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Factors Explaining Students' Attitudes Towards Learning in Genetics And 1 Factors explaining students’ attitudes towards learning in genetics and belief in genetic determinism 2 3 Tuomas Aivelo1,*, Anna Uitto2 4 1: Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki 5 2: Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki 6 * Corresponding author: tuomas.aivelo@helsinki.fi 7 STUDENT ATTITUDES ON GENETICS 8 Abstract 9 It is important to know how current education affects students’ attitudes towards learning, 10 specifically in a quickly evolving and societally relevant field of biology such as genetics. The aim 11 of this study is to examine how teacher and student-related factors explain secondary school 12 students’ attitudes towards the applications of genetics and learning in genetics. In total 421 13 students aged between 17 and 20 from ten schools participated in the study. We measured students’ 14 liking of, self-concept in and experienced utility of genetics and students’ attitude towards gene 15 technology and belief in genetic determinism. We carried out item response theory based modelling 16 by including teachers’ teaching emphases, learning materials, student gender and the number of 17 attended biology courses as explanatory variables. The attitude towards gene technology and belief 18 in genetic determinism correlated with all independent factors. Male students’ attitude towards gene 19 technology was more liberal; they had higher self-concept, but experienced less utility in genetics 20 and their belief in genetic determinism was weaker than in women. If the teacher’s emphasis was on 21 Heredity or if the textbook with stronger Mendelian emphasis was used in teaching, students had 22 more negative attitudes towards learning in genetics, but the belief in genetic determinism was 23 stronger. In comparison, teacher’s Developmental emphasis explained students’ lower belief in 24 genetic determinism, whereas Structural emphasis correlated with students’ liking of genetics. The 25 results suggest that teachers’ approaches in genetics teaching as well as learning materials need 26 updates to fulfil the needs for genetics literacy in current science education. 27 28 Keywords: item response theory (IRT), student attitudes, socioscientific issues, biology education, 29 upper secondary school STUDENT ATTITUDES ON GENETICS 30 Introduction 31 As a form of scientific literacy, genetics literacy has been presented as a required skill in the 21st 32 century (Boerwinkel, Yarden, & Waarlo, 2017). More and more technological advances, which 33 might shape society and human beings themselves, have been presented to a wider audience. 34 Several genetics-related issues already are or are expected to become widely relevant policy issues: 35 gene technology in food production or disease treatment, genetic tests on animals and humans, and 36 study of human ancestry through population genetic tools. Nevertheless, the teaching of genetics 37 has been slow to follow new societal importance of genetics literacy. Consequently, there has been 38 a substantial debate on the teaching of genetics, the focus of genetics teaching and the role of 39 societal issues in teaching (Chapman et al., 2019; McElhinny, Dougherty, Bowling, & Libarkin, 40 2014; Redfield, 2012; Smith & Gericke, 2013). 41 Indeed, it is important to know how current teaching approaches and learning materials influence 42 students’ attitudes towards genetics and socio-scientific issues (SSI), such as gene technology and 43 genetic determinism. We present a survey study of Finnish upper secondary school students (grades 44 10-12) on their attitudes towards studying genetics and the use of gene technology, and belief in 45 genetic determinism. Our prior studies with the same respondents have shown that their teachers 46 used differing emphases in teaching genetics (Aivelo & Uitto, 2019), so that they emphasized either 47 gene structure and function (Structural emphasis), continuity of DNA throughout evolution 48 (Hereditary emphasis), or genotype-to-phenotype link (Developmental emphasis). These emphases 49 are not only content-related, but they also pertain to how teachers perceive student interests in 50 genetics and how much they use human contexts in their teaching. We have also analyzed the 51 contents of the biology textbooks used by the same students (Aivelo & Uitto, 2015) and the results 52 indicated that while the textbooks are highly similar in contents and ordering of the contents, they 53 do contain substantial differences in which gene models are used (c.f., Gericke, 2008). STUDENT ATTITUDES ON GENETICS 54 Consequently, in this study, we have a unique setting to tease apart the relationships between 55 genetics teaching, textbooks, and student attitudes. The aim of the present study is to discover the 56 relative importance of teacher- and student-related factors on student attitudes towards learning of 57 genetics and gene technology as well as their belief in genetic determinism. Teacher-related factors 58 included their emphasis in secondary school genetics teaching and the contents of biology textbooks 59 in regard to genetics, while the student-related factors included gender and the number of biology 60 courses studied during the grades 10 to 12. 61 Attitudes towards science learning in school 62 An attitude has been defined as an immediate disposition towards concrete or abstract objects, 63 events, or people in one’s environment, with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 64 1993; Potvin & Hasni, 2014). In science education, general and impersonal evaluation perspectives 65 are decisive for an attitude (Krapp & Prenzel, 2011). According to Osborne, Simon, and Collins 66 (2003), attitudes towards science and science education do not consist of a single construct, but a 67 large number of subconstructs that to varying degrees shape attitudes towards science. For instance, 68 anxiety towards science, enjoyment of science, belief in the utility of science, and self-esteem vis-à- 69 vis science reflect different aspects or dimensions of students’ attitudes towards school science. In 70 science education, biology is commonly found to be a favorite subject, especially among young 71 women (Britner, 2008; Osborne et al., 2003; Uitto, 2014) 72 While genetics is commonly given as an example of a difficult topic in biology learning (Bahar, 73 Johnstone, & Hansell, 1999; Banet & Ayuso, 2000), there are not many investigations of factors 74 relating to students’ attitudes towards studying genetics and its applications. For instance, 75 Taiwanese primary and secondary school students found genetics interesting, important, and 76 relevant, but also difficult and too mathematical, though their attitudes were less polarized the older 77 they were (Chu, 2008). 78 Attitude toward gene technology STUDENT ATTITUDES ON GENETICS 79 There is a positive relationship between knowledge and attitudes towards science in general (Allum, 80 Sturgis, Tabourazi, & Brunton-Smith, 2008; Sturgis, Brunton-Smith, & Fife-Schaw, 2010). 81 Nevertheless, while an understanding of genetics is generally limited among the members of the 82 general public, they have often been found to have positive attitudes towards gene technology 83 (Henneman, Timmermans, & Van Der Wal, 2006) and the attitudes are becoming even more 84 positive (Henneman et al., 2013). 85 Among students, Gardner and Troelstrup (2015) found five context dimensions used in 86 biotechnology attitude research: personal acceptability of gene technology for public use, attitude 87 toward research in gene technology, moral and ethical implications of gene technology for public 88 use, concern regarding the regulation of risks associated with biotechnology, and trust in groups or 89 authorities to communicate about biotechnology. They constructed and tested a questionnaire based 90 on their results and found that in general, students’ attitude towards biotechnology varied from 91 neutral to negative in different context dimensions. 92 Many personal, social, and cultural backgrounds form the framework in which students’ attitudes 93 towards gene technology can develop. For instance younger students (12-year-olds versus 17-year- 94 olds) have less favorable attitudes towards biotechnology (Dawson, 2007), suggesting that either 95 formal or informal education with increasing scientific literacy or evolving attitudes during one’s 96 lifetime may lead to more favorable attitude towards biotechnology. Nevertheless, students holding 97 negative attitude towards biotechnology can belong to two different groups: those not interested in 98 biotechnology at large and not well-informed and those who have high knowledge, but deeply 99 skeptical attitude towards personal or societal use of biotechnology (Klop & Severiens, 2007) 100 Traditionally, research on gender issues in science education has concluded that male students are 101 more favorable towards science and technology, including gene technology (Črne-Hladnik, Peklaj, 102 Košmelj, Hladnik, & Javornik, 2009; Kidman, 2010), although these gender differences are not STUDENT ATTITUDES ON GENETICS 103 always found (Uitto, 2014). Cultural aspects, such as ethnicity and world view are likely to form 104 students’ attitudes towards socio-scientific issues (Sadler & Zeidler, 2004). 105 Sadler and Zeidler (2004) state that as gene technology includes moral and ethical dilemmas, such 106 issues should not be overlooked in science education, but the students should be provided with a 107 forum to study and discuss diverse dilemmas and
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