were either unable to attend school, or their schools did not have the required infrastructure or relevant pedagogy and curriculum. In the years after World War II, the Government of Saskatchewan noticed the unequal access to and achievement of the Métis in its schools. The government attempted to bring Métis students in from the margins through infrastructural, pedagogical, and curricular adaptations to support their learning. Scholars have unearthed voluminous evidence of missionary work in Canada and have researched and written about public schools. As well, several scholars have undertaken research projects on Status First Nations education in the twentieth century. However, less is known about Métis’ interactions with Christian missionaries and in the state-supported or publicly funded schools. In this dissertation, I examine the history of missions and public schools in what would become Saskatchewan, and I enumerate the foundations that the Métis considered important for their learning. I identify Métis children and youth’s reactions to Christian and public schools in Saskatchewan, but I argue that Métis families who knew of their heritages actively participated in Roman Catholic Church rituals and activities and preserved and protected their pasts. Although experiences with Christianity varied, those with strong family ties and ties to the land adjusted well to the expectations of Christian teachings and formal public education. Overall, I tell the story of Métis children and youth and their involvement in church and public schooling based on how they saw Christianity, education, and its role on their lands and in their families. And I explain how Métis learners negotiated Protestant and Roman Catholic teachings and influences with the pedagogy and curriculum of public schools. Oral history forms a substantial portion of the sources for this history of Métis children and youth and church and public education. I approached the interviews as means to generate new data – in collaboration with the people I interviewed. Consequently, I went into the interviews with a list of questions, but I strove to make these interviews conversational and allow for a two-way flow of knowledge. I started with contextual questions (i.e. date of birth, school attended, where family was from) and proceeded to probe further based on the responses I received from the person being interviewed and from previous interviews. As well, I drew from two oral history projects with tapes and transcripts available in the archives: the Saskatchewan Archives Board’s “Towards a New Past Oral History Project ‘The Métis’” and the Provincial ii Archives of Manitoba’s Manitoba Métis Oral History Project. See appendices A and B for discussion of my oral history methodology and the utility of the aforementioned oral history projects for my own research. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No project is ever completed by one person; a Ph.D. dissertation is no exception. There are a number of people to whom I owe substantial gratitude. The first and most significant acknowledgment is to Dr. J.R. Miller for his willingness to take on my proposal for doctoral research on Métis childhood identity early in 2003, and he has been a wonderful, caring, and fair supervisor ever since. In the Department of History, Keith Carlson, Ken Coates, Valerie Korinek, and Bill Waiser agreed to sit on my advisory committee and have provided valuable assistance throughout this journey from proposal to comprehensive exams to research to writing. Margaret Kennedy from the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology sat as my external committee member. Without my committee’s support, guidance, feedback, and criticisms, this dissertation project would not have the scholarly significance that it has. Of course, Dr. Miller’s Canada Research Chair in Native-Newcomer relations grant funded the research for this dissertation, and I thank him for his willingness not only to supervise me but to support financially my research endeavours. I am grateful to a number of people at the University of Saskatchewan who also provided both professional and personal support as I learned and engaged with Métis childhood identity over the past five-and-a-half years. Graduate and undergraduate student friends in the Department of History and from many other departments were there to provide encouragement, coffee breaks, and nights out and away from the dissertation research and writing. I thank Jean- Paul Cote, Nich Fraser, Carmen Gillies, Michael Kirkpatrick, Nikki Maclean, Pavan Kumar Malreddy, Clayton Rudy, Jolene Sander, Ana Valiard, and Jenn Wilcox especially for their ongoing belief in my ability to see this project through to completion. Department of History alumni Tracy Strom was a valuable assistant to me when I was President of the Graduate Students’ Association and was there for many discussions of university politics as well as Canadian Native-newcomer relations history. Len Findlay, Glenys Joyce, Chary Rangycharyulu, and Ed Tymchatyn were excellent colleagues who shared with me in their practices, beliefs, and scholarship the importance of activism in our teaching and research roles as university graduate students and instructors. In my fourth year, I was hired as a research assistant at the Aboriginal Education Research Centre in the College of Education under the supervision of Dr.
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