Civil War in Central African Republic

Full Length Research Paper

Civil War in the Central African Republic from 2012- 2016: A Historical Perspective of Foreign and African Interventions

Professor Amakievi Okien Ijeoma Gabriel

Department of History and International Diplomacy, Faculty of Humanities, Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Email:[email protected]

Received: 15 October, 2020, Accepted: 2 November, 2020, Published: 31 November, 2020

This discourse on the Second Civil War in the Central African Republic from 2012 to 2016 sought to unravel the causes of the war even though the first civil war which started in 2004 ended in 2008. The reasons for and the roles of intervention actors from Africa and outside Africa were examined. This study largely depended on journal articles, news bulletins, newspapers, and reports (secondary sources) that were readily available. With the skills of interpretation and objectivity as well as the significance of hindsight it was discovered that a fundamental issue was the disarticulation of interaction between the elites resident in Bangui, the capital city, and those residents in other parts of the country. The elites in Bangui did not have adequate knowledge of the challenges especially poverty, inadequate, and in some communities a complete lack of infrastructure for social good. They were also marginalized, a situation that caused disaffection, distrust, discontent, and a feeling of hopelessness. This, therefore, made them vulnerable, particularly the youth to join rebel groups that for more than two decades sustained violence, insecurity, and instability, Inclusiveness in government administration, good governance, basic literacy, widespread educational institutions at all the levels (pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary) of education and establishment of industries, given that huge revenue is generated from their exploitation of natural resources such as diamonds, gold, and timber among others, stable political system and political will by leaders to develop all facets of human endeavor in the country would very much reduce the sources of aggression and restiveness that would culminate in the transformation of the Central African Republic.

Keywords: Civil war, Intervention, Inclusiveness, Seleka, Anti-Balaka

INTRODUCTION

The 2007 and 2008 cease-fire agreements signed Justice and Peace (Convention des Patriots pour la between the government of the Central African Republic Justice et la Paix – (PJP) rebels led by Charles Massi, a (CAR) and various rebel groups that controlled many former Prime Minister of CAR clashed in the towns in the country did not produce the expected peace, northwestern part of the country on June 12, 2009, but only relative calm was experienced for a short period. leaving many rebels and government soldiers dead. By There were several clashes between the rebel groups November 26, 2009, CPJP also attacked and captured and CAR government from the later part of 2008, the town of N'dele in north-central CAR but government November precisely till 2012 when the second civil war troops recaptured Ndele town on November 27, 2009, commenced. For example, on November 11, 2008, and Charles Massi, the leader of CPJP rebel group was rebels ambushed and killed 13 government soldiers near killed by the CAR government on January 8, 2010.2 Kabo.1 Government troops and convention of Patriots for Clashes between government troops and the CPJP rebels

https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/sub-saharan- 1 University of Central Arkansas, ‟36 Central African Republic africa-region/central. Retrieved August 29, 2020 91960-present)‟, 2020, p.6. 2 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.6-7 Amakievi, 14

rebels continued in their struggle for the control of Birao the second civil war in CAR that commenced in town in northern CAR, in 2010. Rebels captured Birao on December 2012. November 24, 2010, while government troops dislodged the rebels and re-captured Birao on December 1, 2010, CAR Civil War: 2012-2016 with causalities on both sides. Rebels lost 65 persons through death and 15 government soldiers during this The northern part of CAR was the fertile ground for the week-long clashes.3 Apart from government and rebel coalition of diverse rebel groups that emerged as the groups' clashes were also between rival armed groups Seleka and was led by Michel Djotodia. At inception, the such as CPJP and UFDR in Bria town from September coalition consisted of or comprised: 11, 2011, to October 8, 2011, when both groups signed a ceasefire agreement. The government also signed a a). the Convention des patriots pour la justice et la paix peace agreement with the CPJP on August 25, 2012.4 (CPJP); These ceasefires and peace agreements only provided b). Union des Forces Democratiques pour le relative calm because within a short period violence Rassemblement (UFDR); erupted. Violent attacks by a splinter group or faction of c). Front Democratique du Peuple Centrafricain (FDPC); the CPJP known as the "Fundamental CPJP" led by d). Convention Patriotique du Salut du Kodro (CPSK); Colonel Hassan al-Habib attacked the following towns – and some smaller rebel groups Sibut, Damara, and Dakota on September 15, 2012, but e). Alliance pour la Renaissance et la Refondation (A2R); government troops killed Hassan al-Habib in Daya town and on September 19, 2012.5 Other dimensions of tensions f). Union des Forces Republicains (UFR).8 and insecurity in CAR within this period 2008 to 2011 were caused by ethnic clashes such as those in Birao on Seleka means "alliance" in CAR indigenous language, June 6, 2009, and in the northwestern part of CAR on Sango, and true to this name, their main goals were to June 21, 2009, resulting in the death of 27 and 10 seek comprehensive political reform after a decade of individuals respectively.6 President Francois Bozize's regime from 2003 to 2013. Zaraguinas loosely organized criminal gangs who Issues of discrimination and marginalization against the operated in the north of CAR terrorized civilians through northern part of CAR were to be redressed. There was kidnapping and killing those who could not pay the low or non-payment of salaries in the north, high ransom. In fact by the United Nations (UN) estimate as of unemployment and the absence of basic services such July 2008, 197,200 people in northern CAR had been as schools and hospitals among others, and particularly a displaced due to insecurity and largely as a result of dearth of basic public amenities and infrastructures, in Zaraguinas attacks and UN aid delivery trucks were often the northeast.9 These triggers partly contributed to the fired by Zaraguinas gangs.7 The religious violence that Seleka attack against Bozize‟s regime that culminated in occurred in Bangui on May 31 – June 1, 2011, led to the Bozize‟s ouster in 2013. By December 2012 Seleka death of eleven individuals who were mostly Chadians. groups had occupied most towns in CAR and were Chadian rebel groups who found a haven in the Vakaga heading towards Bangui, CAR capital. The Seleka group region of northern CAR border with Chad and Sudan indeed was determined to topple Bozize, take over the were lawless and with armed rebels, moved freely and state, and seize the country's natural resources.10 conflicts around the border easily affected Chad and Emboldened by the fact that they had control over a Sudan, threatening their government and stability too. larger part of the country, the north in particular and the These clashes, the result of dissatisfaction by the rebel support of Chadian and Sudanese mercenaries series of groups who claimed that President Francois Bozize failed attacks took place in December 2012. Specifically, the to implement earlier peace agreements of 2007 and 2008 following towns among others were captured by the to the letter also underscored their quest for the removal Seleka rebels: Ndele, Bamingui, Bria, Kabo, Bambari of Bozize from office and the emergence of the Seleka Kaga-Bandoro, and Sibut.11 Many government soldiers, group that vehemently opposed CAR government led by Bozize. Again, the narrative so far has set the stage for 8 C. Emhede, 'Conflict Untangled: the political, social and economic factors behind the Central African Republic ethnoreligious conflict', A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the 3 University of Central Arkansas, 2002, p.7 requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Theology, in 4 University of Central Arkansas, 2002, p.7 the Department of Theology, Uppsala University, June 2017, 5 University of Central Arkansas, 2002, p.7 p.10. Retrieved August 9, 2020. 6 University of Central Arkansas, 2002, p.6 9 Institute For Peace and Security Studies, „Conflict Analysis 7 Human Rights Watch, „World Report 2009: Central African and Insights: Central African Republic (CAR) Conflict Insight, Republic (CAR) Events of 2008‟, 2020, p.2. 2019, vol, 2 Retrieved https://ww.hrw.org/world-report/2009/country-chapters/central- 10 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.7 african-republic. Retrieved August 29, 2020. 11 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.7 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 15

rebels, and civilians (women and children) died during Ceasefire and Withdrawal Agreement with the Central these attacks. African Government; Some many countries and organizations intervened during this period to ensure that there was no total Responding to the international Mediation of Their breakdown of law and order but that relative calm was Excellencies Mr. Idriss DEBY ITNO, President of the achieved for the government and citizens to function. For Republic of Chad, current President of CEEAC and Mr. example, the government of Chad which at this time still Deniss SASSOU – N'GUESSO, President of the Republic had a good rapport with Bozize deployed 2,000 soldiers of Congo and President of the Monitoring Committee in support of the CAR government on December 18, established by the Special Summit of Heads of State and 2012, while the UN Security Council condemned the the Government of Central Africa on December 21, 2012, Seleka rebels and demanded a cessation of hostilities on in N'djamena, Republic of Chad, on the security situation December 19, 2012, and January 4, 2013. South African in the Central African Republic; government deployed an additional 200 troops to support the CAR government. Again, the UN Security Council The Government of the Central African Republic and the appealed for a cessation of military hostilities and used it SELEKA Coalition agree the following: for “political dialogue” on January 4, 2013. However, the Seleka rebels had temporarily stopped their military Article 1: offensive and agreed to peace negotiations with the CAR The belligerent parties must observe an immediate government on January 2, 2013. Consequently, the ceasefire, and end all hostilities within 72 hours of signing Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) the Ceasefire Agreement. mediated negotiations that culminated in a ceasefire The ceasefire entails: agreement between the CAR government and the Seleka group signed in Libreville, Gabon on January 12, 2013.12 - The immediate termination of and abstention from all The Peace Agreement between the government of the media campaigns which may hinder efforts to develop Central African Republic and the Seleka coalition (UFDR, a spirit of fraternity and national harmony; CPJP, CPSK, UFR) is reflected as follows: - The immediate cessation of all acts of violence against the civilian population and the protection of human Preamble rights. These acts of violence include summary executions, torture, harassment, the detention and Considering the relevant provisions of the United Nations execution of civilians on grounds of ethnicity, as well as Charter, the Constitutional Act of the African Union, and the recruitment of child soldiers, sexual violence, the Protocol of the Central African Peace and Security arming the civilian population, and the detention and Council (COPAX): execution of prisoners.

Considering the national resolutions relating to the The Parties will communicate this cessation of hostilities peaceful resolution of conflicts, notably the Global Peace via their respective chains of command and using the Agreement of Libreville of June 2, 2008, the Press, to the civilian population. recommendations of the Bangui Inclusive Political Dialogue of December 20, 2008, and the Code of Good Article 2: Conduct; Upon entry into force of this agreement, the Parties will facilitate the transport of humanitarian aid by opening Conscious of the need for dialogue to establish a feeling humanitarian aid corridors and establishing favorable of durable peace and security throughout the national conditions for the provision of emergency services to territory, an essential condition for national reconstruction displaced persons and others in need. and democracy-building; The Parties undertake to release political prisoners and prisoners of war, to guarantee the effective presence of Considering the ongoing desire of His Excellency (Army) the International Committee of the Red Cross General Francois BOZIZE YANGOUVOUNDA, President (CICR)/Croissant-Rouge (CR) following their release, and of the Republic, Head of State, reiterated in his speech to to enable it to evacuate the injured and bury the dead. the nation of December 2012, to promote tolerance, dialogue, and reconciliation among all the sons and Article 3: daughters of Central Africa; The parties undertake to withdraw all weapons and disband any existing military units Considering the wish of the Seleka coalition to restore democracy, to participate in negotiations, and to sign a Article 4: SELEKA coalition troops must be stationed in mutually agreed locations under the supervision of MICOPAX. 12 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.7 Amakievi, 16

Article 5: For CEEAC A priority program must be established immediately in the - Nassour GUELENGDOUKSIA OUAIDOU, Secretary- following order: General of CEEAC For the President of the Monitoring Committee 1. Creation of the conditions needed for the return, - Basile IKOUEBE, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the reinstallation, and reinsertion of persons displaced Cooperation of the Republic of Congo.13 during the conflict 2. Protection of human rights, including the release of all Sequel to the January 11, 2013 Agreement, Bozize detained persons, cessation of sexual violence, and the appointed Nicolas Tiangaye, a lawyer supported by the conscription of child soldiers; opposition, and Seleka, as Prime Minister. He was of the 3. The DDR process in the North Eastern Central African Republican Convention for Social Progress (Convention Republic to be pursued; Republicaine pour le Progress Social – CRPS) and 4. Reorganization of Central African defense and security replaced Faustin Archange Touadera, former Prime forces; Minister, who had also been the Vice-Chancellor of the 5. Fight against criminality University of Bangui, CAR. This appointment was made 6. Rehabilitation of zones affected by the conflict. on January 17, 2013, six days after the Ceasefire Agreement, probably for forging a government of National Article 6: Unity. The signatories will set up a Monitoring Commission for implementation of the present agreement constituted as The Fall of Bangui under Bozize’s Regime follows: The envisaged and political process enshrined in the  For the Government: Three (03) representatives 2013 Ceasefire Agreement was not realized as the  For Civil Society: One (01) representative Seleka did not implement the tenets of Articles 1,2,3,4,5.  For the SELEKA Coalition: Three (3) representatives Similarly, the CAR government did not also implement its  For the Democratic Opposition: One (01) commitments as reflected in the Ceasefire Agreement, representative specifically Articles 3, 5(1,3,4, and 6). It was surprising  For the United Nations Integrated Office in the that two months after signing the Ceasefire Agreement Central African Republic: One (01) representative on January 11, 2013, President Bozize was ousted from  For the African Union Office in the Central African office on Sunday, March 24, 2013, by the Seleka Republic: One (01) representative Coalition led by Michel Djotodia. However skeletal, a  For the Mediation Office: One (01) representative transitional government had commenced on February 3, 2013, but the Seleka were dissatisfied and impatient due  For CEEAC: Two (02) representatives to the following factors:

(a). There was a strong and common feeling among the The Monitoring Commission for application of the present political class in the Central African Republic that Agreement may call upon any qualified person as President Bozize would not respect the Libreville needed. commitments and that he would block the transition.

For instance, he celebrated the tenth anniversary of his Article 7: putsch on March 15, 2013, by organizing a public In case of any differences in opinion or difficulties arising meeting in Bangui and urging young people to "resist in implementing the present Agreement, one or other of seleka". Also, he had imposed some of his relatives in the Parties may resort to the Monitoring Commission or the transitional government, rearmed (buying the President of the Monitoring Committee for the helicopters), and delayed releasing political prisoners. Libreville negotiations. (b). The discontent of the military commanders of the

Article 8: Seleka towards the Libreville agreement. Some Seleka military commanders blamed Michel Djotodia for Upon signature, the present Ceasefire Agreement enters signing the agreement too fast and for taking into into force. consideration his interest and not that of the fighters. Done in Libreville, This generated serious tensions within the Seleka. January 11, 2013

Parties:

13 PA-X, Peace Agreement Access Tool, „Peace Agreement For the CAR Government between the Government of the Central African Republic and - Jean WILLYBIRO SAKO the Seleka pp1-4 Coalition (UFDR, CPJP, CPSK, UFR)‟, 2013, For the SELEKA Coalition (Translation (c) University of Edinburgh) - Michel DJOTODIA www.peaceagreements.org. Retrieved October 6, 2020 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 17

(c). The end of Bozize‟s regional support. At the meeting share similar ideological and religious beliefs with this in Libreville, former President Bozize‟s regional peers rebel group. The Muslim Seleka from the north and forced him to accept several concessions and blamed northeastern parts of CAR are culturally, socially, and him for closing down political space and dialogue with linguistically related to Chad, Sudan, and South Sudan. the opposition. The fact that the MICOPAX (the They rarely speak Sango, the CAR's official language in Economic Community of Central African States‟ this Vakaga region. Consequently, the Christian majority peacekeeping mission in CAR) did not intervene when view people in this region as foreigners from Chad and the rebels moved towards Bangui can be interpreted as Sudan.16 This region has been neglected by the various the end of Bozize‟s regional support. and several regimes in CAR. For example, bad roads (d). The unavoidable collapse of the Central African make the region difficult to access, and for long periods Army. It had already been unable to stop the Seleka they remain isolated. There is limited access to education fighters in December 2012 and former President Bozize and healthcare in this region. Central African Republic's had dismissed his son, who was Minister of Defence at public holidays did not reflect the Islamic holidays and the time and the army chief of staff. Under-equipped administrative task such as securing national identity and unmotivated, the army was no longer able to fight cards was more complicated for Muslims than and the rebels quickly realized it14 and exploited it. Christians.17 It is therefore plausible that the Seleka were motivated by these forces to oust Bozize. Michel Djotodia became the first Muslim President of Sudan on the other hand supplied logistical, political, CAR and was confronted with the challenge of and military assistance to the Seleka. Military hardware, implementing the January 11 Ceasefire Agreement at fighters from the ranks of pro-Khartoum paramilitary Libreville as well as establishing peace and security for groups, and military training for Seleka rebels were the stability of CAR. Primarily, there was the need to provided by the Sudanese government that also wanted integrate the high-ranking members of the Seleka into the to ensure that instability in the CAR did not spill over into newly established government and army. The expressed Sudan.18 Sudan feared that Sudanese armed opposition interest in investigating and punishing those who groups located in CAR's northeastern part would attack engaged in human rights violations against populations in from there. Thus, support for the Seleka would prevent the north and across the country was not achieved such attacks. Assistance to the seleka included medical, because of violence that erupted as the Seleka group pieces of training, and arms. A majority of those arms perpetrated the human rights violations they condemned. and military equipment were made in Sudan; those made The Seleka refused to be disarmed and confined in the in Iran and China were imported from Sudan.19 Sudan‟s barracks, and for several months they attacked civilians, fears were germane because the Dafur conflict that mostly Christians from the south of the country. They commenced in 2003 contributed to an increase of pillaged several parts of the country and engaged in Sudanese refugees in Chad and CAR. Rebels from various acts of violence, looting, rape, and kidnapping Sudan and Chad crossed the borders into CAR and inclusive. Seleka group also plundered Non- engaged in activities that destabilized the region. Having Governmental Organizations, government buildings, and refuge in CAR is a threat to Sudan and Chad. police and military depots to acquire arms, vehicles, and fuel.15 Following these atrocities, lawlessness, and Anti-Balaka Militia inability to control the Seleka, Michel Djotodia disbanded the Seleka in September 2013. The group re-emerged as Originally, there were local self-defense groups in every ex-Seleka, having recruited new members and still village that eventually transformed into the Anti-Balaka enjoyed support from the government of Chad and militia. They were pre-occupied with fighting highway Sudan. They also continued with their violent acts and bandits and armed pastoralists who destabilized villages. human rights violations. At this stage, those recruited were given machetes, Chad supported them because of the need to secure its knives, drugs, and mystical charms that would prevent borders and prevent the use of CAR as a base for armed them from being hurt by enemies' bullets as well as make opposition groups to fight against the government in them invincible. "Balaka" is the Sango word for the Ndjamena. Again, Chadian business networks forged and machete, while another view is that it is the term used for maintained lucrative relationships with groups in control French bullets of an automatic rifle ("balle AK").20 The of the oil fields located in Southern Chad. The Seleka

14 T. Vircoulon, „Failure has many Fathers: The Coup in 16 C. Emhede, 2016, p.22. Central African Republic‟ 2013, p.3. International Crisis Group 17 C. Emhede, 2016, p.22 (ICG), relief web. https://reliefweb.int/report/central-african- 18 Institute For Peace and Security Studies, 2018. republic/failure-has-many-fathers-coup-central-african- 19 C. Emhede, 2016, p.16. republic. Retrieved October 9, 2020 20 The New Humanitarian, „Briefing: Who are the anti-balaka 15 C. Emhede, 2016, p.27. of CAR?‟ 2014, p.2. https://reliefweb.int/report/central-african- Amakievi, 18

absence of effective government security forces, albeit constitution of CAR on 25 March 2013, dissolved the inadequate and inefficient security forces that plagued National Assembly, and appointed an interim government CAR since 2008 leveraged the establishment of these with Nicolas Tiangaye as Prime Minister on March 31, units to protect communities from attacks by highway 2013. The Economic Community of Central African bandits or cattle raiders. Membership at the early stage States (ECCAS) refused to recognize Djotodia as comprised Christians, Muslims, and traditional religionists President rather they recognized him as the "head of but by 2013 Christians dominated the militia. Again, being State of the transition" in the C.A.R.24 Here again, the overwhelmed by the atrocities of the Muslim Seleka, a intervention of ECCAS, a regional body in the Central sectarian conflict ensued that prolonged the civil war. African region affected the political dynamics of the civil Revenge by those whose parents and relations had been war in C.A.R. Djotodia was also rejected by the killed by the Seleka, religious, economic, and political opposition group. ECCAS rather insisted on the formation reasons gradually spurred the various persons who of a national transitional council to administer the country joined the Anti-balaka militia. This group attacked Muslim until elections were conducted to produce a president. civilians particularly on December 5 and 6 in which This council was established in April 2013. The hundreds of Muslims were killed. Convoys evacuating Transitional National Council (TNC) was expected to Muslims from Bangui and those unable to flee were also create a new constitution, conduct elections in eighteen killed.21 months, and select an interim president. On April 13, In Anti-Balaka controlled areas, Muslims were made to 2013, Djotodia who was the sole candidate that vied for forcefully convert to Christianity; those who refused were the position became the interim president of the TNC in banned from praying (except secretly); they could not C.A.R. He was inaugurated on August 18, 2013. rebuild their mosques, wear Muslim clothes, and were Security in CAR during Djotodia's regime was bleak as forced to speak Sango or Ggbaya instead of their the Seleka rebels which became ex-Seleka after their indigenous language. In Balego town fines were imposed dissolution in September 2013 continued unrestrained to on Muslims who refused to convert to Christianity. Those attack and kill civilians, loot villages, abduct members of who lived in the western region were not safe to travel the national army among other atrocities. Again, they freely or participate in the diamond trade which was a were widespread, controlling several communities in the common business sector for Muslims in CAR before the northern part of the country. The Anti-Balaka militia too civil war.22 continued their revenge against the ex-Seleka and also engaged in their similar atrocities. There were clashes REACTIONS TO MICHEL DJOTODIA’s PRESIDENCY between the ex-Seleka and the Anti-Balaka in late September 2013 and in December 2013. Several As Michel Djotodia proclaimed himself as the President of persons were killed in these clashes; 27 Muslims in the Central African Republic on March 25, 2013, the Bohong (on December 13, 2013), burning of homes, African Union (AU) condemned the overthrow of Bozize stealing of cattle, and so on.25 The Anti-Balaka militia had and imposed diplomatic sanctions by suspending CAR's been strengthened as several soldiers from CAR‟s former membership of the AU and economic sanctions by national army and Presidential Guard who were loyal to freezing CAR's assets. A travel ban was imposed on Bozize joined the group. Michel Djotodia and sanctioned members of Seleka. President Michel Djotodia and Prime Minister Nicolas Some African countries such as Sudan, Congo- Tiangaye were made to resign on January 10, 2014, as a Brazaville, Kenya, Gabon, Chad, Benin, and Burkina result of the decision of ECCAS regional summit meeting Faso flouted the bans and welcomed Djotodia's visits. 23 held in Chad. In their stead, Catherine Samba – Panza This action implied that there was a lack of consensus who was the Mayor of Bangui was elected Interim among the members of AU particularly concerning the President of the National Transitional Council (TNC) on issue of security policy on CAR civil war. January 20, 2014, and was sworn into office as Interim The United Nations (UN) Secretary-General, Ban Ki- President on January 23, 2014. President C. Samba – moon also condemned Djotodia's action as an Panza appointed Andre Nzapayeke as prime minister on "unconstitutional seizure of power". Being insensitive to January 25, 2014.26 This event reveals the supremacy of the AU, and UN reactions, Djotodia suspended the the ECCAS regional body intervention to prevent genocide, lawlessness, insecurity, and instability in CAR. It was the atrocities and sectarian conflicts by ex-Seleka republic/briefing-who-are-anti-balaka-car. Retrieved October 9, 2020 21 C. Emhede, 2016, p.11 24 International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, 22 C. Emhede, 2016, p.23. „Crisis in the Central African Republic‟ p.2. responsibility to 23 A. Siradag, 'Explaining the Conflict in the Central African protect.org/index.php/crises/crisis-in-the-central-african- Republic: Causes and Dynamics' Journal of Transdisciplinary republic. Retrieved October 9, 2020. Studies vol 9, No 3 2016, p.97. 25 International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, p.2. DOI:10.21533/epiphanyv9i3.246. 26 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.8 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 19

and Anti-Balaka militia in CAR that almost resulted in the unending emergence of new rebel groups and factions. genocide that informed this decisive action that ended The UN Security Council also authorized the deployment Djotodia's regime. of French military forces to support AFISM-CAR on Other forms of intervention include the appointment of December 5, 2013. The French government launched a retired Major-General Jean Marie Michel Mokoko of the peacekeeping mission known as Operation Sangaris Republic of Congo as Special Representative in the CAR which consisted of 2,000 military personnel to disarm on November 22, 2013, and Colonel Patrice Ostangue armed rebel and militia groups throughout the CAR as Bengone of Gabon as Head of the police component of well as re-establish law and order in Bangui from AFISM CAR. The Security Council of the United Nations December 6, 2013. The European Union (EU) on (UN) on December 5, 2013, adopted Resolution 2127 December 23, 2013, also imposed military sanctions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter which recognized (arms embargo and the prohibition against technical Transitional Authorities primary responsibility to protect assistance, including armed mercenary personnel) the population of CAR but authorized the deployment of against armed groups in CAR and the formal transfer of MISCA and an additional contingent of French troops to authority from ECCAS (MICOPAX) to the AFISM-CAR adopt all necessary measures to contribute to the (MISCA) took place on December 19, 2013.29 protection of civilians, the stabilization of the country, and The year 2013 ended with several clashes, widespread the restoration of State Authority among others. 27 impunity, the ineffective judicial system, reprisals, the Mission Internationale de Soutien a la Centrafrique absence of investigations of crimes, and a climate of sous Conduite (MISCA), also known as African Union terror. Typical examples include: (AU) African – led International Support Mission in the Central African Republic (AFISM – CAR), was deployed (a). Anti-Balaka attacks against Muslims in Bangui in in C.A.R. as authorized by the UN Security Council on areas such as PK26 and neighborhoods of combatant, December 5, 2013, and imposed military sanctions, an Galabadja, Fouh and a part of Boy-Rabe30 and the arms embargo against armed groups in CAR. The capture of Bouca town on September 9, 2013. protection of civilians, restoration of security and public (b). Clashes between armed groups near Garga village order, and protecting humanitarian assistance, became on October 7-8, 2013 in which 30 persons were killed. the responsibility of AFISM-CAR which comprised 5,600 (c). Two French peacekeeping soldiers were killed during troops from Burundi, Rwanda, Cameroon, Republic of clashes with armed groups in Bangui between December Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial 9-10, 2013 Guinea, and Gabon commanded by Brigadier General (d) Anti-Balaka killed 27 Muslims in the village of Bohong Martin Tumenta Chomu of Cameroon was deployed in on December 12, 2013. the Central African Republic from December 19, 2013.28 (e). French peacekeeping troops killed three Seleka These directives also demonstrate the supremacy of the rebels on December 22, 2013. UN Security Council on issues that affect human (f). Six Chadian soldiers who served under the AU development, particularly where genocide, ethnic peacekeeping mission were among those killed in Bangui cleansing among others are involved. The cooperation on December 25-26, 2013, while some other four between the UN Security Council and the African Union persons were killed during clashes between armed in this regard was critical to stemming the intensity and groups north of Bangui in December 2013.31 spate of violence that caused huge loss of lives and properties, refugees, and internally displaced persons. Catherine Samba-Panza’s Regime 2014-2016 Another fact to note in this discourse is the effect of the intervening countries and organizations on the dynamics Catherine Samba-Panza had been the Mayor of Bangui of CAR's civil war. For example, there was an abrupt and was knowledgeable of the politics of CAR. She was termination of Michel Djotodia's regime to save the elected Interim President of the National Transitional populace since he could not maintain law and order in Council (NTC) on January 20, 2014, and sworn in as CAR, especially the control of the Seleka whose leader Interim President on January 23, 2014, after Djotodia had he was and who assisted him to become President of been forced to resign by the ECCAS, regional body and CAR, albeit interim type. France Andre Nzapayeke were appointed a Prime The UN Security Council imposed an arms embargo Minister by Samba-Panza on January 25, 2014, and he against armed groups in CAR at the right time because replaced Nicolas Tiengaye, then Prime Minister during the proliferation of arms and ammunition especially Michel Djotodia's regime who also resigned on January around the border regions was worrisome and exploited by the rebel groups for human destruction and the 29 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.8. 30 Amnesty International., „Central African Republic: Time For 27 International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect, Accountability‟, 2014, p.24. amnesty.org. Retrieved October 9, p.3. 2020 28 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.8 31 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.8 Amakievi, 20

10, 2014. The President, NTC, and the Prime Minister peacekeeping mission (EUFOR-CAR II), which consisted were therefore challenged by the need for security, of 700 military and civilian police personnel from 12 containment, disarmament, demobilization, and countries led by Force Commander Brigadier General reintegration of the various rebel groups in CAR among Thierry Lion of France was deployed in the CAR on April others, and the overall development of the country. 1, 2014. On April 10, 2014, the UN Security Council However, the priority mandate was to end the ongoing established the United Nations Multidimensional violence and successfully conduct elections for the Integrated Stabilization Mission (MINUSCA) in the CAR restoration of democratic government in CAR. to protect civilians, facilitate the provision of humanitarian The intensity of the civil war increased in 2014 following assistance, protect UN personnel, and support the ex-Seleka and Anti-Balaka attacks. The Peuhl group, disarmament/demobilization process. MINUSCA was pastoralists who joined Seleka rebels also civilians also authorized to include some 10,000 military personnel attacked with guns and grenades in rural areas. There and 1,800 civilian police personnel.33 was widespread violence in the eastern part of the Intervention, both overt and covert has been a reality of country particularly in remote villages where international CAR's historical experience since its independence in forces were unable to reach for peacekeeping. The north, 1960. The dynamism of integration albeit at sub-regional, central, western parts of CAR, and Bangui the capital regional, global levels among others, interaction and continued to be the foci of attacks by armed groups with involvement at other levels in this globalized world have massive destruction of properties, huge loss of lives, put pressures on other nations, particularly those of increased number of displaced persons, and so on. superpowers policies despite formal freedom of domestic Typical examples of these attacks include: and national policy decisions on nations such as the CAR actions. This situation is engendered by the following (a). clashes between armed groups in Bangui from forces that have dominated the CAR politics, namely, the January 28-31, 2014 during which 43 individuals were inherent weakness of factional politics, political instability, killed; economic retrogression, and social polarization which (b). clashes between Muslim and Christian armed groups many great powers have exploited to enhance their in Boda town during which 75 individuals were killed from spheres of influence and for other reasons. January 28 to February 3, 2014; The attacks by rebel groups and their control of large (c). eleven persons were killed in a grenade attack, swathes of CAR contributed to peacekeeping intervention possibly by former members of the Seleka militia, during by many countries, involved in subregional, regional, and a funeral in Bangui on March 27, 2014; international organizations to maintain security and order (d). Chadian soldiers killed some 30 civilians in Bangui on in CAR. This recalls the ECCAS, AU, UN, and France March 29, 2014; interventions in this discourse. In some cases, (e). At least 30 individuals, mostly civilians, were killed compulsion was undertaken to achieve some degree of during clashes between armed groups in the town of compliance that reduced the spate of attacks on civilians Dekoa on April 8-9, 2014; and clashes among rebel and militia groups. It is in this (f). On April 26, 2014, Seleka rebels attacked a medical regard that compulsion and not its form constitutes clinic in Nanga Boguila town where 22 individuals, intervention as in the following examples: including three Medicines Sans Frontieres (MSF) workers.32 (a). the African Union (AU) imposition of diplomatic sanctions (suspension of membership) and economic The Transitional National Council needed peace, law, sanctions (asset freeze and travel ban) against Michel and order to actualize its mandate, as such the United Djotodia and other Seleka rebel leaders on March 25, Nations Security Council authorized the deployment of a 2013. European Union (EU) military force in CAR on January (b). the imposition of military sanctions (arms embargo) 28, 2014; on the same day it also imposed economic by the UN Security Council on December 5, 2013, sanctions (travel ban and assets freeze) against against armed groups in CAR. individuals involved in the conflict. On February 7, 2014, (c). On January 28, 2014, the UN Security Council the International Criminal Court (ICC) started a imposed sanctions (travel ban and assets freeze) against preliminary investigation into possible war crimes individuals involved in the conflict.34 committed in the CAR. Again the Council of the European (d). the Council of European Union Sanction of June 23, Union (EU) approved the establishment of the European 2014, against the following: Francois Yangouvonda Union Force in CAR (EUFOR – CAR II) on February 10, Bozize for providing financial and material support to 2014, so that there would be a safe and secure militiamen who worked hard to destabilize TNC under environment in the Bangui area and the Bangui Airport Catherine Samba-Panza and Nourredine Adam for even though this was a temporary action. The EU

33 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.9 32 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.9 34 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.8 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 21

providing support for acts that undermined security in Indeed only one anti-Balaka was appointed as a youth CAR. He urged his group of ex-Seleka, PJCC a splinter and sports minister while three ex-Seleka ministers were group of Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace appointed in the 20 – person cabinet.39 (CPJP) to resist the injunctions of the transitional government and the military leaders of MISCA. He Ceasefire Agreement in the Republic of Congo traveled to Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates to collect funds for Seleka rebellion rebel group Efforts to stem violence and for peace to reign led to the and Levy Yakete who coordinated the People's signing of a ceasefire agreement between the ex-Seleka Resistance Movement for Reforming of the CAR anti- and the anti-Balaka on July 23, 2014, in Brazzaville. balaka rebel group and engaging in acts that have Mediated by President Denis Sassou Nguesso after three undermined peace, stability, and security in the CAR. 35 days of talks in which the transitional government, some (e). The United States imposed financial sanctions members of the armed ex-Seleka and anti-Balaka, civil against two militia leaders, Abdoulaye Hissene and society members, religious groups, trade unions, Maxime Mokon members of Seleka rebel coalition and government officials, the National Youth Council, and anti-Balaka respectively who fuelled violence and human business communities participated. The contents of the rights abuses in CAR, undermined security despite ceasefire agreement were that all parties would not: successful elections, and collaborated as part of a plot to overthrow CAR‟s transitional government in September (a). engage in all forms of violence; 2015 as well as attempting to derail through violence a (b). engage in executions; constitutional referendum in 2014.36 (c). torture people; (d). harass people In this grim situation Samba-Panza, popularly known as (e). engage in arson; Mother Courage carried on to achieve her mandate. (f). engage in looting; Firstly, she urged the Seleka and Anti-Balaka to sheath (g). arbitrarily detain and execute people; their swords and end the bloodshed. However, in the (h). recruit and use child soldiers and civilians; and stead of her predecessors, she appointed a majority of (i). be involved in sexual violence.40 ministers from her home region, the eastern region. The Prime Minister too was a Christian like her. It is not Signatories to the ceasefire agreement included: surprising that she reshuffled the government several times, having been severally criticized. The anti-Balaka (a). General Mohamed Moussa Dhaffane who signed on refused to cooperate with the government because they behalf of the ex-Seleka delegation and stated that were not represented in the transitional government. 37 "Before the world, we take a firm, final and irreversible The view that CAR distinguishes itself as a country where cessation of hostilities for the engagement and no one very few politicians could escape charges of corruption, has the right to take up arms to terrorize and terrify an incompetence, and tribalism to the point that almost no entire people".41 political figure can lecture another one on good (b). Patrice Edouard Ngaissona signed on behalf of the governance,38 seems to explain the criticism that anti-Balaka delegation, echoed the pledges of peace, and influenced changes in government in this early period. emphasized that anyone who broke the ceasefire would be arrested.42 Others were (c). Alexander Ferdinand Nguendet, president of the 35 The Council of the European Union, „Council Implementing transitional parliament; Decision 2014/382/CFSP‟, 2014, pp1-4. https://eur- (e). Jean-Felix Riva, president of the CAR National Youth lex.europa.eu/legal- Council; and content/EN/TxT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32014DO3828from=ES. Retrieved October 22, 2020 36 Reuters, „Central African Republic militia leaders hit with U.S. sanctions‟, 2017, pp1-2. 39 The New Humanitarian, „Briefing: Who are the anti-Balaka https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralafrica-usa-sanctions- of CAR?‟, 2014, p.6. https://relioefweb.int/report/central- idUSKBN17E2FS. Retrieved October 9, 2020 african-republic/briefying-who-are-anti-balaka-car. Retrieved 37 Reuters, „ Central African Republic President says to make October 9, 2020 new government inclusive‟, 2014, p.2. 40 The New Humanitarian, „A Tentative ceasefire in CAR, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralafrica-politics- 2014, p.2. https://reliefweb.Int/report/central-african- idUSBREA450PS20140506 republic/tentative-ceasefire-car. Retrieved October 22, 2020 38 Aljazeera, 'Catherine Samba-Panza: New hope for the 41 The New Humanitarian, 2014, p.2 Central African Republic?', 2014, p.3. 42 Reuters, „Central African Republic groups sign ceasefire https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/1/22/catherine- after talks‟, 2014, p.3. https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp- samba-panza-new-hope-for-central-african-republic/. uk-central-africa-talks-idAFKBNOFTOLY20149724. Retrieved October 22, 2020 Retrieved October 22, 2020. Amakievi, 22

(f). Catherine Samba-Panza, president of the CAR and national cohesion and a global and definitive accord transitional government.43 for peace and reconciliation” as stated by Samba Panza.48 Participants were also to analyze the root President D.S. N'guesso initiated and mediated the three causes of the conflict and proffer lasting solutions to days talks during which 300 delegates discussed. The political instability and plan for the elections among ex-Seleka group did not participate during the first two others. Professor Abdoulaye Bathily, who was the days because it agitated for the partitioning of CAR into a Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary- Muslim north and Christian south before negotiations General for Central Africa presided over the Forum that could commence. Eventually, after persuasion by the discussed the following sub-themes by committees and mediator, the quest for partition was shelved. The at the plenary sessions: (1) peace and security (2) justice ceasefire agreement did not commit the parties (armed and reconciliation (3) social and economic development groups) to support the transition to the future election and (4) governance. The recommendations adopted at which date was not negotiated and for demobilization, the forum included: disarmament, and reintegration (DDR).44 Despite these shortcomings, the agreement was a significant step (a) . A new disarmament agreement between the Seleka towards reconciliation that international governments and anti-balaka was achieved. Therefore all the armed welcomed. For the African Union, it was remarkable groups would give up their weapons by the time of the success towards a lasting solution to the crisis while the national elections. By the agreement, former combatants US State Department noted that it contributed to stopping (who had not been charged with war crimes) would either the bloodshed in CAR and prepared the way for a be integrated into state security institutions – the army, peaceful and democratic political transition.45 Very police, or national forestry and water commission – or remarkable was N‟guesso‟s initiative and drive towards become beneficiaries of income-generating community this agreement, which is not surprising because in 2013 development projects. Armed actors from other countries when CAR was in a financial crunch the wages of civil who did not commit war crimes would be repatriated to servants were paid by foreign donors, notably the their countries of origin. All armed groups agreed to government of the Republic of Congo.46 Again, Congo participate in the DDRR process implemented by the provided the largest contingent in the African – led United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and International Support Mission to CAR (MISCA), of about MINUSCA 1,000 soldiers, and also hosted 11,000 CAR refugees (b). Leaders of the two main armed groups agreed to primarily in the Likouala area, near the northern border of release all children under their control. There was no CAR.47 deadline for the release of the 6,000 to 10,000 (estimated by UNICEF) children but on Thursday, May 14, 357 Bangui National Forum children were released in a ceremony near Bambari in the north of CAR. Those released would receive medical The transition government organized the Bangui National treatment, psychosocial support, and then will be Forum as a national reconciliation conference to violence, returned to their families and communities or placed in displacement of people, and widespread poverty that foster care. continued despite the Brazzaville ceasefire conference of The Seleka and anti-balaka leaders also granted July 23-24 of 2014. Here again, participants were from humanitarian actors complete and immediate access to diverse groups within the country such as the armed the areas where the children were located so that militia, national political parties, the private sector, civil UNICEF and its partners could begin identifying and society, traditional chiefs, international partners, the reuniting them with their families. transitional government, the media, the diaspora, and (c). A timeline for elections and extension of the current faith-based organizations. The conference was for one government‟s mandate that was adopted by the forum week, from Monday, May 4 to Monday 11, 2015, and it stipulated that the elections be postponed to June and enabled the 700 participants to discuss and define "a new July for parliamentary elections and to August for the vision of our nation-state, a new social contract of values presidential one. The postponement was to give room for establishing a threshold of security, obtaining polling equipment, and training electoral staff and observers that 43 The New Humanitarian, 2014, pp.2-3. are prerequisites that must be met to conduct the 44 The New Humanitarian, 2014, pp.2. elections. The limited time and available funding (only 26 45 The New Humanitarian, 2014, pp.3. 46 International Crisis Group, „Central African Republic: The Third Government in Thirteen Months Get Under Way‟, 2014, p.1. https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/central- 48 The Guardian, News, „Central African Republic militias african-republic/central-african-republic-third-government- poised to sign disarmament agreement‟, 2015, p.2. thirteen-months-gets-under-way. Retrieved October 24, 2020 https://data2.unhcr.org/en/news/10253. retrieved October 22, 47 The New Humanitarian, 2014, pp.3. 2020 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 23

percent of the requested funds had been received by key to the discussions and decisions at the Forum. For May 2015) to achieve these requirements. example, popular consultations were conducted across (d). National and local mechanisms for justice and all the provinces to sensitize communities and get them reconciliation: Participants agreed on the structures for to participate in the reconciliation process. This activity justice and reconciliation in the country including a enabled some politicians to have direct contact with national truth and reconciliation commission, as well as people outside Bangui and observe the extreme poverty, broad-based, local peace and reconciliation committees. deprivation, and marginalization they experience daily. Local initiatives will often be spearheaded by traditional Emily Mellgard explained that few politicians lived among chiefs given their strong influence within communities or even visited their constituents in the north and east, (compared to the state's weak resources and capacity to they rather preferred to reside in Bangui.50 This was a reach out to communities). Trust between stakeholders is legitimate reason to resist government or a legitimate needed and should be strengthened. Religious leader's local grievance that should be addressed. role in peacebuilding is important. Participants called for MINUSCA peacekeepers with the assistance of UNDP a formal investigation into cross-border crimes, especially and other agencies provided security that enabled those committed by the Lords Resistance Army (LRA). transitional leaders to visit remote parts of the country (e). Social and Economic development priorities: where residents had never even seen a president before Inclusive economic institutions would be established to the pre-forum consultations.51 reduce poverty and inequalities that have created Agreements brokered by the Kenyan government grievances and tensions between different social groups between Michel Djotodia and the anti-balaka leader in the past. Opportunities for revitalizing the mining and Joachim Kokate on April 8, 2015, and that between agricultural sectors received the most attention from the Francois Bozize and Djotodia on April 14, 2015, Forum's participants, who proposed that the sanctions respectively were for a ceasefire by their fighters. The imposed on diamonds exploitation and trade in the CAR CAR government and the UN did not recognize these by the Kimberly process be removed and that seeds, talks but they implicitly indicate that these prime movers tools, and other agricultural inputs be distributed to of the two major war groups have conceded to promote farmers to restart their production. peace and stability in CAR. The Bangui agreement was recognized by these rebel groups and the international The forum also emphasized the primacy of enabling organizations and CAR citizens. herders, who fled to neighboring countries during the conflict, to return to the CAR by replenishing their herds. Some Post Bangui Forum Activities The government should focus on targeted investments in the sectors that would help mobilize additional domestic As part of national reconciliation efforts and national revenues that are crucial to creating a foundation for mediation, the government of CAR created two ministries economic recovery and can help strengthen domestic responsible to achieve this target in 2014. The idea for institutions. Efforts by the international community to this initiative was from the Bangui National Forum and restore peace in CAR should not preclude assistance Congo Brazzaville government that initially funded them. towards economic development.49 The Centre for In August 2014 a new Prime Minister (a Muslim) Humanitarian Dialogue (HD) was mandated by President Mahamat Kamoun was elected. The Seleka who had no Catherine Samba-Panza to facilitate the reconciliation ties with him rejected him and threatened to withdraw process through a political dialogue that would contribute from the ceasefire agreement and not cooperate with the to the restoration of State authority, peace, and CAR's unity government. It is plausible that the Seleka would not reconstruction. Thus, HD influenced the idea of the be able to unduly influence Kamoun, hence their grouse Bangui forum as a result of input from a workshop it with his election. The Prime Minister chaired the steering organized in June 2014. Participants (30 Central committee to which a follow-up committee established by Africans), were from varying backgrounds, and they a decree on May 23, 2015, by the Transitional Authority analyzed and discussed the sources of contention which reports. The 25 member follow-up committee included contributed to the conflict. The forum also had technical seven women, anti-Balaka and ex-Seleka, support of foreign expertise from MINUSCA, HD, representatives of the diaspora, MINUSCA, and others ECCAS, the AU, and the Organization Internationale de from the international community. The committee was la Francophonie. Pre-Bangui Forum activities were also mandated to establish decentralized structures at the sub-prefecture level (local government level) to facilitate the implementation of the recommendations of the 49 Brookings, „Five takeaways from the Bangui Forum for National Reconciliation in the Central African Republic‟, 2015, p.1-4. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in- 50 Institute For Global Change, „What is the Seleka?‟, 2015, focus/2015/05/15/five-takeaways-from-the-bangui-forum-for- p.2. https://onstitute.global/policy/what-seleka. Retrieved national-reconciliaiton-in-the-central-african-repu... Retrieved October 6, 2020 October 24, 2020 51 The Guardian News, 2015, p.2 Amakievi, 24

Bangui Forum. The final reports of the Forum were and France agreed that elections should take place by presented on July 2 to the Head of State of the Transition the end of 2015. For Deby and Hollande (President of who affirmed the government's commitment to the France) it was "better to have flawed elections instead of outcome of the follow-up committee's work.52 a precarious transition.54 President Samba-Panza created a Special Criminal A review of the constitution that had earlier Court (SCC) in June 2015 for the investigation and commenced, continued with the organization of the prosecution of grave human rights violations committed in workshop that was held from July 3 to 6. Participants CAR. The SCC comprised 27 judges, 14 from CAR and included representatives of Central African civil society, 13 international judges, and was mandated to not only traditional chiefs, magistrates, and armed groups who investigate but also prosecute the international crimes worked with representatives of the Transitional committed in the country since 2003. This action if Government and the National Transitional Council to effectively operational would help stem impurity by armed finally amend the draft constitution. In keeping with the militia and others towards perpetration of violence Constitutional Charter, the Transitional Government on particularly against civilians. However, funding of this July 15, 2015, transmitted the draft Constitution as justice organ was a challenge. P. Knoope and S. amended by the workshop participants to the Buchanan-Clarke reported that out of an operating cost of Constitutional Court. Consequently, CAR was on the right 40 million USD for the next five years operation, only 5 path to electing a new government. A Strategic million USD was available for commencement. Other Committee with Prime Minister Mahamat Kamoun as the challenges included lack of skilled investigators in CAR, head had been established since April to fast track the grave state of insecurity that made investigations preparations for the referendum and the elections. difficult, and the fact that justice dispensed by an National Electoral Authority, key government ministers international criminal court would most probably not be and ECCAS, European Union (EU), France, the understood as “just” by the general public.53 Mediator's team, MNUSCA, the Congo, the U.S., and the In the CAR, poor infrastructure and communications World Bank (G8) participated in this committee.55 make it difficult to effectively pass on information but Dieudonne Kombo Yaya, the President of the National during the Bangui Forum, Radio Guira provided regular Electoral Authority (L‟Autorite National des Elections coverage and reached citizens in Bambari, Bangui, (ANE), organized the constitutional referendum that Bouar, Bossanga, Bria, and Kaga Bandoro. This enabled produced a new constitution approved by 93 percent of the citizens to participate in the discussions and own the the voters in the referendum held on December 13 and political process. Consequently, in the post-Bangui 14, 2015. Five individuals were killed in political violence period, they followed up developments in the during the referendum.56 This body also had the following preparations for elections and the elections proper. This tasks as regards legislative and presidential elections: initiative promoted inclusiveness which was the 'kernel' of Samba-Panza's thrust during this transitional period. 1). Hold an electoral census. Hitherto, elites in Bangui controlled political activities to 2). Create a digitized electoral list. the neglect of citizens in most prefectures. Thus, a legacy 3). Provide for the establishment of voting stations and of economic marginalization, neglect, and political counting centers at least two months before the start of exploitation prevailed. the electoral campaign. 4). Appoint and train voting-station and counting-center Successful Elections officials. 5). Attend pre-election voter education. On May 25, 2015, at N'Djamena the ECCAS Conference 6). Accredit national and international observers. of Heads of State and Government at its sixteenth 7). Count the votes and publish the results.57 ordinary session, authorized the technical extension of CAR transition to December 3 2015 so that the Several individuals contested the legislative and Transitional Authority would have ample time to organize presidential positions. By July 15, 2015, there were 69 credible and transparent elections before the end of political parties and political associations that the 2015. Having postponed the electoral process at least eight times since it was planned for February 2015, Chad 54 N. Dukhan, 'The Central African Republic Crisis', 2016, pp27-28, GSDR, Birmingham, UK. Retrieved November 2, 2- 020 52 United Nations Security Council, „Report of the Secretary- 55 United Nations Security Council, 2015, p.3, General on the situation in the Central African Republic‟, 2015, 56 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.10 p.2. S./2015/576. retrieved November 2, 2020. 57 Institute For Security Studies, 'Central African Report: 53 P. Knoope and S. Buchanan-Clarke, „Central African Living up for the presidency in the Central African Republic', Republic: A Conflict Misunderstood‟, The Institute for Justice 2014, issue 2, p.3. www.issafrica.org Retrieved November 2, and Reconciliation. P.11. retrieved November 2, 2020. 2020 Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 25

government recognized and 21 political parties that reinstated the right of Central African refugees to vote in awaited recognition. Some militia group leaders created the elections. This superseded the rejection of their their political parties while some splinter groups also participation advanced by the National Transitional indicated interest to contest elective, positions. Patrice Council of relevant provisions in the draft electoral code. Edourad Ngaissona, an anti-Balaka leader for example The International Contact Group on the Central African established the Parti Centrafricain pour l‟Unite et le Republic was also instrumental to the participation of Developpement (PCUD) and indicated interest to vie for refugees in the elections as it upheld refugees right to both presidential and the legislative elections. vote in the elections at their meeting on July 27, at Addis Unfortunately, the Constitutional Court rejected his Ababa, Ethiopia.61 candidacy having been under instruction by the Court since February 2015. This shows the level of impurity in The Transitional Government and Interventions CAR. By mid-December 2015, armed groups agreed to support the electoral process. The success of the Transitional Government of CAR There were irregularities during the first round of the headed by Catherine Samba-Panza, the first female presidential and legislative elections which were held on President of CAR, largely accomplished its mandate as a December 30, 2015. None of the 30 presidential result of positive interventions by various African and contestants won with an absolute majority of votes. foreign nations as well as many international Consequently, there was a runoff election for the top two organizations. To start with, her election was accepted by scorers, Anicet Georges Dologuele and Faustin- foreign donors and CAR civil society which placed her in Archange Touadera on February 14, 2016, during which good stead for decision making, confidence building, and Touadera emerged as the winner with 63 percent of the actions taken in the administration of CAR. Secondly, the votes cast and was sworn in as President on March 30, United Nations, African Union, European Union, France, 2016. There were 1,500 candidates in the first round of and the United States (G5) did not dictate the final choice the legislative elections but the Constitutional Court of Samba-Panza but monitored the process and annulled the results on January 26, 2016. A re-run was influenced the inclusion of some of the criteria for the conducted on March 31, 2016. The National Union for candidates who contested the election. The G5 Democracy and Progress (Union Nationale pour la prevented the president of the transitional council from Democratie et le Progres – UNDP) and the Union for contesting for the position.62 G5 involvement was Central African Renewal (Union pour le Renouveau reassuring of their support particularly as great world Centrafricain – URCA) each won 13 out of 140 seats in powers such as France and the United States (US) were the National Assembly.58 D.W. reported Samba-Panza as involved. having said: ECCAS, France, the AU, UN, EU among others provided troops that maintained albeit some relative "I am very satisfied to see that the national electoral calm, protected civilians, and the international airport for authorities and the transitional authorities considered all the transitional government function. Other European the irregularities in the first round of the election… and states that sent troops to CAR include Estonia, Italy, made necessary corrections. I am also satisfied that the Portugal, and Spain. Germany and Sweden provided election took place calmly and peacefully".59 airlifting and other logistical assistance.63 These participating states also funded their operational costs. The first round of the elections was fraught with MINUSCA provided logistical and technical support to irregularities and massive fraud. Some names appeared facilitate the establishment of National Electoral Authority in the voters register fraudulently, some used fake voter offices within and outside CAR, devised security plans for registration cards to vote in other districts but it was not the elections, and provided logistical support for the easy for them in the second round of voting because all transportation and distribution of electoral materials from loopholes were blocked.60 On June 1, the Transitional Bangui to other regions in CAR.64 Several African Authority issued a decree that reflected the 12 countries countries also contributed to ensuring the success of the where the National Electoral Authority established 16 transitional process. Chad and Angola provided troops branches for the participation of Central Africans living too, but Chad withdrew its contingent of 850 troops from outside CAR in the constitutional referendum and the MISCA as a result of pressure and criticism from the presidential election. On July 20, the Constitutional Court

61 United Nations Security Council, p.3 58 University of Central Arkansas, 2020, p.10. 62 International Crisis Group, 2014, p.2 59 D.W., „Samba-Panza: “I have accomplished my mission” 63 M. Wettz, „Briefing: Crisis in the Central African Republic 2016, p.1. https://www.dw.com/en/samba-panza-i-have- and the International Response‟, Foreign Affairs, vol 113, issue accomplished-my-mission/a-19051938. Retrieved October 22, 453, 2014, p.9. https://academic.oup.com.afraf- 2020 /article/113/453/601/90999. Retrieved July 28, 2020 60 D.W., 2016, p.1 64 United Nations Security Council, 2015, p.4 Amakievi, 26

international actors and CAR citizens against the killing of security, urban infrastructure, and economic and social civilians in the PK12 section of Bangui on March 29, recovery as a result of more funding to the tune of 226 2014. Hundreds of people were killed in this incident.65 million Euros (€226 million) in 2016.69 On May 26, 2015, The role of Angola also involved funding aside from at the Brussels conference convened by the European military support. A bilateral agreement signed in 2014 Union (EU) to present the first results of the “Bekou” was regarding governance and humanitarian issues. The Trust Fund and its future goals, only a portion of the financial aspect of the agreement made Angola donate 377,868 million Euros (€377,868) pledged reflected new 10 million US dollars to CAR. The Republic of Congo funds. 180,945 million Euros (€180,945) was from the EU under President Sassou Nguesso, appointed as a chief and its member states, while 196,923 million Euros mediator by ECCAS it would be recalled brokered the (€196,923 million) was from the African Development Brazzaville Agreement on cessation of hostilities in CAR Bank, the African Union, the World Bank, Switzerland, and facilitated the 'Nairobi Talks' between FPRC led by and the United States of America.70 There was a Nourredine Adam and a pro-Bozize anti-balaka faction remarkable improvement in funding when it is considered led by Maxime Mokom. This deal was not supported by that in 2014, only 64 million Euros (€64 million) were the Transitional Government and the International generated, and in May 2015, the EU added 72 million community who were not involved. However, these rebel Euros (€ 72 million). factions that did not participate in the Brazzaville The United States provided the sum of 40 million US Ceasefire realized the need to cooperate and promote dollars to MISCA mission forces for peacekeeping in peace as others had done. Despite these efforts, CAR CAR and assisted with training, planning assistance, and did not achieve total peace and stability in the period of the provision of non-lethal equipment to African countries this discourse. that contributed forces for peace in CAR. The US intervention is predicated on preventing CAR from being Funds exploited as a haven for Islamic terrorists. Consequently, counter-terrorism underscored U.S. intervention in this The challenge of funding in this period was tremendous period in CAR as the US has been the arrowhead of because the transition to democratic governance was global counter-terrorism in this twenty-first century. largely reliant on foreign funds. In 66order to help CAR Lack of funds militated against the implementation of reconstitute its security forces France paid for the disarmament, demobilization, reintegration, and recruitment of 150 gendarmes recommended by the repatriation (DDRR) program by the Transitional transitional government and at the request of the Authority. The sum of 28.5 million US dollars ($28.5 president. They worked in concert with peacekeeping million) was needed for the demobilization and personnel. For the presidential and parliamentary community reintegration of an estimated 7,000 elections, the sum of 36.6 million U.S. dollars needed but combatants from armed groups while 20 million US a funding gap of 11 million and 48 percent of the in-the- dollars ($ 20 million) was required for the implementation basket fund for elections managed by UNDP was also of a community violence reduction program for about worrisome. Out of the estimated, 25.7 million U.S. dollars 70,000 people that sill complement the DDRR program pledged, only $11.4 million had been disbursed. To fill as well as address the issues of violence and young this gap and reduce the budget so that the goal would be people at risk in the communities. In this regard, achieved, in-kind contributions were solicited as well as MINUSCA intensified efforts to mobilize funds for additional donors.67 It is not surprising that Samba-Panza preliminary activities and developed an initial project attended an international fund-raising conference in document in synergy with the Transitional Authority and Brussels on May 26, 2015, primarily for the Fund Bekou, the World Bank but the inability to generate required a trust fund established for CAR's development needs by funding put a hold on the actualization of this program. 71 France, Germany, and the Netherlands68. The "Bekou" The `maintenance of peacekeeping troops and other fund – European multi-donor, emergency, and forms of assistance by various African and non-African development fund which was created in July 2014, countries and organizations as well as regional bodies rapidly facilitated and enhanced the adoption and had financial implications that were not borne by C.A.R. implementation of projects in the spheres of health, food Thus, many decades of mishandling of the CAR public finances made the country dependent on other countries

65 Amnesty International, 2014, p.33. 66 United Nations Security Council, 2015, pp.3-4 67 Africa Research Bulletin, „Central African Republic‟, 2015, 69 United Nations Security Council, 2015, p.13 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Retrieved October 12, 2020 70 Centre for Strategic and International Studies, „France to the 68 Central African Republic – France ONU, „Permanent Rescue (again) in the Central African Republic‟, 2013, p.6. mission of France‟, 2019, p.3. https://www.CSIS.org/analysis/france-rescue-again-central- https://onu.delegfrance.org/Central-African-Republic-11614. african-republic. Retrieved February 8, 2020 Retrieved February 8, 2020 71 United Nations Security Council, 2015, p.11. Int. J. of Multidisciplinary Educ. Res. 27

and organizations for financial intervention in their the civil war. Again, the seaports in Cameroon (Douala) development programs. and Sudan (Port Sudan), as well as the Bangui International airports, were the routes for the importation Other Aspects of the Dynamics of the Civil War of these weapons to land-locked CAR. Cross border trade in this respect strengthened ties between CAR, Other forces influenced the dynamics of this civil war and Cameroon, and Sudan apart from them being members their outcome. Government officials had been deeply of the Economic Community of Central African States entrenched in corruption and financial mismanagement (ECCAS). However, money that would have facilitated that caused resentment towards them by the youths in human development in CAR was rather used for human particular. The youth who also felt disenfranchised, destruction. neglected, and formed the large base among the poor CAR also became a fertile ground for the intervention joined gangs, mercenaries, bandits, and rebel armed of several African and non-African countries and groups and caused insecurity in CAR. Coupled with these organizations that ensued rivalry among them. There was were non-payment of salaries, unemployment, absence a competition between them for visibility, recognition, of social good-schools, hospitals in various communities relevance, and control over the process for conflict/crisis especially in the northeast were rife for generating resolution. The AU had at times sought and received instability. support from the UN but strove to prove itself as being Acquisition of arms and ammunition by the armed capable to independently provide security in CAR. It felt groups and large numbers of their members who overshadowed when the UN Security Council resolution attacked civilians in Bangui neighborhoods and 2149 of April 10, 2014, established MINUSCA and communities outside Bangui made the armed groups absorbed many MISCA military and police personnel. often intimidate non-armed persons. Arms and Deby, President of Chad mobilized the ECCAS and ammunition flow dynamics reveal sources from China, influenced its actions as well as challenged AU Iran, and Europe to the governments of CAR and Sudan. leadership aspirations by insisting on ECCAS central role Others were from Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the United in the civil war. Again, he cooperated with France, Kingdom, Spain, Italy, and Cameroon and Sudanese assisting its military in Mali and CAR as Chadian troops manufactured general-purpose machine guns, 'Mokhtar', bore most of the causalities while France concentrated Khawad heavy machine guns, mortar rounds, karaba on providing intelligence.73 In all the UN took the lead as light tactical vehicles, and ammunition with headstamp. the AU and the ECCAS remained in the background. UN Chinese manufactured weapons included the following status and funding by its various agencies stand it in hand grenades, mortar rounds, assault rifles of type 56-2, good stead above these organizations. For example, the ammunitions of different types and sizes with headstamp UN spent over 13 million USD dollars ($13 million) in aid grenade launchers, RPG rocket, Heat RPG rockets, and of victims of CAR civil war apart from other forms of PP93 60mm mortar tubes. From Iran (manufactured arms assistance. The essence of these interventions was to and ammunitions) were different types and sizes of provide peace, security, and stability in CAR to prevent ammunitions with stamped and RPG rocket. From and end loss of lives and property. Nothing therefore Bulgaria were various types of sub-machine gun should distract them from the primary focus and also ammunition and Pz-59 7.62x54Rmm ammunition given the risk of their lives and financial investments. manufactured in the Czech Republic; 5.56x45mm L15A2 and L16A1 (tracer) ammunition manufactured in the UK; 12.7x99mm ammunition with headstamp manufactured in CONCLUSION Belgium, several hundred rounds of 12-gauge shotgun ammunition produced in Italy and Spain; and 'Panther' 12 The narrative on the Central African Republic civil war gauge shotgun rounds manufactured in Cameroon. 72 from 2012 to March 31 2016 featured several despicable Some civilians also acquired some of these arms and acts by armed rebel coalition groups, majorly the Seleka ammunition. and Anti-Balaka. They also had allies such as the Return, CAR seemingly appears to be a melting pot of war Reclamation and Rehabilitation (3R) that allied with the weapons from China (Asia), Iran (Middle East), Africa Seleka militia; the creation and declaration of the (Sudan and Cameroon), and Europe. The civil war autonomous Republic of Logone in the north by provided the avenue for revenue generation for these Nourredine Adam in December 2015 (this was not countries. It is plausible that beneficiaries (producers and recognized by the international community), though a marketers) would implicitly encourage the continuity of faction of the Seleka battled other militia groups; invasion by the Lords Resistance Army (LRA), a Ugandan rebel group that abducted and killed civilians in CAR; 72 Conflict Armament Research, „Non-State Armed Groups in the Central African Republic: Types and sources of documented arms and ammunition‟, 2015, pp6-24. 73 M. Welz, „Briefing: Crisis in the Central African Republic www.conflictarm.com Retrieved October 22, 2020 and the International response‟, 2014, p.8. Amakievi, 28

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