CuFFent Cammamts” EUGENE GARFIELD INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION* 3501 MARK ET ST, PHILADELPHIA, PA 191C4 JoursIal Citation Studies. 46. Physical Chemistry aml Chemical Physics Journals. Part 1. Historical Background and Global Maps
Number 1 January 6, 1986
This is the 46th in a series of journal ci- will then concentrate on the 31 physical tation analyses reported in Current Con- chemistry/chemical physics journals tenfs” {C(P) over the past two decades. listed in Table 1. It is my ambition to eventually round out these studies so that we can provide a Hf.wory successor to the monograph known to college and research librarians the world Physical chemistry began as the study over as Brown’s Scientific .$eriak. I Of of the “physical” properties of chemical course, the Science Citation Index” substances. Many of these properties (SCP ) and its annual volumes of the were discovered in the nineteenth cen- Journal Citation Report@ (JCP ) are tury. For example, in the early 1800s far more detailed tools for collection Humphry Davy (UK) and Jons Jakob managers. But the very brevity of Berzelius (Sweden) demonstrated for Brown’s analysis has a special virtue that the first time the electrical nature of we hope to emulate by updating and ex- chemical affinity, the relationship be- panding the brief reports we published tween substances that causes them to earlier in Science2 and Nuture.3 combined (p. 8-9) It was Hermann Kopp In this three-part journal study, we fo- (Germany), however, who made the first cus on 31 periodicals from physical real effort, in 1840, to measure the prop- chemistry and chemical physics, two dis- erties of chemical substances while cor- ciplines that today are inextricably relating these qualities with chemical linked. However, this was not always the composition. For example, he tested case, as we shall see in the dkcussion substances at different temperatures and that follows. In this essay we will cover measured their resulting changes in vol- the general history and development of ume; his studies on ice were so precise the two fields as well as some of their that they are stilf valid todays (p. 392) current concerns. The latter were identi- In the mid-nineteenth century, Jean fied by examining LSI@’s 1983 research- Baptiste AndrF Dumas (France) ad- front data. Keep in mind that the histori- vanced the first theory of chemical cal section in this essay must necessarily types, a classification of “parent” com- be limited to a broad overview of the two pounds together with their substituted fields. Entire books have already been derivatives if both share the same funda- written on these subjects. But it is im- mental chemical properties.’l (p. 427) portant that we review these develop- Shortly thereafter, in 1869, Dmitri Men- ments here in order to provide an under- deleev (Russia), J. Lothar Meyer (Ger- standing of the present interrelationship many), and John Alexander Reina New- between physical chemistry and chemi- Iands (UK) independently developed cal physics. Parts 2 and 3 of our study similar versions of the periodic law that
1 Table I: Core physical chemistry chemical physics the rather obscure Transactions of the journals indexed by the SCF in 1983. Connecticut Academy and [was] over- Annual Review of Physical Chemistry looked for 20 years. ”~ (p. 319) A classic Berichte der Bunsen-Gesefl\chaft fur case of delayed recognition, this Physikalische Chemie 321-page paper, “On the equilibrium of Chemical Physics Chemical Physics Letters heterogeneous substances, ”lo “was only Faraday Discussions of the Chemical Sociely slowly recognized for its significance. Intematicmal Journal of Chemicaf Kine!ic$ Because of its abstract mathematical International Journal of Quantum Chemistry Journal of Catalysis treatment and austere style, American Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data physicists and chemists were unable to Journal of Chemical Physics master its import. ”~ (p. 405) Once Gibbs Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics Journal of CoOoid and Interface Science was rediscovered he became an impor- Journal of Computational Chemist~ tant figure. The two parts of his classic lournal of Magnetic Rewnance have been co-cited in hundreds of pa- Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy Journal of Molecular Structure pers. Over 40 of these cites involve arti- Journal of Photochemistry cles published in the last few years. Fig- Journal of Physical Chemistry ure 1 is a graph of this paper’s citation Journal of Solution Chemistry Journal of the Chemical Society —Fmaday history from 1955 to 1984. Transactions I Wilhelm Ostwald (Germany), Jacobus Journal of the Chemicaf Society-Faraday H. van’t Hoff (Holland), and Svante Au- Transactions 11 gust Arrhenius (Sweden) organized the Joumalof the Chemical Society-Perkin Transactions 11 physical laws of chemical phenomena Kinetics and Catalysi$—Engfi\h Trandatl(m into one field and established Zei/.whrift Molecular Physics fur Physikalische Chemie in 1887.5 Photochemistry and PhotobiAogv Radiation Physics and Chemistry (p. 391); “ (p. 216); ‘1 The publication of Surface Science this journal is considered the beginning THEOCHEM—Journal of Molecular Structure of physical chemistry as a formal branch Theoretica Ch\mica Acva Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie—Leip/lg of chemistry. ]I The first volume of the Zhurnal Fi?icheskoi Khmii new journal published Arrhenius’s theo- ry of ionization that in part stated that states that the properties of elements are ions form when a salt dissolves in water. ~ functions of their atomic weights. From (p. 413-5) Not surprisingly, the journal this law Mendeleev created the periodic that these three researchers founded is table of elements of which an enlarged part of the core group of journals in this version is still used today. ~ (p. 317-8): 6 three-part study. (See Table 1.) It will be In the 1870s Josiah Willard Gibbs, discussed in more detail in Part 2. then at Yale University, used the term Physical chemistry continued to ma- “phases” for the homogeneous strata of ture in the early 1900s. Transactions of chemical substances. Phases (such as the Ihraday Society, the precursor to solids, liquids, and gases) are Lniform in the Journal of the Chemical Society— both composition and physical state. Faraday Transactions I and 11, was Gibbs then formulated the “rule of founded in 1905 during this period in phases” according to their dependence which physical chemistry and chemical on physical conditions such as pressure physics were established as serious sub- and temperature. This rule states that jects. 11General Discussions of the Fara- when a substance is in equilibrium, the day .Socie/y also began around this time sum of its phases and of possible varia- (1907) as a part of the Transactions. To- tions of phases which can occur within it day it is known as Faraday Discussions o{ is always equal to three.7 (p. 217-8); ~ the Chemical .Sociery (see Table 1), al- (p. 319-20): 9 The rule “was published in though for 25 years ( 1947-1972) it was
2 Figure 1: Chronologic distribution of 1955-1984 SCf’ citations to J.W. Gibbs’s two-part article, “On the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances. ”
0 -u 55 60 65 70 75 80
YEARS
Tabfe 2: The 1983 SC~ research-front specialties that include at least 103 citing documents published in core physical chemistry (chemical physics journals. A = research-front number. B = title. C = number of core physical chemistry lchemical physics journals (hat cite (he research froni. D = number of 1983 ar- ticles from these core journals that cite the research front.
A B CD 83-0023 Phase equilibria and thermodynamics of hard-sphere fluids and binary liquids 13 256 83-00s8 Surface analysis of metal alloys, hydrides, and semiconductors by Auger electron 13 191 spectroscopy and other techniques U3-(K)75 Processes of photoelectrochernical cells and applications to solar energy conversion 23 541 N3-fK)92 A h tnifio and other molecular-orbital calculations of force fields and electronic 21 783 structure of polyacetylene and polyatomic molecules 83-01 I 2 Kinetics of adsm-p(ion. resorption, and decomposition of alcohols and diatomic 7 150 molecules on a metal catalyst N3-() 185 Properties of chaotic and dynamic systems 9 152 83-0190 Theoretical studies of van der Waals interaction potentials IO 147 83-0202 Renormali7.ation group approach in gauge lheory of critical beha~ior and other 10 13Q properties of two-dimensional lattices 83-0282 Mechanism of the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide on supported metal catalysts; 7 120 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 83-0291 Calculations of electronic structure, magnetism, and other properties of alloys II 132 N3-02W Vif’watmnal relaxation and dephasing in picosecond laser Raman and infrared Y 133 scattering u3-054- [ Iw of nuclear magnetic resonance in the analysis of protein and peptide structure Ih 269 Ns-ot407 Structure and physical properties of ice 14 113
3 Ffgure 2: The 1983 map for “Molecular-orbital calculations of electronic structure applied m organic synthesis and adsorption studies on catalys[ surf aces.” This map includes three research fronts from Table 2 IW2, U112. and #2821
Pmbcldelharbic(de snlemdes dlstnb.tuon and sdnnoxm+es 1132
aromallcly and K#k!J6% 01 hydrocarb.am \ A
Gngnafd / Sstact(ve\
synthamand A-==--- ,mct,ons ofmammes &~Jo:; 184 metalswlaces 211 Silyt anal elk<%
\ 137 / 519 1142 W transttii-mdal OWs.Aldw mm smtrum cafbonfl$ Cycloaddlhons
Y-asymmemc svnlhesis m Abuts struclure dehrndnti!c!r usm~ C03!Q8!9!!05 Ianttwido shrll magfmt$ 274
Key
83-I.H392 Ah initio and other molecular-orbital calculations of force fields and electronic structure of polyacetylene and polyatomic molecules 83-0112 Kinetics of adsorption, resorption, and decomposition of alcohols and diatomic molecules on a metal catalyst 83-0132 Synthesis, structure. and reactions of transition-meIal carbonyls and other clusters 83-0162 Scattering and diffraction studies of metal surfaces by electron energy loss spectroscopy 83-0184 Synthesis and reactions of enamines 83-0207 Theory of aromaticity and Keku15 structures of conjugated hydrocarbons 83-021 I Preparalicm and use of silyl enol ethers in organic synthesis 83-02.$8 llse of chiral reagents for asymmetric syn[hesis and determination of absolute configuration 83-0274 Structure determination using Ianthanide shtft reagents 83-0282 Mechanism of the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide on supported metal catalysts: Fischer- Tropsch synthesis 83-0519 Synthesis, rearrangements and fragmentation siudies of DieIs-Alder cycloadditions 83-0602 Determination of organic compounds, pesticides, and herbicides and their distribution in the environment 83-077S fnfrared study of carbon monoxide and other gases adsorbed on metal surfaces 8>0784 Chemisorption properties of metal monolayer and gases on single-crystal metal surfaces 83-0877 Characterization and actifity of supporled metal catalysts 83-1022 Stereoselective syn!hesis of organic compounds and natural products N3-1124 Mcdecular-orb}tal sludies of the conformation and reac[i~it y of drugs 83-1132 Reactions of seienides and selenoxides 83-1142 Characterization of the energy spectrum of elecirons at various surfaces 83-1293 Use of copper-catalyzed Grignard coupling reactions in organic synthesis 83-1315 Spectroscopic studies of electronic structure and Rydberg transitions of atoms, ions. and chemisorbed molecules 83-1372 Ah im(io molecular-orbital calculations of ionization potentials and core energies; electronic structure of diatomic molecules by photoelectron spectroscopy
4 Figure 3: The 1974 map of chemistry and physics, Serial numbers are for identification only. Lines between nodes represent co-citation strength, an indicator of semantic distance,
m. Vm dN\I”/F=@=l J@/- Y’w’:””l
I’d
Pa----->-s,. . Y
known simply as the IMcu.rsions of the chemical methods. They needed to un- Faraday Society, derstand the physical properties of ele- Chemists working in the early twenti- ments and compounds at molecular and eth century found themselves confront- submolecular levels, the traditional do- ed with complex problems that they main of physicists. Thus the develop- could not solve using conventional ment of chemical physics began as a
5 common area of study between physical Chemistry. 14 This classic has been ex- chemists and physicists. Max Planck, plicitly cited over 3,200 times since 1955. Albert Einstein, and Niels Bohr contri- Hammett, who is now 91, is a past recipi- buted to this new field with their work in ent of numerous awards, including the quantum theory.7 (p. 232) Bohr devel- American Chemical Society’s William oped the quantum model of the hydro- H. Nichols Medal ( 1957) and the Willard gen atom in 1913.5 (p. 502-4); S (p. 74; Gibbs and Priestley Medals ( 1961). He 347) also won the James Flack Norris Award Physical chemistry and chemical ( 1960, 1966), the Lewis Medal ( 1967), physics continued their parallel develop- and the National Medal of Science ment throughout the twentieth century. ( 1968), to name a few. Subdiscipline such as chemical kinet- Despite this parallel development, ics, thermodynamics, quantum mechan- physical chemistry and chemical physics ics, and physical organic chemistry remained separate because each in- developed with the help of Arthur Amos volved different methodological ap- Noyes, Edward Washburn, Francis proaches to problem solving. According Owen Rice, Morris Kharasch, Linus to Subbiah Arunachalam, editor, Indian Paufing, John C. Slater,s (p. 53 f-58) and Journal of Technology, chemists are Louis P. Hammett. SIater was the first to content to live in a concrete world, with write a textbook on chemical physics, in its myriad substances and compounds 1939,13 that has since appeared in sever- and their reactions. But physicists have al editions, the most recent in 1970. This learned to live with less concrete situa- book was cited 624 times in the 1955- tions—they attempt to reach levels of 1985 SCI. Just one year later, in 1940, understanding inaccessible through the Hammett published Physical Organic conceptual tools of chemistry. Is
6 Research Ilonts physical chemists work in many diverse areas of science with impacts in mathe- Today, recent research in physical matics, medicine, and botany as well as chemistry and chemical physics includes chemistry and physics.1~ the analysis “of the flow of energy be- Without a “map” showing the seman- tween atoms and molecules, [whichj un- tic connections between these topics, it derlies the study of lasers, combustion is harder to percei~e how they interact. and catalysis, photosynthesis, atmo- The map in Figure 2 on molecular-orbi- spheric and interstellar chemistry, and tal theory includes three of the fronts the fabrication of microelectronic cir- from Table 2 (’4Ab initio and other cuitry”; high-resolution spectroscopy of molecular-orbital calculations of force polyatomic ions; 1~and the production of fields and electronic structure of poly- metals for industry. 1“These topics are il- acetylene and polyatomic molecules” lustrated in the 1983 SCI research fronts 1#83-0092], “Kinetics of adsorption, re- listed in Table 2. A research front con- sorption, and decomposition of alcohols sists of a group of current papers that and diatomic molecules on a metal cata- cites one or more older well-cited papers lyst” [#83-01 12], and “Mechanism of the identified as core for that topic. It also hydrogenation of carbon monoxide includes the core papers. From these re- on supported metal catalysts; Fischer- search-front data we can then identify Tropsch synthesis” [#83-0282]). which research fronts are cited by spe- cific journals. Table 3: The na(ional affiliations of paper~ ci[ing In Table 2 we’ve listed only those .S(”f” research front #U.3-3402, “Gencmticm of fronts that include at least 100 citing solilon~ and elrctr,whemical properlie\ of doped papers published in 1983 in the 31 core polyacetylenr and {>!her cme-dimensimml poly- journals given in Table 1. In column C of mers, Peierls distortion reduced by eleclrOn cOr- reia[ ion.” A nun]txr of i[cnl\ citing Ihe research Table 2 we provide the number of core frc>n[. B percent <>fall items ci(ing (he research journals represented in each front: col- front.
umn D lists the number of 1983 articles A B from these journals that cited the re- search front. We did not calculate the (Is h I 41.2 total number of publications for each of Japan 11” 18.5 France 5-I 85 the fronts. But, as an example, about FRti 43 6.X 1,100 papers were published on “Phase Italy xl 4.1 equilibria and thermodynamics of hard- (Issfr 23 3.6 [IK 1“ 2“ sphere fluids and binary liquids” Israel 11 1.7 (#83-0023), and they cited 95 core docu- Poland II 17 ments. It is significant that only about Belgium 1() 1.6 China 8 1.3 260 of the papers were published in 13 of GDR 6 1.0 the core journals. Over 800 papers were Sweden 5 0.8 published in non-core journals. Austria 4 O.fl ‘t 0.6 Three fronts (#83-0058, #83-0282, Canada India 4 O.b #83-0291 ) in Table 2 are refated to the Mexico 4 [).b properties or analysis of metals or metal Finland 3 0.s alloys. Over 400 papers were published Spain 3 0.5 Switzerland 3 0.5 on those topics. Equally active, with Hungary ~ 0,3 over 540 papers, is front #83-0075, which The Netherlands 2 0.3 deals with processes of photoelectro- Aus!ralia 1 0.2 Brazil I 0.2 chemical cells and applications to solar I!nassigned 10 I.b energy conversion. The wide range of topics in this table illustrates that today’s TOTAL hJ3 Ice%
7 A more precise view of the world of number of papers from Japan in that chemistry is seen in Figure 3, which front is much larger than its overall 1983 shows the 1974 map of chemistry and SCI share of 5 percent. This is, of physics. This map makes it easier to view course, only an example and may be the complex borderland between chem- quite different for other fronts. Some istry and physics. An even more exten- old-fashioned fields of physical chemis- sive map (for 1983) is shown in Figure 4. try are more popular in certain coun- The relationship between chemistry and tries. This may be because they use alter- biomedicine and biochemistry is more native technologies or simply because apparent in this map. Incidentally, the they are unable to conduct more mod- map in Figure 2 is represented by point ern research. #38 in Figure 4. Were there time and space to do so, Conclusion we could create similar but more de- This concludes the first part of our tailed maps from a subset of the SCf con- study on physical chemistry/chemical stituting the citation index drawn from physics and the journals that are most the core journals listed in Table 1, How- prominent in these fields. As we have ever, we can get a comparable perspec- seen in the research fronts and maps tive by examining the fist of research provided in this essay, physical chemis- fronts that are most prominently cited in try and chemical physics have become these journals. (See Table 2.) closely intertwined despite their differ- If we want to get a country-by-country ent approaches to the physical world. perspective on research areas in physical Their interdependence will become chemistry and chemical physics, we can even more evident in our analyses in also use our SCI data. Table 3 shows the Parts 2 and 3 of this study. percentage of citing papers by cou~ltry ***** that were published in a research front on electrochemical properties of doped My thanks to Abigail Grissom and polyacetylene and other one-dimension- Janet Robertson for their help in the
al polymers (#83-3402). For example, the preparation of this essay. Q1936, sl
REFERENCES
1. Brown C H. .5c{enr@ ,errui., Ch]cago. Asswiatlc>n of College and Reference Libraries, 1955. 189 p. 2 C.arfield E. Citatltm anzlysis a~ a tool in journal e~aluation. Sctenc-e I~8:4’1-9, 1972. 3. ------Sig*lif]cant jOurnals Of science. ,Vulure 264:00% I 5, 19-b. 4. Bynum W F, Browne E 1 & Porte R, eds. Thc[mnury of the ht~(or.r of rc(ence London. Macmillan Press, 1981. .1Q.1p. 5. Ihde A J. Ihe Jete/,Jpmen/ Of mc,dcvn (them,.,fry New York Harper & ROW. 1904. Ntl p. 6 Science: wientific indentions, discmeries, and the
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