Microdochium Nivale 45 Spencer-Phillips and D.L

ISSN 1867-3570 GG 11825 11825 F F Turfgrass

· GAZON TURF Science Jahrgang 45 · Heft 02/14 Internationale Zeitschrift für Vegetationstechnik in Garten-, Landschafts- und Sportstättenbau für Forschung und Praxis Special Edition ETS Conference 2014

Special Edition

"Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability"

Reviewed paper presented at the 4th ETS Conference 2014

Osnabrueck, Germany 6th to 9th July 2014 European Journal of Turfgrass Science KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 53117 Bonn KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 · 53117 Bonn GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 53117 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag ISSN 1867-3570 G 11825 F

ISSN 1867-3570 Turfgrass G 11825 F

· GAZON TURF TurfgrassScience Jahrgang 45 · Heft 02/14 Internationale Zeitschrift für Vegetationstechnik in Garten-, Landschafts- und Sportstättenbau für Forschung und Praxis

· GAZON TURF Science Jahrgang 45 · Heft 02/14 Internationale Zeitschrift für Vegetationstechnik in Garten-, Landschafts- und Sportstättenbau für Forschung und Praxis

Special Edition "BalancingSpecial turfgrass Edition performance and sustainability" "Balancing turfgrass Reviewed performance paper and presented sustainability" at the 4th ETS Conference 2014 Reviewed paper presented at the 4thOsnabrueck, ETS Conference Germany 2014 6th to 9th July 2014

Osnabrueck, Germany 6th to 9th July 2014 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 · 53117 Bonn GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 53117 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag

30323420_Titel_Aufmacher_Rasen Broschuere neu.indd 4 24.06.14 11:54 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 · 53117 Bonn GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 53117 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag

30323420_Titel_Aufmacher_Rasen Broschuere neu.indd 4 24.06.14 11:54 ISSN 1867-3570 G 11825 F ISSN 1867-3570 Juni 2014 – Heft 2 – Jahrgang 45 Köllen Druck + Verlag GmbH Postfach 410354 · 53025 Bonn Verlags- und Redaktionsleitung: Stefan Vogel Turfgrass Herausgeber: Deutsche Rasengesellschaft (DRG) e.V.

· GAZON TURF Jahrgang 45 · Heft 02/14 Redaktionsteam: Science Dr. Klaus Müller-Beck Internationale Zeitschrift für Vegetationstechnik in Garten-, Landschafts- und Sportstättenbau für Forschung und Praxis Dr. Harald Nonn Dr. Wolfgang Prämaßing

Veröffentlichungsorgan für: Deutsche Rasengesellschaft e.V., Godesberger Allee 142-148, 53175 Bonn Rheinische-Friedrich-Wilhelms Universität Bonn INRES – Institut für Nutzpflanzenkunde und Ressourcenschutz, Lehrstuhl für Allgemei- nen Pflanzenbau,Katzenburgweg 5, 53115 Bonn Institut für Landschaftsbau der TU Berlin, Lentzeallee 76, 14195 Berlin Institut für Kulturpflanzenwissenschaften der Universität Hohenheim Fruwirthstraße 23, 70599 Stuttgart Bayerische Landesanstalt für Weinbau und Gartenbau, Abt. Landespflege, An der Steige 15, 97209 Veitshöchheim Institut für Ingenieurbiologie und Landschaftsbau an der Universität für Bodenkultur, Peter-Jordan-Str. 82, A-1190 Wien Proefstation, Sportaccomodaties van de Nederlandse Sportfederatie, Arnhem, Nederland The Sports Turf Research Institute Bingley – Yorkshire/Großbritannien Société Française des Gazons, 118, Avenue Achill Peretti, F-92200 Nevilly sur Seine

Impressum Diese Zeitschrift nimmt fachwissenschaftli che Beiträge in deutscher, englischer oder französischer Sprache sowie mit deutscher, englischer und französischer Zusammen fassung auf. Verlag, Redaktion, Vertrieb und Anzeigen-

verwaltung: Bonn GmbH · Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Straße 14 53117 KÖLLEN Druck+Verlag Köllen Druck + Verlag GmbH Postfach 410354, 53025 Bonn; Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Str. 14, 53117 Bonn, Content Tel. (0228) 9898280, Fax (0228) 9898299. E-mail: [email protected] Redaktion: Stefan Vogel (V.i.S.d.P.) 4 Preface – Salute – Adress of Welcome Anzeigen: Monika Tischler-Möbius Nektarios, P.A. – Thieme-Hack, M. – Mueller-Beck, K.G. Gültig sind die Media-Daten ab 1.1.2012. Erscheinungsweise: jährlich vier Ausgaben. 6 Content Scientific Paper – Practical Paper Bezugspreis: Jahresabonnement E 40 inkl. Versand, zzgl. MwSt. Abonnements verlängern sich automatisch um ein Jahr, 8 Convener – Organizing Committee – Editorial Board wenn nicht sechs Wochen vor Ablauf der Bezugszeit schriftlich gekündigt wurde. 9 Keynote Paper Druck: Köllen Druck+Verlag GmbH, Eid, U. – Thieme-Hack, M. Ernst-Robert-Curtius-Str. 14, 53117 Bonn, Tel. (0228) 989820. Alle Rechte, auch die des auszugsweisen 17 Scientific Paper Nachdrucks, der fotomechanischen Wieder- gabe und der Übersetzung, vorbehalten. Aus der Erwähnung oder Abbildung von 95 Practical Paper Warenzeichen in dieser Zeitschrift können keinerlei Rechte abgeleitet werden, Artikel, die mit dem Namen oder den Initialen des Verfassers gekennzeichnet sind, geben nicht unbedingt die Meinung von Herausge- ber und Redaktion wieder. Supporting 4th ETS Conference in Germany

Patrons

Gold Sponsor

Silver Sponsor

Bronce Sponsor Preface

he European Turfgrass Society (ETS) was established in 2007 aiming to provide a common Tground and forum for everybody that is involved in the turfgrass industry such as researchers, companies, greenkeepers and others. ETS has achieved its goals through the organization of conferences and field days. So far ETS has successfully organized conferences in Pisa, Italy (2008), Angers, France (2010) and Kristiansand, Norway (2012) and field days in Valen- cia, Spain (2009); Ghent, Belgium (2011), Monte Carlo (2013) and a regional field day in San Michele all’Adige – Trento, Italy (2012).

In the recent years, European turfgrass industry has experienced unforeseen difficulties due to the worldwide economic recession that resulted in peoples’ reduced quality of life narrowing their interest only to the basic human needs, namely food and clothing. Under such a narrow spectrum of thinking, sectors of ornamental and functional horticulture including turfgrass industry have shrunk.

Under these circumstances ETS networking has been proven to be a valuable tool to overcome the hurdles with collectively coordinated actions. These ETS efforts have been taking into account the contemporary needs of turfgrass industry aiming to the sustainable use of natural resources, the environmental protection and considering the perception of various stakeholders.

All the above are distilled into the main theme of the 4th ETS Conference to be held in Osnabrueck, Germany “Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability”. In Conference, research and professional experience will merge and exchange valuable and novel information aiming to promote turfgrass management and science under a collaborative and sustainable manner taking into account the current economical restrains. This knowledge and experience will be disseminated in the most efficient manner toward the turfgrass industry through more than 70 oral and poster presentations to the conference participants. In addition, all presentations will be available worldwide through their publication in the scientific journals European Journal of Horticulture Science and European Journal of Turfgrass Science.

These accomplishments are the result of hard work and great organizational skills that are performed by the Organizing Committee of the Conference at the University of Applied Science Osnabrueck. My sincere gratitude goes to all members of the Organizing Committee for realiz- ing this 4th ETS Conference in such a short time and in particular to the convener Prof. Martin Thieme-Hack and his collaborator Dr. Klaus Mueller-Beck, President of the German Turf Socie- ty (Deutsche Rasengesellschaft e.V. DRG).

All these efforts would be impossible to accomplish without the precious input of ETS Board members. I would like to thank them all for their volunteered work and valuable input in the effort to sustain and grow ETS influence and networking throughout the European turfgrass industry during these two past years.

This volume contains extended abstracts, reviewed and presented in oral or poster form at the 4th European Turfgrass Society Conference. In addition a smaller part of full paper will be published in “European Journal of Horticulture Science”.

All submitted contributions have undergone a thorough double blind peer review process by at least two independed reviewers of the scientific committee and an additional review from the Editorial Committee. The European Turfgrass Society acknowledges and appreciates the contribution of Authors, Reviewers and Editors which has been invaluable to the improvement of the quality of this publication.

Panayiotis A. Nektarios The European Turfgrass Society President

4 4th ETS Conference 2014 Salute

urfgrass research in Germany in recent years has not played such a significant role as in Tother countries represented by the conference participants. Even the “Rasen-Fachstelle“ at the University of Hohenheim suspended operations last year. The economic importance of functioning turfgrass research, according to Humboldt’s educational ideal, in conjunction with a turfgrass apprenticeship, whether for golf, sport or landscape is well known to the leaders of the European Turfgrass Society. We are hoping that this conference can give the field of turfgrass research and training in Germany new impetus. The University of Applied Sciences, Osnabrueck, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Land- scape Architecture is honored to be able to host, this, the 4th ETS conference in 2014. Our gratitude goes to the board of the ETS for this decision. But thanks must also be given to the organizing committee, in particular the President of the German Turfgrass Society, Dr. Klaus Müller-Beck, the many active referees of the two magazines European Journal of Horticulture Science and European Journal of Turfgrass Science ( EJTS ), especially chief editor Alessandra Zuin, the conference team and last but not least the sponsors. May the conference be memorable for all participants. Martin Thieme-Hack Convener 4th ETS Conference 2014

Address of Welcome

he German Turfgrass Society (DRG) is delighted to welcome the participants of the 4th ETS TConference 2014 in Osnabrueck. It is a pleasure to host the honored researchers and turfgrass specialist in Germany. In cooperation with the colleagues of the University of Applied Science Osnabrueck we have prepared and organized a conference to discuss and exchange the latest results on turfgrass research throughout Europe, the USA and Canada. The oral presentations and the poster sessions offer the opportunity to learn about the latest trends and to see what has been developed in different countries. We certainly hope that the ETS Conference releases a pulse for new turfgrass research activities in our country. We are happy to share with you some impressions of our work on the university campus and to show you a few selected turfgrass projects with a breeding station, a golf course and a soccer pitch in the Bundesliga during our turf tour. All submitted and reviewed 2-page paper are published in this Special Edition of our magazine “European Journal of Turfgrass Science”. This gives you a chance to study them in detail and to get into contact with the authors. Sustainability means In the spirit of the ETS to consider turfgrass knowledge and application in the broadest sense, including its use in sport and leisure, its role in improving urban quality and its importance in the mitigation of environmental effects. We wish us a successful conference true to the motto: “Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability” The German Turfgrass Society is deeply grateful for the support by the patrons and sponsors to realize the 4th ETS Conference 2014 in Osnabrueck. Welcome in Germany, July 2014 Klaus Mueller-Beck President German Turfgrass Society

4th ETS Conference 2014 5 Content

Scientific Paper

Authors Title Page

Session: Turfgrass species and breeding Park, B.S., W.A. Meyer, S.A. Bonos Assessing cool-season turfgrass blends and mixtures under low 19 and J.A. Murphy maintenance van Santen, E., V.G. Lehman and ‘AU Victory’: A new bentgrass cultivar from Auburn University 21 E.A. Guertal Hejduk, S. and M. Kvasnovský Comparison of white clover cultivars in low input turfs 23

Session: Soil and water management Dukes, M.D. and S.L. Davis Smart irrigation controllers Conserve water while maintaining 25 turfgrass quality Alvarez, G., B. Leinauer, E. Sevostianova, Effects of experimental polymer seed coating on germination and 27 M. Serena and C. Pornaro establishment of perennial ryegrass and seashore paspalum under saline irrigation Hubbard, L.R., L.B. McCarty, V.L. Quisen- Developing a yearly aerification program for bentgrass greens 29 berry, W.C. Bridges and T.O. Owino located in heat-stressed environments Beirn L.A., C.J. Schmid, J.W. Hempfling, Using metagenomics to investigate the effects of nitrogen and 31 J.A. Murphy, B.B. Clarke and J.A. Crouch potassium treatments on the microbial rhizosphere community in Poa annua turf Brady, H.M., C. Peacock, M.J. Vepraskas An investigation of the relationship between golf course irrigation 33 and D.A. Crouse and climate in North Carolina, USA

Session: Turfgrass diseases, pests and weed control Latin, R., J. Daniels and Y. Liu Integrating host resistance and fungicide for efficient control of dollar 35 spot on creeping bentgrass Berkelmann-Loehnertz, B., S. Klaerner, Potential use of UV C radiation in turfgrass disease management 37 B. Flemming, R. Keicher, H.P. Schwarz, M. Pfliehinger and O. Loehnertz Knowles, J.N., A.G. Owen and K.R. Butt Neotyphodium detected in UK turfgrass seeds using Immunoblot 39 analysis Espevig, T., T.E. Andersen, A. Kvalbein, Mycorrhizal colonization and competition against annual bluegrass on golf 41 E. Joner and T.S. Aamlid greens with red fescue as the predominant species van den Nieuwelaar, A.M. and T. Hsiang Changes in sensitivity of the dollar spot fungus, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, to 43 the demethylation inhibitor fungicide Propiconazole 20 years after first use Dempsey, J.J., I. Wilson, P.T.N. Phosphite mediated inhibition of Microdochium nivale 45 Spencer-Phillips and D.L. Arnold Hsiang, T., P.H. Goodwin and W. Gao Variation in responsiveness of Agrostis cultivars to defence activators 47 Espevig T., A. Tronsmo and T.S. Aamlid Evaluation of microbiological agents for control of Microdochium nivale in vitro 49 Roberts, J.A., L.P. Tredway, B. Ma, Frequency and characterization of Acidovorax avenae and Xanthomonas 51 J.P. Kerns, B.B. Clarke and D.F. Ritchie translucens associated with bacterial etiolation and/or decline on creeping bentgrass putting greens in the Eastern United States Masin R. and S. Macolino Ability of some creeping perennial ryegrasses to suppress annual bluegrass 53 germination Keighley J.M., R.L. Mann, Seasonal changes in soil moisture of fairy rings 55 S.G. Edwards and M.C. Hare Gannon, T.W. and M.D. Jeffries 2,4-D and azoxystrobin bioremoval capacity of aquatic plants 57

Session: Turfgrass for golf and sport fields McCarty L.B., R.S. Landry, V.L. Effect of a humectant and two wetting agents on soil moisture content and 59 Quisenberry, W.C. Bridges hydrophobicity on creeping bentgrass and bermudagrass putting greens and and R.B. Cross sports pitches Jensen, A.M.D., K.N. Petersen Pesticide-free management of weeds on golf courses: Current situation and 61 and T.S. Aamlid future challenges

6 4th ETS Conference 2014 Authors Title Page

Waalen, W.M., T. Espevig, A. Kvalbein The effect of ice encasement and two protective covers on the winter survival 65 and T.S. Aamlid of six turfgrasses on putting greens Grossi N., S. Magni, C. de Bertoldi, F. Lulli, Establishment and winter management of ‘MiniVerde’ bermudagrass for 67 M. Gaetani, L. Caturegli, M. Volterrani, putting greens in Italy P. Croce, M. Mocioni and A. De Luca

Session: Turfgrass growing factors, impact for the environment Sevostianova, E.P. Lenz and B. Leinauer Nitrate leaching from establishing bermudagrass irrigated with treated 69 effluent Yelverton, F.H., M.D. Jeffries and Effect of turf species on pesticide clipping concentrations and subsequent 71 T.W. Gannon release in aquatic systems Caspersen O.H, A.D. Jensen and Mapping golf courses for multifunctional uses other than golf 73 F.S. Jensen Minelli, A., A. De Luca, P. Croce, Transition from cool-season to warm-season grass: environmental 75 L. Cevenini and D. Zuffa effects in a golf course in the North of Italy Zuffa D., L. Cevenini, M. Corradini, Carbon fluxes in turfgrass under different management intensities in a golf 77 P. Panzacchi, A. Minelli and G. Tonon course in northern Italy Walker, K.S. and K.W. Nannenga Various fertilizer sources for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from 79 golf course greens and roughs Aamlid T.S. and Geo J.L. van Leeuwen Optimal application intervals for the plant growth regulator 81 Trinexapac-ethyl (Primo MAXX®) at Northern Latitudes Gómez de Barreda, D., T. Pérez, Festuca arundinacea drought resistance induced by Trinexapac-ethyl 83 J. Bellón, R.V. Molina and S.G. Nebauer

Session: Turfgrass nutrition and physiology Guertal, E.A. Potassium sources and placement for bentgrass putting greens 85 Owen, A.G., I. Weir, M. Pawlett and Anaerobic digestate: an alternative fertiliser for the turf grass industry 87 M. Tibbett Cisar, J., D. Park, M. McMillan Improving nitrogen use efficiency of turfgrass with 89 and K. Williams controlled-release N Peacock, C.H. and J.P. Gregg Soil phosphorus stability from a Swine-Lagoon Biosolid fertilizer used for 91 roadside grass establishment

Practical Paper

Lassalvy, S., V. Gensollen, M. Straëbler How to assess adaption of turf varieties across a wide range of 97 and C. Huyghe environments and how to publish the data on the web? Lung-Tsakos, J. and G. Lung Comparison of the germination rates at low temperature of some 99 recent annual and perennial ryegrass varieties Nikolopoulou A.E., S. Alexandris, D.E. G. Karaiskakis stadium ten years after: Assessing 101 Tsesmelis, D. Stamatakos, V. Fassouli, the irrigation system impacts on turf quality N.A. Skondras and C.A. Karavitis Pogner C., D. Bandian, M. Gorfer and Detection of turf grass diseases by DNA profiling of pathogens 103 J. Strauss Aamlid, T.S., T. Espevig, W.M. Waalen Fungicides for control of Microdochium nivale and Typhula incarnata 105 and T. Pettersen Bocksch, M. Fairy ring effects on soil and grass growth and non-chemical control measures 109

Mueller-Beck, K. and H. Nonn Turf quality concept for stadium pitches in the German Bundesliga 111 Nonn, H. Hybrid turf systems for more wear tolerance on soccer pitches 113 Evers, M. and A. Wolleswinkel Characterisation of organic matter dynamics in sports turf 115 Albracht, R. and H. Nonn Report on the conditions of the soccer pitches in Germany 117 Strandberg, M., K. Schmidt, O. Skarin Multifunctional golf facilities as a driving force in implementing the European 119 and L.-G. Bråvander Landscape Convention: a case study in Sweden Gorbov S.N. and O.S. Bezuglova Soil and vegetation characteristics of a golf course in a Southern Russian 121 floodplain Albracht, R. and M. Schlosser Effect of different P-sources on turf quality 123 Grégoire, G., C. Bouffard Impact of turfgrass fertilization on nutrient losses through runoff 125 and Y. Desjardins and leaching

4th ETS Conference 2014 7 4th EUROPEAN TURFGRASS SOCIETY CONFERENCE “ “Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability”

CONVENER Martin Thieme Hack

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Kai Breulmann Bernd Leinauer Klaus Mueller-Beck Harald Nonn Wolfgang Praemassing

EDITORS Alessandra Zuin Klaus Mueller-Beck

Acknowledgement A special thank you to the referees of this 4th ETS Conference 2014 in Osnabrueck Germany for the time and attention devoted to the careful revision of the paper published in this special edition of the European Journal of Turfgrass Science

EDITORIAL BOARD

Aamlid, Trygve, NO Magni, Simone, IT Acuna, Alejandra A., CL Mann, Ruth, UK Altissimo, Adriano, IT McElroy, Scott, (AL) USA Cagas, Bohumír, CZ Miller, Grady, (NC) USA Cisar, John, (FL) USA Mueller-Beck, Klaus, DE Dahl Jensen, Anne Mette, DK Nektarios, Panayiotis, GR Danneberger, Karl, (OH) USA Nonn, Harald, DE Entwistle, Kate, UK Owen, Andy G., UK Espevig, Tatsiana, NO Peacock, Charles H., (NC) USA Gomez de Barreda, Diego, ES Praemaßing Wolfgang, DE Guertal, Elisabeth, (AL) USA Sever Mutlu, Songül, TR Harivandi, Ali, (CA) USA Thieme-Hack, Martin, DE Hejduk, Stanislav, CZ Waltz, Clint, (GA) USA Hsiang, Tom, CA Watkins, Eric, (MN) USA Kusvuran, Alpaslan, TR Williamson, Chris, (WI) USA Leinauer, Bernd, (NM) USA Woester, Susanne, DE Macolino, Stefano, IT Zuin, Alessandra, IT

8 4th ETS Conference 2014 Precious water for a healthy environment and a permanent turf – a conflict? Keynote

Eid, U.

ater is Life“ is the motto of the pressure on water resources. Where global dimension. Many tourists from „Wwater decade, which will end fresh water is scarce, water-intensive industrialized water-rich – ‘bad weath- next year. Although about 71% our recreational activities or tourism more er’ – countries prefer to spend their planet’s surface is water-covered, only generally can contribute to local and holidays abroad on sunny beaches, about 3% of all earth’s water is fresh regional water shortage respectively. whose hinterland is often barren and water. Out of this, most (more than arid. The same is true for golf tourists, A look on the world map designed ac- 68%) is stored in glaciers, a smaller but many of whom like to try new courses cording to the freshwater distribution still significant portion (30%) is stored in the shade of palm trees in the United based on the so called Falkenmark in- underground, as soil moisture and in Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Abu Dha- dicator (freshwater availability in m3 per aquifers, and only about 1% is easily bi or Dubai, one of the water-poorest capita per year) shows: accessible in the form of surface water. countries in the world. Now one might )) much of northern Africa and the say that these countries have enough Water is unevenly distributed on our Arabian Peninsula suffer from water resources to generate fresh-water planet and availability varies depending scarcity (< 1,000 m3/c/y) through desalination. But this ignores on rainfall and groundwater resources the fact that this comes at a huge cost but also due to factors affecting phys- )) East Africa, southern Africa, the in terms of – often still fossil – energy ical and economic accessibility, such entire Indian subcontinent and parts use. In fact, the Arab peninsula is fac- as the technical and financial capabil- of Eastern Europe are under water ing huge challenges in terms of sus- ities of water users. Population growth, 3 stress (< 1,700 m /c/y), and tainable water resources management. pollution and waste, inefficient water Even such exotic places and at the use in agriculture (as by far the larg- )) Central Europe, parts of Central and same time fragile ecosystem like oa- est consumer of water), urbanization West Africa, Central Asia and China ses in the Sahara woo golfers, because and climate change are some of the are vulnerable to lack of fresh water 3 for countries such as Egypt, Morocco key factors contributing to a situation availability (< 2,500 m /p/y) and Tunisia, exclusive tourism has be- where especially in water-scarce coun- However, these general regional fig- come an important economic factor. tries lack of fresh water poses a threat ures obscure the fact that even in some The Tunisian desert town of Tozeur to human and animal life and the en- fresh water-rich countries such as the has an 18-hole golf course despite the vironment. Although we are almost at United States of America with an aver- fact that fossil ground water stocks are the end of the UN-Water Decade, there 3 age fresh water availability of 6,000 m already overexploited and the water are still around two billion people who per capita per year, individual regions table is falling, resulting in a situation have no access to safe drinking water have very little fresh water. This is, for where deep wells and high-perfor- and over 2.5 billion who do not have example, the case in California, Ne- mance, energy-intensive motor pumps proper toilets, let alone are connected vada, and the Middle West. are needed to extract water from up to to sewage systems. 90% of munici- 3,000 meters depth. This very much pal wastewater and 70% of industrial Despite the fact that there are many hints at a miscalculation of real costs, wastewater in developing countries go people who claim that water is a local where benefits are privatized but costs untreated into nature and contaminate good, there are important voices that are externalized. A problem which not only important ecosystems but also rightfully qualify this view, pointing to might also explain why Las Vegas, with low-income residential areas such as the global trade in virtual water and an annual rainfall of 114,3 mm, the dri- slums in megacities. Each day, 2,000 tourism. Regarding the former, water est city in the United States, has a total children under the age of five die from use in Germany is a good example: of 61 golf courses. diarrheal diseases and of these some Whereas the direct consumption of 1,800 deaths are linked to inadequate drinking water from the water tap, with Golf is a very good example for the key water, sanitation and hygiene. This is around 120 liters per capita per day, aspects that need to be considered re- despite the fact that since 2010, ac- is moderate. Adding virtual water – of garding water: where and how much cess to safe drinking water and sanita- which a large proportion is imported, of it is used and how does the amount tion has been recognized as a human for example, through fruits, vegetables used relates to other water uses and right under international law. and textiles, partly from water-poor available water resources in the affect- countries – per capita consumption ed region. An improving standard of living is be- per day rises to over 5,000 liters. With coming an increasingly important fac- a population of 80 million, Germany’s If the water consumption for a 18-hole tor for growing water consumption, al- external water footprint is therefore im- course in Central Europe is at about 3 so in water-scarce areas. For example, mense. 35,000 m per year, a golf course in increasing meat consumption (the pro- Dubai consumes 3,500 m3 every day. duction of one kilogram of beef requires Tourism has a similar effect (in this case With growing problems concerning 15,400 liters of water) and more people not export of virtual water but imported fresh water availability the solution owning a car (the production of a car water use) and is therefore another ve- pressure has increased as well. All over swallows 150,000 liters of water) put hicle through which water acquires a the world, people are trying to make

4th ETS Conference 2014 9 golf courses more environmentally the United Arab Emirates all golf cour- Author: friendly and resource- efficient. Today, ses have changed to paspalum-grass, in Las Vegas every golf course has to which is resistant to salty water. Prof. Dr. Uschi Eid operate under a mandatory and strict- University of Applied Science ly regulated water budget. The Ger- However, the fundamental question Osnabrueck man Golf Association has established remains: Are there not certain environ- Oldenburger Landstr. 24 a water working group that is working mental conditions where constructing 49090 Osnabrueck, Germany on a method to determine the precise and operating a golf course as such is water need, avoiding over-irrigation. unreasonable, considering total local Architects and engineers have start- fresh water availability and other – pri- ed to improve the design of irrigation ority – uses? In the end, how to answer and drainage technologies to increase this question depends on political water efficiency. The selection of the choices and prioritization. In any case, it proper type of grass can reduce water is welcomed to see the growing aware- consumption by as much as 50%. In ness of the problem.

10 4th ETS Conference 2014 Standardization work for golf and sports grounds in Germany – check, supply, design and build Keynote

Thieme-Hack, M.

Abstract tors can therefore be distinguished ac- – How should materials and cording to the standards function: components (plants, seeds) be procured? ince the early 1970s, a branched – Test standards: Sand entangled mesh of regulations – Quality protection, quality control: – How can a performance or material has been established around turfgrass. How can the quality of materials, be tested? In addition to the legal requirements, components or construction work the German Institute for Standardiza- – Construction products, conditions be ensured through external moni- tion (DIN) and the Research Society of sale and delivery: toring? Landscape Development and Land- scape Construction (FLL) are leaders in standardization work. These standards and regulations give instructions about testing, the supply and construction VOB/B through to the care and maintenance German Construction Contract Procedures of turfgrass. Additionally, far-reaching guidance to precisely defined contractual conditions are made available. Al- most everything to assist practitioners in their daily work. VOB/C General Technical Specifications in Construction Contracts ATV DIN 18320 1 Introduction Landscaping works

Standards are primarily intended to fa- cilitate the movement of goods, businesses to business and businesses to consumers, ensuring a minimum qual- Landscaping industry standards: DIN 18915, 18916, 18917, 18919, 18920 ity and bringing about a reasonable Sports grounds works: DIN 18035 Teile 1, 2, 3, 4 balance of interests between the par- Playground works: DIN 18034 ties. Therefore, standardization work is often laborious and regularly shaped by the interests of stakeholders. Stand- ards and regulations in the Federal Re- Martin Thieme-Hack public of Germany are not only developed by the DIN, the German Institute for Standardization, but also from other Delivery specifications: •FLL – Regulation seed mixtures. institutions who are willing to lead a • FLLNormenkaskade – Recommendations for im greening Landschaftsbau with local seed; regional seed; native seed. consensus brought about to serve the • FLL – Quality requirements and application recommendations for organic mulch profession. and compost in landscaping. Implementation specifications: Formal standardization work in Ger- • FLL – Guidelines for the care and use of outdoor sports facilities grounds; many is characterized by two main ar- design fundamentals eas: • FLL – Guidelines for the construction of golf courses •FLL – Recommendations for the design, construction and maintenance of outdoor 1. German Construction Contract riding arenas. Procedures; forms the contractual

basis for almost all contracts for when additionally agreed: work and services which apply to the construction of golf courses and sports facilities. • RAL-GZ 515/2 – Factory-assembled turf base course mixtures and mixtures 2. European Union Regulations; in used for drainage layers for Sports Grounds - Quality assurance. • Additional technical specifications in contracts for the construction, particular the so-called “construc- maintenance and repair of outdoor sports grounds – ZTV hybrid turfs tion products law”. • FGSV – ZTV La-StB Over time, it has been established that the standards and regulations should Martin Thieme-Hack not be overloaded with content. The key standards institutions and regula- Fig. 1: Standards cascade in golf course, landscaping and sports ground construction.

4th ETS Conference 2014 11 –– Fundamental and planning stand- as laid out in § 631 German Civil Code –– ATV DIN 18320 Landscape Work ards, design standards: How is the (BGB), the contractor has to provide All further relevant standards and regu- performance to be designed, imple- the performance, free of defects, by the lations will be discussed below. mented and manufactured? time of official acceptance. For this, the performance must achieve the “agreed Standards and regulations are intend- upon condition” and meet the “gener- ed to serve the principle of universal- 3 Free movement of goods ally recognized codes of practice”. ity. On the one hand, standards can within the European Union only reflect a standard situation and The German Committee for Construc- the user must decide in each case on tion Tendering and Contract Pro- The Federal Republic of Germany has the application of a standard. On the cedures (DVA) introduced the term committed itself to ensuring the free other hand, they are also a medium in “agreed upon condition” in 1927. The movement of goods within the Europe- which stakeholders can promote their term is defined by the construction and an Union. It is also paramount that na- interests by introducing certain regula- contract procedures through a “cas- tional regulations pertaining to building tions or by excluding competition from cade” of standards and regulations materials should not be in contradic- the market. The Federal Administrative (Figure 1). tion with corresponding European reg- Court formulated a guiding principle in ulations. Germany has enshrined this a judgment as follows: With that, the German Construction in the “Law on the marketing and free Contract Procedures VOB/B (DIN movement of construction products for “It is true that, on the one hand the DIN 1961) are agreed and, as a conse- the implementation of Directive 89/106/ standards’ expertise and responsibility quence, a number of regulations ref- EEC from the Council of 21 December for the general welfare cannot be deni- erenced therein. Within the upper level 1988 for the harmonization of laws, reed. On the other hand, one should be of the General Technical Specifications gulations and administrative provisions aware that these are also agreements in Construction Contracts (ATV) are for construction products within the within certain circles, commissioned to standards which are particularly rele- member states and other legislative have an influence over market events” vant for the construction and mainte- acts of the European Union (EU cons- (source: Federal Administrative Court, nance of turfgrass: truction)”. Case No. 4C 33-35/83 in: NJW 87, 2888) –– ATV DIN 18299 General rules Differing national regulations on con- applying to all struction products hinder the free Therefore, standards and regulations types of construc- movement of goods and are consid- must always be critically examined by tion work ered market foreclosure instruments the user. for the protection of national interests. –– ATV DIN 18300 Earthwork Therefore, the European Commis- 2 Standards cascade of the –– ATV DIN 18306 Underground sion is required to examine possible Construction Contract drainage breaches and, where necessary, take Procedures action against such contravening reg- –– ATV DIN 18308 Land drainage ulations or standards. and infiltration According to the principle behind the management Additionally, there are also laws and definitions of contractual obligations works regulations that have not been left to

species category minimum technical alien max. B = base seed germination minimum species moisture C = cert. seed capacity purity content content (in mass-%) (in % grains) (in mass-%) (in%) Agrostis capillaris – common bent, browntop B 75% 90% 0,3% C 75% 90% 2,0% Agrostis stolonifera – creeping bentgrass, redtop B 80% 90% 0,3% C 80% 90% 2,0% Festuca arundinacea – tall fescue B 80% 95% 0,3% C 80% 95% 1,5% Festuca ovina – sheep fescue B 75% 85% 0,3% C 75% 85% 2,0% 14% Festuca rubra – creeping red fescue B 75% 90% 0,3% C 75% 90% 1,5% Lolium perenne – perennial ryegrass B 80% 96% 0,3% C 80% 96% 1,5% Poa pratensis – Kentucky bluegrass B 75% 85% 0,3% C 75% 85% 2,0% Poa supina – Supina bluegrass B 75% 85% 0,3% C 75% 85% 2,0% according to the Seed Marketing Act as of 24.07.2007 Additional requirements for permissible levels of alien species content of redroot pigweed, sorrel, wild oats, wild oats bastards, couch grass and dodder Tab. 1: Minimum seed requirements: Germination capacity, purity, alien species content und moisture according to the Seed Marketing Act.

12 4th ETS Conference 2014 type use characteristics1 maintenance requirements ornamental grass ornamental greening dense carpet-like thatching from high to very high

fine-leaved grasses, low resilience Keynote lawns public greens, residential greening, private medium resilience, resistant to dry periods medium to high gardens etc. sports turf Sport and play areas, public lawns, high resilience (all year) medium to very high parking lots landscape turf most extensively used and / or maintained lawns with a large variation depending on low to medium in special (extensive turf) areas in public and private green, in the the usage and location, e.g. erosion con- cases very high countryside, in areas along transport trol, resistance to extreme locations, basis routes, reclamation areas and similar are- for the development of site-specific habi- as rich in species tats, usually little or no load 1 density and resilience to loading diminish with increasing shade.

Tab. 2: Turfgrass types according to DIN 18917. the standardization institute by the leg- – DIN EN ISO 12345 German edi- – Technical Testing requirements islature, but have been found to be par- tion of an International Standard (TP), ticularly needed. (ISO) – Technical Specifications (TL), b) Not fully consensus-based docu- – Additional Technical Terms and 4 Institutions doing regula- ments (DIN SPEC): Conditions of Contract (ZTV). tory work for turfgrass – DIN V 12345 DIN pre-standard 4.2.2 Guidelines: Advice for planning, design, care and maintenance. The German Institute for Standardiza- – DIN CWA 12345 (CEN / CENE- These are intended to reflect tion (DIN) and the Research Society LEC Workshop Agreement) the generally recognized codes Landscape Development and Land- – DIN 12345 PAS (Publicly Availa- of practice. The term “generally scape Construction (FLL) work to de- ble Specification) recognized codes of practice” velop guidelines for the area of turf- means construction methods and grass within the legal framework. In contrast to the principles and rules of designs, verified in theory, which the DIN 820, all procedures that fall un- are used by the vast majority of 4.1 German Institute for Standardi- der the umbrella term DIN SPEC need zation (DIN) practitioners and have proved to not be initially published as draft ver- be successful in practice. The German Institute for Standardiza- sions. All documents under the umbrel- tion (DIN), with over 30,000 standards la term DIN SPEC are not part of the 4.2.3 Recommendations: Advice for involving around 26,000 in-house and German standardization work because, planning, design, care and main- external experts, with a budget of ap- among other things, the necessary tenance. These represent the proximately 68 million Euros / year and “degree of consensus” is not necessar- current state-of-the-art tech- over 300 employees, is the only nation- ily reached. However, DIN SPEC is not niques. They should be tried and ally recognized standards organization. necessarily in contravention with the tested in order to develop the The State Treaty is from 1975. requirements of the standards, whether generally recognized codes of national or European. practice. They are a precursor The DIN has identified the following to the guidelines. The term “cur- principles for its standardization work: The DIN begins with a standardiza- rent state-of-the-art techniques” tion project when “interested parties” means contemporary technical – Standards and standardization see the need and existing regulations possibilities which have not yet secures Germany’s position as a do not negate the standardization pro- undergone full, long-term practi- leading economic nation. ject. cal application. – Standards and standardization 4.2 Research Society Landscape 4.2.4 Technical Reports: Advice for as a strategic tool supports the Development and Landscape planning, design, care and main- success of the economy and Construction (FLL) tenance. Specialist reports are society. The 50 FLL interdisciplinary working intended to provide information – Standards and standardization committees are assembled from 30 to clients, planners, construction unburden the state rulemaking professional and trade associations – companies and other interested process. all members of the FLL. Thus, by con- parties. They can be used as a stitution, the participation of all “green guide and instructions for profes- – Standards and standardization sional conduct. promote technology conver- associations” is ensured. The commit- gence. tees are appointed by delegation from 4.2.5 Other informative publications. the member associations or experts The title of a DIN standard shows its from its more than 20,000 members. significance and area of application. 5 Relevant turfgrass regu- The FLL issues different types of pub- lations a) Fully consensus-based documents: lications: – DIN 12345: National Standard 4.2.1 Contract documents: Reaching 5.1 Testing requirements contractual agreement between – DIN EN 12345 German edition of As part of the implementation of pro- the Principal and Agent: a European Standard (EN) jects, testing is distinguished accord-

4th ETS Conference 2014 13 RSM No. name: climate: location: resilience: usage: maintenance: sowing amount: 3.1 new no limitations no limitations high, all year sports grounds medium to high 25 g/m2 constructions 3.2 regeneration no limitations no limitations high regeneration of sports medium to high 30 g/m2 and playing fields mixture content in mass-% species RSM No. 3.1 3.2 Lolium perenne standard 25 60 scope 20-30 50-80 minimum 8 8 Lolium perenne standard 15 25 scope 10-20 20-30 minimum 7 7 Poa pratensis standard 25 15 scope 15-35 0-20 minimum 7 6 Poa pratensis standard 20 scope 10-30 minimum 6 Poa pratensis standard 15 scope 10-20 minimum 6 Tab. 3: Sports turf according to RSM 2014. ing to when it is carried out and who Preliminary investigations; tests to as- July 2003, DIN German Institute should bear the costs: sess the site: for Standardization, Berlin –– Suitability tests: These are tests –– DIN 18123, Soil, investigation –– DIN EN 12233 Surfaces for to demonstrate the suitability of and testing - Determination of sports areas – Determination of materials and building material grain-size distribution sward height of natural turf; Ger- mixtures used for the intended man version EN 12233:2003July purpose in accordance with the –– DIN 18128, Soil – Investigation 2003, DIN German Institute for requirements of the contract. Ex- and testing – Determination of Standardization, Berlin amination by the Contractor, or ignition loss –– DIN EN 12616, Surfaces for the supplier. –– DIN 19682-7, Soil quality – Field sports areas – Determination of –– Self-monitoring tests: These tests – Part 7: Determination of water infiltration rate; German are tests, including incoming infiltration rate by double ring version EN 12616:2013 material inspections by the con- infiltrometer –– DIN EN 13036-7, Road and tractor, to determine whether the b) Tests for the supply of materials and airfield surface characteristics – qualitative properties of building components Test methods – Part 7: Irregu- materials and building material larity measurement of pavement mixtures conform to the contrac- –– DIN 18121-1, Soil, investigation courses: The straightedge test; tual requirements. and testing – Water content – German version EN 13036- Part 1: Determination by drying –– Verification tests: verification 7:2003 in oven tests done by the client, in or- –– DIN ISO 10390, Soil qual- der to determine whether the c) Evaluation of the performance ity – Determination of pH qualitative properties of building (ISO 10390:2005) materials and building material –– DIN EN 12231, Surfaces for mixtures conform to the contrac- sports areas – Method of test – –– Association of German Agricul- tual requirements. Determination of ground cover tural Analytic and Research Insti- of natural turf; German version tutes (VDLUFA), method books, An overview of the applicable testing EN 12231:2003, July 2003, DIN Volume I – Soil, 1st partial deliv- requirements is given below. The as- German Institute for Standardiza- ery / groundwork, 1991 5) signment to a category a), b) or c) and tion, Berlin the lists themselves are not exhaustive. –– Association of German Agricul- For example, tests for preliminary in- –– DIN EN 12232, Surfaces for tural Analytic and Research Insti- vestigations can also be relevant in the sports areas – Determination tutes (VDLUFA), method books, assessment of the delivery and vice of thatch depth of natural turf; Volume I – Soil, 2nd partial deliv- versa. German version EN 12232:2003, ery, 1997 5)

14 4th ETS Conference 2014 In the area of testing standards, it has been impossible to reach a consensus

for the testing of water permeability in Keynote turf base-course mixtures in the laboratory. A professional opinion advo- cates testing at a defined Proctor compaction level. The others reject this; because of the organic substances no reproducible Proctor compaction test results can be expected.

5.2 Delivery specifications Statutory delivery specifications arise from the German Seed Marketing Act (SaatG), the Regulation of the marketing of fertilizers, soil additives, growing media and plant growth additives (Fer- tilizer Act – DüMV) and the regulation on the utilization of bio-waste in agricultural, forestry and horticultural soils (Bio waste Act – BioAbfV). According to the Seed Act, the following categories of seed can be distinguished: – Basic seed – Certified seed – Commercial seed

– Auxiliary seed Fig. 2: Examples of construction according to Requirements of the seed according DIN 18035-4 Key: 1 turf, the Seed Marketing Act are exemplified 2 turf base course, 3 in Table 1. interlocking, 4 improved subsoil, 5 drainage line The DIN 18917 Vegetation technology with drain pipe, drain- in landscaping – Turf and seeding dis- age Chanel 6, 7 drain- tinguishes turfgrass types according to age course, 8 subsoil Table 2. Based on these types of turfgrass, the RSM 5.1 parking lot turf tions with grasses and herbs “from first regulated seed mixtures were de- (variants 1-2) the region” with which the genetic and veloped in 1979. Today, the FLL issues biological diversity of the respective lo- RSM 6.1 Extensive roof greening an annual list, in which the regulation cation is to be maintained. This takes seed mixtures are described and grass RSM 7.1.1 Landscape turf – into consideration the requirements of varieties named. In 2014, the following Standard without herbs the Nature Conservation Act accord- mixtures are described: ing to which, non-native plants may RSM 7.1.2 Landscape turf – only be introduced into the wild with RSM 1.1 ornamental grass Standard with herbs permission from the relevant State Au- RSM 2.2 lawns – RSM 7.2.1 Landscape turf – thority. dry locations (variants 1 and 2) dry location without herbs The FLL is currently preparing a regula- RSM 2.3 lawns – RSM 7.2.2 Landscape turf – tion, which is to describe the technical playing fields (according to DIN dry location with herbs specification of turfs. 18917 resilient turf) RSM 7.3 Landscape turf – Additional effective regulations in the RSM 2.4 lawns – herb lawn wet locations field of golf course construction and RSM 3.1 sports turf – sports facilities are to be found in RSM 7.4 Landscape turf – new installation (according to DIN TL aggregates – Technical delivery half-shade 18917 resilient turf) specifi cations for aggregates used in road construction from the FSGV Co- RSM 8.1 Biotopes / species-rich RSM 3.2 sports turf – logne, in which the particular proper- extensive grassland (variants 1 to 4) Regeneration (according to DIN ties of scaffold materials for the pro- 18917 resilient turf) An example for the regulation seed duction of turf base course mixtures RSM 4.1 golf turf – mixtures is shown in Table 3. are defined. Green (variants 1 to 3) Brand new, are the FLL – Recommen- 5.3 Fundamental, planning and im- RSM 4.3 golf turf – Tee dations for greening with indigenous plementation specifications seed; regional seed; native seed. RSM 4.4 golf turf – The following regulations are relevant Fairway (variants 1 to 4) Indigenous, meaning seed composi- here:

4th ETS Conference 2014 15 properties requirements testing to Depending on the choice of construction design, the following elements grain size distribution 0/1 mm to 0/22 mm DIN EN 933-1 may be implemented: water permeability k*(1) ≥ 1 x 10-3 cm/s DIN 18035-5 –– building with drainage lines, Scientific Paper organic substance ≥ 1 % und ≤ 3 % DIN 18128 content and additionally to –– drainage course, DIN 18035-4 –– improved Building, soil pH between pH 5,5 und pH 7,5 DIN ISO 10390 –– subsoil improvement, resistance to freezing stress category F4 according to TL DIN EN 1367-1 on the scaffold materials Gestein-StB –– drainage channels salt content ≤ 150 mg/100 g substrate VDLUFA –– turf base course, plant tolerance germination and development of the VDLUFA trial planting minimum level “gut” –– compound interlocking, Tab. 4: Demands on the supply of base course materials for sports turfs (Source Thieme- –– turfgrass through sowing or Hack in: Teaching in 2013 performed in accordance with DIN 18035-4). sods.

characteristics requirements testing to The choice of construction method or the construction of the turf playing field minimum density without drainage layer 80 mm ― with drainage layer 120 mm depends on the local conditions. These are in particular: water infiltration ≥ 60 mm/h DIN EN 12616 rate IC method C and addi- –– water infiltration rate of the sub- tionally DIN 18035-4 soil, shearing resistance > 12 kPa DIN 18035-4 fall must be compatible with the turf base course leveling –– rainfall, height tolerances from the given height ± 20 mm leveling –– water table, strata water and flatness maximum deviation at measuring points over DIN EN 13036-7 leachate 4 m ≤ 20 mm Special Edition –– suitability of the existing soil, Tab. 5: Requirements for the turf base course for sports turfs (Source Thieme-Hack in: Teaching in 2013 performed in accordance with DIN 18035-4). –– availability of scaffold materials, –– availability or willingness to pro- a) Landscaping care and use of outdoor sports vide irrigation water, facilities grounds; design funda- –– DIN 18917 Vegetation technol- "Balancing turfgrass mentals –– scope of maintenance services. ogy in landscaping – Turf and seeding –– Research Society Landscape Even industrial companies give them- Development and Landscape selves to regulations. One example is performance and sustainability" –– DIN 18918 Vegetation technol- Construction: Recommendations the regulations published under RAL ogy in landscaping – Biological for the design, construction and German Institute for Quality Assurance methods of site stabilization – maintenance of outdoor riding and Certification, e.g. RAL -GZ 515/2 Stabilization by seeding and arenas. – Factory-assembled turf base course planting, stabilization by means mixtures and mixtures used for draina- Reviewed paper presented of living plant material, dead c) Golf courses ge layers for Sports Grounds – Quali- material and building elements, –– Research Society Landscape ty assurance of the quality community th combined construction Development and Landscape tennis courts and natural turf construc- at the 4 ETS Conference 2014 methods Construction: Guidelines for the tion materials, Duisburg. Another ex- –– DIN 18919 Vegetation technolo- construction of golf courses ample is additional technical specifica- gy in landscaping – Care of veg- tions in contracts for the construction, Further guidance is available from etation during development and maintenance and repair of hybrid turf- the Federal Institute of Sport Science maintenance in green areas grass for outdoor sports grounds – ZTV Osnabrueck, Germany (BISp), the International Association hybrid turfgrass, which was published th th b) Sports grounds construction for Sports and Leisure Facilities (IAKS) by a group of sports grounds compa- 6 to 9 July 2014 and the German Football Association –– DIN 18035-1, Sports grounds – nies to the assure customers about the (DFB). Part 1: Outdoor play and athlet- defined qualities and transparent ben- ics areas, planning and dimen- DIN 18035-4 provides possible design efits of an increasingly popular con- sions examples in the informative appendix. struction method in Germany. These examples are not exhaustive. In –– DIN 18035-2, Sports grounds – particular, the constituents of the con- Part 2: Irrigation struction are combined, e.g. the drain- Author: –– DIN 18035-3:2006-09, Sports age channels and ground improve- grounds – Part 3: Drainage ment. Prof. Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Martin Thieme-Hack An example of these construction –– DIN 18035-4, Sports grounds – University of Applied Science methods for turfed sports fields is Part 4: Sports turf areas Osnabrueck given in Figure 2 according to DIN Oldenburger Landstr. 24 –– Research Society Landscape 18035-4. The technical requirements 49090 Osnabrueck, Germany Development and Landscape are provided in excerpts in Tables 4 [email protected] Construction: Guidelines for the and 5.

16 4th ETS Conference 2014

30323420_Titel_Aufmacher_Rasen Broschuere neu.indd 2 24.06.14 11:53 Scientific Paper

Special Edition

"Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability"

Reviewed paper presented at the 4th ETS Conference 2014

Osnabrueck, Germany 6th to 9th July 2014

30323420_Titel_Aufmacher_Rasen Broschuere neu.indd 2 24.06.14 11:53 Authors Title Page

Session: Turfgrass species and breeding Park, B.S., W.A. Meyer, S.A. Bonos Assessing cool-season turfgrass blends and mixtures under low 19 and J.A. Murphy maintenance van Santen, E., V.G. Lehman and E.A. Guertal ‘AU Victory’: A new bentgrass cultivar from Auburn University 21 Hejduk, S. and M. Kvasnovský Comparison of white clover cultivars in low input turfs 23

Session: Soil and water management Dukes, M.D. and S.L. Davis Smart irrigation controllers conserve water while maintaining turfgrass quality 25 Alvarez, G., B. Leinauer, E. Sevostianova, Effects of experimental polymer seed coating on germination and establishment of 27 M. Serena and C. Pornaro perennial ryegrass and seashore paspalum under saline irrigation Hubbard, L.R., L.B. McCarty, V.L. Quisen- Developing a yearly aerification program for bentgrass greens 29 berry, W.C. Bridges and T.O. Owino located in heat-stressed environments Beirn L.A., C.J. Schmid, J.W. Hempfling, Using metagenomics to investigate the effects of nitrogen and 31 J.A. Murphy, B.B. Clarke and J.A. Crouch potassium treatments on the microbial rhizosphere community in Poa annua turf Brady, H.M., C. Peacock, M.J. Vepraskas An investigation of the relationship between golf course irrigation 33 and D.A. Crouse and climate in North Carolina, USA

Session: Turfgrass diseases, pests and weed control Latin, R., J. Daniels and Y. Liu Integrating host resistance and fungicide for efficient control of dollar 35 spot on creeping bentgrass Berkelmann-Loehnertz, B., S. Klaerner, Potential use of UV C radiation in turfgrass disease management 37 B. Flemming, R. Keicher, H.P. Schwarz, M. Pfliehinger and O. Loehnertz Knowles, J.N., A.G. Owen and K.R. Butt Neotyphodium detected in UK turfgrass seeds using Immunoblot analysis 39 Espevig, T., T.E. Andersen, A. Kvalbein, Mycorrhizal colonization and competition against annual bluegrass on golf greens 41 E. Joner and T.S. Aamlid with red fescue as the predominant species van den Nieuwelaar, A.M. and T. Hsiang Changes in sensitivity of the dollar spot fungus, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, to the 43 demethylation inhibitor fungicide Propiconazole 20 years after first use Dempsey, J.J., I. Wilson, P.T.N. Phosphite mediated inhibition of Microdochium nivale 45 Spencer-Phillips and D.L. Arnold Hsiang, T., P.H. Goodwin and W. Gao Variation in responsiveness of Agrostis cultivars to defence activators 47 Espevig T., A. Tronsmo and T.S. Aamlid Evaluation of microbiological agents for control of Microdochium nivale in vitro 49 Roberts, J.A., L.P. Tredway, B. Ma, Frequency and characterization of Acidovorax avenae and Xanthomonas translucens 51 J.P. Kerns, B.B. Clarke and D.F. Ritchie associated with bacterial etiolation and/or decline on creeping bentgrass putting greens in the Eastern United States Masin R. and S. Macolino Ability of some creeping perennial ryegrasses to suppress annual bluegrass germintion 53 Keighley J.M., R.L. Mann, Seasonal changes in soil moisture of fairy rings 55 S.G. Edwards and M.C. Hare Gannon, T.W. and M.D. Jeffries 2,4-D and azoxystrobin bioremoval capacity of aquatic plants 57

Session: Turfgrass for golf and sport fields McCarty L.B., R.S. Landry, V.L. Quisenberry, Effect of a humectant and two wetting agents on soil moisture content and hydro- 59 W.C. Bridges and R.B. Cross phobicity on creeping bentgrass and bermudagrass putting greens and sports pitches Jensen, A.M.D., K.N. Petersen Pesticide-free management of weeds on golf courses: current Situation and 61 and T.S. Aamlid Future Challenges Waalen, W.M., T. Espevig, A. Kvalbein The effect of ice encasement and two protective covers on the winter survival 65 and T.S. Aamlid of six turfgrasses on putting greens Grossi N., S. Magni, C. de Bertoldi, F. Lulli, M. Establishment and winter management of ‘MiniVerde’ bermudagrass for 67 Gaetani, L. Caturegli, M. Volterrani, P. Croce, M. putting greens in Italy Mocioni and A. De Luca

Session: Turfgrass growing factors, impact for the environment Sevostianova, E.P. Lenz and B. Leinauer Nitrate leaching from establishing bermudagrass irrigated with treated effluent 69 Yelverton, F.H., M.D. Jeffries and Effect of turf species on pesticide clipping concentrations and subsequent 71 T.W. Gannon release in aquatic systems Caspersen O.H, A.D. Jensen and F.S. Jensen Mapping golf courses for multifunctional uses other than golf 73 Minelli, A., A. De Luca, P. Croce, Transition from cool-season to warm-season grass: environmental 75 L. Cevenini and D. Zuffa effects in a golf course in the North of Italy Zuffa D., L. Cevenini, M. Corradini, Carbon fluxes in turfgrass under different management intensities in a golf 77 P. Panzacchi, A. Minelli and G. Tonon course in northern Italy Walker, K.S. and K.W. Nannenga Various fertilizer sources for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from 79 golf course greens and roughs Aamlid T.S. and Geo J.L. van Leeuwen Optimal application intervals for the plant growth regulator Trinexapac-ethyl 81 (Primo MAXX®) at Northern Latitudes Gómez de Barreda, D., T. Pérez, Festuca arundinacea drought resistance induced by Trinexapac-ethyl 83 J. Bellón, R.V. Molina and S.G. Nebauer

Session: Turfgrass nutrition and physiology Guertal, E.A. Potassium sources and placement for bentgrass putting greens 85 Owen, A.G., I. Weir, M. Pawlett and M. Tibbett Anaerobic digestate: an alternative fertiliser for the turf grass industry 87 Cisar, J., D. Park, M. McMillan Improving nitrogen use efficiency of turfgrass with 89 and K. Williams controlled-release N Peacock, C.H. and J.P. Gregg Soil phosphorus stability from a Swine-Lagoon Biosolid fertilizer used for 91 roadside grass Eetablishment Assessing cool-season turfgrass blends and mixtures under low maintenance and breeding Turfgrass species

Park, B.S., W.A. Meyer, S.A. Bonos and J.A. Murphy

Introduction gust 2013, respectively. Nitrogen forms imally acceptable level. Turfgrass qual- were ammonium, urea, and polymer ity data were averaged for 2012, 2013, here is increased interest in main- coated urea. Calcitic lime was applied and 2012-13. Data were subjected to -1 Ttaining cool-season turfgrasses at 2,280 kg ha in August 2012 based analysis of variance and means were under limited N fertility, irrigation, and on a soil test recommendation. The tri- separated using Fisher’s protected pesticide inputs for home lawns and al was irrigated once in July 2012 and least significant difference (LSD) test at other grounds. Seed mixtures are com- 2013 with 2.5 cm of water. A rotary p < 0.05. monly recommended for the purpose mower was used no more than once per of broadening the diversity and adap- week during periods of active growth; a Results and Discussion tation of the established turf; however, bench-setting of 7.6- and 6.4-cm was there is limited data available com- used during 2012 and 2013, respec- As expected, entries with the most rap- paring the performance of seed mix- tively. Plots were not mowed during id establishment were the blend and tures. The objective of this trial was to periods of drought stress. mixtures containing L. perenne. Entries evaluate the long-term performance Dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate with the poorest establishment were of cool-season turfgrass blends and (DCPA) was applied on 4 April 2012 the two P. pratensis blends and three mixtures under minimal management at 6.7 kg ha-1 to prevent summer an- mixtures containing 50% P. pratensis inputs. nual weed encroachment during spring mixed with F. brevipila and F. rubra L. 2012. Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl [(+)-ethyl subsp. fallax. Materials and Methods 2-[4-[(6-chloro-2-benzoxazolyl)oxy] Botanical composition of plots was not phenoxy]propanoate] was applied 0.3 quantified but it was visually apparent kg ha-1 on 2 Aug. 2013 for postemer- One-hundred-five (105) entries were that mixed-species swards had deve- gence control of crabgrass (Digitaria seeded in September 2011 on a loam loped from most seed mixtures contai- spp.). Triclopyr (3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyrid- in North Brunswick, NJ, USA. Nine- ning L. perenne; the major exception inyloxacetic acid, triethylamine salt) ty-one of the entries consisted of was L. perenne dominating swards of was applied at 0.8 kg ha-1 on 21 Sep- blends and mixtures of hard fescue the P. pratensis and L. perenne seed tember 2011 and triclopyr and 2,4-Di- (‘Beacon’ and ‘Firefly’ Festuca brevi- mixtures. chlorophenoxyacetic acid were applied pila R. Tracey), Chewings fescue (‘Fair- at 1.1 and 0.5 kg ha-1, respectively on The blend and ten mixtures containing mont’ and ‘Intrigue II’ F. rubra L. sub- 13 September 2013 for postemergence F. brevipila were among the 14 entries sp. fallax [Thuill.] Nyman), strong cree- broadleaf weed control. that had an average turf quality ≥ 5.0 ping red fescue (‘Celestial’ and ‘Wendy during 2012. Entries with the poorest Plots were visually rated for estab- Jean’ F. rubra L. subsp. rubra), tall fes- average turf quality during 2012 includ- lishment (26 October 2011) and turf cue (‘Bullseye’, ‘Faith’, and ‘Mustang ed the two P. pratensis blends, which quality monthly from April through Oc- 4’ F. arundinacea Schreb.), perennial was attributed to the very slow estab- tober during 2012 and 2013. Weed en- ryegrass (‘Fiesta 4’, ‘Paragon GLR’, lishment rate of this species and exac- croachment was evaluated on 26 July and PPG-PR 164 Lolium perenne L.), erbated by the low rate of N fertilization 2012 and 26 July and 5 September ‘Light’ Kentucky bluegrass (‘Bluenote’ of this trial. 2013. The predominant weed in the tri- and A05-361 Poa pratensis L.), and Seventy-four blends and mixtures had “Dark” Kentucky bluegrass (‘Midnight al in 2012 was yellow woodsorrel (Oxa- lis stricta L.). In 2013, observed weeds the least weed encroachment on 12 II’ and ‘Bewitched’). Each component July 2012. Fifty-nine of the entries had of a seed blend or mixture was added included yellow woodsorrel, crabgrass, white clover (Trifolium repens L.), and limited weed encroachment (rating ≥ in equivalent quantities based on seed 7.0) and 38 of these entries contained count (e.g., 50:50%; 33.3:33.3:33.3%; yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.). Gray leaf spot disease (caused by L. perenne. Ten mixtures exhibited less 25:25:25:25%; etc.). These 91 entries than acceptable weed encroachment -2 Pyricularia grisea [Cooke] Sacc. [syn were seeded at 2.3 seeds cm . Four- (< 6.0); among these, P. pratensis was teen retail seed blends and mixtures P. oryzae Cavara]) was observed in the trial in early fall 2012 and was rated the most common component of nine were also seeded using the seeding mixtures. rate recommended on the package. on 2 October 2012. Red thread dis- Plot size was 1.5- x 1.8-m. All en- ease (caused by Laetisaria fuciformis Sixty-four entries exhibited the least tries were replicated three times and [McAlpine] Burdsall [anamorph Isa- susceptibility to gray leaf spot disease arranged in a randomized complete ria fuciformis Berk.]) was rated on 31 on 2 October 2012. The L. perenne block design. May and 24 June 2013. Summer patch blend and thirteen mixtures contain- disease (caused by Magnaporthe ing L. perenne were among those 64 The entire trial was fertilized with 24.4 poae Landschoot & Jackson) devel- entries with the least gray leaf spot. kg ha-1 of N at the time of seeding; oped during 2013 and was assessed None of the retail mixtures containing 18.5, 20.5, and 48.8 kg ha-1 in March, on 28 August. All ratings used a 1 to L. perenne were among the entries with April, and August 2012, respectively; 9 scale where 9 equaled the best turf the least gray leaf spot susceptibility. 37.6 and 45.9 kg ha-1 in March and Au- characteristic and 5 represented a min- In fact, of the 15 entries that had the

4th ETS Conference 2014 19 greatest susceptibility to gray leaf spot, Species Composition of Seed Blend or Mixture† nine were retail mixtures containing L. perenne. Poa Turf Estab- Average Summer F. arun- Lolium F. bre- pratensis lishment‡ Turf Quality§ Patch¶ The average turf quality scores during dina- peren- vipila 26 Oct. 28 Aug. 2012 and 2013 indicated that many of cea ne Light Dark 2012 2011 2013 the better performing mixtures contained F. brevipila and L. perenne. % (by weight) 1 to 9 rating scale However, the development of sum- 32.4 67.6 8.7 5.3 7.3 mer patch disease in 2013 resulted in a dramatic decline in the turf quality of 29.0 60.6 10.4 7.7 4.8 6.3 F. brevipila and mixtures of F. brevipila 29.2 60.8 10.0 7.3 4.0 7.3 and P. pratensis during late summer. Interestingly, the performance of the 27.1 72.9 6.7 4.0 7.3 F. brevipila and L. perenne mixture did not suffer from summer patch damage 17.3 46.6 36.1 7.7 4.3 8.0 suggesting that mixing with L. perenne 16.3 43.9 34.0 5.8 7.0 4.3 7.7 may provide protection to F. brevipila from this disease. Similarly, the inclu- 16.3 44.0 34.1 5.6 7.0 3.8 5.7 sion of F. arundinacea with summer 73.6 26.4 2.3 5.6 2.3 patch susceptible species such as F. brevipila, F. rubra L. subsp. fallax, and 74.4 26.6 2.3 5.4 2.3 P. pratensis has also limited the dam- 100.0 3.3 5.2 1.3 age caused by summer patch disease. The performance F. arundinacea during 88.3 11.7 5.7 3.9 9.0 2013 improved significantly compared to 2012 suggesting that establishment 88.7 11.3 5.7 3.6 9.0 of this species was slow and may be 24.7 66.5 8.8 5.7 3.8 5.7 due to the relatively low N fertilization used in this trial. By the end of 2013, 24.8 66.7 8.5 6.0 4.2 6.3 the best turf performance was ob- 56.4 43.6 8.3 4.2 9.0 served in mixtures that contained L. perenne and/or F. arundinacea. 52.4 40.6 7.0 6.7 3.9 8.3

52.6 40.7 6.7 7.3 5.2 8.3 Authors: 100.0 6.7 3.6 9.0 Bradley S. Park 100.0 7.7 4.5 9.0 Rutgers University 59 Dudley Road 85.3 14.7 7.3 4.7 8.7 New Brunswick, NJ, USA [email protected] 85.9 14.1 7.7 4.6 8.7 Dr. William A. Meyer 100.0 1.0 1.6 --- Rutgers University 100.0 1.0 1.4 --- 59 Dudley Road LSD New Brunswick, NJ, USA 1.5 1.1 1.7 (0.05) [email protected] † ‘Beacon’ and ‘Firefly’ Festuca brevipila; ‘Bullseye’, ‘Faith’, and ‘Mustang 4’ F. arundinacea’; Dr. Stacy A. Bonos ‘Fiesta 4’, ‘Paragon GLR’, and PPG-PR 164 Lolium perenne; ‘Bluenote’ and A05-361 Rutgers University Poa pratensis (Light); ‘Midnight II’ and ‘Bewitched’ Poa pratensis (Dark) 59 Dudley Road ‡ 9 = best establishment New Brunswick, NJ, USA § Average of seven observations during 2012 and 2013 (Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., and Oct.); 9 = best turf quality; plot integrity of Poa pratensis blends (Light and Dark) severely [email protected] declined in 2013 and turf quality could not be accurately evaluated. ¶ 9 = least disease; plot integrity of Poa pratensis blends (Light and Dark) severely declined in Dr. James A. Murphy 2013 and summer patch susceptibility could not be accurately evaluated. Rutgers University 59 Dudley Road Tab. 1: Turfgrass establishment, average turfgrass quality, and summer patch disease New Brunswick, NJ, USA susceptibility of selected cool-season turfgrass blends and mixtures in a low maintenance [email protected] trial seeded September 2011 in North Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.

20 4th ETS Conference 2014 Beginning in December 2011, establishment data was collected four times, ‘AU Victory’: A new bentgrass cultivar from until February 2012. To collect this data

Auburn University a dowel rod with 25 marks was placed and breeding

randomly four times in each plot. If a Turfgrass species piece of grass touched one pre-select- van Santen, E., V.G. Lehman and E.A. Guertal ed side of the dowel it was counted as a ‘hit’. The total number of hits in each plot was calculated to determine percent establishment. Introduction program. Half-sib progeny (HSF) seed Relative turf color and quality ratings was produced during 2003. were done blindly, i.e., the rater did not reeping bentgrass has long been These HSF were seeded into 90 x 90- know the location of a given entry. A Cused as a putting green grass cm plots on a native soil green at the score of 5 on the 1-9 rating scale was because it offers superior playabili- Turfgrass Research Unit (TGRU) on the considered a satisfactory score. ty, dense turf and a dark green color. Campus of Auburn University in au- In October 2013, 23 months after seed- It is the only Agrostis species suitable tumn 2003. Plots were rated for color ing, three 19-mm diameter plugs were for the southeastern United States but and turf quality from December 2003 removed from each plot and shoots suffers in the prolonged heat and hu- until October 2004. In late May 2004 counted. midity of summer, and thin and poor data collection began withholding all stands are a result. While cultural prac- fungicide applications from this evalu- tices such as fans and syringing help ation trial and minimized supplemental Results (GUERTAL et al., 2005) there has been irrigation. Very little disease was noted a definitive shift to ultradwarf bermu- throughout the summer but in Octo- The interaction of seeding rate and dagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. ber 2004, a severe infestation of dollar bentgrass cultivar was never significant x Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt-Davy) spot occurred and HSF could be dis- (P = 0.05) for any response variable at cultivars. However, many golfers and tinguished based on their reaction to any measurement date. turfgrass managers prefer creeping this disease. We selected parents for bentgrass for superior putting quality ‘AU Victory’ based on (i) a cumulative Cultivar Developer/Company and year-round green color, and thus turf quality score throughout spring- '007' 007 creeping bentgrass (experi- new cultivars are always a topic of in- fall and (ii) dollar spot disease reaction mental 'DSB') is an terest. in autumn 2004. The study was con- advanced generation creeping bentgrass variety The objective of this study was to eval- ducted on an newly renovated nursery developed by the New Jersey uate a new experimental bentgrass putting green located at Farmlinks golf Agricultural Experiment Station (Rutgers University) work- cultivar ‘‘AU Victory’’ in comparison course in Sylacauga, AL (33.117730 N, 86.419794 W). The green was ap- ing in cooperation with to widely used commercially available Richard Hurley, Ph.D. Seed Re- bentgrass cultivars, with these cultivars proximately 90% sand and 10% peat search of Oregon. (vol/vol). Each bentgrass cultivar (Ta- all managed as a putting green. 'AU Victory' Developed at Auburn Universi- ble 1) was seeded on November 21, ty, AL in cooperation with Blue 2011 at two rates: 4.9 and 9.8 g m-2. Moon Farms, Lebanon, OR from Seed was hand seeded in 3 replicate 300 survivors of severe summer Material and Methods droughts in Alabama during 1999 plots for each cultivar/seeding rate. and 2000. Shaker jars filled with a 500 g mix of The roots of ‘AU Victory’ date back to 'Crystal Tee-2-Green, Hubbard Orgeon seed and sand were used to ensure Bluelinks' the severe Alabama summer droughts a uniform seeding, with seed/sand 'Focus' Result of a collaboration between of 1999 and 2000. Courses that relied applied in two directions within each Pickseed and Rutgers on municipal irrigation water found plot. Seeded plots were covered with University. themselves without a source as the tobacco-seed row cover (a lightweight 'Penn A1' Tee-2-Green, Hubbard Orgeon precious resource was diverted for spun polyester cloth) until germination 'Penn G2' Tee-2-Green, Hubbard Orgeon human use. As a result, many greens and seedling emerge had occurred 'T1' Released in Oct. 2004 by Jacklin nearly died or were completely killed, (~7 d), after which the cloth was re- Seed by Simplot. Selected from two sources. leaving a few surviving clones on each moved. Each plot was 1.5 m wide and 'Tyee' Seed Research of Oregon green. While the base cultivar for each 3.0 m long and there were 3 replica- greens sampled was known, frequent tions of each cultivar x seeding rate Tab. 1: Selected bentgrass cultivars seed- interseeding makes it virtually impos- treatment (Figure 1). ed for the evaluation trial, Farmlinks, Syla- sible to determine the provenance of cauga, AL, 2011. an individual clone other than to say Putting green management was per- that it belongs to one of the cultivars in formed by the staff of Farmlinks, and use during the 1980s and 1990s. These followed the procedures used for the clones (300) were collected by the first maintenance of a high-quality bent- author and placed in a holding nursery grass putting green surface at a south- at the Tennessee Valley Research and eastern golf course. Mowing height Extension Center, Belle Mina, AL, for was 3.2 mm and the green was mowed two years. At that time, 150 surviving 6 of 7 days using a walk behind greens clones were dug up and send to the 2nd mower. Fungicide, fertilizer and irriga- author in Lebanon, Oregon. One hun- tion were all applied to prevent turf- Fig. 1: Trial area at the Farmlinks Golf dred clones exhibiting promising turf grass stress and disease on a pre- Course, Sylacauga, AL on 5 January, 2012, traits formed the basis of the selection ventative basis. 45 days after seeding.

4th ETS Conference 2014 21 While there were some initial differ- compared to the cultivars ‘Dominant’, Initial seeding rate ences among cultivars all cultivars ‘LS-44’ and ‘Providence’ on a US- -2 -2 were > 90% established two months GA-type green (VAN SANTEN, 2008; Cultivar 4.9 g m 9.8 g m after seeding. The higher seeding personal communication); in 6 out of 6 shoots cm-2 rate always resulted in a significantly ratings over a two-year period ‘AU Vic- '007' 23 a 23 ab (P < 0.05) denser stand but the differ- tory’ was top-ranked. 'AU Victory' 32 a 28 a ence narrowed from 20% (43 vs. 23%) ‘AU Victory’ had the highest average 'Crystal Bluelinks' 19 a no data at the 8 December evaluation to 5% shoot density 23 months after seeding 'Focus' 23 a 24 ab (95 vs. 90%) two months after seeding at either seeding rate and was signif- 'Penn A1' 22 a 24 ab (data not shown). icantly different from ‘Penn G2’ and 'Penn G2' 21 a 19 b Bentgrass color is an important consid- ‘T1’ (Table 4). The shoot density for 'T1' 26 a 19 b eration in North America, more so than ‘AU Victory’ was 23-68% and 17-47% 'Tyee' 23 a 23 ab in Europe. All cultivars had an accept- higher than competing cultivars for the Tab. 4: Shoot density of creeping bent- able color (≥ 6) at all rating times (Table low and high seeding rate, respective- grass cultivars, Farmlinks Golf Club, 2). ‘AU Victory’ often received the top ly. All cultivars in this evaluation belong Sylacauga, AL, October 2013. average color rating, receiving the top to the newer high-shoot density class of cultivars (SWEENEY et al., 2001). In score at 6 out of 11 ratings; the next be continued to evaluate long-term the previously mentioned unpublished closest entries (‘007’, ‘Crystal Blue- performance of the cultivars. Although study, ‘AU Victory’ had much higher links’, ‘Focus’, ‘Tyee’) received the top there was more rapid establishment shoot density compared to older culti- score 2 out of 11 times. of the bentgrass cultivars at a higher vars such as ‘LS-44’ (21%), ‘Dominant’ seeding rate, previous research indi- ‘AU Victory’ often had highest turf (38%) or ‘Providence’ (67%). cates that such a seeding rate could quality (Table 3), garnering the top Results obtained in this study corrob- eventually create issues with increased score in 8 out of 11 ratings. ‘Penn A1’ orate the experience of turf managers disease due to competition and imma- shared the top spot with ‘AU Victory’ and course superintendents who have ture plants. Additional shoot and root in 3 of those ratings. ‘AU Victory’ never utilized this new experimental cultivar data is needed. had an average relative quality score over the last five years. ≤ 6.5 and had excellent quality scores particularly in mid summer to early au- Color and quality of the bentgrass cul- Conclusion tumn. These quality ratings confirm an tivars were variable over the rating pe- earlier study, where ‘AU Victory’ was riod, indicating that this study should This new cultivar has promising characteristics but should be evaluated over a larger range of environments. Relative quality (1 – 9 scale) 2012 2013 Literature Cultivar 23-Feb 18-Apr 20-Jun 26-Apr 30-May 27-Jun 11-Jul 26-Jul 7-Aug 23-Aug 5-Sep '007' 7.3 a 6.8 a 7.0 a 7.2 a 7.0 ab 6.5 b 6.8 ab 6.8 ab 6.0 bc 6.8.a 7.2 a GUERTAL, E.A., E. VAN SANTEN and D.Y. 'AU HAN, 2005: Fan and Syringe Application for 7.3 a 6.8 a 7.0 a 7.8 a 6.2 bc 7.7 a 7.5 a 7.5 a 6.5 abc 7.3 a 6.8 ab Victory' Cooling Bentgrass Greens. Crop Sci. 45: 245-250. 'Crystal 7.7 a 6.3 ab 7.0 a 7.0 a 7.3 ab 6.0 bc 6.3 b 6.3 b 7.0 ab 7.0 a 7.0 ab Bluelinks' SWEENEY, P., K. DANNEBERGER, D. WANG and M. MCBRIDE, 2001: Root weight, non- 'Focus' 7.5 a 6.7 a 7.0 a 7.8 a 6.2 bc 6.7 b 6.3 b 6.3 b 7.2 a 6.8 a 6.7 ab structural carbohydrate content, and shoot 'Penn A1' 7.3 a 6.7 a 6.3 c 7.7 a 8.0 a 6.5 b 6.5 ab 6.5 ab 6.7 abc 6.8 a 7.3 a density of high-density creeping bentgrass cultivars. HortScience 36: 368-370. 'Penn G2' 7.5 a 6.7 a 6.8 ab 7.3 a 6.5 bc 6.0 bc 6.3 b 6.3 b 5.8 c 6.8 a 6.7 ab 'T1' 7.5 a 6.0 b 6.5 bc 7.2 a 8.3 a 5.5 c 5.0 c 5.0 c 6.8 abc 5.5 b 6.3 b 'Tyee' 7.2 a 6.0 b 7.0 a 8.0 a 5.3 c 6.7 b 6.2 b 6.2 b 6.3 abc 7.0 a 6.8 ab Tab. 2: Relative color (1 – 9 scale) of creeping bentgrass cultivars managed as a putting green, Farmlinks Golf Club, Sylacauga, AL. Authors: Relative quality (1 – 9 scale) Edzard van Santen 2012 2013 Dept of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Cultivar 23-Feb 18-Apr 20-Jun 26-Apr 30-May 27-Jun 11-Jul 26-Jul 7-Aug 23-Aug 5-Sep Auburn University, AL 36849-5412. '007' 6.8 a 6.3 a 6.8 a 7.5 abc 5.7 ab 5.8 bc 6.7 a 6.0 b 5.5 ab 6.0 bcd 5.0 cde USA 'AU 6.8 a 6.2 ab 7.0 a 8.2 a 6.5 a 7.5 a 6.5 ab 7.5 a 6.2 ab 7.2 a 7.2 a email: [email protected] Victory' 'Crystal Virginia G. Lehman 6.7 a 6.7 a 7.0 a 7.0 bc 5.0 b 6.3 ab 5.7 bc 7.3 a 5.0 b 5.7 bcd 5.3 bcde Bluelinks' Blue Moon Farms, 'Focus' 6.7 a 6.3 a 7.0 a 8.0 a 6.2 ab 5.7 bc 6.3 ab 7.5 a 6.2 ab 6.0 bcd 5.7 bcd 33754 Tennessee Road, 'Penn A1' 6.8 a 6.3 a 7.0 a 7.5 abc 6.5 a 5.5 bcd 6.0 ab 7.0 ab 6.0 ab 6.2 bc 6.0 abc Lebanon OR 97355. USA 'Penn G2' 6.5 a 6.7 a 6.8 a 7.5 abc 6.0 ab 5.0 cd 4.8 cd 6.2 b 6.2 ab 5.0 d 4.5 de Elizabeth A. Guertal 'T1' 5.8 a 6.2 ab 6.8 a 6.7 c 6.2 ab 4.3 d 4.5 d 6.0 b 6.0 ab 5.2 cd 4.2 e Dept of Crop, 'Tyee' 6.0 a 5.7 b 6.7 a 7.7 ab 6.2 ab 6.3 ab 5.7 bc 7.5 a 6.5 a 6.3 ab 6.5 ab Soil and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, AL 36849-5412. Tab. 3: Relative quality (1 – 9 scale) of creeping bentgrass cultivars managed as a putting USA green, Farmlinks Golf Club, Sylacauga, AL.

22 4th ETS Conference 2014 Comparison of white clover cultivars in low input turfs and breeding Turfgrass species

Hejduk, S. and M. Kvasnovský

Introduction The turfgrass was seeded at the rate measures were repeated five times per of 20 g m-2, and the white clover was plots and the mean value from each added to the mixes at the one rate of plot was used for statistical analysis. he introduction of dwarf varieties of 1 g m-2. The plots were 2 m2 (2 x 1 m) Readings were taken randomly and as white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in T in size and each variant was repeated clover and grass were evenly mixed, it grass seed mixtures is considered one three times. The plots were fertilized was not possible to separate the meas- of the tools for reducing external inputs before seeding by a 20-5-8-2 ferti- ures over clover from the ones over (irrigation, pesticides, mineral fertilizers) lizer (Lovogreen, Lovochemie Inc.) in grass. Measurements of canopy tem- and providing higher level of sustaina- the rate of 20 g m-2 and again in the perature and chlorophyll status were bility. New clover cultivars are selected same way at the beginning of Septem- taken during days with clear sky and for homogenous lateral spreading and ber 2010. During the establishment when there was water deficit in the soil for balanced growth with grasses (VAN year the trial was irrigated when nec- to emphasize differences among vari- DER HEIJDEN and ROULUND, 2010). essary. In 2011, 6 g and 4 g of N m-2 ants. The aim of this research was to com- were applied as ammonium nitrate in Statistical analyses were performed pare two cultivars of microclover (‘Pi- April and June respectively on the plots using one way ANOVA (Statistica 9.1, rouette’ and ‘Pipolina’, DLF Trifolium, with grasses only (variant 1); the plots StatSoft) with multiple comparisons DK), selected for turfgrass use, and were not irrigated and were mown at according to Fisher LSD test (P < 0.05). two small-leaved forage cultivars (‘Kle- the height of 70 mm only once as the ment’ and ‘Luke’, Agrogen, CZ) in a growth was limited by the lack of soil mixture with grasses, grown under low moisture. Results and Discussion input management in an area with pro- The compressed height (comprising nounced soil water deficit. height and density of sward) of the turf Tables 1 and 2 show the results of was measured by rising-plate meter measurements recorded in the first Material and Methods (CASTLE, 1976) immediately before year after the establishment. All clovers the first cut on May 12th 2011, together showed a coverage much higher than The experiment was established at with visual merit (1= lowest quality, 9 = their percentage content in the seed the University farm Žabžice (49o0´42´´ highest quality), turf cover and diame- mixture (5% w/w). o ter of white clover trefoils in variants 2 N, 16 3532 E), Czech Republic and The forage clovers overtook the grass th to 5. began on June 10 2010. The area is and possibly should be used at a low- warm and dry with average yearly pre- The trefoil diameter was measured, by er percentage in the seed mix. The cipitation 480 mm and average temper- ruler, on a sample of 15 trefoils per plot. presence of clover (2%) in pure grass o ature of 9.2 C. The soil is classified as The mean value from each plot was mixture (GM) was probably caused by haplic chernozem arenic, and contains used for statistical analysis. During the the contamination of soil during estab- 55% of sand, 29% of silt and 16% of growing season measures of the chlo- lishment. Forage clover cultivars grew clay. The available water holding ca- rophyll status, by Chlorophyll meter CM taller and spread more aggressively pacity of the top layer (0 – 500 mm) is 1000, Spectrum technologies Inc., and than microclovers and pure grass mix- 11.9%. measures of the turf temperature, at 50 ture. This can be seen as disadvantage The following five variants were tested: cm from the soil, by thermometer OS as it implies the need of more frequent 36 Omega, USA, were recorded. Both mowing (higher costs and fossil fu- 1. Commercial turfgrass mixture (Lolium perenne ‘Mondial’ 30%, Poa pratensis ‘Panduro’ 20%, Compressed visual Total Clover Trefoil Festuca rubra ‘Makyta’ 30% and Cultivar height merit cover cover diameter F. rubra ‘Cinderella’ 20%) – further (mm) (1 – 9) (%) (%) (mm) termed as grass mixture (GM) Grass mixture (GM) 66ab 4.7a 83a 2a – 2. GM + Trifolium repens cv. ‘Luke’ GM + Tr ‘Luke’ 114c 6.7b 96b 79d 44.4b (small leaved forage cultivar, GM + Tr ‘Klement’ 113c 5.3a 94b 85d 49.8a Agrogen, CZ) GM + Tr ‘Pipolina’ 72b 8.7c 93b 56c 35.4c 3. GM + T. repens cv. ‘Klement’ (small (microclover) leaved forage cultivar, Agrogen, CZ) GM + Tr ‘Pirouette’ 56a 5.3a 83a 19b 25.9d 4. GM + T. repens cv. ‘Pipolina’ (microclover) (microclover, DLF, DK) Significance ** ** ** ** ** 5. GM + T. repens cv. ‘Pirouette’ Tab. 1: Selected parameters of turfgrasses without a and with microclover measured in (microclover, DLF, DK) 2011 (May 12th).

4th ETS Conference 2014 23 showed the lowest coverage share of Canopy temperature Chlorophyll status the turf (low competitive ability). Small (oC) Cultivar leaved forage cultivars ‘Luke’ and ‘Kle- June 23rd August 4th August 25th August 4th August 25th ment’ showed faster vertical and later- Grass mixture (GM) 197ab 312a 236 28.1 42.9 al growth and were also more drought tolerant. GM + Tr ‘Luke’ 209bc 386abc 245 26.3 41.9 GM + Tr ‘Klement’ 233c 461c 247 26.3 42.5 Literature GM + Tr ‘Pipolina’ 200ab 442bc 218 26.5 42.4 (microclover) CASTLE, M.E., 1976: A simple disc instrument GM + Tr ‘Pirouette’ for estimating herbage yield. Journal of the 175a 358ab 190 28.8 43.4 (microclover) British Grassland Society, 31, p. 37–40. LEDGARD, S.F. and K.W. STEELE, 1992: Bio- Significance * * ns ns ns logical nitrogen fixation in mixed legume/ Tab. 2: Chlorophyll status and canopy temperature of the turfgrass plots. grass pastures. Plant and Soil, 141, p. 137 - 153 NONN, H., 2010: Use of white clover (Trifolium els consumption). During spring the reason why only one turf height meas- repens L.) in Turf Grass Mixtures. In ZUIN, cultivar ‘Pipolina’ ranked the highest ure was performed. Due to the transi- A. (ed.): Proceeding of 2nd European Turf- in visual merit, while the pure grass tion to dormancy the turf was mown grass Society Conference. Angers, France, p. 157-159. mixture appeared the worst, possibly just once. as result of the water deficit after the VAN DER HEIJDEN, S.A.G. and N. ROULUND, During autumn 2011 (October and 2010: Genetic Gain in Agronomic Value of application of the N fertilizer. Relative- November) voles (Microtus arvalis L.) Forage Crops and Turf: A Review. Sustain- ly low turf cover was caused by moles able use of genetic diversity in Forage and started to damage the white clover in activities during winter but was better Turf Breeding. p. 247-260. the plots. In April 2012 no white clover on plots with higher coverage of clover. plant survived in experimental plots As turf in mix with white clover is con- and trial had to be terminated. tinuously supplied by symbiotically Authors: fixed nitrogen, available also for grasses, turf appearance is positively influ- Conclusions Dr. Stanislav Hejduk enced (e.g. LEDGARD and STEELE, Mendel University in Brno 1992). When the rate of clover is too There are significant differences Department of Animal Nutrition and low good turf quality cannot be en- among white clover cultivars used for Grassland Science sured without nitrogen fertilization. turfs. Cultivar ‘Pipolina’ provided the Zemeˇ deˇ lská 1 NONN (2010) mentioned that optimal highest visual merit, small leaves and 613 00 Brno coverage of microclover for good quali- low height, on the other hand turf with Czech Republic ty lawn and low input sport turf without ‘Pipolina’ had lower chlorophyll status [email protected] fertilization is about 50%. in comparison with cultivars of forage Michal Kvasnovský M.Sc. white clover. Weight proportion of The cultivar achieving the lowest cov- Mendel University in Brno 5% (w/w) clover in the seed mixtures erage was ‘Pirouette’ (table 1). Department of Animal Nutrition and resulted in 79 and 85 % coverage for Grassland Science Small differences among measure- the forage types, while the microclo- Zemeˇ deˇ lská 1 ments in August are connected with vers ‘Pipolina’ and ‘Pirouette’ reached 613 00 Brno the turf transition to summer dorman- 56% and 19% coverage respectively. Czech Republic cy, following pronounced drought and Cultivar ‘Pirouette’ with the finest tex- [email protected] high temperatures. This was also the ture was the least drought tolerant and

24 4th ETS Conference 2014 Smart irrigation controllers conserve cater while maintaining turfgrass quality

Dukes, M.D. and S.L. Davis

Introduction and those with a timed based irriga- Materials and Methods tion schedule. In a later study with the same four brands of SMS controllers mart irrigation controllers are de- Orange County Utilities (OCU) single management

compared to a time schedule during Soil and water fined as controllers that “estimate family home water customers were S dry weather conditions, savings were or measure depletion of available plant identified as having excessive irriga- 34% and 54% for two different mon- soil moisture in order to operate an ir- tion by performing a daily soil water itoring periods (CARDENAS-LAILHA- rigation system, replenishing water as balance calculation for each home over CAR et al., 2010). Turfgrass quality needed while minimizing excess wa- the period of record (2003-2008) thus was not different and above accept- ter use. A properly programmed smart developing a gross irrigation require- able limits on all SMS controllers that controller requires initial setup and will ment for each home (ROMERO and remained functional during the study. make irrigation schedule adjustments, DUKES, 2014). Volumetric water billing One controller failed early in the study including run times and required cy- data were used to estimate irrigation by resulting in no irrigation and poor turf cles, throughout the irrigation season assuming indoor use of 261 L/d/person quality. without human intervention” (IA, 2007). (MAYER et al., 1999) and that the re- A number of research projects have Promising water conservation results mainder was irrigation. To be consid- been conducted and published, doc- have been shown with ET control- ered for this study, customers had to umenting the performance of these lers while maintaining good turfgrass have irrigation exceeding the gross irri- controllers under research conditions. quality on research plots. DAVIS et al. gation requirement consistently during However, a number of “real world” in- (2009) documented an average of 43% the historical record. stallations indicate that performance irrigation savings using two brands of Ultimately, 167 cooperating custom- of these devices fall short of the con- ET controllers on plots relative to a typ- ers were recruited with 66 receiving servation potential seen in research ical time based schedule. In another ET ET controllers, another 66 receiving (DUKES, 2012). The two classes of controller study, irrigation reductions SMS controllers and 35 homes with no devices that are considered “smart” ranged from -20-59% while maintain- smart technology installed where their are soil moisture sensor (SMS) and ing good turfgrass quality (St.August- irrigation was controlled by their exist- evapotranspiration (ET) based con- inegrass [Stenotaphrum secundatum ing time clock. Half of each technolo- trollers. The SMS controllers measure (Walter) Kuntze] in both studies) not gy treatment also received a follow-up soil water content in the irrigated zone compromised due the reduction in ir- visit for site-specific programming and and the simplest controllers bypass rigation (McCREADY et al., 2009). The in-person tutorial (+Edu). General soil scheduled time based irrigation cycles ET controller with negative “savings” type was a significant factor in irriga- when moisture is above a user adjust- occurred during a dry spring period tion application resulting in the separa- able threshold. On the other hand, ET and was isolated to that one period tion of cooperators into two soil types controllers come in two types, mois- during the two year study. denoted as sand and flatwoods. The ture balance and non-moisture bal- sand was classified as a very well- ance. The moisture balance controllers In contrast to these promising results drained soil with low water holding maintain a computation of soil moisture from plot-based research on the wa- capacity whereas the flatwoods was content in the irrigated zone based on ter conservation potential of smart classified as a well-drained soil with a estimation of ET, measurement of rain- irrigation controllers, DUKES (2012) slightly higher water holding capacity. fall and a computed irrigation schedule. documented a number of large-scale Irrigation was monitored by a dedicat- The non-moisture balance devices use implementation studies by utilities. ed irrigation meter that reads water vol- a measurement of temperature and/ One study in particular documented ume on an hourly basis and turfgrass or solar radiation to adjust a user 6.1% irrigation reduction as a result of quality assessments were conducted input maximum runtime throughout the utility rebate programs in California for quarterly. year. This approach is essentially an 2294 ET controllers across the state. automated percentage adjust feature While this was a significant reduction, it is much less than seen in controlled available on most modern irrigation Results timers. studies. One reason for the difference between irrigation savings of controlled CARDENAS-LAILHACAR et al. (2008) studies and “real world” installations To date, irrigation data have been col- documented irrigation reduction aver- is identifying customers with potential lected from the cooperating homes aging 72% under rainy conditions using savings and implementing smart con- since January 2012 through June 2013. soil moisture sensor controllers com- trollers on those sites. Our objective The technology treatments, with week- pared to an identical irrigation sched- in this study was to evaluate the water ly irrigation ranging from 13 mm to 20 ule without sensors. There was no conservation potential of smart control- mm, applied less than the comparisons difference in common bermudagrass lers when implemented at single-family (25 mm) in the flatwoods locations (Fig- [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] turfgrass homes identified as having excessive ure 1). However, in the sand locations quality between the sensor based plots irrigation behavior. the comparisons (31 mm) were not dif-

4th ETS Conference 2014 25

Average Weekly Average Weekly Irrigation Application (mm) Irrigation Application (mm)

Fig. 1: Average weekly irrigation for each treatment within the flat- Fig. 2: Average weekly irrigation for each treatment within the woods locations. The error bars indicate a 95% confidence interval sandy locations. The error bars indicate a 95% confidence inter- from the standard error. Treatments were considered significantly val from the standard error. Treatments were considered signif- different (differences represented as lowercase letters) if the mean icantly different (differences represented as lowercase letters) if value did not fall within the confidence interval of the average the mean value did not fall within the confidence interval of the weekly irrigation application of the other treatments. average weekly irrigation application of the other treatments. ferent from ET (28 mm) (Figure 2). The tion and Drainage Engineering 136(3):161- Authors: remaining three technology treatments 223. resulted in less irrigation, ranging from DAVIS, S.L., M.D. DUKES and G.L. MILLER, Michael D. Dukes, Ph.D., P.E. 19 mm to 21 mm. 2009: Landscape irrigation by evapotranspiration-based irrigation controllers under Professor and Irrigation Specialist dry conditions in Southwest Florida. Agri- Agricultural and Biological Engi- Conclusion cultural Water Management 96(12):1828– neering Dept. 1836. Director, Center for Landscape In this project, we identified utility cus- DUKES, M.D., 2012: Water conservation poten- Conservation & Ecology tomers with excessive irrigation based tial of landscape irrigation smart control- Institute of Food and Agricultural lers. Transactions ASABE 55(2):563-569. on historical billing data. This identi- Sciences Irrigation Association (IA) 2007: Definition of fication was critical to implementing University of Florida a smart controller [Online). Available at PO Box 110570 smart irrigation control technologies https://www.irrigation.org/WorkArea/ such that irrigation reductions could DownloadAsset.aspx?id=405 (Accessed Gainesville, FL 32611 become a reality with observed savings 23 January 2014). http://abe.ufl.edu/mdukes/ in this project from 0% (ET, sand) to MAYER, P.W., W.B. DeOREO, E.M. OPITZ, J.C. [email protected] 48% (SMS+Edu, flatwoods). KIEFER, W.Y. DAVIS, B. DZIEGIELEWSKI and J.O. NELSON, 1999: Residential end Stacia L. Davis uses of water. AWWA Res. Foundation, Graduate Ph.D. Candidate Literature Denver, CO. Agricultural and Biological Engi- McCREADY, M.S., M.D. Dukes and G.L. Mill- neering Dept. CARDENAS-LAILHACAR, B., M.D. DUKES and er, 2009: Water conservation potential of Institute of Food and Agricultural G.L. MILLER, 2008: Sensor-based automa- smart irrigation controllers on St. August- Sciences tion of irrigation on bermudagrass during inegrass. Agricultural Water Management University of Florida wet weather conditions. Journal of Irriga- 96(11):1623–1632. PO Box 110570 tion and Drainage Engineering 134(2):120– ROMERO, C.C. and M.D. DUKES, 2014: Es- 128. timation and analysis of irrigation in sin- Gainesville, FL 32611 CARDENAS-LAILHACAR, B., M.D. DUKES and gle-family homes in Central Florida. Jour- [email protected] G.L. MILLER, 2010: Sensor-based automa- nal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, tion of irrigation on bermudagrass during http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943- dry weather conditions. Journal of Irriga- 4774.0000656

26 4th ETS Conference 2014 Effects of experimental polymer seed coating on germination and establishment of perennial ryegrass and seashore paspalum under saline irrigation

Alvarez, G., B. Leinauer, E. Sevostianova, M. Serena and C. Pornaro

Introduction of the two turfgrasses grown in plas- Results tic container (15 cm diameter x 12 cm depth) and irrigated with water of 0, 10, he first seed coatings were intro- -1 Germination: Statistical analysis of management

or 20 dS m . Two soil types were used Soil and water duced to improve the size and FGP revealed a significant interac- T in this study, a loamy sand and a 1:1 uniformity of seed of vegetable crops tion between grass species and coat- mixture of peat moss and loamy sand (KAUFMAN, 1991; ROOS and MOORE, ing treatment. Perennial ryegrass (1:1 v:v). Irrigation was applied every 1975). Since then, coatings have been had greater FGP compared to sea- other day at 100% reference evapo- applied to aid in disease resistance, shore paspalum (Table 1). Coating with transpiration (ETo). Plastic contain- stimulation or delay of germination and ASET 4002 at 60% reduced germina- ers were fertilized every two weeks at establishment, in otherwise unsuitable tion of perennial ryegrass compared 0.5 g N m-2. Establishment was evalu- soils, among many other recent appli- to all other treatments. Generally the ated as percentage of green cover 130 cations (BERDAHL and BARKER 1980; experimental coating improved over- days after seeding using digital image BRUNEAU et al. 1989; SCOTT 1989). In all FGP of seashore paspalum when analysis. The data were subjected to part, due to the fact that establishment compared to the uncoated treatment analysis of variance (ANOVA) using by seed remains the most economical- (Table 1). SAS Proc Mixed (version 9.3; SAS In- ly feasible method of turfgrass propa- stitute, Cary, NC) followed by multiple Establishment: Statistical analysis re- gation, (BURTON, 1992; CHRISTIANS, comparisons of means using Fisher’s vealed a significant interaction of spe- 1998; WATSCHKE and SCHMIDT, protected least significant difference cies with all other factors investigated. 1992), the use of coated seed has test at the 0.05 probability level. Some coatings improved establish- increasingly become common practice. However, it remains unknown if seed coating can positively affect the germination, emergence, and establish- Coating Seashore paspalum Perennial ryegrass ment of turfgrasses under saline irriga- ASET 4001 30% 43 dez 87 a tion. ASET 4001 60% 35 ef 91 a ASET 4002 30% 38 e 89 a Materials and Methods ASET 4002 60% 27 f 78 b Two separate controlled environment ASET 4002+ASET 4000 54 c 88 a studies were conducted at New Mex- ASET 4000 50 cd 89 a ico State University, Las Cruces New Uncoated 26 f 92 a Mexico in 2013 to investigate the effects of polymer-coated seed on the z Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different from one another (Fisher’s protected least significant difference at ―= 0.05). germination and establishment of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) var. Tab. 1: Final germination percentage (30 days after seeding) of perennial ryegrass and ‘Bonneville’ and seashore paspalum seashore paspalum as affected by seed coatings. Data are pooled over 3 salinity levels (Paspalum vaginatum O. Swartz) var. (0, 10 and 20 dS m-1) and 4 replications. ‘Sea Spray’ grown under saline irrigation. Seeds were coated with different Seashore paspalum Perennial ryegrass co-polymers (ASET 4000, ASET 4001, Coating 0 10 20 0 10 20 and ASET 4002) at varying rates. Per- centages listed represent fraction of ASET 4001 30% 82 abz 71 bcd 75 abcd 55 a 25 c 5 f original seed weight added by the seed ASET 4001 60% 84 a 67 def 76 abcd 51 ab 23 c 3 f coating. The experiments were com- ASET 4002 30% 83 a 70 cdef 73 abcde 49 ab 21 cd 3 f pletely randomized with 4 replications. Germination was assessed in a growth ASET 4002 60% 84 a 66 defg 64 defg 51 ab 18 cde 11 def chamber (Stults Scientific Engineering ASET 4002+ASET 4000 84 a 58 fg 61 efg 53 a 17 cde 6 f Corp., Springfield, IL) using agar solu- ASET 4000 82 abc 69 def 69 def 49 ab 17 cde 2 f tions at 0, 10, or 20 dS m-1, following published standard protocols (SERENA Uncoated 83 ab 54 g 62 efg 42 b 10 ef 2 f et al., 2012). Seedling germination was z Values followed by the same letter (separately for each grass species) are not significantly recorded every two days and reported different from one another (Fisher’s protected least significant difference at ―= 0.05). as final germination percentage (FGP). Tab. 2: Turfgrass establishment (percentage of green cover 130 days after seeding) at A greenhouse experiment was con- three different salinity levels (0, 10 and 20 dS m-1) of perennial ryegrass and seashore ducted to evaluate seed emergence paspalum as affected by seed coatings. Data are pooled over 2 soil types and 4 replica- (data not presented) and establishment tions.

4th ETS Conference 2014 27 ment both numerically and statistically Literature significant but results were not consist- Authors: ent for all species, salinity levels, and BERDAHL, J.D. and R.E. BAKER, 1980: Germi- Guillermo Alvarez, coatings (Table 2). Perennial ryegrass nation and emergence of Russian wildrye Graduate research assistant exhibited decreased establishment seeds coated with hydrophilic materials. Department of Plant and Environ- with increasing salinity levels. Howev- Agron. J. 72:1006-1008. mental Sciences. er several of the coating materials re- BRUNEAU, A.H., C.H. PEACOCK and J.M. DI New Mexico State University, sulted in in successful establishment of PAOLA,1989: Cool season turfgrass es- Las Cruces, NM, USA. tablishment with fertilizer coated seed. Intl. Email: [email protected] seashore paspalum even at the highest Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 6:263-265. salinity level (Table 2). Soil type did BURTON, G.W., 1992: Breeding improved turf- Bernd Leinauer, Ph.D. not affect establishment of seashore grasses, p. 762–776. In: D.V. Waddington, Professor and Turfgrass Extension paspalum, but perennial ryegrass. R.N. Carrow and R.C. Shearmann (eds.). Specialist When data were averaged over all sa- Turfgrass. Amer. Soc. Agron., Crop Sci. Department of Extension Plant linity levels, perennial ryegrass reached Soc. Amer., Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, Sciences WI. a coverage of 32% in the sand-peat New Mexico State University, mixture but only 16% in the loamy CHRISTIANS, N., 1998: Fundamentals of turf- Las Cruces, NM, USA. sand. grass management. Ann Arbor Press, Chel- sea, MI. Email: [email protected] KAUFMAN, G., 1991: Seed coating: A tool for Elena Sevostianova Ph.D. Conclusion stand establishment – A stimulus to seed Research Associate quality. HortTechnology. 1:98-102. Department of Extension Plant The experiments conducted in con- ROOS, E.E. and F.D. MOORE, 1975: Effect of Sciences seed coating on performance of lettuce New Mexico State University, trolled environments revealed promis- seeds in greenhouse soil tests. J. Amer. ing first results on germination and es- Soc. Hort. Sci. 100:573-576. Las Cruces, NM, USA. Email: [email protected] tablishment from turfgrass seeds coat- SCOTT, J.M., 1989: Seed coatings and treated with polymers and irrigated with sa- ments and their effects on plant establish- Matteo Serena, Ph.D. line water. Real world implications may ment. Adv. Agron. 42:43-83. Research Associate include reduced irrigation requirement SERENA, M., B. LEINAUER, R. SALLENAVE, Department of Extension Plant for the germination and establishment M. SCHIAVON and B. MAIER, 2012: Me- Sciences of turfgrasses and/or allowing for the dia selection and seed coating influence New Mexico State University, germination of turfgrasses under salinity. use of saline water during establish- HortScience 47:116-119. Las Cruces, NM, USA. ment. Moreover, such coatings could WATSCKE, T.L. and R.E. SCHMIDT, 1992: Eco- Email: [email protected] also allow turf managers to propagate logical aspects of turf communities, p. 129- Cristina Pornaro, Ph. D. from seed in already salinized soils, 174. In: D.V. Waddington, R.N. Carrow and Postdoc which would otherwise be considered R.C. Shearmann, (eds.). Turfgrass. Amer. Department of Agronomy Food impossible to establish turf. However, Soc. Agron., Crop Sci. Soc. Amer., Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison,WI. Natural resources Animals and further research is needed to investi- Environment gate whether similar results from such University of Padova, Legnaro, Italy coating treatments can be achieved in Email: [email protected] field trials.

28 4th ETS Conference 2014 Developing a yearly aerification program for bentgrass greens located in heat-stressed Environments

Hubbard, L.R., L.B. McCarty, V.L. Quisenberry, W.C. Bridges and T.O. Owino

Introduction ed visually. Turfgrass regrowth (TREG) by placement in a muffle furnace for 2 was measured by placing a 30-cm hours at 550°C, and re-weighed to de- square template at two areas random- termine OM content as percentage of he desire to maintain optimal turf- management

ly located in each plot on each rating weight lost on ignition (ROWLAND et Soil and water grass and surface properties often T date. TREG was reported as the per- al., 2009; SNYDER and CISAR, 2000). leads turfgrass managers to minimize centage of aerification holes where impact from cultural practices. How- new turfgrass had fully covered the ever, cultural practices like hollow tine impacted area. Surface compressibility Results aerification (HTA) are essential to man- (SC) was measured with a Volkmeter agement of thatch-mat layers, soil aer- (VOLK, 1972). Surface firmness (SF) Varying spring HTA tine size and timation, water infiltration, and soil com- was measured as Clegg Impact Value ing did not affect TQ when averaged paction. Proper management of these (LUSH, 1985). Ball roll distance (BRD) across all weekly rating dates in ei- factors is critical to minimizing summer was measured using a 29-cm modified ther year (data not shown) nor across decline of creeping bentgrass (BEARD, USGA stimpmeter (GAUSSION et al., all rating dates and both study years 1997; CARROW, 1996; LUCAS, 1995). 1995). Water infiltration rate (WIR) was (Table 1). Reducing surface area im- Comprehensive research is essential to calculated from data collected with pacted by a single HTA event contrib- developing aerification programs which double-ring infiltrometers. uted to increases in TQ, TREC, and allow optimal use of turfgrass surfaces TREG up to 4 weeks and decreased without sacrificing overall turf health. Thatch mat depth (TMD), thatch mat the time required for turfgrass to A two-year field experiment was con- organic matter content (TOM), soil or- recover to acceptable levels by 1-4 ducted on a 14-year-old U.S. Golf As- ganic matter content (SOM), dry root weeks. sociation (USGA)-specified Crenshaw weight (DRW), and soil bulk density creeping bentgrass [Agrostis stoloni- (BD) were measured prior the first aer- Even though surface properties (SC, fera L. var palustris (Huds.)] research ification treatment of each study year SF, BRD, WIR) fluctuated significantly, putting green in Clemson, SC, to eval- and then 8, 16, 24 and 32 weeks after treatment effects were not observed uate the effects of varying spring HTA initial treatments. TMD was determined when averaged across all weekly rating size and timing on turfgrass, surface, from physical measurements of air- dates in either year (data not shown) organic matter (OM), and soil proper- dry cores with verdure removed from nor across all rating dates and both ties. the surface and loose sand and roots study years (Table 2), and lasted less removed below the bottom of the mat than 2 weeks. Repetitive equal depth layer. SOM was determined from 6-cm aerification did not create a layer of in- Materials and Methods deep cores taken between 2 and 8 cm creased compaction. below the soil surface. Thatch with mat Spring HTA treatments included 1.2- OM and soil cores were oven-dried Plots aerified with 0.6-cm tines had the cm i.d. tines spaced at 5.1 cm x 5.1 cm for 48 hours at 60°C, weighed, ashed least 2-year reduction in DRW. Plots in March and May (standard); 1.2-cm i.d. tines spaced at 3.8 cm x 3.4 cm in March only; 0.9-cm i.d. tines spaced at 3.8 cm x 3.4 cm in March and May; and 0.6-cm i.d. tines spaced at 3.8 cm x 3.4 Turfgrass Turfgrass Turfgrass 1 2 3 cm in March, April, May and June. All Aerification treatment quality recovery regrowth plots received monthly solid tine aeri- (1-9) (1-9) (%) fication during the summer, and a fall 4 HTA application with 1.2-cm tines at 1.2 cm Mar, May 6.1 a 6.3 a 66.4 ab 5.1 cm x 5.1 cm. All aerification was to 1.2 cm Mar 6.1 a 6.8 b 78.0 c a depth of 7.6 cm, with cores removed. 0.9 cm Mar, May 6.0 a 6.5 ab 72.3 bc Each of the four treatments was applied to one of four 3.6 m x 3.6 m plots 0.6 cm Mar, Apr, May, June 5.8 a 6.1 a 65.8 a in each of three blocks, resulting in a 1 Turfgrass quality ratings on 1–9 scale with 1 = no live turfgrass and 9 = uniform, dense, dark one-way treatment design and a ran- green turfgrass. domized complete block experimental 2 Turfgrass recovery ratings on 1–9 scale with 1 = no recovery and 9 = uniform turfgrass with no design. visual signs of aerification effects remaining. 3 Turfgrass regrowth as percentage of impacted sites fully covered with new turfgrass. Turfgrass and surface properties were 4 Values followed by different letters within the same column are significantly different at the 0.05 measured prior the first aerification significance level. treatment of each study year and then Tab. 1: Turfgrass properties response to various spring hollow tine aerification treatments weekly for 32 weeks. Turfgrass quali- on creeping bentgrass greens, averaged across all weekly rating dates and study years, ty (TQ) and recovery (TREC) were rat- Clemson, SC, March through November 2011 and 2012.

4th ETS Conference 2014 29 two spring HTAs with 1.2-cm tines at Water Surface com- Surface Ball roll 5.1 cm x 5.1 cm or 0.9-cm tines at 3.8 infiltration pressibility1 firmness2 distance3 cm x 3.4 cm (March and May), with Aerification treatment rate4 monthly summer solid tine aerification -1 (mm) (gmax) (m) (cm hr ) and fall HTA. 5 1.2 cm Mar, May 3.13 a 76.0 a 1.28 a 79.5 a Turf managers can vary their spring 1.2 cm Mar 2x 3.23 a 74.9 a 1.29 a 79.3 a HTA schedule to increase TQ during periods where this is important (e.g. 0.9 cm Mar, May 3.09 a 76.1 a 1.30 a 82.8 a for a tournament). Varying tine size and 0.6 cm Mar, Apr, May, June 3.11 a 73.1 a 1.29 a 82.2 a spacing like treatments in this study will likely only affect surface properties 1 Surface compressibility measured as vertical displacement of turf surface due to a compressive force of 570 g cm-2. less than 2 weeks, but long-term ef- 2 Surface firmness value quantifies deceleration of 2.25-kg weight dropped from height of 45 cm. fects on OM and soil properties should 3 Ball roll distance is average of golf balls rolled in two opposite directions from a 29-cm modified be considered. USGA stimpmeter. 4 Water infiltration rate measured by the falling head method for a column of water from 8 cm to zero depth. Literature 5 Values followed by same letters within the same column are not significantly different at the 0.05 significance level. BEARD, J.B., 1997: Dealing with heat stress on Tab. 2: Surface properties response to various spring hollow tine aerification treatments golf course turf. Golf Course Management, on creeping bentgrass greens, averaged across all weekly measurement dates and study 65(7), 54-59. years, Clemson, SC, March through November 2011 and 2012. CARROW, R.N., 1996: Summer decline of bentgrass greens. Golf Course Management, 64(6), 51-56. GAUSSOIN, R.E., J.L. NUS and L. LEUTHOLD, Thatch Thatch 1995: A modified stimpmeter for small plot Soil OM Dry root Bulk turfgrass research. HortScience, 30, 547- mat mat OM 1 2 548. Aerification treatment 1 content weight density depth content LUCAS, L.T., 1995: Heat stress and decline (mm) (%LOI) (%LOI) (g) (g cm-3) of creeping bentgrass. Turfgrass Trends, 5, 1-8. 3 1.2 cm Mar, May 15.8 a 10.77 a 1.45 a 0.082 a 1.30 a LUSH, W. M. ,1985: Objective assessment of 1.2 cm Mar 2x 16.5 b 10.40 a 1.44 a 0.080 a 1.29 a turf cricket pitches using an impact ham- mer. The Journal of the Sports Turf Re- 0.9 cm Mar, May 15.7 a 10.01 a 1.41 a 0.086 a 1.29 a search Institute, 61, 71-79. ROWLAND, J.H., J.L. CISAR, G.H. SNYDER, 0.6 cm Mar, Apr, May, June 15.4 a 09.81 a 1.50 b 0.078 a 1.29 a J.B. SARTAIN and A.L. WRIGHT, 2009: 1 Difference in oven-dry weight and ashed weight as percentage of dry weight lost on ignition USGA ultradwarf bermudagrass putting (LOI). green properties as affected by cultural 2 Oven-dry weight of roots from four 1.9-cm diam. (11.4 cm2 total surface area), 15-cm deep practices. Agronomy Journal, 101, 1565- cores per plot. 1572. 3 Values followed by different letters within the same column are significantly different at the 0.10 SNYDER, G.H. and J.L. CISAR, 2000: significance level. Nitrogen/potassium fertilization ratios for bermudagrass turf. Crop Science, 4, 1719- Tab. 3: Organic matter (OM) and soil properties response to various spring hollow tine 1723. aerification treatments on creeping bentgrass greens, averaged across all measurement VOLK, G.M.,1972: Compressibility of turf as a dates and study years, Clemson, SC, March through November 2011 and 2012. measure of grass growth and thatch development on bermudagrass greens. Agrono- my Journal, 64, 503-506. aerified with 1.2-cm i.d. tines spaced had higher soil OM content across all at 3.8 cm x 3.4 cm in March only had rating dates and both study years (Ta- the greatest reduction in DRW and had ble 3). the deepest TMD across both years. Authors: This treatment would not be advisa- Conclusions L. Ray Hubbard Jr., Lambert ble on greens where low root mass or B. McCarty, Virgil L. Quisenberry, thatch accumulation is a concern. Plots William C. Bridges and Thomas aerified with 1.2-cm tines had higher Overall, this study suggests an aerifica- O. Owino, Clemson University, thatch OM content in Year 2 (data not tion program for bentgrass greens in a Clemson, SC (USA). shown). Plots aerified with 0.6-cm tines heat-stressed environments to include

30 4th ETS Conference 2014 Using metagenomics to investigate the effects of nitrogen and potassium treatments on the microbial rhizosphere community in Poa annua turf

Beirn L.A., C.J. Schmid, J.W. Hempfling, J.A. Murphy, B.B. Clarke and J.A. Crouch

Introduction Materials and Methods reverse reads were stitched together and demultiplexed using QIIME (Quan-

titative Insights into Microbial Ecology, management oil nutrient management is an im- Three soil cores (15.9 mm diameter x Soil and water CAPORASO et al. 2010). Operational portant component of plant disease 50.8 mm length) were sampled from S Taxonomic Units (OTUs) were picked control. Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) four replicated experimental plots of P. using a 97% similarity threshold in are known to play a vital role in sup- annua maintained at a 2.8 mm cutting UCLUST (EDGAR 2010). Or 16s data, pressing disease in a variety of plants height and receiving: (1) an interme- taxonomic identities were assigned by (AGRIOS 2005). Anthracnose, caused diate N rate (132 kg N ha-1 yr-1); (2) K comparison to the curated Greengenes by the ascomycete fungus Colletotri- alone (200 kg K O ha-1 yr-1); (3) a com- 2 database (http://greengenes.lbl.gov). chum cereale, is a destructive disease bined treatment of N and K (1:1, N:K For ITS data, taxonomic identities were of Poa annua L. f. reptans (Hausskn) molar-adjusted ratio; 132 kg N ha-1 yr-1 assigned by using the curated UNITE T. Koyama] (annual bluegrass) putting and 200 kg K O ha-1 yr-1); (4) a low rate 2 database (http://unite.ut.ee/reposito- green turf that is strongly influenced of N (100 kg N ha-1 yr-1); or (5) a high ry.php) and a custom turfgrass path- by N and K (INGUAGIATO et al. 2008, rate of N (200 kg N ha-1 yr-1), for a total ogen database consisting of verified SCHMID et al. 2013). Applying a low of 60 samples. All N and K treatments sequence data from twenty fungal turf- rate of N (4.9 kg ha-1) every 7-d has were applied as urea [CO(NH ) ] and 2 2 grass pathogens. Rarefaction and di- been shown to reduce anthracnose potassium chloride (KCl), respectively. versity metrics were calculated at 97% disease severity on P. annua compared All plots are naturally infected with C. sequence identity. to the same rate of N applied every cereale. Soil samples were screened 28-d (INGUAGIATO et al. 2008). In an- through a 2.5 mm sieve to remove other field study, P. annua fertilized plant matter and large soil particulates. Results with N and K exhibited significantly DNA was extracted using the Power- less anthracnose then turf fertilized Soil DNA Isolation Kit (Mo-Bio, Carls- Amplicon sequencing generated 2.3 x with either nutrient alone (SCHMID et bad, CA, USA) and a modified manu- 107 reads that passed quality filtering al. 2013). facturer’s protocol to improve yield and (14.4 Gb of data). After read stitching quality. Organism-specific DNA regions While the disease suppressive qualities and demultiplexing, an average of 1.38 were PCR amplified from the ribosomal of N and K have been demonstrated in x 105 sequences were generated per DNA of fungi (internaI transcribed spac- the field, questions remain about the sample. In total, 7.2 x 105 OTUs were er [ITS] region 1 and 2), bacteria (rDNA impact that these nutrients have on identified. Archaea, bacteria, and fun- 16s), and archaea (rDNA 16s), with C. cereale and other microorganisms gi were identified from all samples. On the addition of an overhang sequence in a putting green. Microbial commu- average, archaea comprised 4.1%, to the locus-specific primers to serve nities are capable of adapting to soil bacteria comprised 26.7%, and fun- as primer sites in subsequent steps, nutrient content and have been shown gi comprised 29.7% of the organisms and to introduce nucleotide complex- to vary in species composition based identified. Other organisms (~ 39.5% ity into the sequencing process. After on changing soil environments (VAN of the samples) were unidentifiable purification with the Zymo DNA (PCR) DIEPENINGEN et al. 2006). Therefore, due to the limited size of the available Clean and Concentrator Kit (Zymo Re- altering the N and K composition in databases. In all treatments, bacteria search, Irvine, CA) and pooling of am- putting green turf may alter microbi- dominated the rhizosphere compared plicons for each sample, Illumina next al community structure and possibly to other microorganisms. generation sequencing libraries were the distribution of C. cereale or other prepared from the resultant amplicon Alpha diversity measures from rarified pathogenic microorganisms. In this using the Nextera Index Kit (Illumina, datasets showed that species diversity research, we tested this hypothesis San Diego, CA, USA). During this step, was highest in low and high N treat- using a metagenomic next genera- unique adaptors and barcodes were ments, while diversity was lowest in tion sequencing approach, allowing a added to the DNA to allow multiplexed plots receiving the intermediate rate of simultaneous, community-wide as- sequencing. Libraries were normalized, N. Detrended correspondence analysis sessment of the fungi, bacteria and pooled into a single sample, diluted to and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVAs revealed archaea inhabiting the turfgrass rhiz- 20 pM, and denatured for sequencing significant differences in microbial osphere. These multivariate data will on Illumina’s MiSeq platform using a community structure across all treat- allow us to determine correlations be- 600 cycle Illumina v.3 reagent kit. Two ments, particularly amongst archaea tween N and K on the distribution and genomic DNA libraries and a control and bacteria. For example, ammonium diversity of pathogenic and beneficial phiX library were spiked into the run oxidizers in the Crenarchaeales domi- soil microorganisms in the rhizosphere to introduce complexity. Following nated K-based treatments, whereas in- of P. annua turf infected with C. cere- sequencing, adapters and barcodes termediate and high rates of N favored ale. were removed from the reads using the ammonium oxidizers in the Nitrosos- MiSeq Reporter Software. Forward and phareales. The bacterium Candidatus

4th ETS Conference 2014 31 Koribacter, a species capable of cel- We were unable to determine a rela- lulose, hemicellulose, and chitin deg- tionship between fertility treatments Authors: radation, as wells as nitrate and nitrite and the distribution of C. cereale in the Lisa A. Beirn reduction, was present in high levels in rhizosphere using the current methods. Rutgers University all treatments. Given the hemibiotrophic lifestyle of Department of Plant Biology and In the kingdom Fungi, the phylum As- C. cereale, it is not surprising that on- Pathology comycota (sac fungi) was identified ly low levels were detected in the rhiz- 59 Dudley Road most frequently, followed by Chytridi- osphere, thus analysis of the effects New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA omycota (primarily aquatic fungi), and of fertility treatments on C. cereale in [email protected] the Basidomycota (primarily fungi that planta is currently underway. We did, produce mushrooms). Fungi in the however, observe high levels of the Charles J. Schmid order Helotiales (cup-shaped fungi) root infecting pathogens G. graminis Rutgers University and Hypocreales dominated K-based and M. poae, demonstrating the utility Department of Plant Biology and treatments, whereas low and high N of rhizosphere metagenomics for ex- Pathology treatments favored fungi in the Mag- amining populations of these fungi in 59 Dudley Road naportheaceae. Using the curated da- response to environmental variables. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA tabases for OTU classification, identi- The data and techniques described [email protected] here will serve as a foundation for de- fications to the genus level were only James W. Hempfling signing future metagenomic studies for obtained for well-studies fungi, thus all Rutgers University the turfgrass system. fungal OTUs were screened against a Department of Plant Biology and custom turfgrass pathogen database. Pathology Overall, G. graminis, Magnaporthe po- Literature 59 Dudley Road ae, and Microdochium nivale were de- New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA tected at the highest levels. C. cereale AGRIOS G.N., 2005: Plant Pathology, 5th ed. [email protected] was detected at low levels (10-5-10-6) in Academic Press, Philadelphia. our samples. Caporaso J.G., J. Kuczynski, J. Stombaugh, K. Dr. James A. Murphy Bittinger, F.D. Bushman, E.K. Costello, N. Rutgers University Fierer, A. Gonzalez Pena, J.K. Goodrich, Department of Plant Biology and Discussion J.I. Gordon, G.A. Huttley, S.T. Kelley, D. Knights, J.E. Koenig, R.E. Ley, C.A. Pathology Lozupone, D. McDonald, B.D. Muegge, M. 59 Dudley Road Using next generation sequencing Pirrung, J. Reeder, J.R. Sevinsky, P.J. Turn- New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA techniques, we identified a broad baugH, W.A. Walters, J. Widmann, T. Yat- [email protected] range of bacteria, archaea, and fungi sunenko, J. Zaneveld and R. Knight, 2010: from the rhizosphere of P. annua turf. QIIME allows analysis of high-throughput Dr. Bruce B. Clarke community sequencing data. Nature Meth- Rutgers University Across all treatments, microbial diver- ods 7(5): 335-336. sity was high, indicating a rich, unique Department of Plant Biology and EDGAR R.C., 2010: Search and clustering or- Pathology rhizosphere community. Our results ders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bio- show distinct differences in commu- informatics 26(19):2460-2461. 59 Dudley Road nity structure between treatments, INGUAGIATO J.C., J.A. MURPHY and B.B. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA suggesting that differing management CLARKE, 2008: Anthracnose severity on [email protected] practices appear to be affecting mi- annual bluegrass influenced by nitrogen fertilization, growth regulators, and verti- Dr. Jo Anne Crouch crobial community diversity and distri- cutting. Crop Science 48:1595–1607. United States Department of bution in P. annua turf. Many of these SCHMID C.J., B.B. CLARKE and J.A. MURPHY, Agriculture-Agricultural organisms possess unique pathways 2013: Potassium source and rate effect on Research Service for utilizing different nutrient sub- anthracnose severity of annual bluegrass. Systematic Mycology and Crop Science 107-12. strates, thus it remains likely that nutri- Microbiology Laboratory ent cycling processes may vary across VAN DIEPENINGEN A.D., O.J. DE VIS, G.W. 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Building treatments. RNA-seq experiments are KORTHALS and A.H.C. VAN BRUGGEN, 2006: Effects of organic versus convention- 010A planned to examine the impacts of al management on chemical and biological Beltsville, MD 20705 these treatments on microbial gene ex- parameters in agricultural soils. Applied [email protected] pression levels. Soil Ecology 31:120-135.

32 4th ETS Conference 2014 An investigation of the relationship between golf course irrigation and climate in North Carolina, USA

Brady, H.M., C. Peacock, M.J. Vepraskas and D.A. Crouse

Introduction study. To effectively estimate the cli- graphic regions. The differences derive matic moisture conditions, the concept from a combination of varying daily wa- of net moisture flux (NMF) was em- ter withdrawals, number of days of irri- olf courses are major water us- management

ployed. NMF is computed by subtract- gation per year, and total irrigable area Soil and water ers in many locales around the G ing the PET from the precipitation at (Table 1). world. It is crucial for the golf industry any specific location for any given pe- to addresses its long-term irrigation To investigate irrigation rates relative to riod of time (FREDLUND et al., 2012). needs in concert with other water us- annual climatic conditions, the regional TableData 1were collected from the North ers. The goals of this research are two- annual average NMF values were plot- Carolina State Climate Office for each fold: 1) to establish average irrigation ted against regional annual average irri- of the courses individually over the rates (megaliters/year/hectare) for golf gation rates in a linear regression mod- course of the study period, and then courses across North Carolina, and 2) el (Figure 1). The Piedmont and Coastal averaged across each physiographic to uncover any correlations between Plain regions were found to have the region. irrigation rates and climatic conditions. best regression fit, with r2 values of The hypothesis of this research is that 0.95 and 0.96, respectively, while a low Results irrigation rates on golf courses are driv- regression line fit was observed in the en by regional climate patterns. Mountains and Sandhills regions, with The research found differences in ir- r2 values of 0.52 and 0.78, respectively. Figurerigation 1 rates among the four physio- Negative NMF values occurred when Material and Methods

For this investigation, all irrigation usage data were collected from the North Carolina Department of Envi- ronment and Natural Resources from 2007 through 2011 (NCDWR, 2013). To normalize the water withdrawal data on a liters per hectare basis, irrigated land area data were collected for each course in the study through the use of a voluntary survey. The golf courses in the study were divided into four physiographic regions, Mountains, Piedmont, Sandhills, and Coastal Plain. These regions represent inherent differences in climate and landscape for a land area with a nearly 2,100-meter elevation range across 500 km from the ocean to the mountains. The climate in the Mountains and Piedmont regions is cooler and wetter, with lower potential evapotranspiration (PET) than in the Sandhills and Coastal Plain regions. The respondents to the survey defined Fig. 1: Linear regression analysis for the net moisture flux and average annual irrigation for Tablethe sample 1 size and distribution of the each physiographic region.

Tab. 1: Five-year average data for irrigation rate calculation including, withdrawal values, number of days, and irrigated acreage. Values in parentheses represent one standard deviation of the average value represented. 4th ETS Conference 2014 33 Figure 1

PET exceeded precipitation, which ap- riety of environmental conditions well Authors: proximated drought conditions for the beyond North Carolina. Integrating the turfgrass. At a NMF of zero, the calcu- concepts presented in this research in- Harold M. Brady, MR lated regression lines predict that indi- to comprehensive water resource plan- Department of Soil Science vidual courses will require an average ning could serve to minimize impacts North Carolina State University, annual irrigation budget of 35.5, 40.6, from future water resource shortfalls Raleigh, NC 50.8, and 68.6 cm in the Mountains, while maintaining economic vitality and Piedmont, Coastal Plain, and Sandhills superior conditions for golf courses. Charles Peacock, PhD regions, respectively. Professor, Crop Science Department of Crop Science Literature North Carolina State University, Diskussion and Conclusion Raleigh, NC FREDLUND, D.G., H. RAHARDJO and M.D. FREDLUND, 2012: Unsaturated soil me- Michael J. Vepraskas, PhD From the strong linear regression rela- chanics in engineering practice. John Wiley Professor, Soil Science tionships, climatological diversity ex- & Sons. Hoboken, N.J. Department of Soil Science plains the annual irrigation differences IPCC 2007: Climate Change, 2007: The Physi- North Carolina State University, and demonstrates that irrigation is not cal Science Basis. Contribution of Working Raleigh, NC steadily increasing or decreasing tem- Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment. Report porally. The fluctuating irrigation rates of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate David A. Crouse, PhD are due to regional climate conditions. Change. Cambridge University Press, Associate Professor, Soil Science Cambridge, United Kingdom and New Furthermore, the unique methodology York, NY, USA. Department of Soil Science of assessing changing climate condi- NCDWR, 2013. Water Withdrawal and Transfer North Carolina State University, tions in units equivalent to irrigation us- Registration & Central Coastal Plain Ca- Raleigh, NC age, allows for duplication under a va- pacity Use Area. http://www.ncwater.org/

34 4th ETS Conference 2014 Integrating host resistance and fungicide for efficient control of dollar spot on creeping bentgrass

Latin, R., J. Daniels and Y. Liu Figure Captions

Figure 1. Disease progress curves recorded during the 2012 growing season illustrate differences in susceptibility to dollar spot among three creeping bentgrass cultivars.

Introduction 200 ungicides are essential for mitigat- Declaration ing turf damage caused by a vari- 160 F Independence ety of infectious diseases on most golf courses in the northeast quadrant of 120 Penncross the U.S. Among the most intractable diseases is dollar spot, caused by a fungal pathogen (Sclerotinia homoeo- 80 carpa F. T. Bennett) that remains active throughout most of the growing Dollar spots per plot 40 season. Dollar spot often causes only cosmetic (aesthetically unappealing) 0 damage, but under severe conditions, 6/25 7/5 7/15 7/25 8/4 8/14 8/24 9/3 9/13 9/23 10/3 playing surfaces suffer structural dam- Date (2012) age that may interfere with the lie and Turfgrass diseases, pests and weed control roll of a golf ball. Fig. 1: Disease progress curves recorded during the 2012 growing season illustrate differ- Numerous fungicides are registered ences in susceptibility to dollar spot among three creeping bentgrass cultivars. for use against dollar spot and, when scheduled according to a sound application strategy, provide satisfacto- plant surfaces through the use of fans, other non-chemical options, the use of ry disease control-even for the most or poling and rolling (WILLIAMS et al., less susceptible cultivars reduces dis- discriminating greens keepers and 1996). ease pressure, and therefore (at least golf patrons. However, fungicides can theoretically) allows satisfactory dis- be expensive, carry a negative percep- The use of disease resistant cultivars ease control with less fungicide. The tion in terms of health and environmen- also represents a non-chemical option notion was examined to some extent tal risks, and are often vulnerable to for reducing disease severity. Real dif- (SETTLE et al., 2001), but dollar spot the rise of fungicide-resistant popu- ferences in susceptibility to dollar spot resistance was only moderate at best lations. Therefore, there is continual are apparent in creeping bentgrass cul- in cultivars introduced prior to 2001. pressure to employ non-chemical dis- tivars introduced after the turn of the The objective of this research was to ease control options. Such cultural century (BONOS et al., 2006). Further- determine if genetic resistance in a control practices include mowing at more, some cultivars, such as ‘Decla- modern cultivar such as ‘Declaration’ appropriate heights, fertilizing with ration’, consistently exhibited high lev- could be exploited to achieve satisfac- appropriate rates of nitrogen, and lim- els of resistance after comprehensive tory disease control with less fungicide iting the duration of the wet period on evaluation (ANONYMOUS, 2008). Like use.

Fig. 2: In plots that were not treated with fungicide, the more susceptible cultivar ‘Independence’ (left) sustained greater disease severity than ‘Declaration’ (right).

4th ETS Conference 2014 35

Figure 3. During 2012, fungicide was applied when dollar spot severity reached a threshold of 3-5 spots per plot. Eight sprays (red arrows) were required on ‘Independence’; three sprays (blue arrows) on ‘Declaration’.

Discussion/Conclusions 20 These results demonstrate that host Declaration 16 resistance in creeping bentgrass culti- Independence vars such as ‘Declaration’ can be exploited to reduce fungicide inputs while 12 achieving acceptable levels of disease control. Our research was conducted 8 on turf maintained at golf putting green height (0.38 cm), but greater benefits Dollar spots per plot 4 should be realized on fairways where mild outbreaks of disease can be tolerated. Given that genetic resistance/ 0 6/25 7/5 7/15 7/25 8/4 8/14 8/24 9/3 9/13 9/23 10/3 susceptibility is a component of disease pressure (LATIN, 2011), results Date (2012) support the principle that less fungicide will be required to control disease un- Fig. 3: During 2012, fungicide was applied when dollar spot severity reached a threshold der conditions of low disease pressure. of 3-5 spots per plot. Eight sprays (red arrows) were required on ‘Independence’; three sprays (blue arrows) on ‘Declaration’. Literature

ANONYMOUS, 2008. National Turfgrass Eva- luation Program. http://www.ntep.org/data/ Materials and Methods ity was recorded by counting infection bt08g/bt08g_13-4/bt08g13t12b.txt centers at 2-4 day intervals during the BONOS, S.A., B.B., CLARKE and W.A. MEYER, growing seasons of 2011 and 2012. 2006. Breeding for resistance in major Experiments were conducted in field cool-season turfgrasses. Annual Rev. plots established on a sand-based root Differences in disease progress and Phytopathol. 44:213-234. zone. Three cultivars of creeping bent- fungicide use were compared among LATIN. R. 2011. A Practical Guide to Turfgrass grass (‘Independence’, ‘Penncross’, treatments. Fungicides. APS Press. St. Paul, MN. and ‘Declaration’ – in order from most SETTLE, D., Fry, J. and N. TISSERAT, 2001. Dollar spot and brown patch fungicide susceptible to least susceptible to dol- Results management strategies in four creeping lar spot infection) were seeded in 1m by bentgrass cultivars. Crop Science 41:1190- 2m plots and replicated three times in a 1197. In untreated plots, dollar spot severi- completely randomized design over an WILLIAMS, D. W., A. J. POWELL, P. VINCELLI ty increased throughout the course of area of approximately 0.23 ha. Turf was and C.T. DOUGHERTY, 1996. Dollar spot the experiments in both years. Disease on bentgrass influenced by displacement maintained as a golf putting green and progress curves representing dollar of leaf surface moisture, nitrogen, and clip- mowed 6 times per week at a height of spot increase in 2012 show clear differ- ping removal. Crop Sci. 36:1304-1309. 0.38 cm. For each year fertilizer was ences among the three cultivars (Figure applied monthly (April – September) at 1). Towards the end of the experiment, Authors: a rate equivalent to 24.4 kg nitrogen Independence suffered more than per ha to total of 146.4 kg nitrogen per Richard Latin, Ph.D. twice as many infection centers-en- season. Irrigation was applied as need- Purdue University compassing significantly greater area ed to prevent drought stress. 915 West State Street compared to ‘Declaration’ (Figure 2). West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA The fungicide chlorothalonil (Daconil Less fungicide was required to achieve [email protected] Ultrex, Syngenta) was applied with a control on the most resistant cultivar. custom boom sprayer that delivered a In a comparison of treatments in 2012, John Daniels volume of 82.3 L/ha at a nozzle pres- three sprays (Daconil Ultrex at 11.0 kg/ Wheatley Hills Golf Club sure of 2.8 kg/cm2. The application ha) were sufficient to prevent disease 147 East Williston Avenue rates 0, 5.5 kg/ha, and 11.0 kg/ha for- levels from exceeding the application East Williston, NY 11596, USA mulated product (4.5 and 9.0 kg/ha threshold on ‘Declaration’ (Figure 3). Yang Liu chlorothalonil, respectively) were ap- However, on ‘Independence’, dollar Plandome Country Club plied to plots when an action threshold spot increased to intolerable levels de- 145 Stonytown Road (5-8 spots in 2011, and 3-5 spots in spite the application of eight sprays of Plandome, NY 11030, USA 2012) was observed. Dollar spot sever- Daconil Ultrex at the same rate.

36 4th ETS Conference 2014 Potential use of UV C radiation in turfgrass disease management

Berkelmann-Loehnertz, B., S. Klaerner, B. Flemming, R. Keicher, H.P. Schwarz, M. Pfliehinger and O. Loehnertz

Introduction with tubular UV C lamps at a range of On going testing on turf 254 nm (ultraviolet). Here, the biological efficacy reaches at most 99.9 %, isease management represents a Pathogens relevant to viticulture and depending on quantity and quality of significant challenge for farmers turfgrass belong to the same fun- D previous microbial spoilage and other at all levels of crop production. Up to gal phylum. Therefore, this technique technical features. now, fungicide applications serve as seems generally suitable to control a major tool to minimise damage and UV C radiation is an alternative tool turfgrass diseases, too. The aim of the negative influences on crop stand. also suitable for crop protection pur- current project is to adopt and optimise Those treatments are potentially as- poses. Up to now, this technique was this technology for disease manage- sociated with undesired side effects applied particularly in horticultural ment on golf courses. In order to deter- for human health and the environment crops cultivated in protected envi- mine essential technical data for prac- (e.g. residues of pesticides in food; ronments (e.g. Abstracts of the Sym- tical use of UV C radiation, research high and persistent amounts of copper posium “ECOFRUIT” at Hohenheim aimed at: in the soil). Therefore, the protection University, Germany, 2010) as well )) adoption of the UV C technology and remediation of soil and water as for greenhouse and nursery sanita- resources is a priority of the EU and used in viticulture for application on Turfgrass diseases,

tion. pests and weed control most national environmental policies. golf courses; The Directive 2009/128/EC of the Eu- In viticulture, the dose-response re- )) identification of biological effects lationship in vitro was elaborated for ropean Parliament and of the Council of different UV C doses to control different propagation units of the target highlights aims and actions to achieve pathogenic fungi in turfgrass; the sustainable use of pesticides. Cur- fungi. These data were confirmed in si- rently, alternative management prac- tu for pathogen development on potted )) prevention of golf greens from tices are strongly supported based vines after UV C radiation at different phytotoxicity induced by UV C on specific national pesticide action stages of pathogenesis. At host level application; networks (e.g. PAN – Pesticide Action phytotoxicity was checked. Finally, a )) quantification of effects genera- Network [UK]; NAP – National Action large UV C prototype for vineyard ap- ted by UV C radiation on Plan on sustainable use of Plant Pro- plication was developed and used for epiphytic, non-pathogenic tection Products [Germany]). To some field trials in an experimental vineyard microbiota present on grass extent, listed challenges are also true (cv. Riesling) in 2013. phyllospheres. for disease management in turfgrass Using UV C technology in viticulture to because golf course managers face control downy mildew, powdery mil- Initial experiments in turfgrass showed similar problems to warrant turfgrass dew and grey mould in the vineyard, that it was possible to apply UV C stand. the following basic results were ob- radiation on golf courses by horizon- tained: tal use of UV C modules from trials in Use of UV C radiation in viticulture. Future investigations will viticulture )) different propagation units of the focus on pathogenic fungi in turfgrass target pathogens are unequal in aimed at disease management with concern of UV C sensitivity In viticulture a new non-chemical less fungicide input. This technology in vitro; approach to control grapevine dis- and first results of UV C application in turfgrass will be presented at the con- eases has been used successfully )) dose-response relationships at greenhouse and at field trial lev- indicated that the biological ference. el. Here, vine canopy and berry sur- efficacy in vitro was always less faces are treated repeatedly with than 100 %; UV C irradiation (254 nm) alone or in Literature )) in order to ensure a satisfactory combination with reduced fungicide biological efficacy in situ on the one applications (BERKELMANN-LOEH- hand and to avoid phytotoxicity on BEGUM M., A.D. HOCKING and D. MISKELLY, NERTZ et al., 2013; KLAERNER et al., the other hand, the applied UV C 2009: Inactivation of food spoilage fungi 2013). by ultra violet (UVC) irradiation. Internation- dose should range between 80 and al Journal of Food Microbiology, 129 (1), Normally, this approach is applied in 160 mWs/cm²; 74-77. the food industry and medical technol- BERKELMANN-LOEHNERTZ B., S. KLAERN- )) the results of the field trial clearly ogy for surface disinfection of wrapping ER, B. FLEMMING, R. KEICHER, H.-P. turned out a potential for fungicide components and packaging (e.g. plas- SCHWARZ, M. PFLIEHINGER and O. reduction; tic beaker, aluminium cover, bandag- LOEHNERTZ, 2013: Enhanced phytosan- itary performance in the vineyard and )) ing material) (BEGUM et al., 2009). The no negative side effects on host physiological host responses induced by disinfection property is achieved by physiology and must fermentation UV-C radiation. Journal of Plant Pathology, short time radiation of the target area could be observed. Volume (1, Supplement), S1.75.

4th ETS Conference 2014 37 KLAERNER S., B. BERKELMANN-LOEH- NERTZ, B. FLEMMING, M. PFLIEHINGER, Von-Lade-Str. 1, Marco Pfliehinger and O. LOEHNERTZ, R. KEICHER and H.-P. D-65366 Geisenheim, Germany, Otmar Loehnertz SCHWARZ, 2013: UV C-Bestrahlung von E-mail: beate.berkelmann- Department of Soil Science and Reben. Schweizer Zeitschrift für Obst- und Weinbau, 21 (149), 4-6. [email protected] Plant Nutrition, Hochschule Geisenheim University, Rainer Keicher and Von-Lade-Str. 1, Hans-Peter Schwarz Authors: D-65366 Geisenheim, Germany Department of Viticultural Beate Berkelmann-Loehnertz Engineering, Bruno Flemming and Stefan Klaerner Hochschule Geisenheim University, uv-technik meyer gmbh, Department of Phytomedicine, Von-Lade-Str. 1, Glauburgstr. 34, Hochschule Geisenheim University, D-65366 Geisenheim, Germany 63683 Ortenberg, Germany

38 4th ETS Conference 2014 Neotyphodium detected in UK turfgrass seeds using Immunoblot a nalysis

Knowles, J.N., A.G. Owen and K.R. Butt

Introduction a proportion of UK sports turf cultivars staining. The kits were optimised by for the presence of Neotyphodium us- the manufacturer to detect Neotypho- ing a recognised immunoblot kit (HILL dium at 50 ng/seed. For each culti- he fungal-endophyte genus of Neo- ͨ et al., 2002 and HAHN et al., 2003). var, ten seeds were analysed for infec- typhodium belongs to the Clavicipi- T tion, with 70 seeds placed on to each taceous family that can harbour within membrane. A cultivar was determined the turfgrasses of Festuca spp., Lolium Materials and Methods as positively infected with the minimum spp., and Poa spp. (CHEPLICK and of one seed imprinted reaction. Two FAETH, 2009). The vertical transmis- Appropriate sports turf cultivars were technicians independently observed sion of the Neotyphodium hyphae is selected from the Turfgrass Buyers the reactions. The seeds and the kits only via the seed, an exclusive char- Guide of the British Society of Plant were stored at 4oC prior to use. acteristic of the Neotyphodium life-cy- Breeders (BSPB and STRI, 2012). From cle. The hyphae develop intercellularly the merchants’ technical pamphlets, Results through the leaf primordial, rhizomes, 221 sports turf cultivars were identi- stolons, sheaths and leaves (CLAY, fied. Merchants were then contacted 1990; SCHARDL et al., 2004). As a mu- and invited to supply 25 g of seed for The immunoblot kits revealed infection tualistic symbiont, this endophyte most Turfgrass diseases, each cultivar. One merchant preferred within the cultivars of Lolium perenne pests and weed control probably obtains photosynthesates not to participate and four were unable L., Poa pratensis L., Festuca longifolia in an exchange for defending against to provide samples in time for testing. Thuill., F. rubra L. ssp. and L. arundi- a range of biotic and abiotic stresses Nevertheless, five merchants provided naceum Schreb. (Darbysh.). Neoty- (LATCH et al., 1985, BREEN, 1994, a total of 62 cultivars. Cultivar codes phodium was detected in all of these RAVEL et al., 1997, SCHARDL et al., and names have been withheld for species. The mean proportion of infect- 2004, KULDAU and BACON, 2008). commercial reasons. ed cultivars within each species was Hyphae mature in parallel with the life- 41.9% (1.4±) and the total proportion of cyle of the grass and colonise the early The immunoblot assay (Phytoscreen infection across all species was 41.8%. development of the seed embryo, ready seed endophyte detection kit, Cat #EN- The greatest proportion of infection for transmission into the next progeny. DO7971) from Agrinostics Ltd, Wat- was detected in 18 of the L. perenne The fungal infection within seeds can kinsville, GA (www.agrinostics.com) cultivars, representing almost one-third be harmed by prolonged warm tem- was purchased for detecting Neoty- of the sample for this species. peratures, broad spectrum fungicides phodium in the cultivars of Lolium spp., The cultivars of F. trichophylla Ducros and life expiration over time (LATCH Festuca spp. and Poa pratensis L. In ex Gaudin. and L. multifl orum Lam. and CHRISTENSEN, 1982). However, principle the kits extracted proteins were not infected, however the number assuming optimal conditions, all seeds from Neotyphodium endophyte and of available cultivars for these species of the parent can potentially be infect- bound them to a membrane. Monoclo- was limited (see table 1). ed (BREEN, 1994). Neotyphodium has nal anti-bodies were then stacked with been recorded in many natural situ- a colour-acting enzyme and washed Judging the reaction on the membrane ations in the UK and northern Europe with a chromogen. A positive reaction was subjective, therefore careful con- (LEWIS and CLEMENTS, 1986, WHITE was determined by a dark grey colour sideration was required when visually et al., 1993, BAZELY et al., 1997, SAI- KKONEN et al., 2000 and ZUREK et al., Number of Proportion of Proportion 2012). This suggests Neotyphodium Species examined infected across entire is commonplace and raises questions cultivars cultivars (%) sample (%) about its distribution within UK sports L. perenne 33 54.5 29 turf. P. pratensis 7 42.9 4.8 Neotyphodium could be beneficial for F. longifolia 2 100 3.2 sports turf management especially if reductions in plant protection prod- F. rubra littoralis 6 33.3 3.2 ucts can be exchanged for a biological F. rubra subsp. commutata 7 28.6 3.2 control. To date, there has been limit- F. rubra subsp. rubra 2 50.0 1.6 ed research to suggest the existence of Neotyphodium within UK turfgrass L. arundinaceum 3 33.3 1.6 cultivars and it is unclear of the role of F. trichophylla 1 0.0 0.0 endophytes within UK Sports turf. De- L. multiflorum 1 0.0 0.0 termining whether endophytes are important requires greater knowledge of Tab. 1: Nine species and 62 sports turf cultivars were tested for Neotyphodium infection. The sample represents one-quarter of available UK sports turf cultivars. The proportions their abundance and distribution. The of infected cultivars are expressed as infected within species and across the sample aim of this initial study was to sample population.

4th ETS Conference 2014 39 BSPB and STRI, 2012: Turfgrass Seeds The Buyers Guide to Quality Amenity Turfgrass- es. Bingley, Yorkshire: Sports Turf Re- search Institute. CHEPLICK, G.P. and S.H. FAETH, 2009: Ecol- ogy and evolution of the grass-endophyte symbiosis, Oxford, Oxford University Press. CLAY, K., 1990: FUNGAL ENDOPHYTES OF GRASSES. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21, 275-297. HAHN, H., W. HUTH, W. SCHÖBERLEIN, W. DIEPENBROCK and W.E. WEBER, 2003: Detection of endophytic fungi in Festuca spp. by means of tissue print immuno- assay. Plant Breeding, 122, 217-222. HILL, N.S., E.E. HIATT, J.P. DE BATTISTA, M.C. COSTA, C.H. GRIFFITHS, J. KLAP, D. THOROGOOD and J.H. REEVES, 2002: Seed testing for endophytes by microscop- ic and immunoblot procedures. Seed Sci- ence and Technology, 30, 347-355. KULDAU, G. and C. BACON, 2008: Clavicipita- ceous endophytes: Their ability to enhance resistance of grasses to multiple stresses. Biological Control, 46, 57-71. LATCH, G.C.M. and M.J. CHRISTENSEN, 1982: Ryegrass endophyte, incidence, and Plate 1: Nitrocellulose membrane imprinted with the extracted Neotyphodium endophyte control. New Zealand Journal of Agricultur- proteins. The insert shows the imprint of endophyte infected seeds clearly defined as dark al Research, 25, 443-448. colour development. Light colour developments are negative. The subjective output of LATCH, G.C.M., W.F. HUNT and D.R. MUS- this test is illustrated here. Seven different cultivars with ten replicates are imprinted here. GRAVE, 1985: Endophytic fungi affect There are five negative seeds on this membrane underlined in red; these are the known growth of perennial ryegrass. New Zealand uninfected control seeds. Journal of Agricultural Research, 28, 165- 168. distinguishing the colour development LEWIS, G.C. and R.O. CLEMENTS, 1986: A difficult for a sufficient conclusion for survey of ryegrass endophyte (Acremonium to assign a positive reaction. Examples the abundance of Neotyphodium in UK loliae) in the U.K. and its apparent ineffec- of the visual readings are shown on turfgrass seed. However, it has demon- tually on a seedling pest. The Journal of plate 1, the darker grey imprints of lines strated a likelihood that endophyte-in- Agricultural Science, 107, 633-638. 3, 4 and 7 were judged as a positive re- fected cultivars are active in UK sports RAVEL, C., C. COURTY, A. COUDRET and G. action. The lighter imprints on the lines turf, as the cultivars used in this trial are CHARMET, 1997: Beneficial effects of Neo- of 1, 2, 5 and 6 were considered as neg- sold in the UK by major seed distrib- typhodium lolii on the growth and the water status in perennial ryegrass cultivated un- ative. With diligence, two techniques utors. To ascertain the importance of der nitrogen deficiency or drought stress. were adopted; 1) to have the results endophytes and any associated bene- Agronomie: Plant Genetics and Breeding, independently and visually assessed fits, there needs to be more research 17, 8. by two laboratory technicians and; 2) into its abundance and distribution. Fu- SAIKKONEN, K., J. AHLHOLM, M. HELAND- to allow the imprinted membrane the ture research might also explore where ER, S. LEHTIMAKI and O. NIEMELAINEN, opportunity to dry at room tempera- endophytes are having a profound ef- 2000: Endophytic fungi in wild and culti- ture for three days. With the latter, the fect on the performance of sports turf, vated grasses in Finland. Ecography, 23, 360-366. imprints became pronounced. The for- for example an endophyte-mediated mer resulted in a shared median of 3 SCHARDL, C.L., A. LEUCHTMANN and M.J. resistance to disease, pests, drought SPIERING, 2004: Symbiosis of grasses positive reactions per membrane. The or other disorders, such as soil nutrient with seedborne fungal endophytes. Annual observations were compared using the deficiency. Review of Plant Biology, 55, 315-340. Mann-Whitney U test, the independ- WHITE, J.F. JR., G. LEWIS, S. SUN and C.R. ent observations were not significantly Acknowledgements JR. FUNK, 1993: A study of distribution different (U = 43, n1 = n2 = 9, P >0.05 of Acremonium typhinum in populations two-tail). of red fescue in southwest England and in Thanks are offered to Barenbrug UK vitro growth comparisons to isolates from Ltd, British Seed Houses Ltd, Everris North American collections. Sydowia, 45, 388-394. Discussion and; Hurrell and McClean Seeds Ltd. ZUREK, M., B. WIEWIORA, G. ZUREK and M. PRONCZUK, 2012: Occurrence of endo- This is the first reported occurrence of Literature phyte fungi on grasses in Poland - Review. Neotyphodium in a range of turfgrass Fungal Ecology, 5, 353-356. cultivars destined for UK sports turf. BAZELY, D.R., M. VICARI, S. EMMERICH, The species infected with Neotypho- L. FILIP, D. LIN and A. INMAN, 1997: In- dium from this study are comparable teractions between herbivores and en- Corresponding Author: with similar grassland species from dophyte-infected Festuca rubra from the Jonathan N. Knowles surveys carried out in Finland and Po- Scottish islands of St. Kilda, Benbecula Myerscough College, land (SAIKKONEN et al., 2000; ZUREK and Rum. Journal of Applied Ecology, 34, 847-860. Preston, et al., 2012). Although this study has Lancashire PR3 0RY. successfully confirmed the use of the BREEN, J.P., 1994: Acremonium endophyte interations with enhanced plant-resistance UK Agrinostics kit, it has a certain limita- to insects. Annual Review of Entomology, Email: [email protected] tion in terms of sample size, making it 39, 401-423.

40 4th ETS Conference 2014 Mycorrhizal colonization and competition against annual bluegrass on golf greens with red fescue as the predominant species

Espevig T., T.E. Andersen, A. Kvalbein, E. Joner and T.S. Aamlid

Introduction rhiza and competition against annual irrigated to field capacity each time the bluegrass on established golf greens soil moisture at 0-12 cm depth was 8 with red fescue as the predominant % or less and also by 5 mm after fer- ational and EU legislations restrict species. tilizing. Annual bluegrass plugs of 56- the use of pesticides, fertilizers N mm diameter were inserted in the plots and water. In this context, red fescue on 18 August 2011 and the diameter (Festuca rubra) species used on greens Materials and Methods was measured again by a rule in two appears to be the most environmentally directions on 11 October 2012 and the friendly cool-season turfgrass species The trial was laid out on a 3-yr old mean value calculated. The turf density for Scandinavian golf courses due to its USGA golf green at Bioforsk Landvik and turf quality were recorded monthly low requirements for nitrogen (N) and (58° N). The root zone of 30-cm depth from June to October in 2012 using a water and its high resistance to snow consisted of 90 % sand (volume frac- scale from 1 to 9 (1 – very low, 9 – very moulds (AAMLID et al., 2012). Among tion) and 10 % peat (volume fraction) high). For the mycorrhiza assay, two disadvantages of pure red fescue is its and had P extractable in ammonium -1 soil cylinders of 21-mm diameter and low density and potential susceptibility lactate (P-AL) of 1.5 mg 100 g . In June 20-cm depth were taken from plots to invasion by annual bluegrass (Poa 2010, the 4-cm top layer of the green

mowed at 5.5 mm only on September Turfgrass diseases, annua). Thus, red fescue is traditionally was replaced with the same media as 11th, September 24th and October 1st pests and weed control used in mixture with colonial bentgrass used previously and the green was -2 from blocks 1, 2 and 3, respectively. (Agrostis capillaris). Red fescue in mix- seeded at a rate of 2.5 kg 100 m . A Roots were washed, cut into 0.5-1.0- ture with velvet bentgrass (Agrostis ca- four-factorial experiment was arranged cm pieces, cleared in KOH (5 %), nina), which has high density but low re- according to a split-split-block design rinsed and stained with 0.05-% Trypan quirements to nitrogen and water, is an- with three blocks. Plots were 1.5 x 1.5 m Blue (KOSKE AND GEMMA, 1989). The other alternative (ESPEVIG et al., 2011). each. The factors were (i) grass species (whole plots in the direction east-west: percentage of roots that containined The utilization of arbuscular-mycorrhizal pure red fescue (F. r. spp. trichophyl- mycorrhizal structures was quantified (AM) fungi as a method to control annu- la (40 % cv.’Cezanne’ ) and F. r. spp. through a binocular loupe accord- al bluegrass was suggested by GANGE commutate (20 % cv.’Calliope’, 20% ing to the ‘grid-line intersect’ method (1998), who reported a negative rela- cv. ‘Bargreen’, 20 % cv. ‘Musica’)), 90 (GIOVANNETTI and MOSSE, 1980). tionship between the performance of % red fescue plus colonial bentgrass On April 2013, samples were taken to annual bluegrass and the abundance of (5 % cv. ‘Jorvik’ and 5 % cv. ‘Bark- 20-cm depth from each plot contain- AM. The degree of AM colonization is fa- ing’) or 90 % red fescue plus velvet ing pure red fescue mowed to 5.5 mm voured by low N and/or phosphorus (P) bentgrass (10 % cv. ‘Villa’); (ii) mo- for P-AL analyses. The data were ana- levels (BLANKE et al., 2011). Mycorrhiza wing heights (subplots in the direction lysed using SAS PROC MIXED proce- occurs in at least 80 % of all vascular east-west: 4.0 or 5.5 mm); (iii) N-rates dure with random block effects (SAS plants and often improves water and (0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 kg 100 m-2 yr-1) and (iv) version 9.2; SAS institute, Cary, NC, nutrient uptake, as well as resistance to P-rates/mycorrhiza (0 kg or 0.18 kg 100 USA). The monthly assesments for turf biotic and abiotic stresses (KOSKE et m-2 yr-1 without inoculation or 0 kg 100 density and turf quality were avaraged al., 1995). Turfgrasses may also benefit m-2 yr-1 with SYMBIVIT®1. Combinations prior to analysis. Significant differences from mycorrhiza, and at least 50 % roots of N-rates and P-rates/mycorrhiza among treatments were identified by of cool-season turfgrasses were report- were completely randomized on whole Tukey-Kramer LSD at the 0.05 proba- ed to be naturally colonized by AM fun- plots in the direction north-south. bility level. gi (FRANK, 1984; KOSKE et al., 1995). SYMBIVIT® was applied on 2 June 2011 Inoculation with a commercial source and 15 May 2012 at a rate of 15 kg 100 Results and Discussion of AM fungi enhanced bentgrass es- m-2 after coring to 6-cm depth using tablishment (GEMMA et al., 1997), but 6-mm hollow tines, and brushed into The diameter of annual bluegrass plugs its importance on established greens the wholes. All fertilizers were applied increased on plots with pure fescue but has not been well documented. The in liquid form; N (ammonium nitrate) decreased on plots with combinations objective of this study was to deter- and P (85-% phosphoric acid) at 2-wk of red fescue and bentgrasses (Table mine effects of mowing heights, N-rate, intervals and K and micronutrients at 1). This improvement in the competitive P-rate and inoculation with a com- 4-wk intervals. The green was mown ability against annual bluegrass seems mercial source of AM fungi on mycor- 3 times a week, groomed once a week to be related to an increase in turf den- and subjected to wear from pulling a sity, especially of velvet bentgrass (Ta- 1 SYMBIVIT® – mycorrhiza inoculum, Norsk friction wear roller with soft spikes over ble 1). However, the reduction in the di- Mykorrhiza, Oslo, Norway/Symbiom Ltd., the plots 1-3 times a week equivalent ameter of annual bluegrass plugs at 5.5 ® Sazava 170, Czech Republic. SYMBIVIT to 25.000 rounds of golf per year. The mm compared with 4 mm was non-sig- contains 15 000 – 25 000 propagules L-1 of six Glomus spp. (G. etunicatum, G. microag- total amount of topdressing applied as nificant in spite of the higher density at regatum, G. intraradices, G. claroideum, G. pure sand in 2011 and 2012 was 9.50 5.5 mm than at 4 mm (Table 1). In con- mosseae and G. geosporum) and 9.25 mm, respectively. Plots were trast, a lower N-rate seems to reduce

4th ETS Conference 2014 41 Reduction or in- Mycorrhiza ceptable turf quality (p<0.001) and den- Density crease in diameter coloniza- sity (p<0.01) (Figure 1). Factor Level scale of annual blue- tion 1-9 grass plug % % Acknowledgements Red fescue (RF) +6.3 a1 3.8 c 68.0 Species RF + Colonial bent -2.8 b 5.7 b 63.2 This research was funded by the Euro- pean programme EraSME and the Nor- RF + Velvet bent -3.8 b 6.3 a 64.7 wegian Golf Federation. 0.5 -4.0 3.5 c 67.9 Nitrogen, 1 +1.2 5.5 b 64.4 kg 100 m-² yr-¹ Literature 1.5 +2.5 6.7 a 63.5

Phosphorus, 0 -2.9 5.2 65.8 AAMILD, T.S., G. THORVALDSSON, F. ENGER kg 100 m-² yr-¹ 0 + SYMBIVIT® -0.3 5.3 65.8 and T. PETTERSEN, 2012: Turfgrass spe- and inoculation 0.18 +2.9 5.3 64.2 cies and varieties for Integrated Pest Man- agement of Scandinavian putting greens. Mowing height 4.0 +2.0 4.8 b Not Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section (MH), mm 5.5 -2.2 5.7 a studied B Soil & Plant Science 62 (Supplement 1): 10-23. Statistical significance of treatment effects BLANKE, V., M. WAGNER, C. RENKER, H. LIP- Species ** *** NS2 PERT, M. MICHULITZ, A.J. KUHN and F. Nitrogen (*) *** (*) BUSCOT, 2011: Arbuscular mycorrhizas in phosphate-polluted soil: interrelations be- Phosphorus and inoculation (*) NS NS tween root colonization and nitrogen. Plant Mowing height NS *** - and Soil, 343, 379-392. Species x Nitrogen NS ** NS ESPEVIG, T., 2011: Winter hardiness and man- Other interactions NS NS NS agement of Velvet bentgrass (Agrostis canina) on golf greens in the Nordic climate. 1 The means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to Tukey-Kramer Philosophia Doctor Thesis 2011:14: Norwe- LSD (=0.05) gian University of Life Sciences. 2 NS, not significant at the probability level >0.1. FRANK, J.B., 1984: A study of vesicular arbus- (*) Significant at the 0.1 probability level. cular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi on cool sea- ** Significant at the 0.01 probability level. son turfgrass. MSc thesis, Cornell Universi- *** Significant at the 0.001 probability level. ty. GANGE, A.C., 1998: A potential microbiological Tab. 1: Competitiveness against annual bluegrass, turf density and mycorrhiza coloniza- method for the reduction of Poa annua L. in tion as affected by turfgrass species, N fertilization, P fertilization / inoculation with golf greens. J. of Turfgrass Sci., 74, 40-45. SYMBIVIT®, and mowing height. GEMMA, J.N., R.E. KOSKE, E.M. ROBERTS and N. JACKSON, 1997: Enhanced establish- sponse of both annual bluegrass and ment of bentgrasses by arbuscular mycor- AM fungi to low nitrogen, and they are rhizal fungi. J. of Turfgrass Sci., 73, 9-14. probably not related directly. GIOVANNETTI, M. and B. MOSSE, 1980: An evaluation of techniques for measuring ve- Application of P or inoculation with sicular arbuscular mycorrhizal infection in SYMBIVIT® had no effect on turf den- roots. New Phytologist, 84 (3), 489-500. sity or percentage of roots colonized KOSKE, R.E. and J.N. GEMMA, 1989: A mod- by mycorrhiza, but as with N-rate, an ified procedure for staining roots to detect increase in P-rate tended to increased VA mycorrhizas. Mycological Research, 92, competition from annual bluegrass 486-505. ® KOSKE, R.E., J.N. GEMMA and N. JACKSON, (Table1). SYMBIVIT led to a slight in- 1995: Mycorrhizal fungi benefit putting crease in the removal of phosphorus greens. USGA Green Section Record, 33, from the soil (p<0.001). As measured 12-14. Fig. 1: Turf quality and density of three in April 2013, P-AL was 1.15, 1.03 and VARGAS J.M. and A.J. TURGEON, 2004: Poa golf greens with red fescue as predomi- 1.61 mg 100 g-1 soil in 0-20-cm depth annua. Physiology, culture and control of nant species as affected by nitrogen rate. on the plots which did not received P, annual bluegrass. John Wiley & Sons, Ho- boken, NJ, USA. P-values are for interaction Nitrogen x which received SYMBIVIT® or 0.18 kg Species. Bars with the same letter are not 2 -1 significantly different according to P 100 m yr , respectively. It seems Tukey-Kramer LSD (=0.05). that the inoculation with AM fungi Authors: through top dressing made once a year Tatsiana Espevig PhD the competition from annual bluegrass was inefficient, and that established ([email protected]) despite a reduction in the density of the greens benefit little from such inocula- Agnar Kvalbein MSc pure fescue or fescue/bentgrass com- tion. Invasive AM fungi were abundant, ([email protected]) binations. This was most likely due to but seemingly not efficient in providing Erik Joner PhD the high N requirement of annual blue- fescue and bentgrasses a competitive ([email protected]) grass (VARGAS and TURGEON, 2004). advantage over annual bluegrass, as Trygve S. Aamlid PhD Decrease in N level tended meanwhile described by GANGE (1988). ([email protected]) to increase in the percentage of roots The turf quality was influenced by the Bioforsk – Norwegian Institute for colonized with AM fungi (Table 1). same factors as the density (data not Agricultural and Environmental Thus, our results support the theory shown). A significant interaction Spe- Research, Norway that abundance of annual bluegrass cies x N-rate revealed that in this study Tina E. Andersen MSc is negatively related to the abundance golf greens with red fescue as the pre- ([email protected]) of AM fungi in the soil. However, it ap- dominant species required at least 1.0 Høst – the value in waste AS, Norway pears that this is an independent re- kg N per 100 m-2 yr-1 to produce an ac-

42 4th ETS Conference 2014 Changes in sensitivity of the dollar spot fungus, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, to the demethylation inhibitor fungicide Propiconazole 20 years after first use van den Nieuwelaar, A.M. and T. Hsiang

Population name 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 095 128 130 Introduction PoaNumber annua of. Fungi were75 87isolated 77 from68 83 an84 equal70 final95 concentration91 95 93 86of ace-62 eachisolates grass sample following HSIANG tone in the PDA (0.10% v/v) in both Mean growth 26 55 41 26 32 29 40 37 39 37 39 43 41 et al. (1997). Each isolate was grown on fungicide-amended and non-amended ollar spot, caused by Sclerotinia (%) on fungicide h a c h f g c e cd e de b c potato dextrosea agar (PDA) for 48 hrs PDA plates. Mycelial plugs, 5 mm in homoeocarpa, is the most prev- medium D at 22.5Estimated ºC, confirmed69b as31 bS. 71homoeo- 27 25 diameter,33 38 were64 taken66 78from 59 the 65edge 72 of alent disease on intensively managed carpanumber by comparisonof with known iso- active colonies and was placed onto golf courses in the Great Lakes region DMI applications lates,a and was stored on PDA at 4 ºC PDA-1 plates amended with or without (SMILEY et al., 2005; HSIANG et al., Data for growth on medium containing 0.1 µg mL propiconazole compared to non-amended until testing for fungicide sensitivity. 0.1 μg mL-1 of propiconazole. Note 1997). There are different approaches medium were subjected to Analysis of Variance, and the means were separated by the test of Least Significant Difference (LSD=1.89, p=0.05), thatwith meansthe label followed rates by afor letter propiconazole in common to the control of S. homoeocarpa, but All indicatingisolates no were significant tested difference. for sensitivi- application range from 4.0 to 8.0 g per many superintendents still heavily rely b ty to These propiconazole, estimates of DMI a fungicideDMI fungicide applications ar100e not m consistent2 applied with in the3 toobserved 15 L fungicideof water, on chemical fertilizers and fungicides sensitivity, and are considered outliers. commonly used on golf courses in which is equivalent to 270 to 2700 μg to prevent and manage disease symp- Ontario since 1994. Technical grade mL-1, thousands of times higher con- toms (SMILEY et al., 2005). Demeth- propiconazole (Syngenta) was diluted centration than the discriminatory ylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides are in @bu:acetone, Tab. 1:and Population was added name, totalto molten number of isolatesconcentration tested, mean tested. percent Mycelial relative growth growth on among the most effective for the con- fungicide amended media vs. non-amended, and estimated number of DMI fungicide

PDA (60 ºC) to the target concentra- was measured at 24 and 48 hrs. These Turfgrass diseases, trol of dollar spot; however there have applications at the sampled location over the last 20 years. tion of 0.1 μg mL-1, while maintaining measurements were used to calculate pests and weed control been several reports of fungicide resistance in the US (SMILEY et al., 2005). In Ontario, Canada, a baseline sensitivity study on S. homoeocarpa was completed in 1994 (HSIANG et al., 1997) just before the registration of first DMI fungicide on turf, and then reas- sessed 10 years later (HSIANG et al., 2007). The objective of this study was to revisit and sample from the same locations as those of the 1993 and 2003 studies, and to see how fungicide use might have affected population sensitivity.

Materials and Methods

From 13 locations in southern Ontar- io, 100 samples of leaves displaying symptoms of dollar spot were sys- tematically collected in summer 2013 using a grid with at least 1 m between Fig. 1: The average sensitivity toward the DMI fungicide propiconazole of 13 populations samples. These golf course fairways of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa after 20 years of DMI use. The populations represented by consisted mostly of Agrostis stoloni- white circles were outliers with the reported number of applications inconsistent with fera with up to a 20% component of population sensitivity to DMI fungicides. A trendline without the outliers is shown.

Population name 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 095 128 130 Number of isolates 75 87 77 68 83 84 70 95 91 95 93 86 62 Mean growth (%) on 26 h 55 a 41 c 26 h 32 f 29 g 40 c 37 e 39 cd 37 e 39 de 43 b 41 c fungicide mediuma Estimated number of 69b 31b 71 27 25 33 38 64 66 78 59 65 72 DMI applications a Data for growth on medium containing 0.1 μg mL-1 propiconazole compared to non-amended medium were subjected to Analysis of Variance, and the means were separated by the test of Least Significant Difference (LSD=1.89, p=0.05), with means followed by a letter in common indicating no significant difference. b These estimates of DMI fungicide applications are not consistent with the observed fungicide sensitivity, and are considered outliers.

Tab. 1: Population name, total number of isolates tested, mean percent relative growth on fungicide amended media vs. non-amended, and estimated number of DMI fungicide applications at the sampled location over the last 20 years.

4th ETS Conference 2014 43 the inhibition of growth for every isolate In previous years of testing, EC50 val- DMI fungicides and can cause control relative to its growth on PDA amended ues (effective concentrations to cause issues in the field. with acetone alone. 50% growth inhibition) were calculated using a wide range of fungicide Literature cited Results and Discussion concentrations (HSIANG et al., 1997 & 2007). Perhaps these more precise estimates of sensitivity are needed HSIANG, T., A. LIAO and D. BENEDETTO, The mean growth on fungicide-amend- 2007: Sensitivity of Sclerotinia homoeocar- ed media ranged from 26% to 55% of to reveal the effects of fungicide use, pa to demethylation inhibiting fungicides non-amended PDA, and differed sig- rather than the use of single threshold in Ontario, Canada, after a decade of use. nificantly (p=0.05) among populations concentrations. In any case, greater Plant Pathology 56: 500-507. (Table 1). There was no significant re- use of DMI fungicides seems to have HSIANG, T., L. YANG and W. BARTON, 1997: lationship between the number of DMI been related to decreased sensitivity, Baseline sensitivity and cross-resistance to demethylation-inhibiting fungicides fungicide applications over the last 20 although in Ontario, the reduced sensitivity has not resulted in disease control in Ontario isolates of Sclerotinia homoeo- years, and mean relative growth (re- carpa. European Journal of Plant Pathology flecting the level of reduced sensitiv- failure. 103: 409-416. ity), with r=0.14 and p=0.65 in a cor- SMILEY, R., P. DERNOEDEN and B. CLARKE, relation analysis. However since the 2005: Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases. number of DMI fungicide applications Conclusions pp. 46-53. was dependent on self reporting by superintendents and accurate record Isolates with some level of reduced keeping, this number was examined sensitivity were detected among all Authors: more closely. There were some appar- populations assessed, which may pose Anne-Miet Van Den Nieuwelaar ent outliers in Figure 1 (shown in grey, a problem for the control of dollar spot (M.Sc. student) and Tom Hsiang with relatively low number of fungicide disease in Ontario in the future. Further (Professor). applications, but relatively high levels work will be done with the presumed School of Environmental Sciences, of reduced sensitivity and vice-versa). reduced sensitive isolates by determin- University of Guelph, When these outliers were omitted, the ing the EC50 values for these isolates Guelph, Ontario, Canada. relationship was found to be signifi- and assessing whether these isolates email: [email protected] cant: r=0.77 and p=0.0058. display a reduced sensitivity to other

44 4th ETS Conference 2014 Phosphite mediated inhibition of Microdochium nivale

Dempsey, J.J., I. Wilson, P.T.N. Spencer-Phillips and D.L. Arnold

3- 3- -1 Introduction PO3 and PO4 (ANI 39 kg K ha , 35 actively growing colonies, were trans- 3- -1 -1 kg PO3 ha and 39 kg K ha , 35 kg ferred to amended and control PDA, PO 3- ha-1 respectively). Monthly as- from which radial growth measure- he ascomycete pathogen, Microdo- 4 sessments determined percent M. ni- ments were used to calculate mean chium nivale (teleomorph Monogra- T vale incidence. daily growth rates and percent growth phella nivalis (Schafnitt)) (SMILEY et al., inhibition. Data were analysed using 1992) is causal agent for the most im- Greenhouse pots of A. stolonifera SPSS Statistics 19.0 and significant portant cool-season turfgrass disease (Penn A4) seeded at 6 g m-2 and al- differences separated by Tukey least microdochium patch (VARGAS, 2005). lowed to establish for six months, were significant difference test at p<0.05. Research into novel means to reduce used to determine the assimilation and 3- M. nivale infection is desirable. Phos- accumulation of PO3 , using High Per- 3- Results phite (PO3 ) is a reduced form of phos- formance Ion Chromatography (HPIC). 3- -1 phorus, which has proven efficacy as PO3 foliar treatments at 0.35 g/m , an inhibitor of phytopathogens (FENN were applied and leaf, crown and root Field trials determined significant- and COFFEY, 1984). The majority of tissues harvested at 1, 6, 12, 24, 48 h ly lower percentages (p<0.05) of published data however, have been and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 weeks post-appli- microdochium patch incidence on 3- on its inhibitory effects on oomycet- PO3 treated plots during four sea- Turfgrass diseases, cation (p.a.). The tissues were washed pests and weed control 3- es (FENN and COFFEY, 1984, COOK, in sterile distilled water prior to being sons, when compared with PO4 and 3- control plots (Figure 1). This confirms 2009), although PO3 inhibition of asco- dried and ground. Samples (0.5 g) were mycetes has been reported (BURPEE, extracted and injected via 0.47 micron previously published data which con- 2005), including inhibition of M. majus filters into a Dionex ICS100 ion chro- cluded that during periods of disease (HOFGAARD et al., 2010). DEMPSEY matograph. Standard curves prepared pressure, sequential applications of 3- phosphite significantly inhibits micro- et al., 2012, determined PO3 signifi- from sodium phosphate monobasic an- cantly suppressed M. nivale infection hydrous (H NaO P) and sodium phos- dochium patch (DEMPSEY et al., 2012, 2 4 GOLEMBIEWSKI and McDONALD, in turfgrass (p<0.01), compared to con- phite dibasic pentahydrate (Na2(PHO3) 3- 2011).To suppress pathogen activity a trols. Publication of these data led to 5H20 were used to determine PO3 and further field trials and research to de- PO 3- amounts and reported as ppm compound must be present at the site 4 3- termine the mode of suppression. The dried tissue weight. of infection, Figure 2 shows PO3 ac- aims of these studies therefore, were to cumulations in turfgrass tissues over 6 determine the assimilation, transloca- In vitro inhibition of M. nivale mycelial weeks p.a., demonstrating that treat- 3- tion and accumulation of foliar applied growth was determined by amended tissues accumulate PO3 rapidly phosphite in turfgrass and secondly, to ing PDA (19 g/l) with H3PO3, H3PO4, and that some is translocated to the determine any fungicidal or fungistatic KH2PO3, and KH2PO4, ranging from 10 roots, suggesting symplastic mobility. -1 properties of phosphite, by assessing to 250 μg/ml (n=6). Agar plugs from The data also indicate that sequential the in vitro inhibition of M. nivale mycelial growth. Attachments Materials and Methods

From 2010 to 2014, field studies, conducted at Royal Curragh Golf Club, Co Kildare, Ireland, were carried out on Agrostis canina L., A. stolonifera L. and Poa annua L. swards, established on a sandy/loam soil, pH 7.1. All plots received granular nutrient inputs (An- dersons 21:3:21) at the beginning of May and September each year, at a rate of 30 g m-1, giving annual nutritional inputs (ANI) of 126 kg N ha-1, 7.9 kg -1 P ha (in the form of P2O5) and 105 kg K ha-1.Treatments, applied sequential- ly every three weeks, from September to March each year, were arranged Fig. 1: Treatment effect on microdochium patch incidence on A. stolonifera, A. canina and in a randomised complete block design Figure 1 Treatment effect on microdochium patch incidence on A. stolonifera, A. canina P. annua trial andplots P. overannua four trial seasonsplots over (n=6).four seasons Bars indicate(n=6). Bars one indicate standard one standard error, letters indi- (n=6) and comprised of KH2PO3 and cate significanterror, differences letters indicate within significant species differences at p < 0.05 within according species at to p

4th ETS Conference 2014 45

3- Figure 2 PO3 accumulation in treated tissues 6 weeks p.a. (n=6). Bars indicate one standard error. Attachments

Figure 1 Treatment effect on microdochium patch incidence on A. stolonifera, A. canina and P. annua trial plots over four seasons (n=6). Bars indicate one standard error, letters indicate significant differences within species at p < 0.05 according to Tukey least significant difference test.

mycelial growth of M. nivale. Inhibition of mycelial growth in planta would allow increased time for initiation of host defences, and the combination of both these direct and indirect effects is likely to contribute to the reduced susceptibility observed. Further research using fluorescent microscopy and spectrophotometry is needed to evaluate secondary metabolic processes and 3- determine the role of PO3 in activating or enhancing inducible defence mechanisms.

Literature 3- Fig. 2: PO3 accumulation in treated tissues 6 weeks p.a. (n=6). Bars indicate one standard error. BURPEE, L.L., 2005: Sensitivity of Colletotrichi- um Graminicola to Phosphonate Fungi- cides. International Turfgrass Society Re-

3- search Journal, 10, 163-169. Figure 2 PO3 accumulation in treated tissues 6 weeks p.a. (n=6). Bars indicate one standard error. COOK, P.J., 2009: Inhibition of Pythium spp. and suppression of Pythium blight and anthracnose with Phosphonate fungicides. MSc, Penn state. DEMPSEY, J.J., I.D. WILSON, P.T.N. SPEN- CER-PHILLIPS and D.L. ARNOLD, 2012: Suppression of Microdochium nivale by potassium phosphite in cool-season turfgrasses. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B - Plant Soil Science, 62, 70-78. FENN, M.E. and M.D. COFFEY, 1984: Studies on the In vitro and in vivo antifungal activity of Fosetyl-Al and Phosphorus acid. Phyto- pathology, 74, 606-611. GOLEMBIEWSKI, R. and B. MCDONALD, 2011: Evaluation of Potassium Phosphite for Control of Microdochium Patch On An An- nual Bluegrass Putting Green. ASA CSSA Fig. 3: Treatment effect on percent inhibition of M. nivale mycelial growth in vitro on SSSA International Annual Meetings, San amended PDA compared to controls (n=6). Bars indicate one standard error. Antonio, Texas, USA. Figure 3 Treatment effect on percent inhibition of M. nivale mycelial growth in vitro HOFGAARD, I.S., A. ERGON, B. HENRIKSEN on amended PDA compared to controls (n=6). Bars indicate one standard and A.M. TRONSMO, 2010: The effect of error. 3- potential resistance inducers on develop- applications of PO3 on a 3-week cy- effect, with only a 10% growth inhibi- -1 3- ment of Microdochium majus and Fusarium cle would maintain leaf tissue amounts tion at 250 μg/ml of PO4 (Figure 3). culmorum in winter wheat. European Jour- 3- of approximately 2000 ppm. PO4 Hofgaard et al., 2010, reported a simi- nal of Plant Pathology, 128, 269–281. amounts in both treated and control lar effect in regard to M. majus, report- SMILEY, R., DERNOEDEN, P. & CLARKE, B., leaf, crown and root tissues were not ing reduced in vitro growth in phos- 1992: Compendium of Turfgrass Diseases, significantly different, confirming no in phite amended PDA, concluding that St Paul, APS Press. 3- 3- planta conversion of PO3 to PO4 . The disease development is partly due to a VARGAS, J., 2005: Management of Turfgrass presence of phosphite in the turfgrass fungistatic effect. Diseases, New Jersey, Wiley and Sons. tissues, therefore, would allow for suppression of M. nivale upon infection, as evidenced by the in vitro experiments, Conclusions which determined that the presence Authors: 3- 3- of PO3 in PDA had a direct inhibitory It was concluded that PO3 is rapidly J.J. Dempsey, I. Wilson, P.T.N effect on mycelial growth of the path- assimilated and translocated in turf- Spencer-Phillips and D.L. Arnold -1 3- ogen. At 38 μg/ml of PO3 mycelial grass and that treated plants are sig- Centre for Research in Biosciences, growth was reduced to 50% of con- nificantly less susceptible to M. nivale University of the West of England, trols and at amounts of 100 μg/ml-1 and infection in the field. In vitro experi- Bristol, BS16 1QY. 3- above, growth was inhibited by 100%. ments have demonstrated that PO3 Email: [email protected] H3PO4 and KH2PO4 had no significant has a direct inhibitory effect on the

46 4th ETS Conference 2014 Variation in responsiveness of Agrostis cultivars to defence activators

Hsiang T., P.H. Goodwin and W. Gao

Introduction were applied to foliage, except for “5 that some of the applied material con- mM silicilic acid-soil”, which was ap- tinued to persist in the jars, and were efence activators control plant plied to soil (10 ml per jar). For foliar ap- taken up by the growing seedlings for Ddiseases by inducing plant de- plications, plants were sprayed with 5 the next 7 days before inoculation, with fences against subsequent pathogen ml of activator solution. Control plants the amounts taken up dependent on attack. Some have been shown to de- were similarly treated with autoclaved the systemicity of the compound and crease severity of several diseases in distilled water. whether they were bound up by the soil. Each activator varied in their ef- Agrostis species (COOK et al., 2006; Inoculum of Sclerotinia homoeocarpa fectiveness depending on the cultivar CORTES-BARCO et al., 2010; DAT- isolate SH84 was produced on wheat (Table 1). The per cent change in yel- NOFF, 2005; LEE et al., 2003; NASH, seed, dried and ground to fine parti- lowing relative to the water controls are 2011). The common mode of action of cles. Plants were inoculated 7 days af- shown and were classified as high con- defence activators is either SAR (sys- ter activator or control treatment with trol (60% or less of the water control), temic acquired resistance) via the sal- 0.18 g inoculum per jar, which was 14 moderate control (60 to 80%), limited icylic acid-dependent pathway, or ISR days after planting. The jars were then to no control (80 to 120%), or negative (induced systemic resistance) via the loosely covered with a Petri-plate lid jasmonic acid and ethylene-depend- control (120% or greater). Turfgrass diseases,

and placed under illumination at 25 C. pests and weed control ent pathways, but there appears to be The per cent foliar yellowing was then The best result for humic acid-1 was other pathways that are not yet fully visually estimated at 12 days post in- high control for Cato, but SR1150 characterized (HSIANG at al., 2013). oculation (DPI) which was 26 days after showed negative control. For humic Because these chemicals work by af- planting. Results are the averages from acid-2, the best results were high con- fecting plant defence gene expression, treated plants in three jars compared to trol for Focus and moderate control for the plant genotype (cultivar) can have the water control plants in three jars. Alpha, Cato, MacKenzie, and Vesper, a major impact on their effectiveness but there was negative control for San- (i.e., defence activator responsive- Results dhill and SR1150. The best result for ness), but this has not been investigat- hyaluronan was moderate control in ed in turfgrasses. MacKenzie, Focus, Alpha, Penncross, Although the compounds were applied T1 and Tyee. At best, PABA only gave Materials and Methods to plants at seven days after seeding, moderate control for some cultivars, at which time the tallest plants were but it provided negative control for Agrostis stolonifera and A. canina culti- on average 2 to 2.5 cm, we expect SR1150 which had twice as much yel- vars tested are listed in Table 1. Mason jars (500 ml) were filled with 70 ml of thrice autoclaved sand rootzone mix, humic humic phos- silicic silicic Cultivar hyaluron PABA composed of 80% sand plus 20% peat acid-1 acid-2 phite acid spray acid soil moss (v:v). The soilmix was moistened with 13 ml of sterile de-ionized water 007 111 100 87 89 91 53 80 to give 26% moisture (w/w). Approxi- Alpha 76 68 74 103 65 45 67 mately 0.15 g of seed (up to 300 seeds) were then placed in each jar that was Cato 55 65 100 82 103 53 44 loosely covered with a Petri-plate lid Focus 86 49 70 80 64 70 21 and incubated at 25 C with illumination Kingpin 72 83 91 99 96 49 40 at 50 μmol/m2/s. MacKenzie 61 61 61 75 61 62 14 After 7 days, when leaf blades aver- PennA4 100 127 79 109 123 27 20 aged 2 to 2.5 cm tall, defense activa- Penncross 82 92 76 75 83 64 44 tors were applied to plants in each jar. Treatments were 0.75% humic acid-1 Sandhill 84 97 112 99 103 29 62 (16% humic acid), 0.75% humic acid-2 SR1150 137 125 87 194 106 31 44 (15% potassium humate, 12.5% hu- T1 84 84 74 97 81 42 55 mic acid, Borregaard LignoTech), 33.3 mg/L sodium hyaluronan (United Bio- Tyee 75 90 79 75 79 59 55 Science), 28 mM para-aminobenzoic Vesper 79 77 95 72 75 50 46 acid (PABA, Nutritional Biochemicals), LSD (p=0.05) 35 29 32 50 34 41 40 25 mM potassium phosphite (Agro- Tab. 1: Dollar spot control in cultivars of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera) or Ves- mart), or 5 mM silicilic acid hydrate (Al- per velvet bentgrass (A. canina) treated with water or a defence activator and inoculated fa Aesar). All chemicals were dissolved 7 days later with Sclerotinia homoeocarpa. Means are per cent change in foliar yellowing in sterile distilled water. Treatments relative to the water control at 12 days after inoculation.

4th ETS Conference 2014 47 lowing after treatment. Phosphite gave responded less well to activator treat- DATNOFF, L.E., 2005: Silicon in the life and a moderate control for Alpha, Focus, ments, other cultivars, like MacKenzie performance of turfgrass. Applied Turf- MacKenzie, Tyee and Vesper, but neg- and Focus, generally responded well to grass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2005- 0914-01-RV. ative control for Sandhill. Silicilic acid the different treatments. The cultivars HSIANG T, P. GOODWIN, A. CORTES-BARCO applied to foliage had its best results with the least variable response were and B. NASH, 2013: Activating disease with high control in 007, Alpha, Cato, MacKenzie, Alpha, Cato and Focus. resistance in turfgrasses against fungal Kingpin, PennA4, Sandhill, Focus and The two with the mostly highly variable pathogens. pp. 331-342 in: Imai R, Yoshida Penncross, with the rest showing mod- response were T1 and Vesper. These M, Matsumoto N (eds). Plant and Microbe erate control. Silicilic acid applied to air results do not support the idea that Adaptations to Cold in a Changing World. Springer, Berlin. or soil gave the best results overall with there is a genetic trait that provides numerous cultivars in the high control broad scale higher responsiveness to LEE, J., J. FRY and N. TISSERAT, 2003: Dol- lar spot and brown patch incidence in category and the remaining in the mod- multiple defense activators. Even the creeping bentgrass as affected by aciben- erate control category. response to the same activator, silicilic zolar-S-methyl and biostimulants. HortSci- acid, applied to foliage or soil, differed ence, 38, 1223-1226. Conclusions in effectiveness, which was most ap- NASH, B.T., 2011: Activation of disease re- parent for Kingpin and Focus. sistance and defense gene expression in Agrostis stolonifera and Nicotiana benth- All of the activators varied in their abil- All of these results were obtained from amiana by a copper-containing pigment ity to induce resistance in the cultivars laboratory experiments so that the dif- and a benzothiadiazole. M.Sc. Thesis, Uni- examined. They provided high control ferent grasses would be all grown un- versity of Guelph. 300 pp. with 60% or less foliar yellowing com- der the same conditions. Future work is pared to the water treatment for at least needed to examine if these responses one cultivar, except for hyaluron, PABA are repeatable under the more varia- Authors: and phosphite. However, all were det- ble and potentially stressful conditions rimental to resistance (negative control) in the field. Gene expression research Dr. Tom Hsiang in at least one cultivar, except for hya- using Next Generation Sequencing will Environmental Sciences luron or silicilic acid applied by spray or also be useful to elucidate the exact University of Guelph to the soil. This demonstrates the im- mechanisms of action. Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1 portance of selecting the proper com- [email protected] bination of cultivar and defence activa- Dr. Paul H. Goodwin tor for better turf disease management. Literature Environmental Sciences In these studies, silicilic acid, applied University of Guelph either as spray or to soil provided the COOK J., P. LANDSCHOOT, M. SCHLOSS- Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1 greatest disease suppression. Silicon BERG, 2006: Phosponate products for disease control and putting green quality. Golf [email protected] enters leaves or roots in the form of sili- Course Management, 74(4), 93-96. cilic acid, and more study is needed on CORTES-BARCO, A.M., T. HSIANG and P.H. Weihong Gao the role of silicon in disease resistance GOODWIN, 2010: Induced systemic resist- Environmental Sciences on turfgrasses. ance against three foliar diseases of Agros- University of Guelph tis stolonifera by (2R, 3R)-butanediol or an Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1 While some cultivars, like SR1150, isoparrafin mixture. Annals of Applied Biol- [email protected] 007, Sandhill and PennA4, generally ogy, 157, 179-189

48 4th ETS Conference 2014 Evaluation of microbiological agents for control of Microdochium nivale in vitro

Espevig T., A. Tronsmo and T.S. Aamlid

Introduction Materials and Methods torial experiment arranged according to a randomized complete three-block design. The experimental factors were: icrodochium nivale causing mi- The treatments included two biolog- agents, dosages, temperatures and in- crodochium patch in the growing ical agents, their combination, and M cubation periods. season and pink snow mold in spring two selected fungicides (Table 1). The after snowmelt, is the most impor- fungicides were added in amounts tant fungal pathogen on golf greens necessary to obtain the recommend- Results and discussion in Scandinavia. Due to the increasing ed dose, 1/10 and 1/100 of the recom- restrictions on the use of chemicals on mended dose in 50-% potato dextrose Growth rate of M. nivale in control golf greens (The European Parliament agar (PDA) which had been first auto- plates was 12.8 and 5.0 mm per day and The Council, 2009), alternative claved at 121°C for 15 minutes and at 16 °C and 6 °C, respectively. Both methods for disease control attract then cooled down to 50 °C. The agar fungicides completely suppressed the more attention. The biological agents with each fungicide was divided among fungal growth regardless of dose and Turf WPG and Turf S+, both produced Petri plates (9 cm diameter) at 16 ml temperature (Table 2). After establish- by Verdera (Finland), contain Gliocla- per plate. Each microbial agent and ment of the antagonists during the first dium catenulatum and Streptomyces, their mixture were spread on the so- Turfgrass diseases, 4 days at 16 °C, the efficacy of the rec- pests and weed control respectively. Streptomyces strains lidified pure 50-% PDA with a Drigalski ommended dose of Turf S+ during day have shown antagonistic activities spatula in amounts necessary to ob- number 4-12 was 11 % less than of against M. nivale (TREJO-ESTRADA tain the recommended dose, 1/10 and fungicides and it also decreased with et al., 1998), and G. catenulatum has 1/100 of the recommended dose. After decreasing dose. At 6 °C, 1/1 and 1/10 been reported to suppress some Fusa- all media had solidified, 10-mm-diam- of recommended doses of Turf S+ had rium spp. and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum eter disc from the margin of M. niva- the same effect as at 16 °C, whereas (HUANG, 1978; TEPERI et al., 1998). le (grown on PDA) was placed at the 1/100 dose of Turf S+ had lower effi- The main antagonistic mechanisms center of each Petri plate. The M. ni- cacy at 6 °C than that at 16 °C. At 16 of G. catenulatum and Streptomyces vale strain was isolated from an annual °C, Turf WPG had the same efficacy as are hyperparasitism (MCQUILKEN et bluegrass (Poa annua) green at Land- fungicides regardless of dose. How- al., 2001) and production of antifungal vik. The Petri plates were incubated ever, at 6 °C the suppressive effect antibiotics (TREJO-ESTRADA et al., either at 6°C or at 16°C in the dark for of WPG completely disappeared. This 1998).), respectively. Testing of micro- 12 days. On day 4 and 12, the diameter significant decrease in antagonistic biological agents in vitro is a useful in- of the M. nivale colonies was measured activity of G. catenulatum from Turf dicator for their efficacy but such tests in two directions and averaged prior to WPG at 6 °C was due to a significant are usually performed at temperatures further calculations. In control plates reduction in the number of microbes at which are optimal for growth of antago- with PDA only, the diameter of M. ni- 6 °C as compared with 16 °C (AAMLID nists. The objective of this study was to vale colonies was measured on day 4 et al., 2013). The stimulating effects of evaluate the efficacy of Turf WPG and at 16 °C and on day 12 at 6 °C, and the 1/100 and 1/10 dose of Turf WPG on Turf S+ against M. nivale in vitro at low daily growth rate was calculated. The M. nivale at 6 °C remained unclear. In temperature which favor attack by M. efficacy of the agents was expressed our study, the vital activity and antibi- nivale in the field. as reduction of daily growth rate in otic production of Streptomyces from percentage of control. The data were Turf S+ appeared to persist at 6 °C. In analyzed using ANOVA for a four-fac- the mixture of Turf WPG and Turf S+

Recommended dose per 1000 m2 Agent Active ingredient Concentration of Agent, Recommended Water, L active ingredient g or mL concentration, % Turf WPG Gliocladium >1*107 cfu1 per 1 g 100 30 0.33 (Verdera, Finland) catenulatum Turf S+ (Verdera, Finland) Streptomyces spp. >1*108 cfu per 1 mL 100 30 0.33 Turf WPG + Turf S+ Two above 0.33 + 0.33 Delaro (Bayer, Germany) Prothioconazole 175 g /L + 150 g/L 100 30 0.33 + trifloxystobin Medallion TL (Syngenta, Switzerland) Fludioxonil 118 g /kg 300 30

1 cfu – Colony forming units (spores or/and mycelium)

Tab. 1: Microbiological agents and selected fungicides used in the study.

4th ETS Conference 2014 49 Testing of alternative plant protection prod- Temperature and incubation period ucts for the control of Microdochium nivale 16 °C 6 °C and other diseases on golf greens. Bioforsk Agent Dose Report, 8, 38 p. 0-4 D 4-12 D 0-4 D 4-12 D HUANG, H.C., 1978: Gliocladium catenulatum: Reduction in radial growth of M. nivale, % of control hyperparasite of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 1 2 and Fusarium species. Can. J. Plant Pathol. Turf WPG 1/100 51 lm 95 abc 46 lmno -16 s 56 (18), 2243-2246. 1/10 71 hijk 97 ab 43 mnop -16 s MCQUILKEN M.P., J. GEMMELL and M.-L. 13 80 efgh 100 a 53 l 3 r LAHDENPERÄ, 2001: Gliocladium catenulatum as a potential biological control agent Turf S+ 1/100 45 lmno 66 jk 40 nop 30 q of damping-off in bedding plants. J. Phyto- pathol., 149, 171-178. 1/10 81 defg 63 k 66 jk 65 k TEPERI E., M. KESKINEN, E. KETOJA and R. 1 87 cde 89 bcd 69 ijk 89 bcde TAHVONEN, 1998: Screening for fungal Turf WPG 1/100 48 lmn 98 ab 34 pq 38 opq antagonists of seedborne Fusarium culmorum on wheat using in vivo tests. Eur. J. + Turf S+ 1/10 85 def 99 a 75 ghij 70 ijk Plant Pathol., 104, 243-251. 1 81 defg 100 a 82 defg 77 fghi THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL, 2009: DIRECTIVE 2009/128/ Delaro 1/100 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a EC of 21 October 2009 establishing 1/10 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a a framework for Community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesti- 1 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a cides. Available at http://eur-lex.europa. eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=O- Medallion TL 1/100 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a J:L:2009:309:0071:0086:en:PDF (verified 1/10 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a 27 December 2013). 1 100 a 100 a 100 a 100 a TREJO-ESTRADA, S.R., I. RIVAS SEPULVEDA and D.L. CRAWFORD, 1998: In vitro and 1 The means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to Fisher’s in vivo antagonism of Streptomyces viola- protected LSD-test (=0.05). ceusniger YCED9 against fungal pathogens 2 Stimulated radial growth of turfgrass. World Journal of Microbiology 3 Recommended dose & Biotechnology, 14, 865-872.

Tab. 2: Effects of microbiological agents and selected fungicides on radial growth of M. nivale in vitro. Authors: suppression of M. nivale growth was Acknowledgements Dr. Tatsiana Espevig most likely dominated by Turf WPG at ([email protected]) 16 °C and by Turf S+ at 6 °C. Dr. Trygve S. Aamlid This research was funded by the Scan- ([email protected]) dinavian Turfgrass and Environment In conclusion, our results suggest that Bioforsk – Norwegian Institute for Research Foundation (STERF) and by low temperature may reduce the effi- Agricultural and Environmental cacy of Turf WPG. Since M. nivale is a grant from the Danish Environmental Research, Norway - active during cool and wet periods in Protection Agency to Verdera’s Swed Reddalsveien 215, ish representative Interagro Bios AB. the growing season, Turf WPG may be NO-4886 Grimstad able to reduce the disease pressure in Prof. Dr. Arne Tronsmo summer and in early autumn. However, Literature ([email protected]) Turf S+ may be able to reduce the dis- Norwegian University of Life ease pressure both during the growing AAMLID T.S., K. PAASKE, L. WIIK, T. ESPEVIG, Sciences, Norway season and at low temperature in late A. TRONSMO, T. PETTERSEN, A.M. DAHL Postboks 5003, NO-1432 Ås autumn. JENSEN and P.G. ANDERSSON, 2013:

50 4th ETS Conference 2014 Frequency and characterization of Acidovorax avenae and Xanthomonas translucens associated with bacterial etiolation and/or decline on creeping bentgrass putting greens in the Eastern United States

Roberts, J.A., L.P. Tredway, B. Ma, J.P. Kerns, B.B. Clarke and D.F. Ritchie

Introduction Materials and Methods Num- Genera ber of % tiolation, a rapid yellowing and During 2011-2013, numerous CBG Isolates elongation of turfgrass stems and E samples were submitted to the NC Acidovorax 17 9.0 leaves, has been observed for dec- State Turf Diagnostic Clinic exhibiting ades; however, the prevalence of etio- symptoms of etiolation and/or decline. Xanthomonas 7 3.7 lation has increased in putting greens Etiolated tillers were collected from Pantoea 30 15.6 within the past few years (GIORDANO each sample, senescent tissue was re- Pseudomonas 28 14.9 et al., 2012). Historically, etiolation on moved, and tillers were washed under creeping bentgrass (CBG; Agrostis sto- running tap water for 5 min, surface Microbacterium 14 7.4 lonifera L.) was transient and non-prob- disinfested in 10% bleach (NaOOH) for lematic. Recently, turf practitioners Stenotrophomonas 12 6.4 5 min, transferred to 1 mL sterile H2O, have questioned whether etiolation is chopped finely with a sterile scalpel, Bacillus 11 5.9 associated with bacterial decline and and allowed to stand for 2 min. One Other 69 36.7 significant turf loss observed on CBG loopful of the resulting bacterial sus- putting greens leading to considerable pension was streaked on three nutrient Tab. 1: Frequency of bacteria associated Turfgrass diseases, interest in the etiolation phenomenon. with etiolation and/or decline from pests and weed control agar (NA) petri plates. Plates were ex- 2011-2013. Bacterial pathogens, such as Acido- amined for 3 days and representatives vorax avenae and Xanthomonas trans- of each colony type were transferred ed daily using a scale of 1-9, where 9 lucens, have been implicated in etiola- to new plates. After isolation, bacteria represented the best quality and 5 the tion and decline of CBG putting green were identified by polymerase chain minimum acceptable quality. Data was turf. ROBERTS et al. (1981) diagnosed reaction and sequencing of the 16S analyzed using the GLM procedure in the first bacterial disease on CBG in subunit and internal transcribed spac- SAS 9.3 for Windows and means were 1981 where X. translucens (reported er (ITS) DNA regions using primers separated using Fisher’s protected lsd. as X. campestris pv. graminis) caused 27f + 1488r and 1493f + 23r, respect- bacterial wilt of ‘Toronto’ (C-15) CBG. fully (SCHAAD et al., 2008). Repre- Since 1981, reports of bacterial wilt on Results and Discussion sentative isolates of A. avenae and X. CBG have been rare, although Xan- translucens were used to inoculate 4 thomonas bacteria remain problematic replicates of 4-wk old ‘G2’ CBG seed- During 2011-2013, 188 bacteria were on Poa annua L. f. reptans (Hausskn) lings. Inoculations were performed by isolated from symptomatic CBG at 64 T. Koyama (MITKOWSKI et al., 2005). Tab.submerging 1: Frequency freshly trimmed of bacteria seedlings associated locations with in the etiolation eastern United and/or States. decline from 2011-2013. Acidovorax sp. were shown to cause in a 109 colony forming unit (CFU) ml-1 A. avenae and X. translucens were bacterial brown stripe of CBG in Japan ((Bittesuspension BU forUNTER 5 min, andGrafik replanting und “Tin ab.identified 1” statt 17 “Table1”)) and 7 times, respective- (FURUYA et al., 2009), but these bac- 3.5 cm diameter containers filled with ly (Table 1). A. avenae samples were teria are more commonly associated calcined clay. Plants were evaluat- obtained from Georgia, North Caroli- with bacterial fruit blotch of cucurbits (WALCOTT, 2005). Due to the rarity of bacterial diseases in turf, management practices to limit disease are not well 10 developed. Although antibiotics can 9 reduce etiolation on CBG, they are not registered for use on turf in the US and 8 chemical control options are limited to 7 plant defense activators (i.e., aciben- zolar-S-methyl), surface disinfectants 6 (i.e., hydrogen dioxide) and copper 5 containing products, which have limited efficacy. A thorough understanding 4 of the bacterial pathogens causing eti- 3 olation will aid in developing management options for control. The objec- 2 tives of this research were to determine Plant Quality (1-9; 9=Best) 1 the frequency of bacteria associated with etiolation and/or decline on CBG 0 turf in the U.S and confirm symptoms A. avenae X. translucens Non-inoculated Control associated with A. avenae and X. translucens infections. Fig. 1: Influence of pathogenic bacteria on plant quality of G-2 creeping bentgrass turf.

4th ETS Conference 2014 51

Fig. 1: Influence of pathogenic bacteria on plant quality of G-2 creeping bentgrass turf. na, Pennsylvania, and Virginia while X. the wide range of bacteria associated tion of subspecies of Acidovorax avenae as translucens was found in North Caroli- with etiolating or declining turf, many A. avenae (Manns 1905) emend., A. cattley- na, Ohio, Kentucky, and Illinois. Addi- bacteria may be involved. The mecha- ae (Pavarino, 1911) comb. nov., A. citrulli Schaad et al., 1978) comb. nov., and pro- tional species included, but were not nism of etiolation is still unclear but it posal of A. oryzae sp. nov. Systematic and limited to, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Mi- is apparent that altered plant hormones Applied Microbiology 31:434-446. crobacterium, Stenotrophomonas, and are involved. Continued research is WALCOTT R.R., 2005: Bacterial fruit blotch of Bacillus. needed to characterize bacteria asso- cucurbits. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: ciated with etiolation and/or decline 10.1094/PHI-I-2005-1025-02. Acidovorax avenae and X. translucens and to develop effective control op- significantly reduced turf quality within tions. 10 d post-inoculation compared to the Authors: sterile H2O control (Figure 1). Symp- toms appeared as dieback from the Acknowledgments Mr. Joseph A. Roberts leaf tip that continued into an overall Dept. of Plant Pathology decline. Additional inoculations have Support for this work was provided by NC State University shown both bacteria to cause etiolation the United States Golf Association and Raleigh, NC 27695 and each were re-isolated from their Syngenta Crop Protection. United States respective inoculated plants. Dr. Lane. P. Tredway Results from multiple experiments Literature Syngenta Crop Protection confirmed the pathogenicity of A. Raleigh-Durham, NC 27709 avenae and X. translucens on CBG. FURUYA, N., T. ITO and K. TSUCHIYA, 2009: United States Many graminaceous hosts including Occurrence of bacterial brown stripe of Dr. Bangya Ma corn (Zea mays), oat (Avena sativa), creeping bentgrass on golf course green in SePro Corp. rice (Oryzae sativa), and millet (Penni- Kyushu. J. Fac. Agric. Kyushu Univ. 54:13- 17. Whitakers, NC 27891 setum glaucum) are susceptible to A. GIORDANO P.R., CHAVES A.M., MITKOWSKI United States avenae; however, outbreaks are be- N.A. and J.M.VARGAS, 2012: Identifica- coming more frequent on these hosts tion, Characterization, and Distribution of Dr. James P. Kerns (GIORDANO et al., 2012). It is specu- Acidovorax avenae subsp. avenae Asso- Dept. of Plant Pathology lated that extreme environmental con- ciated with Creeping Bentgrass Etiolation NC State University ditions may enhance etiolation on CBG and Decline. Plant Disease 96:1736-1742. Raleigh, NC 27695 but questions remain regarding the MITKOWSKI, N.A., M. BROWNING, C. BASU, United States bacteria involved (GIORDANO et al., K. JORDAN and N. JACKSON, 2005: Path- ogenicity of Xanthomonas translucens from 2012). Seed transmission is a common Dr. Bruce B. Clarke Annual Bluegrass on Golf Course Putting Dept. of Plant Biology and Pathology transport mechanism for Acidovorax Greens. Plant Disease 89:469-473. DOI: bacteria but new infections have been 10.1094/pd-89-0469. Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ 08901 reported on established CBG putting ROBERTS, D.L., J.M. VARGAS, R. DETWEILER, greens. Similar questions remain for X. K.K. BAKER and G.R. HOOPER, 1981: As- United States translucens. Perhaps recent changes sociation of a bacterium with a disease of toronto creeping bentgrass. Plant Disease Dr. David F. Ritchie in management practices in the U.S. 65:1014-1016. DOI: 10.1094/PD-65-1014. Dept. of Plant Pathology (e.g., lower mowing heights, increased SCHAAD, N.W., E. POSTNIKOVA, A. SECHLER, NC State University biostimulant and plant growth regulator L.E. CLAFIN, A.K. VIDAVER, J.B. JONES, I. Raleigh, NC 27695 use, decreased fertility) may be predis- AGARKOVA, A. IGNATOV, E. DICKSTEIN United States posing turf to bacterial infection. Due to and B.A. RAMUNDO, 2008: Reclassifica-

52 4th ETS Conference 2014 Ability of some creeping perennial ryegrasses to suppress annual bluegrass germination

Masin R. and S. Macolino

Introduction annual bluegrass invasion. Breeders rial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was have recently developed new cultivars performed using General Linear Mod- nnual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) is of perennial ryegrass characterized els module of Statistica 7.1 (StatSoft Aa cosmopolitan grass of European by prostrate growth habit and later- Inc., Tulsa, OK) to analyze the effect origin considered one of the most prob- al spreading shoots (creeping-type) of the cultivar on total emerged seed- lematical weeds in turfgrasses (DAVID, that potentially have higher competi- lings. LSD (P < 0.05) test was calcu- 2003). In temperate zones, annual tive ability than traditional ones. A field lated to identify significant differences bluegrass can be competitive all year study was therefore conducted at Pa- among means. Percentage of cumulat- round, and represents a serious weed dova University in northeastern Italy performeded emergence using (cumulated General and Linear normal- Models module of Statistica 7.1 (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK) to problem for both warm- and cool-sea- to evaluate the ability of creeping-type analyzeized to 100%) the effect (CE) was of the modelled cultivar by on a total emerged seedlings. LSD (P < 0.05) test was son turf species. This grass mainly dis- cultivars to suppress annual bluegrass Gompertz function, as follows: germination. calculated to identify significant differences among means. Percentage of cumulated turbs intensively managed turfgrasses emergencewhere a is related (cumulated to a time and lag normalizedbefore to 100%) (CE) was modelled by a Gompertz such as sports turfs, but it often also function,emergence as starts, follows: and b is related to invades home lawns and recreation- Materials and Methods the slope of the curve. al areas (McCULLOUGH, 2012). Turf quality is seriously depressed by the A field trial was performed from October whereWeed emergence a is related model to a timeperformance lag before emergenceTurfgrass diseases, starts, and b is related to the slope of the pests and weed control presence of annual bluegrass plants, 2012 to May 2013 at the experimental curve.was evaluated with an efficiency index which are light green in colour and pro- farm of Padova University in Legnaro, Weed(EF) (LOAGUE emergence and GREEN, model 1991),performance cal- was evaluated with an efficiency index (EF) (LOAGUE duce a large number of showy seed- Italy (45°20 N, 11°58 E, elev. 8 m) andculated GREEN, as: 1991), calculated as: heads that reduce turfgrass uniform- to assess the ability of some creep- ity. Likewise, the seedheads reduce ing-type cultivars of perennial ryegrass playability and performance of putting to suppress the germination of annual greens (McCULLOUGH et al., 2005; bluegrass. The area has a humid sub- BROSNAN et al., 2013; BEARD, 2002). tropical climate with an average annual Annual bluegrass mainly invades weak- temperature of 12.3°C and 826 mm to- ened or damaged turfgrasses where tal rainfall. The cultivars used were: CSI where Pi is the predicted value, Oi the the presence of bare soil allows seeds (New Orleans in Europe) and PPG-PR whereobserved Pi value,is the predictedand ―O¯� the value, mean Oiof the observed value, and Ō the mean of observed values. to germinate. The spread is usually 171 (creeping-types), and Azimuth and observed values. EF ranges from 1 to quick because of the rapid and abun- Presidio (traditional-types). The culti- EF ranges from 1 to negative value, an EF=1 indicates exact predictions. negative value, an EF=1 indicates ex- dant seed production regardless of the vars were sown on 3 October 2012 at act predictions. turf mowing height (LAW et al., 1977; a rate of 25 g m-2 in a flat silt loam soil. Results MATTEW et al., 2013). Moreover, the The experimental design was a rand- ANOVA identified a significant effect of cultivar on the annual bluegrass emergence. Mean infestation risk is very high as this spe- omized complete block with three rep- numberResults of emerged seedlings was higher in traditional turf species than in creeping species cies can bloom throughout the growing lications and 2 m2 plots. An additional (Figure 1). Emergence of annual bluegrass in the Presidio cultivar was significantly higher season, albeit peaks occur with cool plot with bare soil was used as control thanANOVA in creepingidentified cultivars.a significant The effect difference between Azimuth and creeping cultivars was not temperature and short photoperiod to determine germination of annual significant,of cultivar onnevertheless the annual it bluegrassseemed to be more competitive than Presidio, but less competitive bluegrass without competition from (DAVID, 2003). The control of this weed thanemergence. creeping Mean cultivars. number of emerged is mainly achieved by cultural and turfgrass. Before sowing, the area was seedlings was higher in traditional turf -1 chemical practices. In Europe it is typ- fertilized with 50, 150 and 150 kg ha species than in creeping species (Fig- of N, P O and K O, respectively, plus ((Figure 1, s. unten anhängend)) ically controlled using pre-emergence 2 5 2 ure 1). Emergence of annual bluegrass @bu: Fig. 1: Cumulated emergence of annual bluegrass in four perennial ryegrass cultivars. herbicides, plant growth regulators and ammonium nitrate fertilizer (27-N) was in the Presidio cultivar was significantly several cultural practices such as deep applied three weeks after sowing at a Vertical bars represent standard errors, different letters indicate significant differences -1 higher than in creeping cultivars. The and infrequent irrigation, core aerifica- rate of 5 kg ha of N. During growing accordingdifference between to LSD Azimuth test (P and< 0.05). creep- tion and verticutting. However, both periods from 25 October to 30 Novem- ing cultivars was not significant, never- chemical and cultural control are most- ber 2012 and from 10 March to 30 April theless it seemed to be more competi- ly only effective in the short period, 2013, plots were mowed weekly with Thetive than emergence Presidio, dynamicsbut less competitive of annual bluegrass (expressed as percentage of the total a rotary mower at a height of 35 mm thus much more consideration should emergencethan creeping at cultivars. the end of the season) did not differ in creeping and traditional cultivars, nor in be given to preventive management and clippings were removed. On 5 De- strategies including selection of turf- cember 2012, after perennial ryegrass bareThe emergencesoil. It was dynamicspossible toof modelannual weed emergence with just one function, as confirmed by grass species and cultivars with high cultivars reached complete establish- thebluegrass high efficiency (expressed of as the percentage estimation of (EF=0.96). competitive ability. It is well known that ment, annual bluegrass was sown in a the total emergence at the end of the differences in morphology and canopy marked area (30x30 cm) in the middle ((Figureseason) did 2, s.not unten differ anhängend))in creeping and traits play a key role in turfgrass resist- of each plot. From 1 February 2013 @bu:traditional Fig. cultivars,2: Emergence nor in dynamicsbare soil. (percentage) of annul bluegrass in four perennial ance to weeds (BEARD, 1973; TUR- (first seed emergence) the number of ryegrassIt was possible cultivars to model and in weed bare emer- soil. Observations and model (dotted line). Estimated GEON, 2002; BUSEY, 2003), however, emerged annual bluegrass seedlings Gompertzgence with equationsjust one function, for is: CEas con-= 100 · exp (-895.3 · exp (-0.118 · day) (EF = 0.96). little attention has been paid to cultivar were counted and removed weekly firmed by the high efficiency of the esti- with minimum soil disturbance. Facto- mation (EF=0.96). morphological properties in preventing Conclusions 4th ETS Conference 2014 The results on weed seedlings emergence53 appear to support the hypothesis that the creeping cultivars of perennial ryegrass may reduce annual bluegrass invasion of turfgrass. It seems that differences in morphological features among cultivars affect factors involved in the germination process such as light penetration into the turf canopy and soil temperature. The same emergence dynamics of annual bluegrass was observed in all the cultivars tested and also in bare soil, therefore a single model was able to describe weed emergence with high performance. These results are very important because it is the first step towards a possible future prediction of emergence dynamics of this species. Emergence prediction is essential for improving the control of weed species by allowing the best treatment timing to be selected, in both pre and post-emergence (MASIN et al., 2005). The fact that cultivars do Acknowledgments

The authors thank the seed company Padana Sementi Elette srl for providing the seed of perennial ryegrass cultivars.

Literature

BEARD J.B., 2002: Turf Management for Golf Courses. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &Sons. pp. 437–584. BEARD J.B., 1973: Turfgrass: Science and Cul- ture. Prentice-Hall, NJ. BROSNAN J.T., G.M. HENRY, G.H. BREEDEN, T. COOPER and T.J. SERENSITS, 2013: Methiozolin efficacy for annual bluegrass (Poa annua) control on sand- and soil- based creeping bentgrass putting greens. Weed Technology 27, 310–316. BUSEY P., 2003: Cultural management of Fig. 1: Cumulated emergence of annual bluegrass in four perennial ryegrass cultivars. weeds in turfgrass: A review. Crop Science Vertical bars represent standard errors, different letters indicate significant differences 43, 1899–1911. according to LSD test (P < 0.05). DAVID R.H., 2003: Annual Bluegrass L. (Poa annua L.) p.39-51. In M.D. Casler and R.R. Duncan (eds.) Turfgrass Biology, Genetics, and Breeding. John Wiley & Sons, Ho- boken, New Jersey. LAW R., A.D. BRADSHAW and P.D. Putwain, 1977: Life history variation in Poa annua. Evolution 31, 233-246. LOAGUE K. and R.E. GREEN, 1991: Statistical and graphical methods for evaluating sol- ute transport models: overview and application. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 7, 51-73. MASIN R., M.C. ZUIN, D.W. ARCHER, F. FORCELLA and G. ZANIN, 2005: WeedTurf: a predictive model to aid control of annual summer weeds in turf. Weed Science 53, 193-201. MATTHEW D.J., F.H. YELVERTON and T.W. GANNON, 2013: Annual bluegrass (Poa annua) control in creeping bentgrass putting greens with Amicarbazone and Paclobutra- zol. Weed Technology 27, 520–526 McCULLOUGH P.E., S.E. HART and D.W. LY- CAN, 2005: Plant growth regulator reg- imens reduce Poa annua populations in Fig. 2: Emergence dynamics (percentage) of annul bluegrass in four perennial ryegrass creeping bentgrass. Online. Applied Turf- cultivars and in bare soil. Observations and model (dotted line). Estimated Gompertz grass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2005- equations for is: CE = 100 ∙ exp (-895.3 ∙ exp (-0.118 ∙ day) (EF = 0.96). 0304-01-RS. McCULLOUGH P.E., 2012: Annual Bluegrass Conclusions towards a possible future prediction Control in Residential Turfgrass. UGA Co- of emergence dynamics of this spe- operative Extension Bulletin 1394, March 2012, pp. 4. The results on weed seedlings emer- cies. Emergence prediction is essen- gence appear to support the hypothe- tial for improving the control of weed sis that the creeping cultivars of peren- species by allowing the best treatment Authors: timing to be selected, in both pre and nial ryegrass may reduce annual blue- Dr. Roberta Masin post-emergence (MASIN et al., 2005). grass invasion of turfgrass. It seems Department of Agronomy Food Nat- The fact that cultivars do not influence that differences in morphological fea- ural Resources Animals & Environ- weed emergence dynamics suggests tures among cultivars affect factors in- ment University of Padova, Legnaro the possibility of creating a general volved in the germination process such (PD), Italy model suitable in any turfgrass. as light penetration into the turf canopy E-mail: [email protected] and soil temperature. The results reported in this paper are Dr. Stefano Macolino The same emergence dynamics of an- from the first year’s experiment and Department of Agronomy Food nual bluegrass was observed in all the further research is necessary to con- Natural Resources Animals & cultivars tested and also in bare soil, firm the higher competitiveness of the Environment therefore a single model was able to creeping-type cultivars and to collect University of Padova, Legnaro (PD), describe weed emergence with high other datasets for weed emergence Italy performance. These results are very modelling, but the results obtained so E-mail: [email protected] important because it is the first step far are very encouraging.

54 4th ETS Conference 2014 Seasonal changes in soil moisture of fairy rings

Keighley J.M., R.L. Mann, S.G. Edwards and M.C. Hare

Introduction

he turf disease fairy ring is a world- Twide phenomenon, occurring frequently on sports pitches, golf courses and domestic lawns. Fairy ring symptoms, which can be caused by a number of different fungus species, can vary from relatively benign circles of mushrooms or puffballs to circles of stimulated turf growth. Some of the more aggressive fairy ring fungi can colonise the soil with their waxy mycelium to the point where it repels water. The failure of water to sufficiently penetrate into the soil profile under these circum- Turfgrass diseases, pests and weed control stances can induce drought stress and consequential necrosis of the turf. No- toriously difficult to control and widely considered the most damaging form of fairy ring (KEIGHLEY et al., 2013), these circles of bare ground (Figure 1), often in otherwise healthy-looking turf, are termed ‘type-1’ (SHANTZ and PIE- MEISEL, 1917).

Fig. 2: Mean soil moisture content of fairy rings compared with an asymptomatic control area on a links golf course in northwest England during the 2013 fairy ring active season of April to November. Error bars represent 95% CI and * indicates p <0.05.

in April/May when the fungus becomes (originally an ML2x ThetaProbe, which active, but what we do not know is how was later replaced with the more ro- Fig. 1: Necrotic circle of turf characteristic they then develop during their active bust Fieldscout TDR 100, after testing of a type-1 fairy ring (Image: STRI) period to a point where soil moisture for consistency) was used to meas- levels become detrimental to the turf. ure moisture content (% volume) of The key to managing type-1 fairy rings This study aimed to investigate the the topsoil at 15cm intervals around is to prevent soil moisture from drop- way in which soil moisture in fairy rings the circumference of the fairy ring ac- ping beneath the threshold at which changes throughout their active sea- tive (necrotic) zones. For comparison, water repellency develops through son in comparison with healthy turf. measurements were similarly taken frequent irrigation, aeration, and use from an adjacent asymptomatic area of of surfactants (CISAR et al., 2000). In Materials and Methods turf. Fairy ring data sets for each month the UK, threat of fairy ring damage is were pooled and statistically compared thought to be at its greatest in the hot- with the control data using Mann-Whit- ter, drier summer months, when soil Three fairy rings caused by the com- ney U-tests. moisture is at its lowest. In a recent mon type-1 forming fungus Marasmi- questionnaire, UK greenkeepers re- us oreades (Bolton) Fr. (also known as ported that fairy ring symptoms on golf the fairy ring champignon), growing in Results courses are at their worst in August and the sandy soil of a links golf course in September (KEIGHLEY et al., 2013). It northwest England were monitored. Fairy ring active zones were significant- is, therefore, understandable that focus The rings, covering areas of 11 m2, 12 ly drier than the asymptomatic control on type-1 fairy ring management oc- m2 and 26 m2, were measured on five area in every month (April, August, Oc- curs mainly in late summer in response occasions on an approximately bi- tober and November p <0.001) apart to worsening visual symptoms. Fairy monthly basis between April and No- from June (p = 0.334). This difference ring symptoms often first materialise vember 2013. A soil moisture meter was particularly pronounced in April

4th ETS Conference 2014 55 and October, when fairy ring soil mois- healthy turf is appearing to recov- Authors: ture was 42.4% and 42.3% drier than er. This research reinforces the need the control, respectively (Figure 2). to be vigilant of fairy ring soil moisture Jennie Keighley MSc in order to mitigate symptoms, even PhD Researcher Soil moisture in the control area was at the beginning and end of the Harper Adams University at its lowest in August at 11.45% vol. season. Newport, Shropshire, TF10 8NB, UK Whilst soil moisture in the control ar- [email protected] ea had increased by October, the fairy ring soil had become even drier, reach- Literature Dr Ruth Mann ing its seasonal low of 7.96% vol. mean Head of Turfgrass Protection soil moisture. CISAR, J. L., K. E. WILLIAMS, H. E. VIVAS STRI Ltd. and J. J. HAYDU, 2000: The occurrence St Ives Estate, Bingley, and alleviation by surfactants of soil water West Yorkshire, BD16 1AU, UK Conclusion repellency on sand-based turfgrass systems. Journal of Hydrology, 231-232, 352- Prof. Simon Edwards 358. As soon as fairy rings become active in Professor of Plant Pathology KEIGHLEY, J., M. HARE, S. EDWARDS, R. the spring, soil moisture may already Harper Adams University MANN and K. WALLEY, 2013: Fairy ring Newport, Shropshire, TF10 8NB, UK be considerably lower than that of the distribution, incidence and severity on UK surrounding healthy turf. Turf manag- golf courses. International Turfgrass Socie- Dr Martin Hare ers should, therefore, be aware that ty Research Journal, 12. Associate Head of Department moisture deficit may start earlier in the SHANTZ, H. L. and R. L. PIEMEISEL, 1917: Crop and Environment Sciences Fungus fairy rings in eastern Colorado and year than originally anticipated. Find- Department ings also suggest that soil moisture in their effect on vegetation. Journal of Agri- cultural Research, 11, 191-246. Harper Adams University fairy ring active zones may continue Newport, Shropshire, TF10 8NB, UK to decrease even when surrounding

56 4th ETS Conference 2014 2,4-D and azoxystrobin bioremoval capacity of aquatic plants

Gannon, T.W. and M.D. Jeffries

Introduction concentration at trial initiation. The quantification. Data were subjected to initial concentration was selected to ANOVA (P = 0.05), with pesticide and provide sufficient residues for screen- plant species considered fixed effects. national-scale survey of surface ing plants abilities to remove pesticides Means were separated according to water pesticide contamination re- A from water at amounts exceeding de- Fisher’s protected LSD (P < 0.05) with cently reported by the United States tection limits. Applications were made the use of SAS general linear models. (US) Geological Survey found one or by syringing 20 mL of a stock pesticide more pesticide or pesticide metab- solution over the water surface. Water olites in > 90% of the 186 test sites within containers was stirred routinely Results (USGS, 2006). Results from this survey throughout the experiment and sam- are concerning for aquatic ecosystem ples were collected 0, 1.75, 3.5, 7, 10.5, Pesticide residues in water of planted health in urban areas, as detection of 14, and 28 days after treatment (DAT). containers were consistently lower than pesticides in water samples exceeding At 14 and 28 DAT destructive sampling nonplanted containers from 7 to 28 an aquatic-life benchmark was > 25% occurred to quantify pesticide resi- DAT. In general, 2,4-D remained higher greater in this land use compared to dues in above-ground biomass, below than azoxystrobin in planted containers samples collected in agricultural, unde- over this period of time. Due to transpi- ground plant structures, and soil. Pesti- Turfgrass diseases, veloped, and mixed-use sites (USGS, cide residues were quantified in all ma- ration from planted containers, water pests and weed control 2006). Once inadvertently introduced trices using HPLC-DAD methods. volumes were greater in nonplanted into surface water bodies, pesticides containers over the course of the ex- may cause adverse effects on aquatic A 3 by 2 factorial treatment arrange- periments. Therefore, water concen- fauna and flora health (BOUTIN et al., ment of three aquatic plant species trations were converted to a pesticide 2000; VAN DIJK et al., 2013). There- (arrow arum, pickerelweed, or Virgin- mass within a container at each sam- fore, research was conducted to eval- ia iris) and two pesticides (2,4-D or pling date and mean separation was uate the pesticide bioremoval capacity azoxystrobin) was evaluated over four conducted using adjusted data. of wetland plant species native to the replicates in a randomized complete southeast US. block design. Nontreated-planted and Overall, Virginia iris reduced 2,4-D in nontreated-nonplanted containers water significantly more than arrow were included for pesticide bioremoval arum and equal to pickerelweed from Materials and Methods

Greenhouse research (Method Road 2,4-D Azoxystrobin Plant Greenhouses, Raleigh, NC, USA) was 7 DAT 14 DAT 28 DAT 7 DAT 14 DAT 28 DAT initiated to evaluate the potential for % various aquatic plant species native to the southeast US to reduce pesti- Arrow Arum 15 77 74 21 99 98 cide residues in water over time. Plant Virginia Iris 27 76 92 45 95 99 species included arrow arum (Peltan- Pickerelweed 21 78 77 37 99 98 dra virginica L.), pickerelweed (Ponte- deria cordata L.), and Virginia iris (Iris LSD0.05 11 NS 3 6 NS NS virginica L.). Plants were established a Abbreviation: DAT, days after treatment. in plastic containers (729 cm2 surface b % reduction = [100 x (1 – (mg ai within planted container / mg ai within nonplanted container))] area; 3,000 cm3 volume) with a known Tab. 1: Reductions in 2,4-D and azoxystrobin in water relative to nonplanted containers 7, mass of sandy soil (98% sand, 2% 14, and 28 DAT.a,b silt/clay w w-1; 2% organic matter w w-1). Plants were grown for 2 months under greenhouse conditions (32/27 Above-ground Below-ground Plant C; 14 hour day length) in locally col- 14 DAT 28 DAT 14 DAT 28 DAT lected water (Raleigh, NC, USA) with % nondetectable 2,4-D and azoxystrobin concentrations. Prior to experiment Arrow Arum 2.1 0.1 1.2 1.7 initiation, plant containers were emp- Virginia Iris 3.1 3.2 3.8 4.0 tied, cleaned, and refilled with 3 L fresh Pickerelweed 17.5 3.6 1.0 4.9 pond water with confirmed nondetectable 2,4-D and azoxystrobin residues. LSD0.05 2.9 3.0 a Abbreviation: DAT, days after treatment. Pesticides included 2,4-D and azoxystrobin applied at 15 mg ai plant con- Tab. 2: Percent of 2,4-D in above- or below-ground biomass relative to the initial mass tainer-1 to create a 5 mg L-1 pesticide applied.a

4th ETS Conference 2014 57 Above-ground Below-ground from the evaluated species ranked Vir- ginia iris > pickerelweed > arrow arum. Plant 14 DAT 28 DAT 14 DAT 28 DAT Finally, pesticide residues in plant bio- % mass revealed differential absorption, Arrow Arum 0.7 1.7 1.3 0.6 translocation, and/or metabolism of each compound among species. In- Virginia Iris 0.8 2.1 0.4 0.3 formation from this research may help Pickerelweed 5.0 2.6 0.3 1.8 select plant species that are best suit- ed to mitigate adverse effects from up- LSD0.05 1.5 1.5 slope pesticide-treated turfgrass areas. a Abbreviation: DAT, days after treatment. Future research should evaluate the Tab. 3: Percent of azoxystrobin in above- or below-ground biomass relative to the initial potential for pesticides stored in aquat- mass applied.a ic plant biomass to release into water over time.

7 to 28 DAT. At 7 DAT, 2,4-D reduc- row arum (1.7%) 28 DAT. Interestingly, tions across species ranged from 15- while 2,4-D in above-ground picker- Literature 27% relative to nonplanted containers elweed biomass declined from 14 to (Table 1). At 28 DAT, reductions in 28 DAT, it increased in below-ground BOUTIN, C., H.B. LEE, E.T. PEART, P.S. 2,4-D in water were greatest for Vir- plant structures from 14 (1%) to 28 BATCHELOR and R.J. MAGUIRE, 2000: Ef- fects of the sulfonylurea herbicide metsul- ginia iris (92%), followed by pickerel- DAT (4.9%). This may be due to differ- furon-methyl on growth and reproduction weed (77%), and finally arrow arum ential metabolic degradation rates in of five wetland and terrestrial species. Envi- (74%). Within azoxystrobin, differences above- and below-ground biomass. ron. Toxicol. Chem. 19:2532-2541. among species were only detected at 7 USGS, 2006: The quality of our nation’s waters Trends regarding azoxystrobin in DAT. As with 2,4-D, Virginia iris (45%) - pesticides in the nation’s streams and above- and below-ground biomass reduced azoxystrobin significantly ground water, 1992 – 2001. United States were nearly identical to 2,4-D (Table 3). Geological Survey. Circular 1291. Pp. 172. more than pickerelweed (37%) and Pickerelweed above-ground biomass arrow arum (21%). At 14 and 28 DAT, VAN DIJK, T.C., M.A. VAN STAALDUINEN and contained 5% of initial azoxystrobin, J.P. VAN DER SLUIJS, 2013: Macro-inver- all plant species reduced azoxystrobin while arrow arum and Virginia iris were tebrate decline in surface water polluted > 95% relative to nonplanted contain- 0.7 and 0.8%, respectively, 14 DAT. with imidacloprid. PloS ONE 8(5):e62374. ers. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062374. As with 2,4-D, azoxystrobin in above- At 14 DAT, 2,4-D in pickerelweed ground pickerelweed biomass declined above-ground biomass (17.5% of in- from 14 (5%) to 28 DAT (2.6%), while Authors: itial) was more than five times greater arrow arum and Virginia iris slightly Travis W. Gannon, PhD than arrow arum and Virginia iris (Ta- increased over time. Finally, no bio- Assistant Professor, Pesticide and ble 2). 2,4-D in pickerelweed above- logically significant differences were Trace Element Fate and Behavior ground biomass declined 13.9% over detected regarding azoxystrobin in be- Department of Crop Science the following 14 days. Reductions low-ground plant structures 14 and 28 North Carolina State University, in 2,4-D from 14 to 28 DAT were not DAT. Raleigh, NC, USA detected in arrow arum or Virginia iris Email: [email protected] above-ground biomass, suggesting metabolism and/or translocation be- Conclusions Matt D. Jeffries tween species varied. No differences Graduate Research Technician were detected between plant species Data suggested azoxystrobin was Department of Crop Science below-ground biomass 14 DAT, while more readily removed from water by North Carolina State University, only slight differences were detected evaluated plants compared to 2,4-D. Raleigh, NC, USA between pickerelweed (4.9%) and ar- Overall, pesticide reduction in water Email: [email protected]

58 4th ETS Conference 2014 Effect of a humectant and two wetting agents on soil moisture content and hydrophobicity on creeping bentgrass and bermudagrass putting greens and sports pitches

McCarty L.B., R.S. Landry, V.L. Quisenberry, W.C. Bridges and R.B. Cross

Introduction ‘L-93’ creeping bentgrass putting green. Hydretain was applied only once, but Cascade Plus was applied “humectant” is a substance which as two sequential applications accord- can attract and retain moisture A ing to product label recommendations. from the air, thus promoting soil mois- Two irrigation regimes were evaluated ture retention (MERRIAM-WEBSTER, for each product similarly to FU and 2011; McCARTY, 2011). The Hydre- DERNOEDEN, 2009, namely deep and tain ES Plus product label suggests infrequent (DI) with 13 mm of water at watering can be reduced by 50% fol- first visual sign of wilt, and light and lowing mixing soil with the humectant Fig. 1: Type II fairy ring on ‘TifEagle’ ber- infrequent (LF) with daily ET replace- from attracting moisture from humid mudagrass research putting green. ment. Daily ET levels were determined air. These have been used throughout using an on-site weather station. Germany as a possible approach to mine moisture fluctuations as reflected water conservation on golf courses and Objective 2: Hydretain, Cascade Plus, by VMC over 7 d. sports pitches due to irrigation restric- Primer Select, and Primer Select + tion (PAEBENS et al., 2010). Wetting flutolanil (Prostar 70WP, 1.4 g a.i. m-2) All field studies included a visual turf agents are commonly applied to allevi- were applied similarly as stated above. quality (TQ) rating every 7 d through- ate moisture stress as they reduce the The combination treatment of Primer out each study. Water droplet penetra- surface tension of liquids and therefore Select and flutolanil was included as tion time (WDPT), infiltration rate, vol- soil hydrophobicity (McCARTY, 2011). flutolanil is a fungicide used to con- umetric soil moisture content (VWC), The objectives of this research were to: trol fairy ring (Photo 1). Applications and soil temperature and were also followed KARCHER et al., 2008. Fairy assessed every 7 d for the duration 1. Evaluate a commercial humectant ring was present at the beginning of the of each study. Data are means of two (Hydretain ES Plus) and a commer- study, and plots were arranged such studies repeated in time. The experi- cial wetting agents (Cascade Plus) that each plot contained an equal pro- mental design for each field study was under two irrigation regimes light portion of visible symptoms. All treat- a randomized complete block with and sports fields and frequent, and deep and infre- ments were irrigated after application three replicates and 2 x 3 meter plots. Turfgrass for golf quent on a creeping bentgrass (Ag- with 1.25 cm and mowing was avoided The experimental design for Objective rostis stolonifera L.) putting green. for 24 hrs. Fairy ring and LDS intensi- 4 was completely randomized with four 2. Investigate the effects of Hydretain, ty were quantified with line intersect replicates. Cascade Plus, Primer Select, and counts using a 1.5 x 1.5 m grid and re- Primer Select + the fungicide, flu- ported as a percentage. Results tolanil, for control of fairy ring (Ly- Objective 3: The effect of Hydretain, coperdon spp.) and localized dry Cascade Plus, and Primer Select on Objective 1: Fourteen days after treat- spots (LDS) on a ‘TifEagle’ bermu- soil moisture retention was evaluat- dagrass (Cynodon dactylon L. Pers. ment (DAT) with Hydretain and one ed on a non-irrigated common ber- week after the second treatment with X C. transvaalensis Burtt-Davy) put- mudagrass sports pitch maintained ting green. Cascade Plus, soil moisture in the top on a Toccoa soil type [Coarse-loamy, 5.7 cm on plots receiving light and fre- 3. Evaluate the effect of Hydretain, mixed, active, nonacid, thermic Typic quent irrigation was highest following Cascade Plus, and Primer Select on Udifluvents] (USDA 2013). Treatments Cascade Plus application (~30%) (ta- soil moisture retention on a non-ir- were applied similarly as previously de- ble 1). Soil moisture levels of Hydre- rigated common bermudagrass (C. scribed and immediately prior to pre- tain-treated plots were similar to the dactylon L.) sports pitch on a native dicted rainfall events. Soil volumetric untreated (~10%). Thirty-five DAT, the soil. water content (VWC) in the top 10 cm untreated control had the highest soil was measured (mass water content x 4. Evaluate soil moisture retention in moisture (28%) compared to 10% for soil bulk density) for 35 days following Cascade and Hydretain-treated plots a soil: humectant mixture following treatment. exposure to low (40%) and high after light and frequent irrigation. Cas- (80%) relative humidity. Objective 4: Thirty ml of Hydretain, cade is classified as a straight block Cascade Plus, de-ionized (DI) water, co-polymer surfactant which typical- or tap water were mixed with 100 g of ly enhances soil water movement (vs. Materials and Methods ground, dry, homogenized 50% sand: retention), thus, had lower soil mois- 50% clay soil (by volume) with a bulk ture overtime (ZONTEK and KOSTKA, Objective 1: The humectant (Hydretain density of 0.19 g cm-3 and a total po- 2012). Soil moisture was never signif- ES Plus, 287 ml 100 m-2) and wetting rosity of 0.31 cm cm-3 in glass jars. Jars icantly different across treatments on agent (Cascade Plus, 255 ml 100 m-2) were then placed under two relative plots receiving deep and infrequent were applied in 374 L ha-1 water to a humidity levels (40 and 80%) to deter- irrigation. Turf quality was unaffected

4th ETS Conference 2014 59 in any study by any treatment (data not agent followed by humectant (3.2 sec) Volumetric shown). and >5 sec for nontreated. Treatment Water Content Objective 2: On the bermudagrass Objective 3: Treatments did not influ- (%)1 putting green, the highest infiltration ence soil volumetric water content of Cascade Plus 20.2a2 a non-irrigated bermudagrass sports rate was found on plots treated with Humectant 18.5b Primer Select (~12 cm hr-1) compared pitch on a native soil (data not shown). Tap water 18.2b to ~6 cm hr-1 on the nontreated plots Objective 4: Volumetric water content or plots treated with Hydretain and was higher after addition of Cascade Deionized Water 16.9c Cascade Plus (table 2). Localized dry Plus (>20%) but was not influenced by 1 No main effect of relative humidity level spot was highest (~18%) for nontreat- Hydretain (table 3). Soil water content occurred, thus, means represent volumetric ed, ~11% for the humectant and <3% was not influenced by the relative hu- water content across both levels of humidi- for the wetting agent treatments. Fairy midity of the surrounding air. ty. ring intensity was lowest (42-43%) for 2 Values in columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different according humectant and nontreated and high- to Fisher’s LSD (=0.05) test. est (>55%) after treatment with wet- Conclusion ting agents. Addition of the fungicide Tab. 3: Volumetric water content by treatment for a humectant, a soil wetting agent flutolanil to Primer Select did not re- Overall, adding humectant did not and different sources of water on a loamy duce fairy ring intensity. Soil moisture consistently increase soil moisture re- native soil under low (40%) or high (80%) values were highest for treatments retention or improve turf quality. Wetting relative humidity conditions for 7 days. ceiving Primer Select (~19%) than in agents lowered LDS occurrence and treatments receiving Cascade Plus or mitigated fairy ring symptoms. Both Hydretain and the untreated control. wetting agents increased soil volumet- Water droplet penetration was quickest ric water content and decreased LDS, water infiltration rate. Previous reports (~1.2 sec) after application of wetting while Primer Select also increased soil indicate excessive rates of moisture absorbers are necessary for soil moisture retention benefit, often leading to undesirable surface heaving/uneven- Volumetric Soil Moisture Content (%) ness (PAEBENS et al., 2010). Irrigation Regimes Light and Frequent Deep and Infrequent Literature Treatment 141 21 28 35 14 21 28 35 Nontreated 11.7b2 8.6a 9.3a 27.5a 9.6a 6.0a 8.8a 9.8a FU, J. and P.H. DERNOEDEN, 2009: Creeping bentgrass putting green turf responses to Humectant 10.3b 7.4a 8.4a 10.0b 9.9a 6.3a 8.3a 9.0a two summer irrigation practices: Rooting and Soil Temperature. Crop Science Socie- Cascade Plus3 30.8a 7.0a 8.5a 10.0b 8.2a 5.9a 8.4a 10.1a ty of America, 49,1063-1070.

1 Days after treatment. KARCHER, D., M. RICHARDSON, J. LAN- 2 Within columns means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to DRETH and J. McCALLA, 2008: Wetting Fisher’s LSD (=0.05) test. agents affect localized dry spot and mois- 3 Following product label recommendations, a second application was made 7 days after initial ture distribution in a sand-based putting treatment. green. Arkansas Turfgrass Report, 2007. 557, 24-28. Tab. 1: Volumetric soil moisture percentage for treatment, various days after treatment, McCARTY, L.B., 2011: Best Golf Course Man- and two irrigation regimes on a ‘L-93’ creeping bentgrass research putting green. agement Practices. 3rd Ed. Pearson Educa- tion, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. 4, 330. MERRIAM-WEBSTER, 2011: Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Inc., Springfield, MA. Infiltration Fairy Ring http://www.merriam-webster.com/diction- Treatment VWC WDPT LDS ary/humectant. Rate Intensity PAEBENS, B., W. HENLE, H. SCHNEIDER and cm hr-1 % sec % % W. CLAUPIN, 2010: Superabsorbers – reducing drought stress on sports turf? Eu- Nontreated 5.3c1 10.6b 5.1a 17.5ab 42.7b ropean Turfgrass Society Proceedings. 2,166-168. Humectant 5.9c 10.1b 3.2b 11.4b 42.1b USDA 2013: Soil Series Map. http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/WebSoilSurvey. Cascade Plus2 6.5c 12.3b 1.4c 2.5c 77.3a aspx.

3 ZONTEK, S.J. and S.J. KOSTKA, 2012: Un- Primer + flutolanil 8.8b 18.2a 1.2c 2.2c 58.0ab derstanding the Different Wetting Agent Chemistries. Green Section Record. 50 Primer Select 11.7a 19.8a 1.0c 2.8c 58.0ab (15),1-6. 1 Within columns means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to Fisher’s LSD (=0.05) test. 2 As per product label recommendations, a sequential application was made 7 days after initial Authors: treatment. 3 Flutolanil was applied 24 hrs after the Primer application and mowing was avoided for 24 hours Lambert B. McCarty, Robin S. Lan- following application. dry, Virgil L. Quisenberry, William Tab. 2: Infiltration rate, volumetric soil moisture content (VWC), time for water droplet pen- C. Bridges and Robert B. Cross etration (WDPT), localized dry spots (LDS) occurrence, and fairy ring intensity as affected Clemson University, by a humectant, two wetting agents and a wetting agent plus fungicide on a ‘TifEagle’ Clemson, SC (USA) bermudagrass research putting green.

60 4th ETS Conference 2014 Pesticide-free management of weeds on golf courses: Current situation and future challenges

Jensen A.M.D, K.N. Petersen and T. Aamlid

Introduction can affect the occurrence of weeds in the increased risk of nutrient runoff and turf – both fundamental factors such as leaching. soil and climate, and issues relating to nvironmental concerns about the Other pesticide-free strategies are me- turf management (Miltner et al., 2005). use of land for golf courses have chanical, thermal and cultural practices E Weeds can impair on course quality grown over the past fifty years. Specif- that stress, harm or kill weeds (Ander- and therefore should be controlled. For ic issues include the amount of water, sen, 2000). Mechanical and thermal years pesticides have been the major pesticides and fertilizers used for golf weed control methods available mainly method of weed control. course management. These issues for combatting weed on pavements but have led to research/knowledge col- Because of the requirements for a high different methods such as grooming, lection cases on more environmentally playing quality on fairways and be- harrowing etc. have been tried on turf sound practices in turf grass manage- cause of the large area they constitute, because these methods might dam- ment (James et al., 2012) fairways receive a significant part of age the weeds (Kristoffersen et al., the golf course’s overall management 2004; Rask and Kristoffersen, 2007). In Denmark, the risk of pesticide con- efforts, including pesticides. In the A common feature of non-chemical tamination of groundwater/drinking Danish Golf Federations yearly green weed control methods is that repeat- water reservoirs have resulted in sever- accounts for Danish golf courses, fair- ed treatments are required in order to al restrictions on the use of pesticides ways contribute approximately 75 % of achieve efficient control. In contrast, in urban areas including golf courses. the total pesticide consumption. Con- using chemicals for weed management A voluntary agreement between the sumption is primarily due to herbicides only requires one or two treatments Minister of Environment and the Dan- (DGU, 2006, 2011). each year (Popay et al., 1992; Augustin ish Golf Federation was signed in 2005. et al., 2001; Reichel, 2003). Non-chem- The goal in the agreement was a 75 % Weed control on fairways has in dec- ical treatments mainly affect the above- reduction in pesticide use on Danish ades been almost exclusively based on ground plant parts, whereas systemic golf courses over a 3 year period. In or- the use of selective herbicides. There herbicides kill the entire plant (Popay der to fulfil this agreement, the need for has been very little focus on the devel- et al., 1992). Vertical cutting, tine har- alternative control methods increased opment of culture technical methods, rowing and topdressing are main- and sports fields substantially (Kristoffersen et al., 2004). such as a good lawn maintenance that tenance methods that can enhance Turfgrass for golf From 2005 to 2008 the pesticide re- can promote grass growth conditions grass growth but the effect on weed duction was only 37 % and in 2013 leg- as well as the grass competitiveness occurrence have only been tested on a islation was agreed and a ceiling was against weeds. small scale and not in relation to indi- set on how much pesticides could be Now that pesticide legislation on golf vidual weed species (Fischer and Lars- used on the different golf course ele- en, 2002; Larsen and Fischer, 2005). In ments. courses has come into force, there is an increased need to develop and im- general the methods mentioned are all prove methods for pesticide-free weed non-selective in relation to weed spe- Playing quality and herbicide control on fairways. cies and they can adversely affect the use on fairways turf too. Overview of strategies for A third strategy to control weeds is the There are requirements regarding play- pesticide-free weeds control prevention of seed dispersal. A fourth ing quality on the fairways. It is primari- strategy includes the use of biological ly desirable that the fairway grass has a control agents such as special types high shoot density, which can carry the Pesticide-free weed control in a lawn of compost or bacterial or fungal sub- ball. In addition, the fairway should be includes different strategies. The first stances. smooth, uniform and relatively firm, so and most important strategy is to pro- the ball can roll smoothly after impact. mote grass plant density which makes Mechanical weed control Finally, the fairway should have an at- the lawn more competitive against tractive appearance, which is equal to invasion of new weeds. One important aspect is to increase fertilization The most common management prac- a smooth and lush grass cover and no tices on golf fairways in Demark are flowering weeds that might interfere (Jackman and Mouat, 1972). Fertilizer promotes grass growth, and several mowing and fertilization. Less fre- with the game (Jensen, 2012; Jensen quently fairways are vertical cut, har- and Jensen, 2012). studies have found that an increased application of fertilizer can reduce rowed or aerated, and on a few golf Fairways make up the largest area of the amount of weeds in the lawn courses fairways are top-dressed and the golf course and are generally cut (Kopp and Guillard, 2002). When the over seeded. short which favours weeds like Bellis intention is to fight weed with fertilizer In the past, management practices perennis, Plantago major, Poa annua, it is important to find an optimal bal- such as vertical cutting, harrowing, Taraxacum sp. and Trifolium repens ance between increasing the compet- aeration or top-dressing were main- (Jensen et al., 2012). A variety of factors itive ability of the established turf and ly regarded as methods to regulate

4th ETS Conference 2014 61 growth and control thatch. However, weed species responded to a dose changed in favour of more competitive a Danish research project challenged between 10 and 150 kg gas per or durable grass species/varieties. these management methods in relation hectare, and 95 % control of sensitive Stripping off the turf has been used ear- to their effect on weed control (Fisher species such as Chenopodium album lier when renovating greens (Mortensen and Larsen, 2002; Larsen and Fischer, was obtained. Plants with a protected et al., 2005). One of the advantages is 2005). apical meristem such as the grass- that stripping off the top 2-3 cm re- es needed a higher dose in order to The mechanical methods believed moves most of the seed bank of annual be controlled (Ascard, 1995, 1998). to have the greatest impact on weed meadow-grass (Poa annua) which can Therefore burning might be effective control are those that affect the lawn be more than 150000 seeds per m2 in removing some problematic weed surface. Vertical cutting is designed to (Lush, 1988). A Norwegian study inves- species from a smaller lawn area with- promote growth conditions of the grass tigating various methods for renovation out eliminating the grass plants. Some by removing dead plant material, but of greens after winter-kill documented injury on the leaves can be expected, also to stress the weeds by removing a that stripping off the turf followed by but the grass will be able to overcome part of the leaves or the inflorescences. resowing of a mixture of red fescue these injuries because the growth mer- The same effect can be achieved by (Festuca rubra) and brown top bent istem is protected and close to the using a harrow, but thatch and inflores- (Agrostis capillaris) resulted in a botan- ground (RASK and KRISTOFFERSEN, cence are not removed to the same ex- ical composition of 99 % fescue/bent 2007) tent. Larsen and Fischer (2005) demon- and only 1 % annual meadow-grass strated that spring-tine harrowing 4-5 In a small burning experiment at the as opposed to 48 % fescue/bent and times a year significantly decreased driving range at Furesø golf course 52 % annual meadow-grass in the con- weed cover and significantly increased (Copenhagen) in 2010-2011 (burning 2 trol treatment where the seed mixture grass cover at Furesø and Viborg golf times in fall and 2 times in spring) Bel- was drilled directly without stripping course. The decrease in weed cover lis perennis responded to a gas dose (Kvalbein, 2009). was between 1,2 % and 2,1 % and the of 80 kg per ha (Table 1). Two weed The greenkeeper at Furesø Golf Course increase in grass cover between 1,1 % species, Taraxacum sp. and Trifolium (Copenhagen) tried stripping plus and 2,6 %. When choosing the treat- repens, did not respond to flaming. Af- resowing as a means to reduce weed ment intensity it is important to know ter burning the turf showed injuries, be- occurrence and change the botanical the optimal balance where weeds tween 5-40 % – depending on the gas composition on fairway in favour of red are inhibited without disturbing grass dose but recovered after 2-4 weeks. fescue (Festuca rubra). His experience growth. For Cerastium fontanun there was an was that stripping off the old turf re- increase from fall to the next spring but The experiments by FISHER and moved Cerastium fontanum as these burning provided control compared to LARSEN (2002) investigated the opti- weeds did not appear the year after. the non-treated. mal treatment frequency and treatment However weed species with taproots, combination. Vertical cutting, various This small experiment indicate that such as Taraxacum sp. and Planta- types of harrowing, fertilizer amount, some weed species might be sensi- go sp. were not removed. They reap- top dressing and other management ble to a burning treatment and that peared quickly in the new turf. factors were evaluated in various com- weed control using a weed burner binations. These trials demonstrated Stripping is very expensive. The esti- might be a solution in small restrict- that the effects on weed occurrence mate from Furesø GC was that it took ed turf areas. The next step is to per- were mostly small and the overall re- 4-5 hours to strip 800 m2. Therefore form an experiment for a longer period duction in weeds on football pitches stripping is not a solution on large ar- on a larger scale for multiple weed spe- and golf course fairways was not sig- eas. However it might be a solution for cies. nificant. weed management in small areas depending on the type of weed. The poor efficacy of mechanical weed control methods in FISHER and LARS- Stripping off old and weedy EN (2002)’s experiments calls for a turf followed by resowing Grazing more differentiated approach towards pesticide-free weed control. We be- Some weed species have a very super- For many years grazing has been used lieve that the way forward is to refine ficial root growth whereas others have for landscape management (Had- methods that can be used on small ar- a tap root. Stripping off turf followed jigeorgiou et al., 2005). Some animal eas depending on the target weed spe- by resowing might be a method to re- species are very effective in grazing/ cies. In order to get ideas for the opti- duce the number of superficially root- eating weeds (Popay and Roger, 1996). mal weed control strategy for the indi- ed weed species and the seed bank of A number of golf courses in Denmark vidual species we need to evaluate the certain weeds in the soil. At the same and Sweden are now using animals for practical experiences on golf courses. time, the botanical composition can be weed control. In the following experiences from practical trials initiated by greenkeepers are Change in control Change in flaming presented and discussed in relation to Species using them in a differentiated pesti- treatment (%) treatment (%) cide-free weed control approach. Taraxacum sp. -0,31 -0,43 Trifolium repens -4,25 -4,07 Weed burning Bellis perennis -0,79 -2,07 Medicago sativa 0,85 0 In Denmark a number of experiments on burning weeds on pavements have Cerastium fontanum 2,61 1,10 been carried out (Kristoffersen et al., Tab. 1: Change in per cent coverage of weeds from fall 2010 to spring 2011 in a burning 2008; Rask et al., 2012). Sensitive experiment at Furesø GC, Copenhagen (80 kg gas per ha).

62 4th ETS Conference 2014 On Hørsholm Golf Course north of Overseeding and topdressing volunteer agreements. Danish exper- Copenhagen grazing was original- iments and practical experiences on ly established on a part of the course pesticide-free control demonstrated Overseeding has not been a common where the sheep had access to all of that so far we have no universal or maintenance procedure on Danish golf the golf course elements (greens, tees, selective methods that can effectively fairways. However, the introduction of fairway and rough). Before grazing was eliminate weeds on golf courses. new plants with higher shoot density initiated the establishment of clover will usually result in less space for the Weed species respond differentially to (Trifolium repens), poplar (Populus sp.) establishment and growth of weeds mechanical treatments and the timing and the black-list species giant hog- (Morris, 2004; McCarthy, 2009). Over- and frequency of specific mechanical weed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) seeding might therefore have a long treatments also have a strong impact. was a major problem. The introduction term effect on weed occurrence. Therefore the approach regarding me- of sheep on the golf course helped to chanical weed control needs to be alleviate these problems. This effect The experiments by Fisher and Larsen changed. More knowledge of the indi- on giant hogweed was also observed in 1999-2001 showed conflicting re- vidual weeds’ morphology, physiology at Smørum Golf Course (Copenha- sults of overseeding plus topdressing and demography under turf conditions gen) where the animal ate the seed- depending on seeding rate, seeding is needed to find effective mechanical lings before the inflorescences were time and soil fertility levels (Larsen and weed control methods. Understanding produced. At Hornbæk Golf Course Fischer 2005). A clear positive effect on the various growth stages where the (North Zealand) three years of grazing weed occurrence after two years was weed species may be most vulnerable have demonstrated that sheep were seen at Viborg GC (Jutland), and this to mechanical damage is particularly efficient in preventing willows (Salix effect was still visible ten years later important (Nkurunziza et al., 2011). sp.) and birches (Betula sp.) from get- (Nyholt, 2010). ting establishment (Jensen and Edman, At the moment a research project is on- The indications that burning might have 2011). going in Denmark and Norway investi- an impact on some weed species with- gating the effect of different overseed- Besides controlling weeds, grazing will out harming the grass plants and that ing procedures on weed occurrence. also change the character of the rough. stripping can remove the seed bank By eating many of the large and com- and eliminate weed species with a su- petitive grass species, sheep create Earthworm castings and perficial root system should encourage an open rough with fine grasses and a weed establishment a more profound investigation of these better playing quality because the play- methods in relation to weed control. ers are able to find the golf ball. A major problem on many golf courses These methods might be reasonable is the creation of earthworm casts on to use in small areas with severe weed However there was one main problem fairways, tees and sometimes even on problems. We must also to a larger ex- with the grazing regime at Hørsholm. greens (Collins et al., 1995; Williamson, tent establish thresholds for the indi- The sheep were lying on the greens at 2004; Potter et al., 2013). Especially vidual species in order to decide when night and their urine caused scorched in autumn, there may be many worm a specific treatment is justified to im- spots on the greens. That was not ac- casts. These casts are smeared by the prove the functional quality of the turf. and sports fields ceptable and today the greenkeepers Turfgrass for golf machines used for maintenance and keep the sheep in mobile enclosures From an economic perspective, there they become perfect niches for weed mainly in the rough areas. is no doubt that pesticide free man- establishment. In particular annual agement is more time consuming and meadow grass (Poa annua) will be pro- expensive than chemical control, and Specific equipment for weed moted by these casts due to its ability this is likely to influence the willingness control/management to germinate almost all year around. of turf managers to choose non-pesti- The head greenkeeper at Furesø Golf cide options in a time with increasing Some greenkeepers have tried to de- Course performed a number of small economic pressure on many golf clubs. velop or modify mechanical equipment experiments in order to find a meth- Furthermore, if aspects such as fossil to achieve better control of target weed od for reducing earthworm casts on fuel consumption and CO2 emissions species. fairways with clay soils. He found ap- are included, it remains to be docu- plications of sand mixed with an acid mented if managing turf weeds totally At Värpinge Golf Course Sweden, a fertilizer reduced the pH and moisture without herbicides is more economical- modified vertical cutting aggregate in the top soil. His experience was ly and environmentally sustainable than for a Toro 5610 was tested to control that not only the number, but also the management with a minimum input of dandelions (Taraxacum sp.). Blades structure of the casts changed, thus al- herbicides according to IPM principles. were mounted at a distance of 2.5 cm. lowing less annual meadow grass and However, by targeting non-chemical The blades did not go into the topsoil/ other weeds to germinate. His findings methods to the biology and weakness- but operated at a height approximate- are in agreement with GUILD (2008) es of the individual weed species under ly 1 cm above ground and disrupted and POTTER et al. (2013) showing that turf conditions, it should be possible to the leaves of the dandelions. This the upward and downward movements reduce the golf courses’ dependence treatment did not remove the dandeli- of earthworms in the soil are influenced on herbicides for weed control. on but the plants became smaller and by soil moisture and soil temperature, the negative effect on the playing quali- and that earthworms are sensitive to ty was diminished. This example shows Acknowledgement acidic soil conditions. that investigations into weed control on fairways should not only focus We want to thank Thomas Pihl, Furesø on how to kill the weeds, but also on Future directions Golf Course, Jakob Aakjær, Hørsholm how to manage them in order to min- Golf Course, Per Rasmussen, Smørum imise the negative effect on playing The future calls for a reduction in her- Golf Course, Søren Petersen, Hornbæk quality. bicide use in turf due to legislation and Golf Course and Håkan Rasmusson,

4th ETS Conference 2014 63 Värpinge Golf Course for sharing their Sibth) on white clover (Trifolium repens L.) on perennial ryegrass quality and pest oc- experiences. growth and nitrogen fixation. New Zealand currence. International Turfgrass Society Journal of Agricultural Research. 15, 653- Research Journal. 10, 982-988. We also want to thank STERF (Scan- 666. Morris, K., 2004: Grasses for overseeding Ber- dinavian Turfgrass and Environment JAMES, I.T., A. CARMICHAEL, A. DACCACHE, muda grass fairways. Green section record. Research Foundation) for funding the J. KNOX and K. WEATHERHEAD, 2012: Ir- July-august, 17-21. knowledge collection from the practical rigation Water Sourcing for Cricket in Eng- MORTENSEN, B., C. HASPEL, H. BEURLING, experiences on golf courses. land and Wales. Bioforsk Fokus. 7(8), 136. I. TOMLINSON, J. EBDRUP, P. CHRIS- JENSEN, A.M.D., 2012: Nordic golf players’ TENSEN, P. RASMUSSEN and S. TØM- perception of quality. STERF handbook MING, 2005: Strategi for etablering og pleje Literature JENSEN, A.M.D. and P. EDMAN, 2011: af rødsvingel på danske golfbaner. Ogräsbemämpning/betesdjur. STERF IPM NKURUNZIZA, L., E. ROSENQVIST and J.C. ANDERSEN, S., 2000: Landbrugsplanterne 3. faktablad, 1-4. STREIBIG, 2011: Photosynthesis and DSR forlag, Frederiksberg C. 187-190. JENSEN, A.M.D. and F.S. JENSEN, 2012: Nor- growth of newly established shoots of Cir- sium arvense and Tussilago farfara are re- ASCARD, J., 1995: Thermal weed control by dic golf players’ perception of Quality. 3rd source independent. Weed Researc. 51(1), flaming: biological and technical aspects. ETS Conference proceedings. 33-40. PhD thesis, Swedish University of Agricul- JENSEN, A.M.D., B. MORTENSEN and K. NYHOLT, A., 2010: Eftersåning tre år efter hi- tural Sciences, Department of Agricultural PAASKE, 2012: Pesticidforbrug og pesti- nanden (1999-2001) giver synlige resultater Engineering, Alnarp, Sweden. cidbelastning på golfbaner. Miljøstyrelsen. her 10 år efter. Greenkeeperen. 2, 72 ASCARD, J., 1998: Comparison of flaming and 156 s. POPAY, I. and F. ROGER, 1996: Grazing Ani- infrared radiation techniques for thermal KOPP, K.L. and B.K. GUILLARD, 2002: Clipping mals as Weed Control Agents. Weed Tech- weed control. Weed Research. 38, 69-76. Management and Nitrogen Fertilization of nology. 10(1), 217-231. AUGUSTIN, B., E. FISCHER and H. SEIBEL, Turfgrass. Crop Science. 42, 1225-1231. POPAY, I., G. HOSKINS and R. LEWTHWAITE, 2001: Possibilities of weed control in urban KRISTOFFERSEN, P., S.U. LARSEN, J. 1992: Weed control in urban environments areas. Gesunde Pflanzen. 53, 169-176. MØLLER and T. HELS, 2004: Factors af- in New Zealand. In: Proceedings 1992 of COLLINS, H.P., G.P. ROBERTSON and M.J. fecting the phase-out of pesticide use in the New Zealand Plant Protection Confer- KLUS, 1995: How do earthworms affect public areas in Denmark. Pest Manage- ence, Rotorua, New Zealan., 231-234. microfloral and faunal community diversi- ment Science. 60, 605-612. POTTER, D.A., C.T. REDMOND and D.T. WIL- ty? In: The significance and regulation of KRISTOFFERSEN, P., A.M. RASK and S.U. LIAMS, 2013: Managing excessive earth- soil biodiversity 247-269. Kluwer Academic LARSEN, 2008: Non-chemical weed con- worm casting on golf courses and sport Publisher trol on traffic islands: A comparison of fields. International Turfgrass Society Re- DGU, 2006: Golfsportens grønne regnskab the efficacy of five weed control methods. search Journal. 12, 347-355. Weed Research. 48 (2), 124-130. DGU, 2011: Golfsportens grønne regnskab RASK, A.M. and P. KRISTOFFERSEN, 2007: KVALBEIN, A., 2009: Reetablering av død green FISCHER, J. and S.U. LARSEN, 2002: Af- A review of non-chemical weed control on etter vinteren. Demonstrasjonsforsøk med prøvning af metoder til pesticidfri ukrudts- hard surfaces. Weed research. 47(5), 370- alternative teknikker for resåing av en død bekæmpelse ved pleje af græs på fodbold- 380. green. Sluttrapport til STERF. http://sterf. baner og golfbaner. Arbejdsrapport nr. 34, RASK, A.M., P. KRISTOFFERSEN and C. AN- Skov & Landskab (FSL), Hørsholm, 2002. golf.se (overwintering). Accessed 20 Jan. 2014. DREASEN, 2012: Controlling grass weeds 198 s. ill. on hard surfaces: The effect of time in- LARSEN, S.U. and J. FISCHER, 2005: Turf- GUILD, W.J., 2008: Studies on the Relationship tervals between flame treatments. Weed grass management dn weed control on golf between Earthworms and Soil Fertility – Technology. 26 (1), 83-88. course fairways without pesticides. Inter- The Effect of Soil Type on the Structure of REICHEL, F., 2003: Experiences with ther- Earthworm Populations. Annals of Applied national Turfgrass Society Research Jour- nal. 10, 1213-1221. mal and chemical weed control methods Biology. 35(2), 181-192. (WEEDCLEANER, WAIPUNA, ROTOFIX) HADJIGEORGIOU, I., K. OSORO, J.P. FRA- LUSH, W.M., 1988: Biology of Poa annua in a on paved areas under practical conditions. GOSO DE ALMEIDA and G. MOLLE, 2005: temperate zone golf putting green (Agrostis In: Second International Symposium on Southern European grazing lands: Produc- stolonifera/Poa annua). II. The seed bank. Plant Health in Urban Horticulture (Eds GF tion, environmental and landscape man- Journal of Applied Ecology 25: 989-997. BACKHAUS, H BALDER & E IDCZAK). Bio- agement aspects. Livestock Production McCARTHY, L.B., 2009: Best golf course man- logische Bundesanstalt für Land und Forst- Science. 96, 51-59. agement practises. Third edition. wirtschaft, Berlin, Germany. 283. JACKMAN, L. and W.J. MOUAT, 1972: Compe- MILTNER, E.D., G.K. STAHNKE and G.J. RINE- WILLIAMSON, R.C., 2004: Managing earth- tition between grass and clover for phos- HART, 2005: Mowing height, nitrogen rate, worm castings. Golf Course management phate. Effect of browntop (Agrostis tenuis and organic and synthetic fertilizer effects May. 93-95.

64 4th ETS Conference 2014 The effect of ice encasement and two protective covers on the winter survival of six turfgrasses on putting greens

Waalen, W.M., T. Espevig, A. Kvalbein and T.S. Aamlid

Introduction ssp. trichophylla) and annual bluegrass samples were thawed for two days at (Poa annua) at the Bioforsk Research 4 ˚C, clipped to 4 mm, potted and set Station, Apelsvoll, Norway, 61˚41 N to grow in a growth chamber under op- inter damage on putting greens is  (inland climate), during the winters of timal conditions (18 ˚C day/night tem- a significant economic burden for W 2011-12 and 2012-13. The green was perature, 18-h photoperiod) for 21 d. golf courses at northern latitudes. Ap- seeded in mid-June of 2011 and 2012 At this point percentage turf coverage proximately 70 % of Scandinavian golf due to destructive sampling through- was determined. The percentage of turf courses suffer from winter damage with out the experiment. Nitrogen was ap- coverage was also determined on field approximate losses of SEK 300.000 plied from May to September at two- plots on 22.03.12, 25.04.12 and 29.05 every year (KVALBEIN et al. 2013). Dur- week intervals which amounted to 2 kg and 06.05.13 and 27.05.13. These are ing the winter, plants are subjected to m-2 year-1 for Festuca spp., 2.8 kg m-2 reported as average coverage for each a multitude of stresses, which differ year-1 for A. canina and A. capillaris, of the experimental years. The experi- from region to region and from year to and 3.2 kg m-2 year-1 for A. stolonifera ment was a split-split-plot design, with year. Grass plants may have to tolerate and P. annua (ERICSSON et al., 2012). covers as the whole plot treatment, and one or a combination of the following One fungicide application of Delaro® turfgrass species and date of sampling stress factors: i) lack of light; ii) pro- (prothioconazole and trifloxystrobin) as the sub-plot treatments. longed exposure to freezing temper- was applied during late September at atures; iii) flooding or ice encasement a rate of 1L ha-1. The two protective co- (IE); iv) fungal diseases; v) soil heaving; Results and Discussion vers (plastic and plastic covering a 10 vi) solar radiation and vii) wind. Winter mm woven mat to create an air space stress management options with the The first winter was short, with warmer underneath) were installed in Novem- aim to minimize winter stress injuries temperatures and an earlier snow melt ber once the ground was frozen. IE was are required. Protective covers against than normal. Mild temperatures begin- established on 22.11.11 and 4.12.12 low temperatures and IE have been ning in January caused a layer of ice after the soil surface was frozen by utilized in Canada with promising re- to accumulate under the snow over all adding small amounts of water over a sults (ROCHETTE et al., 2006; ASHER treatments. The second winter of the period of three days. The control treat- et al., 2009; TOMPKINS et al., 2009). experiment was a more normal winter, and sports fields ment consisted of natural winter con- Turfgrass for golf Ice encasement issues are one of the with 141 days of snow cover and no ice ditions. Core samples (8 cm diameter) most important winter stress factors development observed under the snow were removed from the plots at the in Scandinavia, however little is known on control plots. time of cover installation, and then 6 about the IE tolerance of the different times with two-week intervals from the The plastic cover and plastic with a mat putting green species/sub species. start of January until snow melt. Core improved the coverage of P. annua in A number of Scandinavian golf courses have started using protective covers and it was therefore of interest to further study the response of protec- 100 tive covers under Scandinavian condi- A. can. tions. 80 A. cap. 60 A. st. Objective 40 F. r. c. 20 The objective of this study was to as- Avg. % coverage F. r. t. 0 sess the impact of IE and two protec- Poa Control IE Plastic Plastic + air space tive covers on the winter survival of 100 the most common turfgrass species in 80 Scandinavia. 60 Materials and Methods 40 20 Avg. % Avg. % coverage The experiment was conducted on 0 a USGA-green seeded with colonial Control IE Plastic Plastic + air space bentgrass (Agrostis capillaris), velvet bentgrass (A. canina), creeping bent- Fig. 1: The effect of natural snow cover, IE, plastic cover and plastic cover with a mat grass (A. stolonifera), Chewings fes- on the average percentage coverage of A. canina (green), A. capillaris (light green), A. stolonifera (brown), F. rubra ssp commutata (pink), F. rubra ssp. trichophylla (red) cue (Festuca rubra ssp. commutata), and P. annua (yellow) in the spring of 2012 (a.) and 2013 (b). Bars indicate standard slender creeping red fescue (F. rubra errors of the means (SE).

4th ETS Conference 2014 65 Literature

100 ASHER D., T. PAQUETTE and J. ROSS, 2009: Survivability of Annual Bluegrass under Im- 90 permeable Winter Covers – The Glendale 80 Study, Alberta Turfgrass Research Foun- 70 A. can. dation. ERICSSON T., K. BLOMBÄCK and A. NEU- 60 A. cap. MANN, 2012: Demand-driven fertiliza- 50 tion. Part I: Nitrogen productivity in four A. st. high-maintenance turf grass species. Acta 40 Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B – Soil % Coverage % 30 F. r. c. & Plant Science 62:113-121. 20 KVALBEIN A., T. ESPEVIG, W.M. WAALEN and F. r. t. T.S. AAMLID, 2013: Golf´s research and 10 development programme within turf grass 0 Poa winter stress management, in: STERF (Ed.). pp. 19. 0 20 40 60 80 100 ROCHETTE P., J. DIONNE, Y. CASTONGUAY Nr. days of ice encasement and Y. DESJARDINS, 2006: Atmospheric composition under impermeable winter golf green protections. Crop Science 46:1644- 1655. Fig. 2: The effect of duration of IE on percent coverage of A. canina (green), A. capillaris (light green), A. stolonifera (brown), Festuca rubra ssp commutata (pink), F. rubra ssp. TOMPKINS D.K., P. ROCHETTE, J. ROSS, trichophylla (red) and Poa annua (yellow) registered after the removal of IE and 21 d. of 2009: Mitigation of anoxia under ice and regrowth during the winter of 2012/13. Bars indicate standard errors of the means (SE). impermeable covers on annual bluegrass putting greens, Canadian Turfgrass Re- search Foundation. the spring of 2012, but no benefits of by 50% after only 20 d of IE (Fig. 2). the covers were measured in the spring The tolerance of A. capillaris was also Authors: of 2013 compared with control and IE poor, with coverage dropping to 50% Wendy M. Waalen, PhD (Fig.1). The response in 2012 was most after approximately 50 d. A. canina on Researcher, Turfgrass Research likely due to the avoidance of complete the other hand showed superior toler- Group IE under the covers. The springtime ance to IE, and even after 119 d of IE Norwegian Institute for Agricultural coverage of A. canina, A. stolonifera, the coverage had not dropped to be- and Environmental Research F. rubra ssp commutata and F. rub- low 75%. Bioforsk East, Apelsvoll ra ssp. trichophylla had no response Email: [email protected] to the covers, compared with natural Conclusions winter conditions in both years. In the Tanja Espevig, PhD spring of 2012, A. capillaris which had Researcher, Turfgrass Research been covered with plastic with a mat Results indicated that velvet bentgrass Group had poorer springtime coverage, com- had superior tolerance to IE lasting for Norwegian Institute for Agricultural pared to natural winter conditions and 98 and 119 d in 2011-12 and 2012-13, and Environmental Research the plastic cover. In the spring of 2013 compared to the five other species/ Bioforsk East, Landvik the turf coverage of A. capillaris was subspecies. IE conditions did not sig- Email: [email protected] negatively affected by both protective nificantly impact the coverage of A. covers compared to natural winter con- canina in the spring, compared to nat- Agnar Kvalbein, MSc ditions. This was probably due to the ural winter conditions. A. capillaris re- Researcher, Turfgrass Research development of Microdocium nivale. sponded negatively to the protective Group covers. P. annua was shown to have Norwegian Institute for Agricultural Figures 1a and b show that the spring the lowest tolerance to IE and it was and Environmental Research coverage of A. canina was not signifi- the only species which benefited from Bioforsk East, Landvik cantly reduced by the IE conditions af- the protective covers. Email: [email protected] ter 98 or 119 d in 2011/12 and 2012/13, Trygve Aamlid, PhD respectively. In the spring of 2012 the Head of Research, Turfgrass Re- coverage of A. stolonifera was also not Acknowledgement search Group reduced by IE. This was however not Norwegian Institute for Agricultural the case in 2013, indicating that A. ca- This research was funded by the Re- and Environmental Research nina has better tolerance to longer IE search Council of Norway and The Bioforsk East, Landvik conditions, compared to A. stolonifera. Scandinavian Turfgrass and Environ- Email: [email protected] The coverage of P. annua was reduced ment Research Foundation (STERF).

66 4th ETS Conference 2014 Establishment and winter management of ‘MiniVerde’ bermudagrass for putting greens in Italy

Grossi N., S. Magni, C. de Bertoldi, F. Lulli, M. Gaetani, L. Caturegli, M. Volterrani, P. Croce, M. Mocioni and A. De Luca

Introduction cv. ‘MiniVerde’ were raised in the imental design with three replications. green house in peat-filled seed trays Plot size was 13 m2. with plugs of 5 cm3. Subsequently, any areas of the Mediterrane- In order to determine colour persis- plants were manually transplanted at a an climate combine mild winters tence, green colour was visually as- M density of 30 plants m-2 on mid July with drought and high temperatures sessed from 1 November 2012 to 13 2012 in three different Italian locations: during summer, representing a transi- April 2013 on a 1 to 9 scale (1 = brown Montecchia Golf Course, in Padova tion zone for turfgrasses (DUNN AND turf, 5 = acceptable green, 9 = dark (45°24’ N, 11°52 E), Golf Village Golf DIESBURG, 2004). While hybrid and  green). In three occasions during the club, in Porto Recanati (Macerata) seeded bermuda-grass cultivars are bermudagrass dormant period, colour (43°25 N, 13°39 E) and Le Costiere currently adopted on golf fairways in   dropped below the acceptable value Persano Royal Golf, in Serre (Salerno) Italy, the use of dwarf cultivars of Cy- of 5 in some of the plots. In order to (40°34’ N, 15°08 E). In each location nodon on greens still needs to be ac-  restore an acceptable colour treat- four 50 m2 plots were set up. Water cepted. A major obstacle for their dif- ments were repeated for all plots on 2 was applied as needed to encourage fusion in Italy is the lack of information and 26 November 2012 and 4 February establishment. Diammonium phos- on their establishment, playing quality 2013. phate was applied at planting at 20 and winter management. As to win- g m-2 rate. Top dressing fertilization Core samples with a 86.4 cm2 surface ter management and playing quality, was carried out from July to Septem- area and 15 cm depth were collected previous research carried out in Italy ber with 10 g m-2 of urea per week and on 19 April and 17 October 2013 in (VOLTERRANI et al., 2009) indicated 10 g m-2 of potassium sulphate every order to detect any effects of painting that Lolium perenne and Festuca rub- other week. During establishment treatments on turf characteristics at ra are suitable for winter overseeding plants were left unmown. Mowing spring green up and at the end of the nonetheless the best playing quality was started from August 2012 and following growing season. Shoot den- (green speed) was recorded on the cutting height gradually brought to 4 sity, root dry biomass, stolon dry bio- non overseeded surface. This means mm. Weeds were manually removed mass and stolon density were meas- that dormant bermudagrass greens where necessary. In order to monitor ured. On 4 January 2013 in Padova could be acceptable for use during and sports fields establishment, every ten days from 31 location, green speed was determined Turfgrass for golf winter assumed the lack of green col- July to 20 September digital images by stimpmeter readings. Data were our is tolerated. In other countries turf of plots were taken and processed by subject to ANOVA and Least Signifi- painting is becoming increasingly pop- digital image analysis to determine the cant Difference calculated for P≤0.05 ular for winter management of dormant percent of green ground cover. Data level. putting greens (BRISCOE et al., 2010). were subject to statistical analysis and With the aim of facilitating the use of standard error was calculated for mean dwarf bermudagrass in Italy, this trial Results comparison. had the object to monitor the establishment of ‘Miniverde’ bermudagrass at Following full establishment, a turf Despite the expectations based on lat- three different latitudes and to assess painting trial was carried out at the itude of the three locations included at the northern one whether the appli- northern location (Padova) where the in the trial, on 20 September 2012 full cation of turf paint could provide an bermudagrass was expected to underground cover was reached in Salerno acceptable green color of the dormant go the most prolonged dormant peri- and Padova while in the Recanati loca- turf. od. The product Green Lawnger was tion a slight delay in establishment was -1 -1 applied at 4.1 L ha and 12.3 L ha observed (Table 1). application rates of pure colorant in a Materials and Methods mix having a 1:7 colorant:water ratio. Winter colour management with the An untreated control was included as use of turf painting provided a good Sprigs of hybrid bermudagrass Cy- a reference. Treatments were arranged colour during the dormant period of nodon dactylon x C. transvaalensis in a randomized complete block exper- ‘MiniVerde’ bermudagrass assumed

31 Jul. 1 Aug. 11 Aug. 21 Aug. 1 Sept. 11 Sept. 20 Sept. Location Green ground cover (%) Padova 5 (±0.1) 12 (±2.6) 37 (±3.6) 58 (±4.1) 76 (±3.1) 85 (±3.5) 95 (±2.9) Recanati 5 (±0.1) 9 (±3.1) 23 (±3.5) 42 (±4.2) 61 (±4.0) 75 (±4.1) 86 (±3.1) Salerno 5 (±0.2) 21 (±3.5) 43 (±4.1) 64 (±3.8) 80 (±4.0) 90 (±3.9) 98 (±1.1) Tab. 1: Green ground cover during establishment of MiniVerde bermudagrass in three locations in Italy. Standard error is reported in brackets.

4th ETS Conference 2014 67 Pure colorant appli- 1 Nov. 2 Nov. 25 Nov. 26 Nov. 4 Feb. 5 Feb. 12 Apr. Acknowledgments cation rate (L ha-1) 2012 20121 2012 20121 2013 20131 2013 Authors wish to thank the Italian Golf No paint 4 4 2.5 2.5 1 1 2.5 Federation for supporting the research. 4.1 4 5.5 4.5 5 4.5 6.0 4.5 12.3 4 7.5 6.5 8.0 6.5 8.0 6.5 Literature LSD (0.05) - 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.5 BRISCOE, K., G. MILLER and S. BRINTON, 1 Assessment made after paint application 2010: Evaluation of green turf colorants as Tab. 2: Winter color of dormant and painted turf of MiniVerde bermudagrass in Padova an alternative to overseeding on putting (1 = brown turf, 5 = acceptable green, 9 = dark green). greens. Online. Applied Turfgrass Science doi:10.1094/ATS-2010-0326-02-RS. DUNN, J. and K. DIESBURG, 2004: Turf man- Pure colorant Shoot Root dry Stolon dry Stolon agement in the transition zone. John Wiley application rate density biomass biomass density & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. (L ha-1) (n° cm-2) (mg cm-2) (mg cm-2) (cm cm-2) VOLTERRANI M., N. GROSSI, S. MAGNI, M. GAETANI, F. LULLI, P. CROCE, A. DE LU- No paint 4.4 6.0 37.2 6.2 CA and M. MOCIONI, 2009: Evaluation of 4.1 5.7 6.5 38.2 6.8 seven cool season turfgrasses for overseeding a bermudagrass putting green. Intl. 12.3 7.8 7.3 41.7 7.5 Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 11, 511-518. LSD (0.05) 0.6 0.4 0.8 0.3 Authors: Tab. 3: Effect of turf painting on shoot density, root and stolon specific biomass and stolon density of Miniverde bermudagrass in Padova (19 April 2013). Nicola Grossi, Simone Magni, Monica Gaetani, Lisa Caturegli, Marco Volterrani, that multiple applications were carried none of those differences were signif- Department of Agriculture, Food and out with the highest application rate icant and untreated plots had similar Environment, University of Pisa, Italy and every time that the exposure to at- turf characteristics compared to plots e-mail:[email protected] mospheric factors causes a decline in treated with high and low rates of colour (Table 2). painting (data not shown). Claudia de Bertoldi, Filippo Lulli, Turf Europe R&D, Pisa, Italy Winter application of painting signifi- As expected, the dormant turf provided cantly affected turf characteristics at good playing conditions and the ap- Massimo Mocioni, spring green up. Increases in turf den- plication of turf painting did not affect Alessandro De Luca sity, root and stolon specific biomass this characteristic of the putting sur- Italian Golf Federation, as well as stolon length were observed face. Stimpmeter readings did not Rome, Italy in comparison with the non treated detect significant differences in green Paolo Croce control, the most marked effects being speed between treated and control Golf Environment Organization, associated with the higher application plots with a mean value of 2.6 m being Edinburgh, UK. rate (Table 3). On 17 October 2013, recorded.

68 4th ETS Conference 2014 Generally, the highest NO3-N concentrations at all depths were recorded on Nitrate leaching from establishing bermu- June 20, one week after propagation dagrass irrigated with treated effluent (Table 1). At that point in time roots had not developed and plants were unable

to take up NO3-N from the soil solu- Sevostianova, E. P. Lenz and B. Leinauer tion. When data were averaged over all depths, bermudagrass propagated from sod exhibited highest concen-

trations of NO3-N in the leachate and ‘Princess 77’ established from seed Introduction Materials and Methods the lowest (Figure 1). Nitrate-N content in the leachate declined steadily until the end of the research period for all reated effluent (also called recy- A greenhouse study was conducted treatments. From July 6, three weeks cled or reused) water has become during summer of 2013 using tailored T after establishment onwards, nitrate an important source of irrigation water water to fertilize ‘Princess 77’ bermu- concentrations in the leachate dropped for turfgrass. Newly developed decen- dagrass during establishment from below the EPA threshold for drinking tralized water treatment systems can seed and sod. Twelve containers, 30 water in all grasses, regardless of prop- produce recycled water containing cm in diameter and 60 cm in height agation type or quality of irrigation wa- varying quantities of N on short notice. and filled with a local Bluepoint loamy ter (Table 1, Figure 1). Using such effluent water to irrigate sandy soil. Suction lysimeters were in- turf areas would reduce or eliminate serted at depths of 10 and 20 cm and On three of the four sampling dates the need for additional mineral fertiliz- leachate from below the rootzone was (July 6 to August 8) leachate EC was ers if concentrations of nitrate in the collected as drainage water exiting the higher in rootzones of bermudagrass water were raised above the current bottom of the cylinders. Containers irrigated with tailored water than with legal limit for treated effluent during were either seeded at a rate of 10 g m-2 potable water (Figure 2). Moreover, lea- the growing season to meet the annual pure live seed or propagated the same chate EC in turf established from seed N requirement (SEVOSTIANOVA and day of planting. Irrigation was applied and irrigated with tailored water was LEINAUER, under review). Irrigation daily at 100% of reference evapotran- higher than in turf propagated from sod water containing concentrations of ni- spiration (ET0) with either tailored or (Figure 2). There was no difference in trate that vary over a growing season potable water. Tailored water had an leachate EC between the two propa- has been defined as tailored water. electrical conductivity (EC) of 2.3 dS gation types in turf irrigated with po- -1 There is, however, concern that exces- m and contained 15 ppm NO3-N. Pots table water (Figure 2). Leachate EC in sive concentrations of nutrients in recy- irrigated with potable water were ferti- rootzones of ‘Princess 77’ established cled water could result in surface and lized with granular calcium nitrate every from seed was higher than in ‘Princess groundwater contamination. The po- other week at a rate of 1.5 g N m-2 to 77’ established from sod (Figure 2). tential contamination of groundwater match the total N applied to containers due to N fertilization of turfgrasses has irrigated with tailored water. Leachate Percent green coverage been intensively studied, but little is was collected bi-weekly and analyz- ‘Princess 77’ irrigated with tailored wa- known about nitrate leaching from turf ed for NO3-N and EC. Percent green ter established faster than ‘Princess areas irrigated with treated effluent. In- coverage in each container was deter- 77’ irrigated with potable water and formation is also scarce on N-leaching mined by means of digital image anal- reached full coverage approximately from turfgrass rootzones during estab- ysis (Sigma Scan Pro, Systat Software 6 weeks after seeding. Percent green lishment. GERON et al. (1993) investi- 132 Inc., San Jose, CA) from photo- coverage was consistently higher in gated the effect of different fertilization graphs taken weekly. The experimen- turf irrigated with tailored water for all on turfgrass establishment and nitrate tal design was completely randomized sampling dates (Figure 3). leaching and found differences in with three replications per treatment. NO -N leachate between seeded and All data were subjected to analysis 3 10 cm 20 cm Drainage sodded cool-season Kentucky blue- of variance (ANOVA) using SAS Proc June 20 grass (Poa pratensis L.). Similar studies Mixed followed by multiple compari- †

Seed 25.65B 30.74B 26.07B Turfgrass growing factors, impact for the environment have not been conducted to determine sons of means using Fisher’s protected Sod 23.72B 26.0B 88.11A if nitrate leaching differs between seed least significant difference test at the July 6 and sod-established turfgrass when ir- 0.05 probability level. Seed 9.16C 3.73CD 2.37CD rigated with treated effluent. Generally, Sod 1.16D 0.4D 0.44D propagating turfgrasses from seed is Results July 20 cheaper, but establishment is slower Seed 0.15D 0.62D 2.70CD than propagation from sod, and the Sod 0.26D 0.38D 0.16D Leachate risk of nitrate leaching from seeded August 8 Seed 0.10D 0.06D 0.23D turf could be greater than from sodded The Statistical analysis revealed a sig- Sod 0.41D 0.11D 0.10D turf. A study was conducted at New nificant three-way interaction effect be- † Values followed by the same letter are not Mexico State University to investigate tween sampling depth, sampling date, significantly different from one another the effects of treated effluent water and type of propagation on NO3-N (Fisher’s protected LSD,  = 0.05). seasonally adjusted for NO3-N content content in the leachate. Analysis of -1 (tailored water) on the establishment variance also revealed that NO3-N con- Tab. 1: NO3-N (mg L ) in soil leachate for of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon centration and EC of leachate was sig- seeded and sodded bermudagrass at two soil depths and in the drainage water. Data are (L.) cv. ‘Princess 77’) propagated from nificantly affected by three way interac- pooled over water quality (potable and tai- seed or sod, and on salt and nitrate tions between water quality, sampling lored) and represent an average of six samples leaching from the turfgrass rootzone. date, and propagation. (two water qualities and three replicates).

4th ETS Conference 2014 69 Fig. 1: Changes in nitrate-N content in the leachate of ‘Princess Fig. 2: Changes in leachate electrical conductivity (EC) of ‘Princess 77’ bermudagrass propagated on June 15 from either seed or sod 77’ bermudagrass propagated on June 15 from either seed or sod and irrigated with either potable or tailored (treated effluent with and irrigated with either potable or tailored (treated effluent with

15 ppm NO3-N) water. Data are averaged over 3 sampling depths. 15 ppm NO3-N) water. Data are averaged over 3 sampling depths. Bars with the same letters are not significantly different from one Bars with the same letters are not significantly different from one another (Fisher’s protected LSD at  = 0.05). another (Fisher’s protected LSD at  = 0.05).

Fig. 3: Changes in percent green cover of ‘Princess 77’ bermu- Fig. 4: Soil nitrate-N levels at 3 sampling depths under ‘Princess 77’ dagrass propagated on June 15 from seed and irrigated with ei- bermudagrass established with either potable or tailored (treated efflu- ther potable or tailored (treated effluent with 15 ppm NO3-N) water. ent with 15 ppm NO3-N) water. Data are averaged over 2 propagation Data points with the same letters are not significantly different types (seed and sod). Bars followed by the same letters are not signifi- from one another (Fisher’s protected LSD at  = 0.05). cantly different from one another (Fisher’s protected LSD at  = 0.05)

Soil GERON et al. (1993), who reported that The effect of establishment methods and fertilization practices on nitrate leaching The ANOVA of nitrate content in the seeded plots of Kentucky bluegrass developed less root mass during first from turfgrass. Journal of Environmental soil revealed a significant two-way in- Quality, 22, 119-125. 2 months of study than sodded plots, teraction between water quality and EVANYLO, G.K., E. ERVIN and X. ZHANG, soil depth. At the end of the research resulting in more nitrate leaching. Al- 2010: Reclaimed Water for Turfgrass Irriga- period, nitrate concentrations were though EC of the leachate was higher tion. Water, 2, 685-701. highest in containers irrigated with in the containers irrigated with tailored water, percent green coverage was not tailored water at the depths of 10 cm Authors: and in the drainage water (Figure 4). affected by this increase in salinity. On No differences in soil concentrations of the contrary, bermudagrass irrigated Elena Sevostianova, PhD with tailored water consistently exhib- Post-doctoral researcher NO3-N between depths were observed in treatments irrigated with potable wa- ited greater green coverage. These Department of Extension Plant ter (Figure 4). results support those of DUNCAN et Sciences, al. (2009), who reported a high salini- New Mexico State University, Las Discussion and Conclusions ty tolerance of bermudagrass. Our re- Cruces, NM, USA sults indicate that establishing bermu- E-mail: [email protected] dagrass using tailored water at 15 ppm The amount of NO3-N in the leachate Polly Lenz NO3-N produces no more nitrate in the decreased steadily in both seeded and leachate as a combination of potable Seattle University sodded grasses as the root systems irrigation water and granular fertilizer. E-mail: [email protected] developed. These results support those Bernd Leinauer, PhD of EVANYLO et al. (2010), who docu- Literature Professor and Turfgrass Extension mented a high nitrogen assimilation specialist capacity of bermudagrass, which pre- Department of Extension vents significant leaching of nitrogen. DUNCAN, R.R., R.N. CARROW and M.T. Huck, 2009: Turfgrass and landscape irrigation Plant Sciences, Our study found that nitrate concentra- water quality. CRC Press, Taylor and Fran- New Mexico State University, tions in leachate did not differ between cis Group, Boca Raton, FL. Las Cruces, NM, USA sodded and seeded bermudagrass. GERON, C.A., S.J. DANNEBERGER, S.J. TRAI- E-mail: [email protected] This differs from what was observed by NA, T.J. LOGAN and J.R. STREET,1993:

70 4th ETS Conference 2014 Effect of turf species on pesticide clipping concentrations and subsequent release in aquatic systems

Yelverton, F.H., M.D. Jeffries and T.W. Gannon

Introduction three-nozzle boom calibrated to de- Results liver 812 L ha-1. From 32 to 4 DBCC, clippings were returned to all plots lipping management is a topic with a self-propelled rotary mower. The Pesticide-clipping residue data anal- within the turf industry that has C mower was washed and dried between ysis determined a pesticide by turf gained notable attention in recent dec- mowing in treated plots. At 0 DBCC, species interaction at all clipping col- ades. Previous research has shown pesticide treatments were applied lection dates. Overall, bermudagrass herbicide residues within clippings and allowed to dry for 2 hours before (2-42%) clippings had equal to or more from previously-treated turf may be- clipping collection occurred. Clippings pesticide residues than tall fescue (0- come bioavailable as they decom- were collected from each experimen- 33%) or zoysiagrass (0-27%). Further, pose, potentially causing adverse ef- tal unit in a plastic-lined self-propelled residues in zoysiagrass were less than fects on terrestrial and aquatic plant rotary mower bag, homogenized, and tall fescue at most clipping collection growth (BEZDIEK et al. 2001; LEWIS subsampled to determine pesticide dates. Differences between species et al. 2013). With the use of radio-la- concentrations with HPLC-DAD meth- suggests uptake, translocation, and belled compounds, plant uptake and ods. The bulk sample was then stored metabolism may vary, which may make metabolism experiments have proven at -14 °C. certain turf species less likely to trans- grass species with relatively similar port pesticides away from the intended growth characteristics can metabo- Following turf clipping collection, a site via clipping displacement. 2,4-D lize herbicides at different rates (MC- controlled-environment experiment concentrations were greatest for clip- CULLOUGH et al. 2009). Under certain was conducted to evaluate pesti- pings that were collected from 0 to 2 conditions, clipping displacement may cide release from previously-treated DBCC (42-17% of the applied), while occur. Field research was conducted turf clippings over time. Water was azoxystrobin concentrations were to quantify pesticide residues in clip- collected from a local source (Ra- greatest from 4 to 16 DBCC (10-2% pings from various turf species. A sub- leigh, NC, USA) with nondetectable of the applied). Imidacloprid concen- sequent controlled-environment exper- 2,4-D, azoxystrobin, and imidacloprid trations were consistently equal to iment was conducted to measure pes- concentrations. At experiment initia- or less than 2,4-D and azoxystrobin. ticide release from clippings into water. tion, 40 g clippings were mixed with Pesticide concentrations in turf clip- Information from this research may 400 mL water in unique polyethylene pings declined from 0 to 32 DBCC, improve best management practices containers (946 cm3) and sealed. Con- with < 2.5% of the applied detected for with regards to turf selection, pesti- tainers were stored in the dark at 25 2,4-D (bermuda and tall fescue) at 32 cide application scheduling, and post- °C, opened (30 min) and hand-shak- DBCC. application irrigation and mowing prac- en daily. Water samples (20 mL) were tices. collected 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days In general, maximum pesticide re- after clippings application to water lease from clippings occurred at the 2 DACAW and declined over time for Materials and Methods (DACAW) and pesticide concentrations were determined with HPLC-DAD all pesticides. Overall, pesticides re- methods. leased into water from clippings con- Field research was conducted (Lake sistently across turf species. Pooled Wheeler Turf Field Lab, Raleigh, NC, Experiments evaluated three replica- over species, pesticide release was USA) to quantify pesticide residues tions of a 3 by 3 factorial treatment compound-specific. Despite it being Turfgrass growing factors, in clippings from three turf species arrangement in a randomized com- the least concentrated in turf clippings, impact for the environment collected at varying times after appli- plete block design. Factorial levels imidacloprid was the most readily re- cation. Turf species included hybrid included three turf species (hybrid leased, followed by 2,4-D and azox- bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) bermudagrass, tall fescue, or zoysia- ystrobin. This may be attributed to dif- Pers. × Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt- grass) and three pesticides (2,4-D, ferential pesticide uptake and metab- Davey, cv. ‘Tifway 419’), tall fescue azoxystrobin, or imidacloprid). Turf olism between compounds. Further, (Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) syn. clipping pesticide concentrations differing chemical properties between Festuca arundinacea S.J. Darbyshire were converted to a per cent of the pesticides likely influences release ‘Kentucky 31’), and zoysiagrass (Zoysia original field application, while pesti- from plant tissue into an aqueous en- japonica Steud. ‘El Toro’) maintained at cide release in water was converted vironment. At 2 DACAW, 2,4-D release 5, 9, and 5 cm, respectively. In short, to a per cent released from the total from turf clippings averaged 46, 54, 2,4-D, azoxystrobin, and imidacloprid within clippings. Data were then sub- and 55% from clippings collected 2, were applied at 1.5, 0.5, or 0.6 kg ai jected to ANOVA (P = 0.05), with pes- 4, and 8 DBCC. Based off this data, ha-1, respectively, to unique 1.2 m x 3 ticide and turf species considered clipping management practices in 2,4- m plots (1.5 m alley between blocks) fixed effects. Means were separated D treated turf areas need to account at 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, or 0 days before according to Fisher’s protected LSD for the potential of this compound to clipping collection (DBCC). Treatments (P < 0.05) with the use of SAS general release into surface water bodies, as were made with a CO2-pressurized, linear models. it has been previously documented to

4th ETS Conference 2014 71 adversely effect aquatic flora growth practices following applications of three F.H. YELVERTON, 2013: Persistence and and overall ecosystem health. commonly applied pesticides to three bioavailability of aminocyclopyrachlor and turf species widely utilized throughout clopyralid in turfgrass clippings: recycling clippings for additional weed control. Conclusions the United States. By doing so, best Weed Sci. In press. management practices may be devel- MCCULLOUGH, P.E., S.E. HART, T.J. GI- oped to avoid off-target environmental ANFAGNA and F.C. CHAVES, 2009: Bispy- Data suggest pesticide residues in turf impacts associated with pesticide res- ribac-sodium metabolism in annual blue- clippings and subsequent release into idues in turf clippings. Future research grass, creeping bentgrass, and perennial aqueous systems is both pesticide- should evaluate alternative application ryegrass. Weed Sci. 57:470-473. and species-dependent. Overall, pes- techniques and post-application irriga- ticide residue in turf species ranked tion management to reduce pesticide Author: bermudagrass > tall fescue > zoysia- concentrations in turf clippings. grass; while pesticides ranked 2,4-D > Fred H. Yelverton, PhD azoxystrobin > imidacloprid. In gener- Literature Professor and Extension Specialist, al, pesticide release from turf clippings Turfgrass Weed Management was not species-dependent; however, BEZDIEK, D., M. FAUCI, D. CALDWELL, R. Department of Crop Science across turf species, pesticide release FINCH and J. LANG., 2001: Persistent her- North Carolina State University, ranked imidacloprid > 2,4-D > azoxy- bicides in compost. Biocycle. 42:25-30. Raleigh, NC, USA strobin. This research will improve our LEWIS, D.F., M.D. JEFFRIES, W.J. EVERMAN, Email: [email protected] knowledge of clipping management T.W. GANNON, R.J. RICHARDSON and

72 4th ETS Conference 2014 Mapping golf courses for multifunctional uses other than g olf

Caspersen O.H, A.D. Jensen and F.S. Jensen

Introduction pocentric dominated areas that include ent golf courses in order to reveal the facilities and service functions for the multifunctional potential at their course visitors. For this project we refined and to create a plan for enhancing rec- n Scandinavia there is an increasing the mapping procedure by including reational experiences and multifunc- interest for multifunctional use of golf I thematic indicators for the different tional developments. courses, Golf courses not only contrib- mapping themes that were useable at ute to the user’s physical fitness, but Hornbæk Golf Club is located 45 km a golf course ecosystem analysis and they do also offer wellbeing through north of Copenhagen in the North Zea- mapping five Scandinavian golf cours- tangible amenities such as dining fa- land cultural landscape approx. 5 km es: Hornbæk Golf Course is a 18 hole cilities, walking paths, parks and shop- from the north coast. At Hornbæk Golf park course located in the country side, ping. Intangible amenities are likewise Course the discovered potential for Denmark; Sydsjælland Golf Course a important and can include pleasant further recreational use consisted of 18 hole course located in nature area views, nearby recreational activities, other land uses i.e. accessible land for next to the small town Mogenstrup, and security, all of which add to the to- orienteering, which resulted in collab- Denmark; Viksjø Golf Course an 18 tal attraction of the golf course and the orations with the nearby orienteering hole course just outside Stockholm, potential for including new users on the club and two events conducted at the Sweden; Nes Golf Course a 9 hole course. course. Additional potential for multi- course in Rejkjavik, Iceland and Fre- functionality at this course was seen Research indicates that access to drikstad Golf Centre, a new 18 hole through the connection with the nearby green areas is important, and that ex- golf couse on a multifunctional areal forest, and running, walking and ski- periences in these areas are diverse with a long time depth in the fringe of ing trails. In spring a route with virtual and multifunctional; hence, the areas Fredrikstad Norway. marks will be tested. have to comply with many different At each golf course the ROS and REP forms of recreational uses (KAPLAN Sydsjællands Golf Course is located 10 scales were used to divide the studied and KAPLAN, 1989; HARTIG et al., km from the nearest larger city (Næst- course into the following classes: 2003; TYRVÄNIEN et al., 2007; VAN ved) in a landscape that comprises DEN BERG et al., 2007; VELARDE et 1. Wilderness (i.e. untouched / not designated and protected geological al., 2007). Thus, for this research we managed nature areas), elements i.e. an 10 km long esker that considered golf courses as green rec- 2. Feeling of forest (the sensation of provide beautiful scenic viewpoints reational areas that included landscape being surrounded by threes), and recreational paths and nature ar- views, forest and other land uses re- ea. Mapping included the surrounding lated to landscape and recreation. To 3. Panoramic views (large open views), landscape to address a possible ex- properly describe the various uses of water and scenery (view that scenic pansion to include activities such as these golf courses a method was cre- and views to or across a lake), walking, running and bicycling. The ated for mapping the golf course eco- 4. Biodiversity (mapping of areas man- golf club is considering the transforma- system. The intent was to describe aged in sustainable way that in- tion of the golf club to a country club the recreational potential of the golf creases the biodiversity), in order to make it more attractive to a course – one that was diverse and mul- group of new users. tifaceted to be effectively utilized not 5. Cultural history (visual elements that only by golfers but also by the general indicate a long time depth), Viksjö Golf Course is located in a Turfgrass growing factors, public. 6. Activity and challenge (facilities and cultural landscape (in the outskirt of impact for the environment areas in which special activities or Stockholm), and there are several his- challenges can take place i.e. other torical remains as runic stones that Material and Methods sports that golf), stems from the Viking age, historical roads and farms on the course and in 7. Service and gathering (toilets, res- the surroundings. These were mapped CASPERSEN and OLAFSSON 2006, taurants, shelters etc. and and included in the plan for a potential 2010 developed a method for the clas- development of thematic trails that fo- sification of recreational experiences 8. Safety (areas that are not safe/flying cus on landscape history. based on the ROS (Recreational Op- golf balls). portunity Spectrum) planning frame Maps for the different courses have Using the mapping tool on the partic- (DRIVER et al. 1987) and the REP been produced using ArcGIS mapping ipating golf courses helped to eluci- scale (Recreation Experience Prefer- system. date the multifunctional potential of ence scale) (MANFREDO et al., 1996). these courses. The conclusion from These methods divides the recreational this project so far is that the mapping experiences into a number of different Results and Discussion tool might be one that every golf classes that follow a scale from wilder- course can use in order to reveal ness areas i.e. areas that are natural Information from the mapping analysis its potential. The tool that was devel- and are not managed to more anthro- was used in discussions with the differ- oped is easily available and do not de-

4th ETS Conference 2014 73 mand any knowledge of GIS and the restoration in natural and urban field set- analysis can be carried out by use of tings. Journal of Environmental Psychology Authors: 23, 109-123. aerial photos as well digital or paper Ole H. Caspersen maps. KAPLAN R. and S. KAPLAN, 1989: The Expe- rience of Nature. Cambridge University Senior researcher Press, New York. Dept. of Geoscience and Natural resource management Literature MANFREDO M.J., B.L. DRIVER and M.A. TAR- RANT, 1996: Measuring leisure motivation: University of Copenhagen Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg CASPERSEN O.H., A.S. OLAFSSON, 2010: A meta-analysis of the recreation experi- Recreational planning for enlargement of ence preference scales. Journal of Leisure [email protected] Research 28, 188-213. the green structure in Greater Copenhagen. Anne Mette D. Jensen Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 9, 101- TYRVÄINEN L., K. MÄKINEN and J. SCHIP- 112. PERIJN, 2007: Tools for mapping social Senior adviser Dept. of Geoscience and Natural CASPERSEN O.H., C.C. KONIJENDIJK and values of urban woodlands and other green A.S. OLAFSSON, 2006: Green space plan- areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 79, resource management ning and land use: An assessment of ur- 5-19. University of Copenhagen ban regional and green structure planning VAN DEN BERGA, E., T. HARTIG and H. Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg in greater Copenhagen. Danish Journal of STAATS, 2007: Preference for Nature in [email protected] Geography 106, 7-20. Urbanized Societies: Stress, Restoration, DRIVER B.L., P.J.BROWN, G.H. STANKEY and and the Pursuit of Sustainability. Journal of Frank S. Jensen T.G. GREGOIRE, 1987: The ROS Planning Social Issues 63, 79-96. Dept. of Geoscience and Natural System: Evolution, Basic Concepts, and VELARDE M.D., G. FRY and M. TVEIT, 2007: resource management Research Needed. Leisure Sciences 9, Health effects of viewing landscapes – University of Copenhagen 201-212. Landscape types in environmental psy- Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg HARTIG T., G.W. EVANS, L.D. JAMNER, D.S. chology. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening [email protected] DAVIS and T. GÄRLING, 2003: Tracking 6, 199-212.

74 4th ETS Conference 2014 Transition from cool-season to warm-season grass: environmental effects in a golf course in the North of Italy

Minelli A., A. De Luca, P. Croce, L. Cevenini and D. Zuffa

Introduction grass has been proposed as an ef- nua, while on tees Agrostis stolonifera fective strategy in the different Italian cv. Penncross dominated. The bermu- temperate climates for reducing golf dagrass (Cynodon dactylon x trans- ince the beginning of the century, course footprint. vaalensis cv. Patriot) that substituted communitarian and regional pol- S cool-season species reached 100% icies have focused their attention on The goal of this study is to assess the ground cover after 42 days from small the sustainability of anthropogenic ac- environmental effects of two different plants establishment. tion, including the management of golf maintenance approaches in a 9 holes courses. Despite the environmental golf course in northern Italy. The superintendent Brian OgO’Flaerty benefits (BEARD and GREEN, 1994), monitored from 2007 to 2013 the cul- turfgrass has also ecological costs re- tural operations effectuated in the dif- lated to the greenhouse gases (GHGs) Materials and Methods ferent playing areas, surveying the an- emissions involved in the maintenance nual amount of engine working times. operations (BARTLETT and JAMES, Under the Köppen climate classifica- The data processing consisted in the 2001; SELHORST AND LAL, 2011). tion, most of Italy has a temperate cli- comparison of data collected during 3 mate (humid subtropical in the North years before (from 2007 to 2009) and A common challenge for maintaining and Mediterranean in the South) that 3 years after transition (2011 to 2013). turfgrass surfaces at a high level of combines cold winters with drought Data from 2010 was not considered quality is the reduction of nitrogen (N) and high temperatures in the summer. because of the coexistence of both fertilization and the water usage. Sev- Italy, excepted for Sicily, is considered C3 and C4 species. Furthermore, data eral studies focused the attention on a transition zone for turfgrasses. In are altered by extra cultural operations the fate of N, regarding the pollution these regions cool-season grasses can needed for transition. of groundwater aquifer, the increasing find good growing conditions during of atmospheric N O and the scarcity of The engine working time were docu- 2 winter and intermediate seasons, while water (CROCE, 2001; BREMER, 2006) mented for machinery and equipment they suffer from heat stress and water utilized for mowing, verti-cutting, fertili- However another important issue is the limitation in summer. On the contrary zation, topdressing, coring, agrochem- assessment of the environmental costs warm-season grasses are character- icals application and other cultural op- due to fossil fuel emissions regarding ized by winter dormancy and persis- erations (green rolling, grooming, hydro turfgrass maintenance activities. In tent straw-brown color in winter, but jet use and dew removing, brush cut- order to guarantee high amenity and they give high quality turfs in summer ting, single rotary mowing, overseed- playability quality levels, intensive man- thanks to low water use and superior ing, brush and tree pruning, repairing agement is frequently considered es- drought resistance. divots, raking bunkers, and mowing of sential. Nevertheless few approaches bunker edges, leaf blowing and irriga- cast doubt on this postulate, indicating The study was conducted at the Golf tion system maintenance). new possibilities for more sustainable della Montecchia, located in Padua, management, without renouncing to (45°23N, 11°46E) in the eastern end high standards. Traditionally, cool-sea- of the Padan Plain. Results and Discussion son grasses have been used in Ita- In June 2010 the golf course converted ly for establishing high maintenance tees and fairways of the white course (9 Figure 1 shows the annual amount of turfgrasses (CROCE, 2003). In the last

holes) from cool-season to warm-sea- the machinery working time before and Turfgrass growing factors, impact for the environment decade some studies demonstrated son grasses. Original mix on fairways after the transition process, divided for the adaptability of warm-season grass- was Poa pratensis, Lolium perenne each cultural operation. Values refer to es to the Italian climate, as far north as and Festuca rubra, with presence of the average of 3 years, both before and the N 45° parallel. The resulting bene- common bermudagrass and Poa an- after transition. fits have been experienced by several applications in sport fields, golf cours- Cultural tees + fairways tees + fairways delta es and residential lawns (MIELE, 2000; operation (before transition) (after transition) % CROCE, 2001; DE LUCA, 2008). The use of warm-season grasses reshape mowing 688 503 -27% the maintenance activities while re- verticutting 12 33 +172% ducing water consumption, fertilizer fertilization 29 13 -53% inputs, pesticides application, and the coring 41 20 -50% frequency of determinate interventions. topdressing 49 39 -20% The reduction of machinery working pesticides application 40 0 -100% time implies less CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, according to the EU Total + 10%* 945 670 -29% policies (IPCC, 2013). The transition Fig. 1: Engine working time (hours) spent for cultural operation on tees and fairways be- from cool-season to warm-season fore and after 2010. * indicates unexpected operations (+10%).

4th ETS Conference 2014 75

Literature

BARTLETT, M.D. and I.T. JAMES, 2011: A model of greenhouse gas emissions from the management of turf on two golf courses. Science of the total environment 409(8), 1357-1367. BEARD, J.B. and R.L. GREEN, 1994: The role of turfgrasses in environmental protection and their benefits to humans. Journal of Envi- ronmental Quality 23(3), 452-460. BREMER, D.J. (2006). Nitrous Oxide Fluxes in Turfgrass. Journal of environmental quality 35(5), 1678-1685. CROCE, P., A. DE LUCA, M. MOCIONI, M. VOL- TERRANI and J. BEARD, 2001: Warm-season turfgrass species and cultivar charac- terizations for a mediterranean climate. Int. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J 9, 855-859. CROCE, P., M. VOLTERRANI, J. BEARD, A. DE LUCA and M. MOCIONI, 2003: Adapt- ability of warmseason turfgrass species and cultivars in a mediterranean climate. In I International Conference on Turfgrass Management and Science for Sports Fields 661 pp. 365-368. DE LUCA, A., M. VOLTERRANI, M. GAETANI, N. GROSSI, P. CROCE, M. MOCIONI, F. LULLI and S. MAGNI, 2008: Warm-season turfgrass adaptation in northern Italy. In Fig. 2: Annual amount (average of 3 years) of the maintenance working times in the whole Proceedings of the 1st European Turfgrass surface Fig.of the 2: Annual 9 holes. amount In brackets (average theof 3 delta years) (%) of thefor maintenanceeach cultural working operations times in between the whole the Society Conference. Pisa (Italy) pp. 75-76. amountsurface of hours of thebefore 9 holes. and Inafter brackets transition. the delta (%) for each cultural operations between the IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: amount of hours before and after transition. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Sci-

The annual amount of hours spent Despite tees and fairways represent ence Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the In- in tee and fairways reduced almost only 16% of the surface of the 9 holes, tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 30% after 2010. Bermudagrass their influence after transition on the [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, demonstrated an excellent adaptation amount of hours of maintenance was M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. and confirmed to require fewer in- appreciable (-8%). Mowing represent- Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley puts than most cool-season turf, ac- ed the activity with higher reduction of (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cam- bridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, cording to the former studies effectu- hours, -185 hours/year, that accounted USA. ated at the same latitudes (DE LUCA, for more than 80% of total hours saved MIELE, S., M. VOLTERRANI and N. GROSSI, 2008). (data not showed). The activities under 2000: Warm season turfgrasses: results of the item “other cultural practices” were a five-year study in Tuscany. Agricoltura Mowing activities after transition re- not involved by the transition and they Mediterranea 130(3/4), 196-202. duced 27%, accounting for 75% of remained stable. SELHORST, A. L. & R. LAL, 2011: Carbon total hours saved (data not showed). budgeting in golf course soils of Central Despite bermudagrass requiring a Conclusion Ohio. Urban Ecosystems 14(4), 771-781. great deal of mowing during the summer months, the total amount was The transition from cool-season to lower because the active grow pe- warm-season grass permitted a more Authors: riod of warm-season grass is short- environment friendly maintenance. er compared to cool-season grass. A. Minelli, Full researcher The study confirmed that warm-sea- The reduction of N needs (more than DipSA – Dipartimento di Scienze son grass requires fewer input (N, 50%) and pesticides (100%) implied a Agrarie, Università di Bologna, pesticides and water) and less hours lower use of machinery for the appli- Bologna, Italy of work, reducing CO emissions from cations. Also the water saving due to 2 [email protected] machinery fuel combustion. Mowing the drought tolerance of warm-season showed the greatest reduction of work- A. DeLuca, Agronomist turf cut down energy consumption for ing time, thanks to the lower frequen- FIG–Federazione Italiana Golf irrigation pump and engines (data not cy intervention, accounting for 75% of present in the study). P. Croce, Agronomist total hours saved. On the contrary ver- CroceGolfSas Verti-cutting was the only cultural opti-cutting represented the only activity eration that increased the machinery to increase the hours of work. L. Cevenini, Research assistant working time after transition (+172%). Despite the climate of the North of It- DipSA - Dipartimento di Scienze Bermudagrass is characterized by an aly, Cynodon dactylon x transvaalensis Agrarie, Università di Bologna, extensive deep root system and signif- cv Patriot demonstrated an excellent Bologna, Italy icant lateral growth (rhizomes and sto- resistance to thermal limits and a good D. Zuffa, Ph.Dstudent lons) may cause thatch accumulation if wear tolerance. Thanks to the several DipSA – Dipartimento di Scienze not managed. To maintain high quality environmental benefits above men- Agrarie, Università di Bologna, turf the frequency of verti-cutting was tioned the transition contributed to the Bologna, Italy more than doubled. reduction ofthe golf course footprint.

76 4th ETS Conference 2014 Carbon fluxes in turfgrass under different management intensities in a golf course in northern Italy

Zuffa D., L. Cevenini, M. Corradini, P. Panzacchi, A. Minelli and G. Tonon

Introduction pagna, (45°240 N, 10°510 E) in the 20 points. Each sampling was execut- province of Verona (Italy) during one ed in random order. The chamber was year, from August 2012 to September positioned always in the same spots. he increasing concentration of 2013. The course includes different greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the The IRGA integrated sensors provided T playing areas, characterized by dif- atmosphere is strongly related to the a) a value of CO flux (μmol m-2 s- 1 CO ) ferent turfgrass species and manage- 2 2 global warming (IPCC, 2013). Among as an estimate of NEE, b) air tempera- ment intensity. All the species were them, carbon dioxide (CO2) originat- ture (°C) and c) the photosynthetically cool-season grasses. ing from human activities is the largest active radiation (PAR, μmol m-2 s-1) in- contributor to the total radiative forc- Within the course, 20 NEE measure- side the chamber. ing. Promoting soil C sequestration in ment points were marked with iron The integration among the 5 measure- managed ecosystems has been pro- plates positioned in different playing ments of C flux in a single point was posed as an effective GHGs mitigation areas. These areas were then grouped obtained with the trapezoidal method strategy (LAL et al., 1999). Therefore in 3 categories according to their de- (PANZACCHI et al., 2012). Calculated to understand the mechanisms driving gree of maintenance: high intensity daily values of NEE were considered the carbon (C) assimilation on terrestri- (HI), tees, green and collar, medium representative of the period between al ecosystems became extremely im- intensity (MI), fairway and semi-rough, one measurement time and the follow- portant in order to minimize the C foot- and low intensity (LI), rough and bunker ing (approximately 15 days) and used print of agriculture and turfgrass man- edge. The number of measuring points to calculate the annual NEE with the agement practices. Several studies repeated for playing areas was propor- same method. investigated the potential of turfgrass tionate to their relative extension. HI, ecosystems to sequester C (QIAN and MI and LI had respectively 4, 8 and 4 All statistical analyses were made with FOLLET, 2002; BANDARANAYAKE et measurement points. Statgraphics Centurion XV (StatPoint al., 2003; HUYLER et al., 2013; SEL- Inc., USA). Normality of the NEE annual Whole-canopy gas exchange measure- HORST and LAL, 2013). However their data was tested with the Shapiro-Wilk ments were performed with a portable role in continental and Mediterranean test. One-way analysis of the variance Infra Red Gas Analyser (IRGA; EGM4, climates is not yet clearly understood (ANOVA) was performed to test the PP Systems, UK) equipped with a can- because environmental factors and effect of the management intensity on management practices can strongly opy chamber (CPY-2, PP Systems, UK) 3 the annual cumulated values of NEE. influence their overall C balance. Sev- of 14.6 cm of diameter and 2425 cm of volume. The portable chamber is spe- A multiple comparison procedure was eral approaches have been used to then used to analyse statistically signif- estimate C sequestration in turfgrass: cifically designed for measuring canopy CO fluxes in a closed system. It icant differences among means using analysis of soil organic carbon (SOC) 2 the Tukey’s honest significance test changes over time, isotopes tech- is transparent and equipped with a fan and sensors for measurement of pho- (p<0.05). Homogeneity of variance was niques, remote sensing, measurement checked using Levene’s test before and modeling of gas exchange. tosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and air temperature. analysis. The objective of this study was to assess the turfgrass C sequestration, Results and Discussion through the estimate of the net CO2 Turfgrass growing factors, exchange between the atmosphere Figure 2 shows the trend of NEE for impact for the environment and the ecosystem (Net Ecosystem Ex- each category of maintenance intensi- change, NEE) during one year, in a golf ty. From November to March the trend course in northern Italy. tended to 0 for all the categories: C se- questrated during the daytime resulted Materials and Methods slightly greater than C emitted during the night. Whereas from spring to autumn daytime assimilation increased The C sequestration potential of the Fig. 1: Measurement during field survey; turfgrass was assessed in a golf course portable IRGA-EGM4 (PP Systems, UK), due to higher PAR, compared to the hole, using a small-chamber enclosure connected to a custom chamber, and iron previous colder period. At the same plates marking NEE measurement points. approach. The measurements of gas time high temperatures influenced dai- exchange between ecosystem and ly NEE, increasing respiration of epi- atmosphere allowed for the NEE esti- The measures were carried out, during geous turfgrass and decomposition of the course of one day, every 2 weeks, turfgrass clippings. The CO released mate as a function of different manage- 2 ment intensities. for a total of 23 times over one year. in those processes exceeded that se- Each survey consisted of 5 measures questered by photosynthesis, hence The study was conducted at the Golf taken at different times, 5:30, 9:30, NEE during this period assumed posi- Club Verona, located in Sommacam- 14:00, 18:00 and 22:00, in each of the tive values (Figure 2).

4th ETS Conference 2014 77 [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nau- els, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. LAL, R., R.F. FOLLETT, J. KIMBLE and C.V. COLE, 1999: Managing US cropland to sequester carbon in soil. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 54(1), 374-381. LEWIS, J.D., 2010: Carbon, nitrogen and water fluxes from turfgrass ecosystems. Depart- ment of Horticulture, Forestry, and Rec- reation Resources-College of Agriculture. Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kan- Fig. 2: Annual trend of daily net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of turfgrass under different sas, pp. 155. management intensities. Bars are SE of the mean, n= 4 for LI and HI, 12 for MI. MILESI, C., S.W. RUNNING, C.D. ELVIDGE, J.B. DIETZ, B.T. TUTTLE and R.R. NEMA- NI, 2005: Mapping and modeling the bio- geochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States. Environmental Management 36: 426-438. PANZACCHI, P., G. TONON, C. CECCON, F. SCANDELLARI, M. VENTURA, M. ZIBOR- DI and M. TAGLIAVINI, 2012: Belowground carbon allocation and net primary and ecosystem productivities in apple trees (Malus domestica) as affected by soil water availability. Plant and Soil 360: 229-241i QIAN, Y. and R.F. FOLLETT, 2002: Assess- ing soil carbon sequestration in turfgrass systems using long-term soil testing data. Agronomy Journal 94(4), 930-935. Fig. 3: Annual cumulative NEE of turfgrass under different management intensities. Values SELHORST, A. and R. LAL, 2013: Net Carbon are means, n=4 for LI; 12 for MI; 4 for HI. Bars are SE of the mean. Different letters indi- Sequestration Potential and Emissions cate statistically significant differences, p<0.05. in Home Lawn Turfgrasses of the United States. Environmental management 51(1), The annual NEE for each maintenance most at a steady situation in terms of C 198-208. category resulted in a negligible C emissions, with significant differences source (Figure 3). Our estimates are between turf management intensities, Authors: comparable with those of other small with less intensively managed areas D. Zuffa, PhD student chambers studies available in literature behaving as greater C sources than the University of Bologna, Department (e.g. BREMER and HAM, 2005; LEWIS, ones more intensively managed. of agricultural sciences-DipSA. 2010), however they are in contrast with For intensive managed ecosystem Viale Fanin, 44. 40127 Bologna, IT those obtained with different measure- further research regarding the assess- [email protected] ment approaches (SOC chrono-se- ment of hidden C cost due to mainte- L. Cevenini, Research assistant quences, ecosystemic-, LCA-, isotop- nance should be carry out, in order to University of Bologna, Department ic- and remote sensing-models) that understand the real C footprint of turf- of agricultural sciences-DipSA. generally report negative values of NEE, grass in continental and Mediterranean Viale Fanin, 44. 40127 Bologna, IT considering turfgrasses as a C sinks climates. (e.g. QIAN and FOLLET, 2002; MILESI, M. Corradini, Ph.D student et al., 2005; BARTLETT and JAMES, References: University of Bologna, Department 2011). The small absolute figures of the of agricultural sciences-DipSA. NEE suggest a system almost in equi- BANDARANAYAKE, W., Y.L. QIAN, W.J. PAR- Viale Fanin, 44. 40127 Bologna, IT librium, where C inputs nearly balance TON, D.S. OJIMA and R.F. FOLLETT, 2003: C outputs. The relation between NEE Estimation of soil organic carbon changes P. Panzacchi, Reserach assistant and management intensities shows in turfgrass systems using the CENTURY University of Bologna, Department that NEE significantly decreases (minor model. Agronomy Journal 95(3), 558-563. of agricultural sciences-DipSA. C emissions) with higher intensity (Fig- BARTLETT, M.D. and I.T JAMES, 2011: A mod- Viale Fanin, 44. 40127 Bologna, IT; ure 3) indicating a more conservative el of greenhouse gas emissions from the management of turf on two golf cours- Free University of Bolzano/Bozen, behaviour in terms of C for playing are- es. Science of the total environment 409: Faculty of Science and Technology as with higher maintenance. A possible 1357-1367. Piazza Università, 5. 39100 explanation for this is that maintenance BREMER, D.J. and J.M. HAM, 2005: Meas- Bolzano-Bozen, IT activities such as mowing, fertilization urement and partitioning of in situ carbon and irrigation may accelerate biogeo- dioxide fluxes in turfgrasses using a pres- A. Minelli, Full researcher chemical cycles, increasing the total surized chamber. Agronomy Journal 97: 627-632. University of Bologna, Department of amount of C fixed by plants (Gross Pri- HUYLER, A., A.H. CHAPPELKA, S.A. PRIOR agricultural sciences-DipSA. mary Production, GPP) and the C allo- and G.L. SOMERS, 2013: Drivers of soil Viale Fanin, 44. 40127 Bologna, IT cation below ground. carbon in residential ‘pure lawns’ in Au- burn, Alabama. Urban Ecosystems, 1-15. G. Tonon, Associate professor Conclusion IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Cli- Free University of Bolzano/Bozen, mate Change (2013): The Physical Science Faculty of Science and Technology Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to Piazza Università, 5. 39100 Our annual NEE estimation for a golf the Fifth Assessment Report of the Inter- Bolzano-Bozen, IT course turfgrass shows a system al- governmental Panel on Climate Change

78 4th ETS Conference 2014 ning of the season (Photo 1). To ensure a good seal, the tops of the gas cham- Various fertilizer sources for mitigation bers were also tapped in after they of greenhouse gas emissions from golf were placed over the anchors (Photo 2). Gas samples were taken at 0, 20, course greens and roughs and 40 minutes post closure of the chamber (Photo 3). This method allows gas concentrations to build up inside Walker K.S. and K.W. Nannenga of the chamber, and a flux rate of the gases from the surface to be calculated based on the change in concentration over time. In addition, at each sampling date air temperature, soil temperature, Introduction and nitrous oxide [N2O]) emissions and overall turfgrass quality. soil moisture, turfgrass quality and canopy greenness data were collected. he concentration of carbon diox- Materials and Methods Turfgrass quality was on a visual rating Tide (CO2) in the atmosphere is in- of 1 to 9 where 1=bare soil, 6=mini- creasing at an unprecedented rate, mally acceptable, 9=optimum uniform- due primarily to fossil fuel burning and This field study was conducted at Lin- ity, density, and greenness. Canopy land use change. The increased aware- coln Park golf course in Grand Forks, greenness was assessed using a CM ness of this global problem has led to North Dakota (USA). Three sites on 1000 (NDVI Meter; Spectrum Technol- increased pressure by society to min- the golf course were selected based ogies) chlorophyll meter. imize the impacts of elevated atmos- on cultural intensity, turfgrass species, pheric concentrations of greenhouse and soil moisture regime. The first site Results gases (GHG). was located on a creeping bentgrass Nutrient cycling on golf courses has (Agrostis stolonifera L.) practice putting Preliminary data analysis on the first four the capacity to sequester GHG through green consisting of a sand-based root sampling dates in June 2013 (6/5/2013, the accumulation of soil organic carbon zone. The second site was located in a 6/12/2013, 6/19/2013, and 6/26/2013) (QIAN and FOLLETT, 2002; MILESI et Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) showed a trend (p<0.1) indicating high- al., 2005). However, cultural manage- rough with low soil moisture. The final er CO emissions on the green than on ment practices can offset sequestra- site was located in a Kentucky blue- 2 the two rough sites (Figure 1). In ad- tion by mitigating GHG emissions di- grass (Poa pratensis L.) rough with high dition, preliminary results also show rectly (fertilization) or indirectly (main- soil moisture. Plot size was 0.61 m x CH emissions (p<0.05) higher in the tenance equipment) (BARTLETT and 0.61 m and treatments were replicated 4 control than in the Encapsulated Poly- JAMES, 2011). four times. on treatment across all sites (Figure 2). Fertilizer application, irrigation, and Plots were fertilized May through Octo- In addition, site (p<0.001) influenced other turfgrass management prac- ber with an annual nitrogen (N) rate of N2O emissions; although treatment ef- tices have the potential to contribute 245 kg N ha-1 yr-1. During the months of to emissions and mitigation of green- May, September, and October, a rate Photo 1: An- -1 house gases, leading to uncertainties of 49 kg N ha was applied to each chors for each in the net contribution of turfgrass eco- plot. For June, July, and August, 24.5 plot were systems to climate change (ZHANG et kg N ha-1 was applied to each plot. tamped into al., 2013). Fertilization of turfgrass has Three sources of fertilizer were used: the soil at the beginning of been shown to increase soil nitrous Urea (46-0-0), Encapsulated Polyon the study to oxide (N2O) emissions ranging from (30-0-15), and Milorganite (5-2-0). Urea provide a base 0.5 to 6.4 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (GUILBAULT is a fast-release N source whereas for the gas and MATTHIAS, 1998; KAYE et al., both Encapsulated Polyon and Milor- chambers. 2004; BREMER, 2006; GROFFMAN ganite are slow-release N sources. In et al., 2009; LIVESLEY et al., 2010; addition, Milorganite is a natural organ- Photo 2: TOWNSEND-SMALL and CZIMCZIK, ic fertilizer. Monthly applications were Prior to Turfgrass growing factors, 2010; ZHANG et al., 2013). MAGGIOT- applied the first week of each month sampling for impact for the environment TO et al. (2000) found that urea-based throughout the growing season. greenhouse gases, the fertilizers minimized N2O emissions GHG sampling was initiated on gas chambers and indicated that long-term effects of 6/5/2013 and occurred weekly until were tapped slow-release urea based fertilizers still 10/26/2013. At each sampling date, onto the need to be studied. anchors to gas samples were taken using a vented create a good Choice of fertilizer release (fast versus closed gas chamber that was placed seal. slow release) and mechanism of ferti- over the plots for 40 minutes following lizer break-down needs to be consid- the United States Department of Agri- ered as a method for mitigating GHG culture-Agricultural Research Service emissions. Therefore, the purpose of Greenhouse gas Reduction through Photo 3: Gas this project was to determine the im- Agricultural Carbon Enhancement net- samples pact of fertilizer source (Urea, Encap- work (USDA-ARS GRACEnet) methods were taken sulated Polyon and Milorganite), turf- (FOLLETT, 2010). Samples were tak- at 0, 20, and grass species (Agrostis stolonifera L. en from the same location throughout 40 minutes and Poa pratensis L.), and site location the summer as the anchors for the gas post closure of the gas (soil moisture regime) have on GHG chambers were tamped into the ground chamber and (carbon dioxide [CO2], methane [CH4], flush with the soil surface at the begin- anchor.

4th ETS Conference 2014 79 Photo 2: Prior to sampling for greenhouse gases, the gas chambers were tapped onto the anchors to create a good seal.

Photo 3: Gas samples were taken at 0, 20, and 40 minutes post closure of the gas chamber and anchor.

fects were not significant (Figure 3). On FOLLETT, R.F. (ed.), 2010: Sampling Protocols. the four sampling dates analyzed, the USDA_ARS. Web-based book. Available rough in the dry location showed high- at: www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet 69p. -1 er N2O emissions than the other two GROFFMAN, P.M., C.O. WILLIAMS, R.V. POUY-

min sites; this trend was consistent across AT and L.E. BAND, 2009: Nitrate leaching -2

m sampling dates. Interestingly, on the and nitrous oxide flux in urban forests and 2 first sampling date the rough in the wet grasslands. J. Environ. Qual. 38:1846-60. GUILBAULT, M.R. and A.D. MATTHIAS, 1998: location showed a negative flux of N2O, Emissions of N2O from Sonoran Desert and umol CO suggesting at times this location can effluent-irrigated grass ecosystems. J. Arid act as a sink for N2O which is a potent Environ. 38:87-98. greenhouse gas. Previous investigators KAYE, J.P., I.C. BURKE and A. MOSIER, 2004: have observed negative fluxes of N2O Methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from urban soil to the atmosphere. Ecol. Appl. Fig. 1: 2013 CO flux for the first four sam- (VIETEN et al., 2009; RICHARDSON et 2 14:975-981. pling dates. Dry=dry rough; green=putting al., 2009; CLOUGH et al., 1999). Expla- LIVESLEY, S.J., B.J. DOUGHERTY, A.J. SMITH, Fig. 1: 2013 COgreen;2 flux for wet=wet the first four rough; sampling UNT= dates. Dry=dryControl, rough; green=puttingnations green; offered include the reduction of wet=wet rough;URE= UNT= Urea,Control, POL=URE= Urea, Encapsulated POL= Encapsulated Polyon, Polyon, MIL=Milorganite. D. NAVAUD, L.J. WYLIE and S.K. ARNDT, N2O to N2 (VIETEN et al., 2009) with the MIL=Milorganite. 2010: Soil-atmosphere exchange of carbon denitrification enzyme N2O reductase dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in urban (RICHARDSON et al., 2009). CLOUGH garden systems: Impact of irrigation, fertil- et al. (1999) quantified that 2/3 of the iser and mulch. Urban Ecosyst. 13:273-293. total soil N2O was reduced to N2 be- MAGGIOTTO, S.R., J.A. WEBB, C. WAG- fore ultimately being released from the NER-RIDDLE and G.W. THURTELL, 2000:

-1 Nitrous and nitrogen oxide emissions from soil. The conditions reporting negative turfgrass receiving different forms of nitro- min

-2 N2O fluxes are quite variable, suggest- gen fertilizer. J. Environ. Qual. 29:621-630. m 4 ing that abiotic mechanisms or uniden- MILESI, C., S.W. RUNNING, C.D. ELVIDGE, tified biological sinks may be operating J.B. DIETZ, B.T. TUTTLE and R.R NEMANI, (SMITH, 2010). 2005: Mapping and modelling the biogeo-

umol CO chemical cycling of turf grasses in the Unit- For turfgrass quality, each sampling ed States. Environ Manage. 36:426-38. date was analyzed by turfgrass area, QIAN, Y.L. and R.F. FOLLETT, 2002: Assess- fertilizer treatment, and turfgrass area ing soil carbon sequestration in turfgrass x fertilizer treatment interaction. There systems using long-term soil testing data. Agron. J. 94:930-935. Fig. 2: 2013 CH4 flux for the first four sam- were differences (p<0.05) in site loca- pling dates. Dry=dry rough; green=putting tion for the June 5 sampling date where RICHARDSON, D., H. FELGATE, N. WAT- MOUGH, A. THOMSON and E. BAGGS, green; wet=wet rough; UNT= Control, turfgrass quality was lower on the green URE= Urea, POL= Encapsulated Polyon, 2009: Mitigating release of the potent MIL=Milorganite. (6.9) than either site locations in the greenhouse gas N2O from the nitrogen cy- rough (7.4). For the June 12 sampling cle-could enzymic regulation hold the key? date, turfgrass quality was significantly Trends in Biotechnology 27:7: 388-397. (p<0.0001) higher for the Encapsulated SMITH, K., 2010: Nitrous Oxide and Climate Polyon and Milorganite treatments (8.4) Change. Earthscan Ltd, United Kingdom. -1 compared to the control (6.8) (Figure 4). TOWNSEND SMALL, A. and C.I. CZIMCZIK,

min 2010: Correction to “Carbon sequestration -2 Sampling will begin again in May 2014. and greenhouse gas emissions in urban

O m turf ”. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37:L06707. 2 Conclusions VIETEN, B., F. CONEN, A. NEFTEL and C. ALEWELL, 2009: Respiration of nitrous ox- umol N ide in suboxic soil. European Journal of Soil The results from this two-year field Science 60, 332-337. study will provide information about ZHANG, Y., Y. QIAN, D.J. BREMER and J.P. turfgrass management practices that KAYE, 2013: Simulation of nitrous oxide Fig. 3: 2013 N O flux for the first four sam- minimize greenhouse gas losses for emissions and estimation of global warm- 2 ing potential in turfgrass systems using the pling dates. Dry=dry rough; green=putting cool-season turfgrasses which can be DAYCENT model. J. Environ. Qual. 42:1100- green; wet=wet rough; UNT= Control, utilized to evaluate the environmental URE= Urea, POL= Encapsulated Polyon, 1108. MIL=Milorganite. efficacy of our current cultural management practices. Authors: Asst. Prof. Dr. Kristina S. Walker Literature University of Minnesota Crookston / Department of Agriculture and Natural BARTLETT, M.D. and I.T. JAMES, 2011: A Resources model of greenhouse gas emissions from 2900 University Ave, 205 Hill Hall the management of turf on two golf courses. Science of the Total Environment. Crookston, MN 56716 409:1357-1367. [email protected] BREMER, D.J., 2006: Nitrous oxide fluxes in Asst. Prof. Dr. Katy W. Nannenga turfgrass: Effects of nitrogen fertilization rates and types. J. Environ. Qual. 35:1678- University of Minnesota Crookston / 1685. Department of Math, Science, and Fig. 4: Mean turfgrass quality (1-9 Rating CLOUGH, T.J., S.C. JARVIS, E.R. DIXON, Technology Scale; 1=Bare soil, 6=Minimally accept- R.J. STEVENS, R.J. LAUGHLIN and D.J. 2900 University Ave, able, 9=Optimum uniformity, density, and HATCH, 1999: Carbon induced soil denitri- 249 Dowell Annex greenness) for all turfgrass areas (UNT= fication of 15N labelled nitrate in 1m deep Crookston, MN 56716 soil columns. Soil Biology and Biochemis- Control, URE= Urea, POL= Encapsulated [email protected] Polyon, MIL=Milorganite). try, 31: 31-41.

80 4th ETS Conference 2014 on 21 Aug. using an Oxford sprayer working at 150-200 kPa pressure. The Optimal application intervals for the plant turf was clipped at 10 mm twice per growth regulator Trinexapac-ethyl week and clipping dry weight, plant ® height, and turfgrass colour (1-9, 1 is (Primo MAXX ) at Northern Latitudes completely discoloured, 9 is intensely green) were determined. In addition to ANOVA, cubic regression with GDD as Aamlid T.S. and Geo J.L. van Leeuwen the independent variable was used to express the effect of temperature and daylength on relative clipping yield (un- Introduction Materials and Methods sprayed = 100).

he plant growth regulator Primo Plant material was taken on 5 Aug. Results and Discussion TMAXX® (PM, trinexapac-ethyl) is 2013 from a sand-based green seeded approved for use on turf in Sweden 10 weeks earlier with a creeping bent- On average for eleven observations and Iceland, and applications for reg- grass (Agrostis stolonifera) seed blend during the six weeks after application istration have also been filed in Finland consisting in equal parts of the culti- of PM, the rise in mean diurnal tem- and Norway. PM inhibits the conver- vars ‘Penn A-1’, ‘Penn A-4’, ‘Penn G-6’ perature from 13.2 to 19.3 resulted in sion of GA20 to GA1, i.e. the last step and ‘Declaration’. The trial was located a 32% increase in clipping yield and a in plant biosynthesis of the plant hor- at Bioforsk Landvik, Norway (58°20 N). 28 % increase in height growth (Table mone gibberellic acid (ADAMS et al., Undisturbed cores, each 10 cm wide 1). The reason why these effects were 1992). Because PM is not persistent and 20 cm deep, were sampled with a not statistically significant can partly in plant tissue, it must be reapplied at cup cutter and placed in pots of simi- be ascribed to the wide temperature regular intervals to have a consistent lar size. The experiment was conduct- optimum for net photosynthesis of effect on cell elongation and turfgrass ed from 6 Aug. to 30 Sep. in growth C3 grasses (FRY and HUANG, 2004), clipping yields. Application intervals of chambers with a PPFD (Photosynthetic and also that the experimental setup 1-2 weeks on greens and 2-3 weeks Photon Flux Density) of 269 ± 19 μmol/ allowed only two replicates (growth on fairways were recommended based m-2/s-1 of fluorescent plus incandescent chambers) for each temperature. on trials on Nordic golf courses (AAM- light for 10 h per day. Daylength exten- Daylength extension from 10 h to 20 h LID et al., 2009). If application intervals sion was given as incandescent light gave a 28% increase in clipping yields become too long, turf treated with PM (2.2 μmol/m-2/s-1) for an additional 5 or and a smaller and insignificant (13%) will rebound, i.e. grow faster than the 10 h. The experimental plan comprised increase in turfgrass height growth untreated turf after PM is no longer three factors, each with three levels: (Table 1). It should be noted that this suppressing growth (LICKFELDT et was a true photoperiodic effect as the al., 2001; BRANHAM and BEASLEY, Factor 1: Factor 2: Factor 3: incoming radiation was virtually the 2007). Research in Wisconsin, USA, Diurnal mean Day- Dose of same in all treatments. The results has shown that the duration of growth temperature length Primo MAXX are in agreement with the studies re- suppression depends on temperature, viewed by HAY (1990) and indicate a and that optimal application interval 13.2 °C 1. 10 h iii. Unsprayed -1 true photoperiodic response even in in the northern US (40-49 ºN) is 200 19.3 °C 2. 15 h iii. 0.8 L ha -1 North American cultivars of creeping Growing Degrees Days (GDD) with a 24.1 °C 3. 20 h iii. 1.6 L ha bentgrass although the increase in clip- base temperature 0 ºC (KREUSER and ping yields due to daylength extension SOLDAT, 2012). The experiment was carried out in two separate sections (statistical blocks) from 15 to 20 h was less than would be The Nordic countries are located at of the research center, each con- expected from more northerly adapted 56-71 ºN and the maximum daylength taining three growth chambers, each plant material. 2 at midsummer ranges from 18 to 24 h. 12 m . Temperatures were set to 10, The strongest and highly significant ef- For grasses native to this region, it is 16 and 22 °C, but loggers showed the fects on clipping yields and daily height well documented that the long sum- above values at plant level due to the Turfgrass growing factors, growth were due to PM (Table 1). In impact for the environment mer days have a strong impact on leaf radiant energy from the fluorescent agreement with recent studies show- elongation and dry matter production, light. The design was a split-split plot ing mostly linear dose responses to PM especially at cool temperatures, and with temperatures (growth chambers) (VÅGEN et al., 2013), the average re- this effect may well be mediated by as main plots, daylength as subplots

GA1 as discussed by (HAY, 1990). It (three trolleys per growth chamber) and can therefore be hypothesized that the plant growth regulator as sub-subplots rebound effect will occur faster at (pots). The target daylengths were ob- higher latitudes than at low latitudes, tained by covering two of the trolleys in although it remains to be established each growth chamber with a black im- how the combination of low summer permeable curtain for 5 and 10 h (Pho- temperatures and long days will in- to 1). Each trolley carried three parallel fluence turf metabolism of trinexa- pots per growth regulator treatment; pac-ethyl. Thus, the objective of this this was considered a random factor research was to study the effect of in the statistical analyses. All pots were increasing temperature and daylength fertilized weekly with a complete liquid Photo 1: Different daylenths were obtained on the duration of growth suppression, fertilizer solution (Wallco 5-1-4, Ceder- using low-intensity incandescent light and expressed in GDD, after application roth International AB, Falun, Sweden) covering trolleys with black, impermeable of PM. at 0.7 N m-2 wk-1. PM was applied curtains. (Photo: Geo van Leeuwen)

4th ETS Conference 2014 81 Table 1 Midwest United States, but that ar- Daily production Daily height Color gument is less relevant under Nordic of clippings increment, mm (1-9, 9 is most conditions. In agreement with earli- g DM m-2 (mean of 10 obs) intensely green) er recommendations (AAMLID et al. Mean A. 13.2 °C 1.14 a1 2.9 a 7.3 a 2009), we therefore conclude that light diurnal tem- B. 19.3 °C 1.42 a 3.4 a 6.8 a and frequent applications maximise the perature C. 24.1 °C 1.50 a 3.7 a 6.4 a benefit of PM on golf courses. Daylength 1. 10 h 1.22 b 3.2 a 6.8 a 2. 15 h 1.28 b 3.2 a 6.7 a Acknowledgements 3. 20 h 1.56 a 3.6 a 6.9 a Primo Maxx i. Unsprayed 1.74 a 4.1 a 8.1 a This research was funded by Syngen- ii. 0.8 L ha-1 1.32 b 3.2 b 6.5 b ta Lawn & Garden under its industrial iii.1.6 L ha-1 0.99 c 2.7 c 5.8 c partnership program with the Scandi- 1 For each main effect, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different according navian Turfgrass and Environment Re- to LSD . 0.05 search Foundation (STERF). Table 1: Main effects of temperature, daylength and Primo MAXX on daily production of clippings, daily height increment and turf color. Means of observations from 24 Aug. to 3 Literature Oct., i.e. during the six week period after application of PM.

colour, even at 10 mm mowing height. AAMLID, T.S., O. NIEMELÄINEN, M. RANNIKO, We have previously reported the ap- O. NOTENG, M. WALDNER, T. HAUGEN, S. JUNNILA, T. PETTERSEN and T. ESPE- pearance of brown or yellow turf after VIG, 2009: Evaluation of the plant growth the first application of high rates of regulator Primo MAXX® (trinexapac-ethyl) PM in Nordic fairway trials, but these on Nordic golf courses. Results from the tendencies became less pronounced second evaluation year 2008 and recom- as the turf was accustomed to growth mendations. Bioforsk Report, 4 (4),1-28. regulator (AAMLID et al., 2009). Ac- ADAMS, R., E. KERBER and K.PFISTER, 1992: cording to practical experience, this Studies on the action of the new growth re- tardant CGA163935 (Primo). In: Progress in discoloration can also be avoided by plant growth regulation. Kluwer, Dordrecht, applying small rates of nitrogen fertiliz- Netherlands. pp. 818-827. er in tank mixture with PM. BRANHAM, B. and J. BEASLEY, 2007: PGRs: Metabolism and plant responses. Golf Contrary to our hypothesis, the data Course Management, 75 (7), 95-99. revealed no significant interaction be- FRY, J. and B. HUANG 2004: Applied Turfgrass tween PM and daylength. It therefore Science and Physiology. Hoboken, New seems that the rebound effect after us- Jersey, USA. John Wiley & Sons. ing PM is controlled not only by GA1, HAY, R.K.M., 1990: Tansley Review No 26. The but also by plant carbohydrate status, influence of photoperiod on the dry-matter but this warrant further research under prodeuction of grasses and cereals. New normal daylight conditions. However, if Phytologist,116, 233-254. rebound is defined as when the growth LICKFELDT, D.W., D.S. GARDNER, B.E. BRA- rate of treated plots exceeds that of un- NHAM and T.B. VOIGT, 2001: Implications of repeated trinexapac-ethyl applications treated plots, the data presented in Fig. on Kentucky Bluegrass. Agronomy Journal, 1 clearly shows that the rebound effect 93, 1164-1168. occurred at a greater GDD at higher KREUSER, B. and D. SOLDAT, 2012: Precise temperature compared to low tem- PGR applications on greens. Golf Course perature, and also at a greater GDD at Management, 80 (8), 80-82, 84, 86 and 88. lower rather than high PM rates. While VÅGEN, I.M., O. NIEMELÄINEN, T. ESPEVIG, the latter is contradictory to KREUSER T.O. PETTERSEN, P. RUUTTUNEN and and SOLDAT (2012), our data mostly T.S. AAMLID, 2013: Current and new formulations of the plant growth regulator Pri- confirm their recommendation of 200 mo MAXX® (trinexapac-ethyl) for turfgrass. GDD as a rough guideline for how often Bioforsk Report, 8 (186), 1-42. PM should be applied. Nonetheless, in Iceland and other northern and coast- Authors: al parts of the Nordic countries, where the mean temperature for the growing Trygve S. Aamlid PhD season is only 9-11 ºC, an application Research leader, Turfgrass Science Fig. 1: Relative clipping yields (untreated interval of 200 GDD, i.e. approximate- Bioforsk – Norwegian Institute for control = 100) expressed as cubic func- ly every 20 days, is probably too long Agricultural and Environmental tions of growing degree days after appli- to get the maximum benefit from the Research, Norway cation of two rates of Primo MAXX at three product. In fact, KREUSER and SOL- [email protected] temperatures. Means of three daylengths. DAT’s (2012) data from Wisconsin, USA also showed a stronger reduction Geo J.L. van Leeuwen MSc duction in clipping yield was 24% and in clipping yields and significantly bet- Research Scientist, 43% after application of 0.8 and 1.6 ter turf quality when PM was applied Turfgrass Science L ha-1, respectively. These high rates every 100 GDD than every 200 GDD. Bioforsk – Norwegian Institute for are more relevant for fairways than for Their argument for recommending 200 Agricultural and Environmental greens, and in this experiment, they GDD was that 100 GDD would not be Research, Norway caused significant reductions in turf practical in the summer heat of the [email protected]

82 4th ETS Conference 2014 Festuca arundinacea drought resistance induced by Trinexapac-ethyl

Gómez de Barreda, D., T. Pérez, J. Bellón, R.V. Molina and S.G. Nebauer

Introduction perature was recorded with a HOBO 1 being poorest or dead. Water loss U23 Pro v2 temperature data logger. was determined by weighing the The monthly maximum and minimum containers weekly with an Ohaus he growth of cool-season turf- temperatures were as follows: 30.2 ºC ES30R scale. Substrate volumetric grass species is often limited by T and 9.7 ºC for May, 32.6 ºC and 13.6 moisture content (7 cm depth) was high temperature during summer ºC for June and 37.3 ºC and 17.9 ºC for also determined weekly with a WET months in warm climates (JIANG AND July. The experiment was a complete- sensor kit (Delta-T Devices, Cam- HUANG, 2001). Another abiotic stress, ly randomized design testing 2 factors: bridge, UK). drought, affects the growth of most TE treatment (treated or untreated) cool-season grasses (McCANN AND and drought stress at 3 levels (100%, HUANG, 2008). Both stresses are and Results 75%, and 50% of optimal irrigation will continue to be the primary con- dose). Optimal irrigation dose (800 mL cern in turfgrass management, as Only plants irrigated with the op- of water per container) was determined water is becoming increasingly limit- timal irrigation dose (100%) complete- through observation during the adap- ed for irrigation and temperatures are ly survived this experiment and tation months (October to May). Each rising due to global warming (HUANG, their behaviour in terms of water sa- drought stress group was irrigated with 2004). Tall fescue (Festuca arundin- ving and water content in the first the corresponding water dosage on the acea Schreb) is more tolerant to heat 7 cm of the substrate is shown in Fig- first irrigation date of the experiment. and drought stress in comparison to ure 1. Thereafter, only the amount of weekly other cool-season grasses (TURGEON, water loss was supplied to the individ- Figure 1 shows an increase in water 2005). But, in many situations this tol- Authors: ual containers. To irrigate the plants, saving just after the third application erance is not enough to withstand se- the corresponding dosage of water of TE (May 30th). This trend lasted vere hot periods during late spring and Diego Gómez de Barreda Ferraz. E-mail: [email protected] was poured individually into each con- roughly 1 month, until the beginning of summer or long dry periods where ir- Tomás Pérez Sáez Javiertainer Bellón with Echeverríaa plastic graduate beaker July. During the aforementioned peri- rigation is scarce. Greater drought re- Rosaonce V. or Molina twice Romero per week. Primo-Maxx od, water saving average was around sistance in tall fescue can be achieved Sergiotrinexapac-ethyl González Nebauer (12.5%) formulation 15-17%, with a maximum peak of by reducing metabolic rate during hot was applied. The application dose was 21%. In the same Figure, volumetric and dry periods, through the use Plant2.4 L Productionha-1 of the Department. commercial Universitat formula- Politècnicawater content de Valéncia. in the first Camino 7 cm de of Vera the s/n. of plant growth regulators (PGRs). Valencia 46022. Spain. tion (0.393 kg ai ha-1) and the appli- substrate is shown for both TE treated Trinexapac-ethyl (TE) is one of the cation dates were May 2nd, May 16th plants and untreated plants. After the most widely used PGRs for the man- and May 30th. General aesthetics were mowing date on June 11th, the sub- agement of cool and warm-season rated weekly with a visual rating sys- strate moisture content in the treated turfgrass species (McCULLOUGH et tem according to the evaluator’s judg- containers remained higher than in the al., 2006). The use of TE has already ment using a scale from 1 to 9, where untreated containers. The TE applica- shown greater resistance to drought 9 means outstanding or ideal turf and tion on tall fescue caused growth inhi- and heat stresses in several cool-sea- Figure 1 son turfgrass species, however, limited research has been conducted on tall fescue. The objective of this research

was to test TE on tall fescue, in order Turfgrass growing factors, impact for the environment to demonstrate that it can be used to save irrigation water during water stress periods.

Materials and methods

An experiment was conducted in 2013 between May and July. Tall fescue cv. ‘3rd Millenium’ was sown in the previous autumn at 25 g m-2 in 24 polyethylene containers (30 cm depth, 17 cm of diameter and 5.5 L of capacity) and filled with a commercial peat based substrate. The containers were placed Fig. 1: Volumetric moisture content in the first 7 cm of the substrate profile (C100 = control in a greenhouse with no climatic con- @bu:containers; Fig. 1: T100 Volumetric = Trinexapac-ethyl moisture content (TE) treated in the containers) first 7 cm and of water the substrate saving (%) profile by ap- (C100= trol, only to prevent rainfall and to controlplying TE,containers; along the T100= experiment. Trinexapac-ethyl TE application (TE) on treated May 2 ndcontainers), May 16th and and May water 30 thsaving. Mow- (%) by slightly increase the temperature. Tem- applyinging event TE,on June along 11 th the. experiment. TE application on May 2nd, May 16th and May 30th. Mowing event on June 11th.

th 4 ETS Conference 2014 83 bition and a lower general aesthetics Literature McCANN, E. and B. HUANG, 2008: Drought Re- score (data not shown) than in untreat- sponses of Kentucky Bluegrass and Creep- ed plants, but it was still acceptable for ing Bentgrass as Affected by Abscisic Acid ARACHEVALETA, M., C.W. BACON, C.S. HOV- and Trinexapac-ethyl. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. a good turf quality level. ELAND and D.E. RADCLIFFE, 1989: Effect Sci. 133, 20-26. of the Tall Fescue Endophyte on Plant Re- McCULLOUGH, P., H. LIU, L. McCARTY, T. sponse to Environmental Stress. Agron. J. WHITWELL and J.E. TOLER, 2006: Bermu- 81, 83-90. Conclusion dagrass putting green growth, color and nu- BIAN, X., E. MEREWITZ and B. HUANG, 2009: trient partitioning influenced by nitrogen and Effects of Trinexapac-ethyl on Drought Re- trinexapac-ethyl. Crop Sci. 46, 1515-1525. sponses in Creeping Bentgrass Associated The results from this experiment indi- TURGEON, A.J., 2005: Turfgrass Management. with Water Use and Osmotic Adjustment. cate that the application of TE on tall (7th Edition). Pearson Education. New Jer- Journal of the American Society for Horti- fescue saved water. Apart from the sey. cultural Science 5, 505-510. reduction in mowing requirements, another great advantage of this type CARROW, R.N., 1996: Drought Avoidance Characteristics of Diverse Tall Fescue Cul- Authors: of treatment is its ability to reduce the tivars. Crop Sci. 36, 371-377. effect of drought stress on turfgrass. CARROW, R.N. and R.R. DUNCAN, 2003: Im- Diego Gómez de Barreda Ferraz This investigation suggests that TE can proving Drought Resistance and Persis- E-mail: [email protected] be used on tall fescue turfgrass prior tence in Turf-Type Tall Fescue. Crop Sci. Tomás Pérez Sáez to a heat stress period, as a method 43, 978-984. Javier Bellón Echeverría of saving around 17% of water per HUANG, B., 2004: Recent Advances in Drought Rosa V. Molina Romero month, mowing with less frequency and Heat Stress Physiology of Turfgrass-A Sergio González Nebauer and achieving better recovering after Review. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 66, 185-192. Plant Production Department. drought stress, as more quantity of wa- JIANG, Y. and B. HUANG, 2001: Physiological Responses to Heat Stress Alone or in Com- Universitat Politècnica de Valéncia. ter is in the substrate. The minor disad- bination with Drought: A Comparison Be- Camino de Vera s/n. vantage of this treatment is the nega- tween Tall Fescue and Perennial Ryegrass. Valencia 46022. Spain. tive effect on general aesthetics. Hort. Sci. 36, 682-686.

84 4th ETS Conference 2014 Potassium sources and placement for bentgrass putting greens

Guertal, E.A.

Introduction K fertilizers were applied at a rate of 56 was applied to all plots, regardless of -1 kg K2O ha : 1) KCl, muriate of potash soil test. All K treatments were applied (KCl, 0-0-60) 2) K SO , sulfate of pot- at the same K rate via two methods: otassium uptake in plants has 2 4 ash (K SO , 0-0-50), 3) polymer-coat- 1) surface broadcast application, or, been studied for close to 90 years 2 4 P ed K SO (Polyon®, 0-0-50), 4) KNO , 2) subsurface ‘band’ placement at the (BARTHOLOMEW and JANSSEN, 2 4 3 potassium nitrate 13.8-0-44.5, and, 5) bottom of 10 cm deep (1.3 cm diam.) 1929). In turfgrass systems, increas- potassium thiosulfate (K S O , 0-0-25- aerification holes. All plots were equally ing applications of K fertilizer often 2 2 2 17S). A zero K control was also includ- aerified, and then the banded K treat- produced subsequent increases in tis- ed, and all plots received N as ammo- ments were applied to the surface and sue and soil K (SHEARD et al., 1985; nium nitrate equal to that applied in the swept into the aerification holes. Sur- JOHNSON et al., 2003; FITZPATRICK KNO treatment. The K rate was based face K treatment plots were first top- and GUILLARD, 2004; WOODS et al., 3 on the initial soil-test recommendation. dressed with sand to fill holes prior to 2006). However, the vast majority of Potassium fertilizer treatments were fertilizer application, and then K fertiliz- that work found that the application of applied 4 times a year (Aug, Nov, Feb, er treatments were broadcast applied. K rarely improved other indicators of May). The same K rate (56 kg K O ha-1) Fertilizers were broadcast hand applied turfgrass performance. For example, 2 application of K did not improve turfgrass quality (JOHNSON et al., 2003; FITZPATRICK and GUILLARD, 2004), increase clipping yield (FITZPATRICK and GUILLARD, 2004), further protect against winter damage (GOATLEY et al., 1994; MILLER and DICKENS, 1996) or improve wear tolerance (CARROLL and PETROVIC, 1991). The vast majority of this K research was performed on cool-season grasses, especially Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis

L.), and few K sources (K2SO4 and/or KCl) were evaluated. Less studied are the intensively managed systems of sand-based rootzones. Last, there are few published studies which examined various K sources, especially when including slow-release materials (SNY- DER and CISAR, 1992). Thus, the objective of this research was to examine the effect of K sources, applied at the same K rate, on the performance of a creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) putting green, and on K content and movement in the putting green. An additional factor was that the method of K placement (banded in aerification holes or surface broadcast) was also evaluated.

Material and Methods physiology

The two-year study (2006 and 2007) Turfgrass nutrition and was conducted on a 4 year old US- GA-type (80% sand, 20% composted Fig. 1: Mehlich extractable K in a creeping bentgrass putting green as affected by K rice hulls) ‘Penn G-2’ creeping bent- source and sampling depth, Nov, 2006 (top) and Nov, 2007 (bottom), Aubum, AL. Nov, grass putting green located in Auburn, 2006 samples were taken 90 days after experiment start, immediately preceding further K AL, USA. Soil test K prior to application fertilizer application. Nov, 2007 samples were taken 455 days after experiment start. Data shown is averaged over both methods of K placement (band or broadcast) as the interac- -1 of K fertilizer treatments was 76 kg ha tion of K source and Method of fertilizer placement was not significant. Horizontal bars on K. Beginning in Aug 2006 the following each data point are the standard error about the mean.

4th ETS Conference 2014 85 in a ‘checker-board’ fashion, except for Early in the experiment, when analyzed search project agrees with other pub- the potassium thiosulfate, which was by depth, there was significantly more lished studies that demonstrate little a liquid formulation and was sprayed, soil K at increased depths from the turfgrass response to K fertilization. undiluted, directly on the foliage using K2SO4 treatment than from the coated a CO sprayer that delivered 91mL of K SO treatment (Figure 1). This may 2 2 4 Literature product to the plot. Irrigation (0.6 cm) indicate that some downward move- was applied immediately after appli- ment of the soluble K2SO4 source was cation of all products. The experiment occurring. However, as the experiment BARTHOLOMEW, R.P. and G. JANSSEN, 1929: Luxury consumption of potassium by design was a 5 x 2 factorial of K source continued over two years such dif- plants and its significance. J. Amer. Soc. and K placement (plus an aerified conferences disappeared, and no one K Agron. 21:751-765. trol plot), with treatments arranged in a source consistently outperformed the CARROLL, M.J. and A.M. PETROVIC, 1991: randomized complete block design of other with respect to persistence in the Nitrogen, potassium, and irrigation effects 4 replications with plot dimensions of soil profile. on water relations of Kentucky bluegrass 2.1 m x 2.7 m. leaves. Crop Sci. 31:449-453. The application of any K fertilizer, re- FITZPATRICK, R.J. and K. GUILLARD, 2004: Collected data included monthly soil K gardless of source, increased tissue K Kentucky bluegrass response to potas- content (0-7.6 cm depth), and quarter- above that measured in bentgrass tis- sium and nitrogen fertilization. Crop Sci. ly (Aug, Nov, Feb, May) soil K content sue from the unfertilized control. In 4 of 44:1721-1728. partitioned by depth (0-25 cm deep, 16 sampling dates the placement of K GOATLEY, J.M. Jr., V. MADDOX, D.J. LANG 5 cm depth increments). All soil sam- as a surface broadcast application pro- and K.K. CROUSE, 1994: ‘Tifgreen’ ber- ples were extracted with Mehlich I ex- mudagrass response to late-season appli- duced significantly more K in bentgrass cation of nitrogen and potassium. Agron.J. tractant, and analyzed via atomic ab- tissue, as compared to tissue K where 86):7-10. sorption (AA) spectrophotometry for K the fertilizer had been band applied. MILLER, G.L. and R. DICKENS, 1996: Potassi- concentration. Clippings were collect- um fertilization related to cold resistance in ed each month by mowing one mower In 2006, plots that received applica- bermudagrass. Crop Sci. 26:1290-1295. tions of potassium thiosulfate had a width of the plot (53 cm), the clippings JOHNSON, P.G., R.T. KOENIG and K.L. KOPP, dried, and yield determined. A dried significantly lower shoot density as 2003: Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassi- subsample of clippings was analyzed compared to the unfertilized control, um responses and requirements in calcar- for ppm K via AA spectrophotometry. likely due to some observed foliar eous sand greens. Agron. J. 95: 697-702. Additional data collection included burn. There were no other differences SHEARD, R.W., M.A. HAW, G.B. JOHNSON twice per year (July and Sept) deter- in shoot density due to K source, and and J.A. FERGUSON, 1985: Mineral nutri- none (other than in potassium thiosul- tion of bentgrass on sand rooting systems. mination of shoot density, and monthly Int. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 5:469-485. turf quality ratings (using a 1-9 qualita- fate treatments) had better or poorer shoot density than compared to the SNYDER, G.H. and J.L. CISAR, 1992: Con- tive scale). trolled-release potassium fertilizers for turf- control. grass. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 117(3):411- Results 414. Conclusions WOODS, M.S., Q.M. KETTERINGS, F.S. ROS- SI and A.M. PETROVIC, 2006: Potassium In most months there were few differ- availability indices and turfgrass perfor- ences in extractable soil K due to K Over 2 years there was little differ- mance in a calcareous sand putting green. source, and any plot that received K ence in bentgrass performance due to Crop Sci. 46:381-389. fertilizer had greater extractable K than K source: clipping yield, tissue K and measured in the unfertilized control uptake of K by bentgrass were rare- plots. Over time, extractable K became ly affected by source, the method of Authors: low in all plots, and subsequent appli- placement of that K, or the interaction E.A. Guertal, Professor -1 cation of K at 56 kg K2O ha (Aug, 2006, of these two treatments. Downward Department of Crop, Nov, 2006, Feb, 2007, May, 2007, Aug, movement of K in the soil profile was Soil and Environmental Sciences 2007, Nov, 2007, Feb, 2008, and May, not great, and largely unaffected by K Auburn University, AL 36849 USA 2008) was not sufficient to increase source, except early in the two-year 001-334-844-3999 soil-test K to recommended sufficiency study. Bentgrass color and quality [email protected] levels. were unaffected by K source. This re-

86 4th ETS Conference 2014 Anaerobic digestate: an alternative fertiliser for the turf grass industry

Owen, A.G., I. Weir, M. Pawlett and M. Tibbett

Introduction rate was split into five equal applica- plied to each AD plant will affect the AD tions made over the growing season, composition. the trial ran for two full years. The nu- he production of energy from waste trient composition of each batch of AD A complete suite of soil nutrient meas- through anaerobic digestion forms T was determined utilising a commercial urements were conducted on three part of a commitment by the United laboratory and application volumes ad- occasions throughout the trial. Initial Kingdom (UK) government towards a justed accordingly (0.4 - 0.8 l m-2 ap- measurements prior to any treatment ‘zero waste’ economy (WRAP, 2010). plication). The site, located on a sandy applications showed that the trial site The process produces a nutrient rich clay loam soil was established with a was relatively homogenous, with no liquid as a by-product; anaerobic di- commercial winter sports Lolium pe- significant differences in soil character- gestate (AD) which has a potential renne cultivar mix and maintained as a istics between sample plots (data not use as a sustainable turf fertiliser. The winter games surface, without wear. A shown). Soil assessments made at the nutrient content of the AD is varia- suite of soil and foliar analyses, and turf completion of the trial showed similar ble depending upon the energy plant quality assessments were carried out homogeneity (Table 2). No significant feedstock (crop residues, animal slur- prior to, during and following treatment differences were identified between ry, food wastes), however there is still applications over an 18 month period. treatments for twenty soil characteris- significant market potential for AD as a tics. fertiliser for sports turf in the UK, with large numbers of playing facilities as Results All fertilised plots had significantly well as a growing area of turf produc- (p<0.05) improved greenness when compared with the control (Figure 1), tion for sports and landscaping. The The mean nutrient content of the AD the SP treatment and matched N rate importance of appropriate nutrient ap- (Table 1) identifies its suitability as of AD showed similar sward colour. plications to sports turf to provide wear a turf fertiliser with an N:P:K ratio of Where the rate of AD application was tolerance (HICKEY and HUME, 2003) 25:1:4. The variation encountered be- doubled to 200 kg [N] ha-1 yr-1 sward grass cover and traction (SPRING, et tween the AD batches (Table 1) was greenness increased significantly. al. 2007) and during surface renova- expected considering the 18 month tion, (CANAWAY, 1985) is well estab- span of the project and demonstrates Total foliar N was significantly in- lished. As many facilities are being the need to have individual batches an- creased in the grass plots where the managed on tight budgets with limited alysed, as the varying feedstock sup- AD was applied at 200 kg [N] ha-1 maintenance operations, utilising AD applications to provide plant nutrition could be a possible solution which will Analysis Mean (n=8) CofV (%) maintain surface quality and allow sustainable use. The key aim of the work Total solids (%) 3.69 19.8 was to conduct a statistically robust field trial to investigate the effects of Conductivity (uS/cm) 6652 21.8 Publically Available Specification (PAS) Total N (% w/w) 0.61 27.0 110 compliant AD use on turfgrass and Ammonium-N (mg/kg) 4979 29.7 soil quality at a site in Northwest Eng- land,UK. Total P (mg/kg) 303 19.6 Total K (mg/kg) 1131 28.9 Materials and Methods pH 8.32 1.5 Organic Matter LOI (% w/w) 2.55 24.8 A randomised complete block design was used at Myerscough College, Tab. 1: Selected mean anaerobic digestate characteristics showing the coefficient of vari- Lancashire, UK to compare a ‘stand- ation of all batches tested (n=8). ard practice’ mineral fertiliser nutrition strategy (SP) at 100 kg [N] ha-1 yr-1 with physiology Standard AD 100 kg AD 200 kg two application rates of liquid anaero- Control practice [N] ha-1 yr-1 [N] ha-1 yr-1 bic digestate; applied at 100 & 200 kg Turfgrass nutrition and [N] ha-1 yr-1 and including a zero rate pH 5.9 5.9 5.7 5.7 control. Application rates were based on the annual Sports Turf Research In- Total N (% w/w) 0.37 0.39 0.36 0.37 stitute fertiliser application rate recom- Available P (mg /l) 13.0 14.0 15.3 14.0 mendation (LAWSON, 1996) for foot- Available K (mg/l) 176 198 203 211 ball/rugby pitches, which is 80-100 kg [N] ha-1. The total annual N application Tab. 2: Selected mean soil analysis results, samples collected following trial completion.

4th ETS Conference 2014 87 Resources Action Programme, UK. A full report detailing all the trial data will be published on www.wrap.org in 2014.

Literature

CANAWAY, P.M., 1985: The response of renovated turf of Lolium perenne to fertiliser nitrogen 1. Ground cover response as affected by football type wear. Journal of the Sports Turf Research Institute 61. 92-99. HICKEY, M.J. and D.E. HUME, 2003: Effects of mowing height and nitrogen on a turf tall fescue in comparison to perennial ryegrass and browntop bent sown alone or in mixtures 2. Winter wear. Journal of Fig. 1: Mean sward colour assessment (10 = very green) showing standard error (n=3). Turfgrass and Sports Surface Science. 79. Letters denote homogeneous means (p=0.05). 33-50. LAWSON, D.M., 1996: Fertilisers for turf. 2nd Edition. Sports Turf Research Institute, Bingley, UK. SPRING, C.A, J.A. WHEATER and S.W. BAK- ER, 2007: Fertiliser, sand dressing and aeration programmes for football pitches. 1. Performance characteristics under simu- lated wear. Journal of Turfgrass and Sports Surface Science. 83. 40-55. WRAP, (2010). BSI PAS 110, 2010: Producing quality anaerobic digestate. British Stand- ards Institution, London.

Authors: A.G. Owen Sportsturf, Greenspace Department, Myerscough College, Preston, Lancashire PR3 2BN. Fig. 2: Mean foliar N content showing standard error (n=3). Letters denote homogeneous UK means (p=0.05). [email protected] yr-1 compared with the other treat- provide a sustainable solution where I. Weir ments (Figure 2). The SP and AD at the energy from waste via anaerobic diges- Sportsturf, Greenspace Department, lower rate did not significantly alter the tate forms part of a local energy gen- Myerscough College, foliar N content from the control plots, eration strategy. Anaerobic digestate Preston, Lancashire PR3 2BN. which contrasts with the sward green- provided an equivalent turf response to UK ness results. Potentially changes in vis- a matched N content mineral fertiliser, [email protected] ually assessed sward greenness were with no significant effect on a range not translated into significantly greater of soil chemical properties and foliar M. Pawlett foliar N content. analyses. However, issues of odour Environmental Science and and even application were identified Technology Department, Cranfield University, Conclusion during the trial and would need to be addressed before such a product could Bedfordshire, UK. be commercially utilised. [email protected] Anaerobic digestate demonstrated M. Tibbett clear potential as a turf fertiliser for Environmental Science and winter games turf and could potentially Acknowledgments Technology Department, be utilised for local authority managed Cranfield University, pitches where tight budgets mean that This work was completed by Cranfield Bedfordshire, UK. fertiliser programmes are neglected University and Myerscough College as [email protected] or incomplete. This could potentially part of a funded project by the Waste

88 4th ETS Conference 2014 Improving nitrogen use efficiency of turfgrass with controlled-release N

Cisar, J., D. Park, M. McMillan and K. Williams

Introduction urea, 1 soluble standard source, UREA green turf, 1=dead/brown turf, and and an untreated control (Table 1) 6=minimally acceptable turf) through- were initiated on a randomized com- out the experiment. Clipping samples egulatory restrictions of nitrogen plete block design of ‘Floratam’ St. were removed throughout the experi- (N) fertilizer by both N rate and R Augustinegrass 3 m x 4 m plots on ment for dry weight (grams) yield de- season present a challenge to pro- 8 June 2011 with re-application of termination and tissue N content [%] viding acceptable turfgrass systems treatments based on release. Nitro- and N uptake (NUP) [content x yield] (HOCHMUTH et al., 2012). Coated-N gen source treatments were sprinkled (CISAR et al., 2001). All data was sub- sources have the potential to improve over plots and watered in with 0.5 cm. ject to ANOVA and significant means sustainability of turfgrass systems Plots were mowed prior to applica- were identified. through increased nutrient-use effi- tion at 8.0 cm with clippings removed. ciency by increased N uptake at re- All other plant essential elements duced rates of application (CISAR, et were applied bi-monthly to maintain Results al. 2001). This experiment evaluated non-limiting nutrient levels across all coated and uncoated slow release treatments. Plots were rated for qual- Significant treatment effects were N sources to standard water soluble ity/colour (scale of 1-10 with 10=dark observed for all parameters with only N and unfertilized lawn turf applied at reduced annual rate to the current standard in the sub-tropics. Tim- ing was compared for 2, 3, 6 and 12 month application intervals. Effects of Application N/Application Applied N PRODUCT N-P-K 2 2 treatments on visual turfgrass quality, Frequency days g/m g/m /year colour and quantitative measurements CHK ------of yield, N content, and N uptake were UREA 46-0-0 60 d 5 30 determined. XCU 43-0-0 60 d 4.5 27 Materials and Methods PCU3 30-2-8 90 d 6.25 25 PCU6 29-2-8 180 d 11.25 22.5 Four replications of 8 N fertilizer treat- PCU12 28-2-8 360 d 21 21 ments: 5 controlled-release polymer UMAXX 47-0-0 90 d 6.25 25 coated ureas (PCU), PCU3, PCU6, SCU 39-0-0 60 d 4.5 27 PCU and DURATION; 2 controlled-release sulfur coated, XCU and SCU; DUR 35-0-10 180 d 11.25 22.5 UMaxx, a urease inhibitor sparged Tab. 1: Experiment treatments.

Yield Tissue N NUP Percent Visual Visual TRT g/m2 % mg N/g/m2 Recovery Quality Colour CHK 4.69d 1.90c 2.39d --- 5.9d 6.4d UREA 24.69c 2.27b 11.95bc 39.8 7.5ab 7.7ab XCU 32.85a 2.39a 17.64a 65.3 7.6ab 7.7ab PCU3 28.02c 2.24b 10.55c 42.2 7.5ab 7.7ab PCU6 21.75c 2.25b 9.98c 44.4 7.4bc 7.5bc PCU12 26.97abc 2.26b 14.9ab 70.9 7.2c 7.4c UMAXX 21.89c 2.25b 10.45c 41.8 7.7a 7.9a physiology SCU 25.59bc 2.29b 12.34bc 45.7 7.7a 7.8a

DUR 31.69ab 2.33ab 16.67a 74.1 7.6ab 7.8a Turfgrass nutrition and Significance *** *** *** --- *** *** Pr > F P < 0.001 P < 0.001 P < 0.001 --- P < 0.001 P < 0.001 Means with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Data for yield, tissue N, NUP, quality, and colour analysed on an average value generated from variables taken over the trial duration. Fertilizer per cent recovery = NUP – NUP from unfertilized control/ applied N *100.Turfgrass quality and colour ratings based on a 1-10 scale with 10=dark green turf, 1=dead/brown turf, and 6=minimally acceptable turf.

Tab. 2: Summary of St. Augustinegrass responses (22/06/2011—17/07/2012).

4th ETS Conference 2014 89 the untreated control having the ex- Conclusion HOCHMUTH, G., T. NELL, J. SARTAIN, J. UN- pected below acceptable standard RUH, C. MARTINEZ, L. TRENHOLM and J. turfgrass quality (Table 2). Turfgrass CISAR, 2010: Potential Unintended Con- Overall N uptake of certain treatments sequences Associated with Certain Urban quality and colour was improved by was increased by over 30% while Fertilizer Ordinances. SS 496. N fertilization and reduced N rates maintaining acceptable turf quality and provided statistically-equal turf qual- colour with 25% less N applied thus ity compared to the standard except Authors: improving nutrient use efficiency and for the 12 month product which was sustainability of turf. slightly lower in turf quality than the Cisar, J., D. Park, M. McMillan and standard (Table 2). The 6 month dura- K. Williams tion product provided similar clippings, Literature University of Florida, Ft. Lauderdale N content, and N uptake with 18% less Research and Education Center N applied (Table 2). Per cent recovery CISAR, J., G. SNYDER, J. HAYDU and K. Ft. Lauderdale, FL USA ranged from nearly 40-74% N retention WILLIAMS, 2001: Turf response to coated-urea fertilizer. II. N content in clippings, that may provide additional environ- N content, N uptake, and N retentions mental benefit and greater efficiency from prills. Int. Turfgrass Res. Soc. J. (Table 2). 9:368-374.

90 4th ETS Conference 2014 Soil phosphorus stability from a Swine-Lagoon Biosolid fertilizer used for roadside grass establishment

Peacock, C.H. and J.P. Gregg

Introduction sediment eroding from disturbed soils. This study was conducted to evaluate However, STAHNKE et al. (2013) found using a material derived from swine-la- that soil extractable P levels increased goon solids as pre-plant soil incor- he use of biosolids as a soil organic when turf was fertilized with organ- porated and topdressing fertilizer for matter amendment can improve soil T ic fertilizers at rates to provide ade- roadside grass mix establishment in qualities, particularly soil water retention quate N for acceptable turf within three North Carolina and to determine the and nutrient levels (RIGUEIRO-RODRI- years. Exemptions of organic based stability of the applied phosphorus GUEZ et al., 2000; CHANTIGNY et al., P from zero-P fertilization legislation within the soil profile and its affect on 2002). Phosphorus (P) is important in has occurred in several states be- soil pH. the establishment and rooting of plants. cause it is thought that organic based Increases in fertilizer phosphorus levels P is less likely to be lost in leachate or do not result in increases in the amount Materials and Methods runoff (STAHNKE et al., 2013). While of P recovered from plant material. This biosolids add organic matter to soil, indicates that once a plant uptakes continued use of biosolids has not This study was conducted at the North sufficient P it will not continue to up- been found in some studies to alter the Carolina State University Turfgrass take more P, even if it is available in the pH level of soils (MEYER et al., 2004). Field Lab in Raleigh NC from Septem- soil (EASTON and PETROVIC, 2004). Even several years after biosolid ap- ber 2005 until August 2006. The soil WRIGHT et al. (2005) found that soil ex- plication, pH remained constant and type at this facility is a Cecil sandy tractable P increased at three months neutral. loam (fine, kaolinitic, thermic typic Kan- after compost addition but found few hapludult) with 0.5 to 1.0 % organic increases afterward. They also noted One of the most difficult types of turf matter and an initial pH of 4.8 to 5.5. a seasonal effect on soil extractable P area to establish is roadside grass. A strip-strip-split block experimental that they attributed to lower mineral- These are usually planted with mini- design with three replications was used ization and plant uptake during winter mal maintenance receiving only a lim- to test varying rates of SuperSoil as a compared to warmer months. ited amount of fertilization, infrequent soil amendment/fertilizer factored over In some cases, there is little evidence mowing and no supplemental irriga- various planting dates. Plots 3.3 x 3.3 of P leaching 20 years after soil was tion. Because of concerns over P loss m were prepared by first making an amended with biosolids, even though after fertilization, which could create application of 2% glyphosate to kill ex- P was still five times higher in biosolid water quality problems, North Carolina isting vegetation. Dolomitic limestone amended soils than in untreated soils Department of Transportation had pre- ((CaMg)(CO3)2) was then applied at a (HARRISON et al., 1994). Because viously been prohibited from using any rate of 2.4 t ha-1 based on North Car- P is generally attached to soil parti- type of organic based P containing ma- olina Department of Agriculture (NCDA) cles, most P movement comes from terial for roadside grass establishment. recommendations and plots were tilled

physiology

Turfgrass nutrition and

Fig. 1: Soil extractable phosphorus concentrations for plots estab- Fig. 2: Soil extractable phosphorus concentrations for plots es- lished in March 2006. The treatment legend indicates the amount tablished in September 2005. The treatment legend indicates the of SuperSoil materials incorporated on a volume basis as either amount of SuperSoil (SS) material incorporated on a volume basis 0.5% or 1% and the CK line represents the control, or check, as 0.5% or 1% and the CK line represents the control, or check, which is an inorganic fertilizer treatment. Phosphorus concentra- which is an inorganic fertilizer treatment. Phosphorus concentrations are compared to the NCDA suggested phosphorus optimum tions are compared to the NCDA suggested phosphorus optimum index. The Julian date for each collection period is shown on the index. The Julian date for each collection period is shown on the x-axis. x-axis.

4th ETS Conference 2014 91

Fig. 3: pH of soil in plots established in March, 2006. The treatment Fig. 4: pH of soil in plots established in September, 2005. The legend indicates the amount of SuperSoil (SS) material incorporat- treatment legend indicates the amount of SuperSoil (SS) material ed on a volume basis either as 0.5% or 1% and the CK represents incorporated on a volume basis either as 0.5% or 1% and the CK the control, or check, which is an inorganic fertilizer treatment. The represents the control, or check, which is an inorganic fertilizer Julian date for each collection period is shown on the x-axis. treatment. The Julian date for each collection period is shown on the x-axis.

to a 15 cm depth for incorporation of year until the centipedegrass compo- Plots treated with 0.5% SuperSoil had lime and treatment materials. Fertilizers nent was fully established, upon which a slight increase in soil extractable P used in this study included SuperSoil the mowing frequency was decreased concentration (P=0.0037) compared to (4 N-0.88 P-2.4 K) and the North Car- to two or three times per year. the inorganic standard treatment. Plots olina Department of Transportation treated with 1% SuperSoil had higher P (NCDOT) standard inorganic fertilizer Three to four soil samples were col- concentrations than either of the other (10 N-8.8 P-16.6 K) that was consid- lected from the first 15 cm of each plot two treatments (P<0.01) for all but one ered a control consisting of urea, tri- with a soil-sampling tool, the samples sampling date (Julian date 2006178). ple superphosphate and potassium were bulked and an aliquot was tak- Plots established in September and chloride. SuperSoil is composed of en to the NCDA soils lab for nutrient amended with 1% SuperSoil had a swine-lagoon sludge aerobically com- analysis. Percent cover was evaluated higher soil extractable P concentration posted with cotton residues and con- monthly and soil samples taken every than plots treated with inorganic ferti- tains < 5% moisture by weight. Ferti- two to six weeks to analyze for phos- lizer; however, it is not different com- lizer treatments included the stand- phorous and pH. pared to the plots treated with 0.5% ard check inorganic fertilizer at 0.05 t After the data was reviewed for outly- SuperSoil (p>0.05) (Figure 2). Over time N ha-1 or the organic source Super- ing observations, the data were trans- there was no change in the amount of Soil at either 0.5% or 1.0% by volume formed in Statistical Analysis System extractable P found in the soil, irre- (equivalent to 0.025 and 0.05 t N ha- using a log transformation for phos- spective of fertilizer treatment. 1, respectively incorporated to a depth phorus concentrations in order to make of 15 cm. In September of the second the data fit a normal curve. A compar- pH growing season, a single topdressing ison analysis was conducted for three There was an increase of soil pH in application of each material was made variables as follows: date planted, fer- plots planted in March (p<0.0001), -1 at rates equivalent to 0.025 t N ha for tilizer treatment and collection date. September (p<0.0001), and October the 0.5% v/v SuperSoil incorporated Comparative statistics using SAS pro- (p<0.0001) of 0.6 pH unit. Plots estab- -1 treatment plots and 0.050 t N ha for vided p-values for all the possible com- lished in November 2005 had a higher the 1% v/v SuperSoil incorporated and binations of the variables, and an alpha pH than the plots established in any check plots. of 0.01 was used to show significance. other month (data not presented). Soil An LSD was used to compare specific Timing factor included six seeding pH of all three treatments at the March treatments within planting dates. dates (Fall: September, October, No- establishment time increased over the vember 2005; Spring: March, April, course of the study (p<0.0001) (Figure May 2006). Seed was hand raked into Results 3). However, no differences were found the soil and covered with fresh wheat among fertilizer treatments (p<0.05). There was an increase in the pH for straw. Seed mixtures were based on Phosphorus North Carolina Department Of Trans- plots treated with the inorganic fertilizer portation (NCDOT) specifications. Plots There was a change in the soil extract- (p<0.001) for the September establish- were seeded at 0.00925 kg m-2 with a able P level based on the date of es- ment time, however a change in pH in seed mixture consisting of 63% Loli- tablishment. Plots established in March plots of either of the SuperSoil treat- um arundinaceum (tall fescue), 32% had higher (P<0.01) soil extractable P ments was not confirmed during the Cynodon dactylon (bermudagrass) and concentrations than all the other dates, course of the study (Figure 4). 5% Eremochloa ophiuroides (centipe- except those established in Septem- degrass) by weight and mowed when ber (P>0.05). Over the course of the grass reached a height of 12 cm, usual- study, there was no loss in the amount Discussion ly every five to seven weeks. Plots were of extractable P found in the soil, irre- maintained at a height of 12 cm by spective of fertilizer treatment, in plots Based on the results of this study, soil mowing a maximum of five times per planted in March, 2006 (Figure 1). stability of P was found to be accept-

92 4th ETS Conference 2014 able over the first year after estab- growing season of roadside vegetation in drainage from turfgrass. J. of Env. Qual. lishment regardless of time of estab- establishment (BROWN and GORRES, 33:645-655. lishment. There was some variability 2011). HARRISON, R., D. XUE, C. HENRY and D.W. in soil extractable P levels during the COLE, 1994: Long-term effects of heavy Overall, the P and pH results in the soil applications of biosolids on organic matter change in seasons. This was consis- treated with 0.5% v/v SuperSoil were and nutrient content of coarse-textured for- tent with what was noted by WRIGHT not different from the soil treated with est soil. Forest Ecology and Management. et al. (2005) and it was probably due 66:165-177. a standard inorganic fertilizer. How- to changes in mineralization rates and MEYER, V.F., E.F. REDENTE, K.A. BARBAR- ever the 1% v/v SuperSoil treatment plant uptake due to changes in soil ICK, R.B. BROBST, M.W. PASCHKE and consistently showed higher P concen- temperature. CAHILL et al. (2010) note A.L. MILLER, 2004: Ecosystem Restora- trations and higher pH values than the tion: Plant and soil responses to biosolids that P fixation in soils that are deficient other two treatments. All plots showed application following forest fi re. J. of Env. in P or have low soil pH can occur very an increase in pH over the course of the Qual. 33:873-881. rapidly. Results indicated that soil ex- study, but no fertilizer treatment diffe- RIGUERIRO-RODRIQUEZ, A., M.L. LOPEZ- tractable P levels were higher based on rences were noted. Based on these re- DIAZ and M.R. MOSQUERA-LOSADA, percent incorporation of the SuperSoil 2000: Effect of different municipal sewage sults, organic fertilizers such as Super- organic fertilizer. This was in contrast sludge doses on phosphorus cycling. Euro- Soil, even with higher P content relative to the findings of WRIGHT et al. (2005) pean Grassland Federation. Aalborg (Den- to N need not pose a greater environ- mark). Pp. 421-423. who did not find an increase based on mental threat to surface water from P STAHNKE, G.K., E.D. MILTNER, C.G. COG- compost application rate. These fin- loss for roadside grass establishment. GER, R.A. LUCHTERHAND and R.E. BEM- dings may be due to the type of soil BENEK, 2013: Phosphorus availability substrate and/or the type of orga- in turfgrass root zones after applications nic material used. In this study soil pH Literature of organic and synthetic nitrogen fertiliz- was adjusted with lime prior to estab- ers. Online. Applied Turfgrass Science lishment, but as mineralization of cati- doi:10.1094/ATS-2013-0325-01-RS. BRADY, N.C. and R.R. WEIL, 2008: The na- ons from the organic matter or release WRIGHT, A.L., T.L. PROVIN, F.M. HONS, D.A. ture and property of soils. 14th Ed. Pear- ZUBERER and R.H. WHITE, 2005: Dis- from the inorganic starter fertilizer oc- son-Prentice Hall, Columbus, OH. P. 342- solved organic carbon in soil from com- curred, the pH increased from the initial 343. post-amended bermudagrass turf. Hort values as noted in Figures 3 and 4. As BROWN, R.N. and J.H. GORRES, 2011: The Science. 40(3):830-835. stored organic matter pools increase, use of soil amendments to improve sur- either from additions of amendments vival of roadside grasses. HortScience 46(10):1404-1410. such as was used in this study and/ Authors: or from root growth and degradation CAHILL, S., D. OSMOND, R. GEHL, D. HARDY and C. CROZIER, 2010: Soil Facts: Starter as pH increases, cation exchange ca- Charles H. Peacock phosphorus fertilizer and additives in NC Professor of Turfgrass Science pacity increases and available nutrients soils: use, placement, and plant response. are stored for plant utilization (BRADY NC Coopertive Extension Service publica- Department of Crop Science and WEIL, 2008). This was evident by tion AAG-439-75W. NC State University the benefit of the turf performance after CHANTIGNY, M.H., D.A. ANGERS and P. RO- Raleigh, NC establishment. All plots had coverage CHETTE, 2002: Fate of carbon and nitro- E-mail: [email protected] greater than 90% regardless of fertilizer gen from animal manure and crop residues in wet and cold soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. J. Patrick Gregg treatment at eight weeks after seeding 34:509-517. Director of Technical Services (data not presented). This is exceptional EASTON, Z.M. and A.M. PETROVIC, 2004: ValleyCrest Companies compared to similar studies that found Surface Water Quality: Fertilizer source Concord, NC at most 50% turf cover in the second effect on ground and surface water quality physiology Turfgrass nutrition and

4th ETS Conference 2014 93

Practical Paper

Special Edition

"Balancing turfgrass performance and sustainability"

Reviewed paper presented at the 4th ETS Conference 2014

Osnabrueck, Germany 6th to 9th July 2014

30323420_Titel_Aufmacher_Rasen Broschuere neu.indd 3 24.06.14 11:53 Authors Title Page

Mueller-Beck, K. and H. Nonn Turf quality concept for stadium pitches in the German Bundesliga 111 Nonn, H. Hybrid turf systems for more wear tolerance on soccer pitches 113 Evers, M. and A. Wolleswinkel Characterisation of organic matter dynamics in sports turf 115 Albracht, R. and H. Nonn Report on the conditions of the soccer pitches in Germany 117 Strandberg, M., K. Schmidt, O. Skarin Multifunctional golf facilities as a driving force in implementing the European Land- 119 and L.-G. Bråvander scape Convention: a case study in Sweden Gorbov S.N. and O.S. Bezuglova Soil and vegetation characteristics of a golf course in a Southern Russian 121 floodplain Albracht, R. and M. Schlosser Effect of different P-sources on turf quality 123 Grégoire, G., C. Bouffard Impact of turfgrass fertilization on nutrient losses through runoff 125 and Y. Desjardins and leaching How to assess suitability of turf varieties across a wide range of environments in Europe

Lassalvy S., V. Gensollen, M. Straëbler and C. Huyghe

Introduction European network of 14 sites (HUYGHE perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), AND GENSOLLEN, 2010). The genetic tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), slen- x environment (G x E) interactions met der creeping red fescue (Festuca ru- he objective of the Turf testing net- in this new network (LASSALVY et al., bra trichophylla), chewing red fescue work is to document and thus stim- T 2012) are partly taken into account with (Festuca rubra commutata) and strong ulate genetic progress in turf grass- the network shared into a priori biocli- creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra es while giving a similar chance to all matic zones, as shown on the Europe- rubra). The report describes 15 SVCU breeding companies. The data of the an map (Figure 1). agronomic characteristics (e.g. general turf evaluation network are used to de- merit, shoot density, thinness of leaves, fine the “Sustainable Value for Cultiva- The “Groupement National Interpro- diseases resistance). tion and Use” (SVCU) by the “Comité fessionnel des Semences et plants” Technique Permanent de la Sélection” (GNIS) and the GEVES manage a pro- To compute a reliable description, (CTPS). These data show a strong ject of a website about turf varieties SVCU values of several consecutive genetic progress especially for main description, which displays the varie- years of testing are considered. A two- cool-season grasses such as Peren- ties characteristics for comparisons. step computational method is then ap- nial Ryegrass (SAMPOUX et al., 2012, Regionalized information, specific to plied to each agronomic trait to get a AAMLID and GENSOLLEN, 2013). each bioclimatic zone, should also be description independent from the year- available in this new website. Since the early eighties, “Groupe ly results, that is to say, make it pos- d’Etude et de contrôle des Variétés sible to compare varieties sown and Et des Semences” (GEVES) publishes Materials and Methods tested in different years. every year an agronomic description of In the first step of the method, the da- the turfgrass varieties which are regis- Every year, new candidate varieties are ta of the agronomic trait of interest are tered on the French National List. Two sown in the 14 locations following a compiled in an incomplete variety x synthetic indices – i.e. lawn index and random complete block design with 3 trial table. Only the varieties observed sport index – are provided in this de- replications. The trials last 3 years and for at least two trials - called ‘bridge scription in addition to the SVCU char- their results are summarized to pro- varieties’ - are considered. An additive acteristics. vide the SVCU values of the varieties. “variety + trial” ANOVA model is fitted In 2003, a computational method was Those data are used by the CTPS for to these data to get the ‘bridge varie- set to get a variety description inde- SVCU decisions, and to calculate an ties’ and trials effects. These effects pendent of the year effect, which makes independent and reliable description of are used to compute the fitted values it possible to compare varieties not the varieties for the benefit of the end- of the model and to extrapolate the va- sown the same years in the network. users. riety x trial missing data as the sum of Since 2008, GEVES has extended its GEVES publishes an annual report the corresponding variety and trial ef- national trial network of 8 locations to a about 14 turfgrass species, such as fects. A complete variety x trial table is obtained from these calculated values. The ‘bridge varieties’ means and the trials means are calculated as the rows and columns means of this last table whose overall mean is also made.

The second step of the method combines the previous results to the varieties data and provides the description value of the varieties as follows:

)) For a ‘bridge variety’, the description value is its ‘bridge variety’ mean.

)) For a registered variety only observed for one trial, the description value is: Description value = SVCU value / corresponding trial mean * overall mean. Two additional indices are finally calcu- Fig. 1: Bioclimatic zones in Europe and turf testing locations. lated. They consist in a weighted mean

4th ETS Conference 2014 97 Practical Paper Weights network index and could enrich the variety description. Characteristics Lawns Index Sport index General aesthetic qualities 2 1 Conclusion Summer aesthetic qualities 1 1 Winter aesthetic qualities 1 1 This paper explained how GEVES de- Wear tolerance 3 velops a description based on official Winter wear tolerance 5 SVCU data to get sound and compa- Shoot density 1 2 rable values for the registered varieties even if they are not sown during the Thinness of leaves 1 same years of trials. Moreover, the Eu- Persistency 1 ropean network, subdivided in bioclimatic zones, makes it possible to com- Tab. 1: Lawns and sport indexes weights. pute regional indices, which bring additional information to the network index, and could be interesting for breeders to improve their selection work and for end-users to choose the most fitted turf varieties. The current description database is available to the general public through the Internet on http://turfgrass-list.org. A French version is also available on http:// choixdugazon.org.

Acknowledgement

Thank to Corinne BERTHUIT for calcu- lating the different indices.

Literature

Aamlid, T.S., V. Gensollen, 2013: Recent achievements in breeding for turf quality under biotic and abiotic stress. 30th EUCARPIA Fodder Crops and Amenity Grasses Section Meeting, Vrnjacka Banja, Serbia, 12-16 May 2013. HUYGHE C. and V. GENSOLLEN, 2010: Eu- Fig. 2: First plane of the five indices PCA. ropean Turf Testing Network for Variety Registration (GEVES CTPS) – 2nd European Turfgrass Society Conference Proceed- ings. of the characteristics that CTPS mem- analysis (PCA) of the five indices was bers consider the most relevant for then performed. LASSALVY S., V. GENSOLLEN, J.P. SAM- POUX, C. HUYGHE, 2012: Genotype × the corresponding use: for lawns with Environment interactions in turf Variety a moderate wear or for sport pitches, Evaluation and Registration on the French with a more intensive wear during sport Results and Discussion National List – 3rd European Turfgrass Soci- seasons. In this paper we will describe ety Conference Proceedings. the lawn index (Table 1). SAMPOUX J.P., P. BAUDOUIN, B. BAYLE, V. The first PCA plane explained 73% of BEGUIER, P. BOURDON, J.F. CHOSSON, The lawn index was calculated for 19 the total variance (Figure 2). The PCA K. DE BRUIJN, F. DENEUFBOURG, C. varieties of perennial ryegrass on the showed that the Mediterranean zone GALBRUN, M. GHESQUIERE, D. NOËL, whole network (NET) and 4 climatic behaved differently from the three oth- B. THAREL and A. VIGUIE, 2012: Breeding zones: the oceanic zone (OCE), the er zones, which are highly correlated perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) for turf usage: an assessment of genetic im- semi-oceanic (SOC), the semi-conti- to each other. This analysis shows that provements in cultivars released in Europe, nental (SCO) and the Mediterranean the bioclimatic zones indices bring dif- 1974-2004 – Grass and Forage Science, (MED) one. A principal component ferent and additional information to the Vol. 68, Issue 1, pp 33-48, March 2013.

98 4th ETS Conference 2014 Comparison of the germination rates at low temperature of some recent annual and perennial ryegrass varieties

Lung-Tsakos, J. and G. Lung

Introduction The trials took place in culture dishes of the diploid (2n) Perennial ryegrass containing either a layer of 2 cm of soil varieties. mix alone or the same soil mix and a ast germinating seed blends are Unexpected was to find that two dip- layer of paper. In all the dishes water indispensable for a quick recovery loid Perennial Ryegrass varieties (Bar- F was applied at the same rate to provide of sport turf areas especially during the orlando and Barlennium) showed enough moisture for the germination cold season. Therefore an important (Figure B) similar and good germina- process. Each dish was covered with characteristic for these blends is the tion rates at 5 °C as both the Annual a lid in order to avoid the loss of mois- ability to germinate quickly at low soil Ryegrass ‘Axcella’ I and II varieties. ture. Each dish contained 50 seeds, temperatures and bring the turf back to each variety was repeated twice in playability in a very short time. The most important differences be- separate dishes. The seeds placed tween the Ryegrass species appeared Some time ago Barenbrug introduced over the soil substrate were slightly at 5 °C. Most of the diploid Perennial the ‘SOS’ Blend (Super Over Seeding) pressed in, in order to provide a good ryegrass varieties failed to germinate to the market. This blend contains the contact with the substrate. at 5 °C and this is why Figure A and B Annual ryegrass Lolium multifl orum var. only show few of the diploid Perennial After the beginning of the trial all dishes Westerwoldicum. This ryegrass has the Ryegrass varieties. were controlled daily and the germi- ability to germinate quickly at 6 °C and nated seeds counted. The seeds were The differences at 10 °C appeared rapidly build up a dense turf canopy. considered germinated when the radi- more gradually. Some diploid Perennial Because Lolium multifl orum var. Wes- cle was visible. The trial continued until Ryegrass varieties showed an extreme- terwoldicum is an Annual Ryegrass at least 80% of all seeds of all varieties ly low germination rate already at 10 and has to be overseeded yearly, the germinated. °C (Figure C): ‘Vesuvius’, ‘Barsignum’, question was raised about how fast the ‘Concerto’, ‘Lorettanova’, ‘Bareuro’, actual diploid and tetraploid Perenni- Table 2. reports the number of varieties ‘Dickens’. The other varieties were al Ryegrass varieties germinate com- of the Ryegrass species on trial. only partially slower than the Annual pared to the two Lolium multifl orum Ryegrass ‘Axcella’ I and II, and per- var. Westerwoldicum varieties. It is only Results formed as well as the fast germinating rumoured that especially the tetraploid tetraploid Perennial Ryegrass variety Ryegrass varieties germinate at low ‘Double’ (Figure C). temperatures as well. Rapidly germi- As expected the two Annual Ryegrass nating Perennial Ryegrass would be – L. multifl orum varieties ‘Axcella’ I and No eminent difference was found in the very advantageous because once es- II – showed an excellent germination germination rate at 5 °C after 25 days tablished as perennial in the turf, yearly rate at both temperatures (Figure A, B, (Figure A), between the ‘SOS’ blend, overseeding would become less indis- C). The three tetraploid (4n) Perennial the Lp 4n ‘Double’ and the two Annual pensable. Ryegrass (Lp) varieties showed differ- Ryegrass ‘Axcella’. The variety ‘Dou- ent results at the two temperatures. ble’ performed on the soil substrate as This research project compared some ‘Double’ (Lp 4n) germination rate, at well as the Annual ryegrass-varieties. recent varieties of diploid and tetra- both 10 °C and 5 °C, was not much ploid Perennial Ryegrass with two va- slower than the Annual ryegrass – ‘Ax- rieties of Annual Ryegrass – Lolium cella’ I and II. The other two tetraploid Discussion multifl orum var. Westerwoldicum (‘Ax- Perennial Ryegrass varieties showed cella’ I Lmw and ‘Axcella’ II Lmw). For a slower germination at 5 °C and did These germination tests showed that these tests, Barenbrug did not provide not germinate much faster than most the tetraploid Perennial Ryegrass vari- the Annual Ryegrass varieties present in the ‘SOS’ blend so the ‘SOS’ Blend Temperature level was used as such. 10 °C 5 °C Materials and Methods Day/night rhythm 12 h day/12 h night 12 h day/12 h night Substrate Soil mix Soil mix + paper The trials were carried out in a ger- Tab. 1: Germination conditions. mination facility at the two controlled temperatures of 10 °C and 5 °C Lolium multifl orum Lolium perenne (Table 1). The soil substrate was a mix var. Westerwoldicum of sand and topsoil (80:20), which rep- (annual) Diploid (2n) Tetraploid (4n) resents the common practice, and is 2 varieties also used in demonstration plots at the 31 varieties 3 varieties DemoGolf Exhibition in Eisenach, Ger- 1 Blend ‘SOS’ many. Tab. 2: Number of varieties of the different Ryegrass species.

4th ETS Conference 2014 99 Practical Paper Figure A Figure B

ety ‘Double’ at low temperatures can keep its germination pace similar to the Annual ryegrass – L. multiflorum varieties ‘Axcella’ I and II. ‘Double’ was only slightly slower than the ‘SOS’ blend. Barorlando and Barlenio, two diploid Perennial Ryegrass varieties, also showed very good germination characteristics at 5 °C. This raises the question if Annual Ryegrass varieties are even needed for the overseeding of sport turf areas at low temperatures if Perennial Ryegrass varieties (diploid + tetraploid) show approximately the same favourable characteristics. The advantage of Perennial Ryegrass is its persistence in the turf canopy for a longer period. Furthermore traffic tolerance of Perennial Ryegrass is believed to be higher (statement of STRI, verbal communication from DLF).

Literature

DALE, D., 2009: Tetraploid Ryegrass – New grass variety perfect for overseeding Ber- muda grass; Turf Magazine, August. Flyer Barenbrug – FACTfile BAR 50 SOS Low Temperature Germination. Flyer Barenbrug – SOS – Great in Grass. Flyer DLF: Axcella. International Rules for Seed Testing ISTA – Edi- tion 2012. Newsletter professional Turf DLF; Spring 2011.

Authors: J. Lung-Tsakos and Dr. G. Lung Institute Dr. Lung for Applied Turf Research Fridinger Street 55 D-70619 Stuttgart [email protected]

Figure C

100 4th ETS Conference 2014 G. Karaiskakis stadium ten years after: Assessing the irrigation system impacts on turf quality

Nikolopoulou, A.E., S. Alexandris, D.E. Tsesmelis, D. Stamatakos, V. Fassouli, N.A. Skondras and C.A. Karavitis

Introduction The field size is 120 x 80 m, while the irrigation equipotential lines depicting net playing area is sized by 105 x 68 m. the uniformity of the applied irrigation The substrate profile is a loamy sand was delivered, showing the uniform- rrigation efficiency and uniformity with 81.8% sand, 12% silt and 6.2% ity of the applied irrigation along the are of critical importance for water I clay and the turfgrass is irrigated with field. conservation of high quality turfgrass potable water. The irrigation system stands. In sport fields, where is well Analysis of variance was performed consists of 7 irrigation cycles with a documented that playing quality is to all visual quality data among areas system of sprinklers Rain Bird 8005 ar- strongly correlated with the manage- for 10 am and 1 pm weekly assess- ranged in a 20 x 20 m quadrate shape, ment practices, water input is a major ments with STATGRAPHICS Centuri- and controlled by a Rain Bird ESP-LX issue for turfgrass growth and quality on XV and the means were compared controller. Each one of the nozzles pro- (MCCARTY, 2005). According to CAR- using the least significant difference vides a mean irrigation height of 7.67 ROW et al. (2010) among the compo- LSD test at the 0.05 probability level. mm during its operation (20 minutes) at nents of site specific turfgrass water A t-Test analysis was used to find if its maximum capacity. conservation programs are the irriga- any significant differences in each ar- tion/water audit, the efficiency of both, For the purposes of the monitoring the ea between the two above mentioned irrigation system design, scheduling field was divided to 11 areas (A-K field visual quality assessments were re- and operation, along with the needed areas) following the sprinklers arrange- corded. irrigation devices. ment and each one on a 10 x 10 m grid (plot 1-8). The visual quality, using a 1 Football fields are usually located in ur- Results ban or suburban areas and the use of to 9 scale (where 1=dead, 7=minimum potable water for irrigation needs is still acceptable, 9=perfect), was evaluated a fact. New football stadiums though, by two researchers, on July 16, 18, 20, The field’s overall impression concern- are designed as multifunctional build- 23 2012, at 10 am and 1pm; the mean ing visual quality of the turfgrass was ings with a profit earning purpose, value of the two measurements of each almost perfect at 10 am. The mean aiming primarily to provide comfort to plot was derived, and the mean week- weekly visual quality was higher than spectators (SZUCS et al., 2009). Being ly visual quality of each area assess- 8 in all the eleven field areas. Statisti- considered as semi-outdoor spaces ments was calculated. cal differences though were observed among them, with A and B having the (SZUCS et al., 2009) by the architects For the assessment of the irrigation and the constructors, turfgrass manag- lower visual quality namely 8.36 and system’s performance and uniform- 8.33 (Table 1). ers may have to confront with diverse ity, catch-can method was used. management conditions such as wind The measured water volumes were After midday a deterioration of the velocity, solar radiation and thermal analyzed via GIS software and a map of visual quality was observed in all the conditions, provoked by the bowl design and roof construction materials. Georgios Karaiskakis stadium is classified by UEFA as a 5-star football sta- Area 10am 1pm dium. Aim of the present case study A 8.36 c ± 0.06 ** 7.56 a ± 0.20 was to audit and depict the irrigation B 8.33 c ± 0.18 * 7.59 a ± 0.25 system’s performance and uniformity ten years after the installation and the C 8.79 ab ± 0.10 ** 7.92 a ± 0.20 effects on turf visual quality. D 8.83 a ± 0.12 *** 7.81 a ± 0.14 Materials and Methods E 8.80 a ± 0.09 *** 7.81 a ± 0.14 F 8.73 ab ± 0.14 *** 7.72 a ± 0.15 The study was performed in the G 8.86 a ± 0.08 *** 7.86 a ± 0.15 turfgrass field of Karaiskakis sta- H 8.62 abc ± 0.14 ** 7.58 a ± 0.21 dium, located in Peiraeus Greece (37°5646.21N 23°3952.33E). The I 8.50 bc ± 0.00 ** 7.50 a ± 0.19 football arena is near the Saronic J 8.89 a ± 0.08 *** 7.70 a ± 0.18 Gulf, being subjected to Mediterrane- K 8.73 ab ± 0.11 *** 7.48 a ± 0.11 an climatic conditions. The field was sodded in 2007 with ‘Tifway 419’ and § Mean values of the columns followed by different letters denote statistical differences at over-seeded with Kentucky bluegrass P ≤ 0.05, among areas. The t-Test analysis among columns is represented by asterisks in order to achieve the required turf (*= P ≤ 0.05, **= P ≤ 0.01, ***= P ≤ 0.001) properties, including fast recovery, Tab. 1: Mean visual quality (1-9, 7=minimum acceptable) of the four assessments of each throughout the year. irrigation station/field area at 10am and 1pm (mean ± s.e.).

4th ETS Conference 2014 101 Practical Paper cally significant (Table 1). As it can be midday, when the maximum of temper- observed by the aerial photo in Figure ature occurred, indicate an irrigation 1 (Image © 2013 Digital Globe) taken system malfunction. As it was derived at 23 June 2012, there were differences from the map of irrigation equipoten- on the ground cover of the field areas tial lines, the plots that were receiving following the sprinklers pattern. less water quantity scored the lowest visual quality rating especially at 1 pm. The map of irrigation equipotential lines In addition the arena bowl design cre- depicted with details the applied water ates shaded areas, where the applied quantity in the eleven areas. It was re- irrigation volume seems to be in ex- corded a non uniform irrigation among cess. In conclusion, both a redesign of the plots which may resulted to the the irrigation system and a reschedul- deterioration of visual quality after mid- ing are considered essential in order day and to the differences to the field’s to improve the water management and ground cover a month earlier. the quality of the bermudagrass during summer months. Discussion Acknowledgments Fig. 1: Aerial photo of Georgios Karaiskakis football arena at 23 June 2012 The applied water uniformity had a ma- (Image © 2013 Digital Globe). jor impact on the turf quality and the The performed on site field evaluation fact is confirmed by the visual assess- was under the supervision of GREEN ment of the aerial photo. Even though PARK Ltd. The authors would like to field areas, without recording though bermudagrasses are well adapted to thank the company for all the informa- any differences among them. A great hot and dry conditions, improper water tion on the field and the applied man- decrease in visual quality was observed application may reduce the acceptable agement techniques. at A, B, I and K areas located at the quality when low mowing is applied longest sides of the field, getting a rat- (BALDWIN et al., 2006). According to Literature ing of 7.56, 7.59, 7.50 and 7.48 respec- MCKENNEY and ZARTMAN (1997), tively. In these areas leaf firing was ob- the controlling factor for turfgrass pro- served at several plots. The difference duction and quality is the irrigation BALDWIN, C.M., H. LIU, L.B. McCARTY, W.L. BAUERLE and J.E. TOLER, 2006: Re- between the morning and the noon quantity and not the species itself. The sponse of six bermudagrass cultivars to assessments was found to be statisti- observed spots with leaf firing after different irrigation intervals. Horttechnolo- gy, 16 (3), 466-470. CARROW, R.N., J.M. KRUM, I. FLITCROFT and C. CLINE, 2010: Precision turfgrass management: challenges and field applications for mapping turfgrass soil and stress. Pre- cision Agr., 11, 115-134. McCATRY, L.B., 2005: Best golf course management practices, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J. MCKENNEY, C.B. and R.E. ZARTMAN, 1997: Response of Buffalograss and Bermu- dagrass to reduced irrigation practices under semiarid conditions. J. Turf. Manag., 2, 45–54. SZUCS, A., F. ALLARD and S. MOREAU, 2009: Open stadium design aspects for cold climates. PLEA2009 - 26th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Que- bec City, Canada, 22-24 June 2009.

Authors: Dr Nikolopoulou Aimilia-Eleni1 Assist. Prof. Dr Stavros Alexandris2 MSc Dimitris E. Tsesmelis2 MSc Dimitris Stamatakos2 MSc Vassilia Fassouli2 MSc Nikolaos A. Skondras2 Assist. Prof. Dr Christos A. Karavitis2

1 Department of Crop Science, 2 Department of Natural Resources Development & Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos str. 75, Athens, Greece [email protected] [email protected] Fig. 2: Map of irrigation equipotential lines derived from the on site catch-can measure- [email protected] ments taken at 24th July 2012.

102 4th ETS Conference 2014 Detection of turf grass diseases by DNA profiling of pathogens

Pogner C., D. Bandian, M. Gorfer and J. Strauss

Introduction

ungal infections of turf grass are Fone of the biggest problems on golf courses and other sports fields. As the density of golf courses, and therefore the competition between plants, and the demands of players are high, grass health becomes a high priority in management. Daily mechanical treatment and the influence of weather are highly stressful for the plants and can favour the spread Fig. 1: Example of electrophoresis gel of a fungal turf grass pathogen analysis, used for of fungal infections. Mostly turf diseas- visualisation after PCR. es like fungal infections are not recognised until discoloured, dead or missing grass is detected. The symptoms of different diseases are very similar to each The new screening for fungal patho- where detected, take-all-patch (Gaeu- other and the distinction is challenging, gens uses an advanced polymerase mannomyces graminis) and snow mold even for a skilled green keeper. chain reaction (PCR) technique where (Microdochium nivale) have also been To prevent and effectively control turf simultaneous detection and quantifica- detected more often. grass diseases and to adapt the man- tion of more than 25 pathogens is carried out. A correlation between weather con- agement, it is important to know which ditions (heat and rain) and the occur- pathogen is causing problems, ideally rence of diseases could be observed. before the appearance of symptoms. RasenCheck In 2014 the RasenCheck monitoring Current methods for fungal pathogen project will be extended. The monitor- detection are often not quantitative and The RasenCheck uses an advanced ing period covers 25 weeks of sam- cannot correctly identify multiple infec- PCR technique to test turf grass sampling, 2 in spring, 22 from June to Oc- tions. New DNA analyses are able to ples for 30 fungal turf grass patho- tober and 1 in November. The analyses accurately identify and quantify all ac- gens. Either individual samples are are carried out with the advanced PCR tive and inactive pathogens from grass sent in, if symptoms of a disease technique that can also quantify the samples. are found and cannot be attributed occurring pathogens. to a pathogen, or green keepers and golf courses participate in the Ra- Additionally, weather conditions of the DNA Analyses senCheck monitoring project where different regions (macroclimate), of the greens are monitored and sampled participating golf clubs (mesoclimate) and of the sample sites/greens (micro- Detection of turf diseases by DNA pro- periodically over the whole season (8 climate) are monitored closely during filing is an established analysis. The months). the project period. Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) The RasenCheck monitoring pilot pro- has advanced the technique to de- ject started 2013 with 5 participating The goal of the RasenCheck mo- tect pathogens in turf grass and root golf courses in Austria. The occurrence nitoring is the identification of pat- samples so that it is possible to iden- of fungal pathogens was monitored hogens before symptoms occur. tify pathogens, determine their quantity over a period of 15 weeks. The DNA Additionally to active pathogens, and make it possible to estimate their Analyses were carried out with stand- which have already infected the plant, infection pressure. ard PCR method; the new technique inactive pathogens can be detect- will be available in 2014. ed and the risk of infections can be The grass and root samples are col- predicted. lected by the green keeper, accord- Nearly all pathogens occurred at least ing to instructions by the laboratory once over the monitoring period. The Due to this information, pathogens and are sent there for analyses. At the infections were mostly multiple infec- can be controlled more efficiently, pre- AIT laboratories the DNA of the sam- tions with more than one pathogen. ventative actions against future infec- ples is extracted and purified. In this Due to the weather patterns, in 2013 tions can be taken, the use of chemical DNA-solution the DNA of the grasses mostly anthracnose (Colletotrichum plant protection products can be re- and the ones of the occurring patho- graminis) and leaf bleach (Drechsle- duced and the management protocols gens is present. ra sp. and several other pathogens) can be adjusted.

4th ETS Conference 2014 103 Practical Paper Fig. 2: Number of turf grass disease occurrences (on all participating golf courses) during the project Rasen- Check in 2013.

Fig. 3: development of leaf blight during the project period of Rasen- Check 2013.

Prospect Authors: As it was shown in 2013, fungal turf Clara-E. Pogner, DI grass pathogens are influenced by [email protected] weather conditions. The results of the Markus Gorfer, Dr. weather and pathogens monitoring [email protected] during 2014 will be used to develop a modelling tool for the prediction of the Joseph Strauss, Dr. pathogens manifestations based on University professor the infection pressure and the weather [email protected] forecast. Dragana Bandian, DI By knowing which pathogen is present [email protected] on the greens (due to the RasenCheck monitoring) and by the modelling tool AIT Austrian Institute of the pathogen’s spread, green keep- of Technology GmbH ers should be able to adjust their man- Detection of Environmental agement measures to prevent exten- Pathogens sive infections on greens, and therefore Konrad-Lorenz Straße 24 control pathogens more efficiently and 3430 Tulln, Austria reduce the use of chemical products for plant protection.

104 4th ETS Conference 2014 Fungicides for control of Microdochium nivale and Typhula incarnata

Aamlid, T.S., T. Espevig, W.M. Waalen and T. Pettersen

Introduction Materials and Methods designs and results were analysed by ANOVA. he turfgrass pathogens resulting in The material comprises one trial from The experimental season 2011-12 was Tthe greatest economic losses in the October 2011 to May 2012 on an ex- mild with higher-than-normal temper- Nordic countries are Microdochioum perimental green with a turf cover of atures during the entire trial period at nivale (Fr.) Samuels and Hallett and Ty- 100 % annual bluegrass (Poa annua) Landvik. Snow covered the green from phula incarnata (Lasch ex. Fr.) causing at the Bioforsk Turfgrass Research 21 Jan. to 23 Feb only, and March had pink and gray snow mold, respectively. Center Landvik, SE Norway and two record-high temperatures resulting in M. nivale also causes microdochium trials from October 2012 to May 2013 an early start of the growing season. patch (formerly ‘fusarium patch’) un- on greens with 100 % creeping bent- The experimental season 2012-13 was der cool and wet conditions during the grass (Agrostis stolonifera) or 85 % much colder and the trials at Arendal growing season, especially in the fall. annual bluegrass + 15 % creeping GK and Österåker GK were covered (ÅRSVOLL, 1973). bentgrass at Arendal GC, SE Norway with snow from 2 Dec. to 21 Apr. and and Österåker GC, Stockholm, Swe- from 29 Nov. to 10 Apr., respectively. A few strobilurines or demethylation den, respectively. Fungicides were ap- inhibitors (DMIs) are currently labelled plied up to four times in October and for snow mold control in the Nordic November in a water volume of 250 Results countries. Resistance to these fungi- L ha-1. Medallion, Banner MAXX and cides has been reported for other path- Headway were all applied at a rate of In the 2011-12 trial on the annual blue- ogens, but so far not for M. nivale or 3 L ha-1 corresponding to 375 g a.i. flu- grass green at Bioforsk Landvik, 1-3 % T. incarnata (LATIN, 2011). The risk for dioxonil ha-1, 468 g a.i. propiconazole of the green surface had already de- M. nivale to develop resistance is, how- ha-1 and 187.5 g a.i. azoxystrobin + 312 veloped microdochium patches by the ever, considered high (LATIN, 2011), g a.i. propiconazole ha-1, respectively. first fungicide application on 13 Oct. and the Scandinavian labels for stobi- In 2012-13 Banner MAXX was also ap- (Table 1). Both Medallion and Headway lurines and DMIs therefore prescribe a plied in early spring immediately after controlled this infection and there was maximum of two to four applications snow melt in some of the treatments. no difference in the efficacy of the two per year. Classical contact fungicides The percentage of plot area affected products. In contrast, M. nivale con- with multiple modes of action, such as by disease was assessed at regular in- tinued to develop on unsprayed plots chlorothalonil or PCNB, are not avail- tervals before, during (in the absence and reached a maximum of 27.5 % on able for turfgrass use in the Nordic of snow cover) and after winter and 28 Feb. after about one month of snow countries, and iprodione, which was turfgrass general impression was as- cover. At the following assessments on the most widely used fungicide until sessed in spring. The identity of win- 29 Mar. and 30 Apr. only treatment 5 a few years ago, has also been with- ter diseases was verified by samples that had received one application of drawn from the market. For this reason, sent to Bioforsk Turfgrass Diagnos- Headway in October plus two applica- Scandinavian turfgrass managers have tic Lab. All trials were established actions of Medallion in November were been looking for a ‘contact’ fungicide cording to randomized complete block completely without disease, and these that can be applied shortly before snow fall in rotation with the ‘systemic’ fungicides. General Microdochium nivale impres- Our objective was to evaluate the ef- % of plot area sion (1-9, ficacy of Banner MAXX, Headway and 9 is best) Medallion, turfgrass formulations of Treatment no. / Fungicide on 11 15 9 28 29 30 30 propiconazole, azoxystrobin + propi- 13 Oct. + 2 Nov. + 28 Nov. Oct. Nov. Dec. Feb. Mar. Apr. Apr. conazole and fludioxonil, respectively, for the control on M. nivale and T. 1 0 + 0 + 0 (unsprayed control) 2.7 9.2 22.0 27.5 23.3 18.8 2.3 incarnata on Scandinavian golf cours- 2 Medallion + 0 + Medallion 2.0 0.7 0.3 1.7 1.3 0.3 5.9 es. Although propiconazole and azox- 3 Headway + 0 + Medallion 2.2 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.5 0.9 6.3 ystrobin are classified as acropetal 4 Headway + 0 + Headway 1.3 0.8 0.5 1.5 1.8 1.2 5.8 penetrants and fludioxonil as a local penetrant (LATIN, 2011), we will, for the 5 Headway + Medallion + Medallion 1.5 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 7.2 purpose of this paper, refer to Banner Sign.1 ns *** *** *** *** *** ***

MAXX and Headway as ‘systemic’ and LSD0.05 - 2.4 7.5 7.4 6.7 4.9 1.4 Medallion as ‘contact’ fungicides, re- 1 ***: P≤0.001, **: P≤0.01, *: P≤0.05, (*): P≤0.10; ns: P>0.10 spectively. Tab. 1: Percentage of the plot area infected by Microdochium nivale on various dates and turfgrass general impression in spring on annual bluegrass green at Bioforsk Landvik 2011-12.

4th ETS Conference 2014 105 Practical Paper T. incar- General Europe (EU 2009). It is therefore a high- nata impres- ly relevant question what is the mini- Application date Treat- % of plot sion (1-9, mum number of applications and rates ment area 9 is best) needed for adequate control of M. niva- no 10 24 14 28 24 24 7 7 le or T. incarnata. The trial at Österåker Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Apr. Apr. May May GC in 2012-13 showed that one rather 1 Unsprayed control 5.3 8.7 2.5 late application of Banner MAXX at 3 L -1 2 Banner M. Medallion 0.3 4.3 3.7 = 468 g a.i. propiconazole ha reduced pink snow mold in spring by an average 3 Banner M. Medallion Medallion 0.0 2.3 5.0 of 67 % (average of treatments 2 and 4 Banner M. Medallion Medallion Medallion 0.0 1.7 5.8 7 vs. average of treatments 1 and 6). 5 Headway Medallion Medallion 0.1 1.7 5.2 This level of control is better than in the 6 Banner M. Banner M. Medallion Medallion 0.0 2.3 4.7 northern United States where JUNG 7 Banner M. 4.7 6.0 3.2 et al. (2008) reported only 30-35 % re- 8 Banner M. Medallion Medallion Banner M. 0.1 3.7 4.5 duction in disease severity of M. nivale Sign.1 *** *** *** after one application of Banner MAXX LSD0.05 3.3 3.0 1.3 at 12.8 L ha-1, i.e. more than four times 1 ***: P≤0.001, **: P≤0.01, *: P≤0.05, (*): P≤0.10; ns: P>0.10 the rate used in our trials. At Arendal GC, the control of T. incarnata with Tab. 2: Effect of fungicide applications in autumn and spring on percentage of plot area infected by Typhula incarnata at snow melt and turfgrass general impression two weeks only one application of Banner MAXX after snow melt on a creeping bentgrass green at Arendal GC, 2012-13. plus one application of Medallion was also better than in similar evaluations M. nivale, Gen. impression of propiconazole and fludioxonil in Treat- Application date % of plot area (1-9, 9 is best) North America (JOHNSON & GOLOB, ment 2003; JUNG et al., 2007, 2008; BLUNT no 31 Oct. 16 Nov. 25 Apr. 11 Apr. 14 May et al. 2009). Most likely, these results 1 Unsprayed control 21.2 7.0 indicate a greater sensitivity of Scandi- 2 Banner M. 4.5 7.5 navian than of US strains of M. nivale 3 Banner M. Medallion 5.3 7.0 and T. incarnata to propiconazole and 4 Headway 4.0 7.3 fludioxonil due to less use of fungicides 5 Banner M. Banner M. 4.0 7.7 on Scandinavian golf courses. 6 Banner M. 13.7 7.7 The substitution of Banner MAXX with 7 Banner M. Banner M. 7.0 7.3 Headway for the first application in Sign.1 *** Ns October resulted in the same level of

LSD0.05 8.9 – control of T. incarnata at Arendal GC and of M. nivale at Österåker GC. In 1 ***: P≤0.001, **: P≤0.01, *: P≤0.05, (*): P≤0.10; ns: P>0.10 the 2011-12 trial at Bioforsk Landvik, Tab. 3: Effect of fungicide applications in autumn and spring on percentage of plot area the effect of two applications of Head- infected by Microdochium nivale at snow melt and turfgrass general impression one way on microdochium patch was bet- month after snow melt on green dominated by annual bluegrass at Österåker GC, ter than expected from JUNG’s report 2012-13. (2007) on poor control of M. nivale with azoxystrobin, and also from Nor- plots also gave the best general im- plots that had not been sprayed with wegian in vitro trials showing less ef- pression. fungicides in autumn but had no pos- ficacy of azoxystrobin than of propi- itive effect on plots where T. incarnata In 2012-13, the creeping bentgrass conazole on Norwegian strains of the was already controlled by fungicide ap- green at Arendal GC showed no symp- same pathogen (HOFGAARD et al., plications in autumn. The highest gen- toms of disease in autumn (not shown). 2009). We conclude that the first ap- eral impression in spring was found on At snow melt in spring, there was still plication of systemic fungicide the plots that had been sprayed four times no symptoms of M. nivale, but T. in- turf is still growing in October can be in autumn, first with Banner MAXX and carnata covered approximately 5 % conducted with either Banner MAXX then with Medallion at two to three of the area on unsprayed plots (Table or Headway. According to Syngenta’s week intervals until snow cover. 2). From the table it also appears that labels, propiconazole and azoxystrob- the percentage of plot area infected The annual bluegrass trial at Österåk- in require temperatures higher than 6 by disease increased from the first to er GC in 2012-13 showed no diseases and 10°C for maximal efficacy, respec- the second assessment in spring, but before winter At snow melt in spring, M. tively. this is probably an artefact as different nivale covered 14-21 % of the plot area A main objective of this research was persons assessed the plots on the two on unsprayed plots (treatments 1 and to evaluate the need for Medallion as a dates. Irrespective of this, treatment 2 6) versus 4-7 % on plots that had been supplement to earlier application(s) of that had received only one application sprayed once or twice in late autumn systemic fungicide. In this respect, the of Banner MAXX plus one application (Table 3). Banner MAXX at snow melt results from Österåker in 2012-13 were of Medallion seven weeks later tend- had no significant effect on turfgrass not consistent, but the trials from Bio- ed to have slightly more disease and general impression one month later. forsk Landvik in 2011-12 and Arendal significantly lower general impression GC in 2012-13 showed enhanced con- than the treatments that had received trol and/or better overall impression in three or four fungicide applications. Discussion spring with increasing number of appli- Application of Banner MAXX after snow cations of Medallion in the fall. For golf melt tended to improve the general Reduction in pesticide use is a political courses aiming for complete control of impression (recovery from disease) on goal in Scandinavia as in other parts of M. nivale and T. incarnata with a the

106 4th ETS Conference 2014 lowest possible number of fungicide is still growing in October, this usually HOFGAARD, I.S., B. Molteberg and A.M. Tron- applications per year and with the low- means one or two applications of the smo, 2009: Improved strategy for control est risk for fungicide resistance, one contact fungicide after mowing has of Microdochium nivale on golf courses. Final Report. http://sterf.golf.se (Accessed or two applications of Medallion after been discontinued for the season. 1 Feb. 2013) the initial application of a systemic fun- JOHNSTON, W.A. and C. GOLOB, 2003: Snow gicide in October is therefore a better mold control in the Intermountain North- alternative than multiple applications Acknowledgement west. USGA Turfgrass and Environmental of Banner MAXX in fall and spring. At Research Online 23(2): 1-9. least in continental and northern parts These trials were carried out under JUNG, G., S.W. CHANG and Y-K. JO, 2007: A the industrial scientific partnership fresh look at fungicides for snow mold con- of Scandinavia, the spring period is trol. Golf Course Management. July 2007: usually short and intense with limit- agreement between the Scandinavian 91-94. ed risk for severe outbreaks of micro- Turfgrass and Environment Research JUNG, G., S. CHANG, T. CHANG, P. KOCH dochium patch. Foundation (STERF) and Syngenta Turf and S. ABLER, 2008: Minimum fungicide & Landscape. rates for species-specifi c snow mold con- How long should turfgrass managers trol. Golf Course Management. November aiming for complete control of M. nivale 2008: 91-94. and T. incarnata wait after the initial ap- Literature LATIN, R., 2011: A practical guide to turfgrass plication of a systemic fungicide before fungicides. American Phytopathological Society. 270 pp. making the first application of Medal- ÅRSVOLL, K., 1973: Winter damage in Nor- lion? The answer to this question de- wegian grassland, 1968-1971. Scientifi c pends on the weather conditions in the reports of The Agricultural University of Authors: Norway 52: 1-21. late fall, but the results from Landvik in Trygve S. Aamlid PhD 2011/12 and Arendal GC in 2012/13 BLUNT, T., J. HILL, N. TISSERAT and T. KO- SKI, 2009: Evaluation of fungicide sensiv- ([email protected]) suggest that six weeks was too long ity to Typhula ishikariensis and Typhula Tatsiana Espevig, PhD to offer complete protection of the turf. incarnata to fl udioxonil, propiconazole and ([email protected]) Rather than waiting until a few days chlorothalonol Phytopathology. June Sup- Wendy Waalen, PhD plement. 99(6): S13. before snow fall, greenkeepers should ([email protected]) therefore monitor the turf closely and if EU 2009: Directive 2009/128/EC of the Europe- Trond Pettersen, an Parliament and of the Council of 21 Oc- necessary apply Medallion at 3-4 four ([email protected]) week intervals after the initial applica- tober 2009 on establishing a framework for Community action to achieve a sustainable Bioforsk – Norwegian Institute for tion of the systemic fungicide. If the use of pesticides. Offi cial Journal of the Agricultural and Environmental systemic fungicide is sprayed accord- European Union L 309/71. http://eur-lex. Research, Norway ing to recommendations when the turf europa.eu. (Accessed 13 Jan. 2014).

4th ETS Conference 2014 107 Practical Paper

that releases nutrients useful for the Fairy ring effects on soil and turfgrass plants. Once the fungal mycelium has colo- growth and non-chemical control nized the soil, it will grow intensively. measures Sand and soil particles will be coated by the mycelium. These particles become hydrophobic with the result Bocksch, M. that the entire affected area becomes hydrophobic. Water is no longer able to penetrate the soil and the grass roots are losing access to water. The Introduction lium can only grow where organic mat- turfgrass starts to show symptoms of ter, water and adequate temperature drought stress and later the plants will are available. From the central starting ungi as heterotrophs must obtain die. In Central Europe this is especially point, it is only able to grow towards carbon by decomposing dead or typical for the fungus Marasmius ore- F the outside in a radial fashion, as it living organic matter. Because of this, ades. The release of toxic compounds progressively colonizes and depletes both the “higher” and “lower” fungi in the soil rootzone can also lead to the organic matter. After colonization are playing a vital role in the cycle of unhealthy turfgrass growth. Tests per- the mycelium grows and matures, and nature. To the first group belong the formed by FIDANZA (2009) showed up under certain conditions (enough water + Basidiomycota – which are my subject to 70 times higher NH4 concentrations and sufficient temperature) mushrooms – the second group is the Ascomyco- from fairy ring fungi in the rootzone, may emerge on the surface. Once all ta. Because of their hyphae with clamp compared to the rest of the lawn. This of the organic matter is decomposed connections, Basidiomycetes fungi are excess can lead to the death of the inside, the mycelium will die. However, reliably identified under a microscope turfgrass. Drought always intensifies the fungal mycelium on the outside of at > 100x to 400x. There are about the effect. Within the necrotic zone, the ring will continue to grow 10 – 25 30,000 species worldwide. They are elevated levels of K, S, and electrical cm per year. Fairy ring fungi can be- colonizing and decomposing organic conductivity are also measurable, but come old. The wider the circle the older matter within the soil, or among leaf lit- the pH shows no difference. they are and some rings in lawns are ter on the soil surface. 5 – 10 m in diameter. Because of these changes in the growth of the turfgrass, we differentiate Fairy rings Fairy ring types and effects between three types of visual fairy ring on the grasses symptoms in lawns and meadows: Some species of Basidiomycota show Type I – shows necrotic symptoms and a very characteristic pattern of myce- Living parts of plants are not the tar- severe damage of the lawn within the lium growth. It is growing in concentric get of these fungi. However, it is pos- circle (Figure 2); circles or arcs known as “fairy ring” sible that the mycelium is taking up or “Hexenringe”. This habit of grow- Type II – shows a darker, stronger substances released by the plants that ing is due to the even colonization of grass growth; mushrooms are rarely are necessary or useful for the fungus. dead organic matter and possibly lignin Also, turfgrass can benefit since the available in a unique concentration fungus does not use all substances within the soil and on the soil surface. from the decomposed organic matter. Over 60 native fairy ring-type basidio- These nutrients are getting released mycete species are able to show such and some of them are beneficial to the a habit of growing. We will find them in growing grass in proximity to the fairy forests as well as on pastures or turfs. ring (e.g. nitrogen containing com- The species Clitocybe, Agaricus, Ama- pounds). As a result, the grass growth nita, Tricholoma, Lepiota, Paxillus and will be stimulated and shows an atypi- many other can be found in turfgrass cal dark green colour compared to the stands, and one of the most common rest of the lawn. is Marasmius oreades which can cause The outside of the fairy ring has a Fig. 2: Picture of a Type I fairy ring of massive problems in turf (Figure 1). Marasmius oreades (Fairy Ring Mushroom) narrow strip of healthy turfgrass growth on a fairway. Every circle or arc starts from a single with darker leaves, which is the result spore or piece of mycelium. The myce- of the decomposition of dead organic matter and the release of nutrients (e.g., nitrogen) in this area. Depend- ing on the width of the ring, the following strip will be more or less wide and shows “normal” grass growth. If the conditions are ideal, this is the area where sometimes mushrooms or Fig. 1: puffballs will appear on the surface. Picture of Behind this area of the circle there are a severe no mushrooms to be seen, but the fairy ring damage on grass is once again healthy with darker Fig. 3: Picture of a Type II fairy ring of a German green leaves. This is due to the death Calocybe gambosa (St. Georgs Mush- sports field. and decomposition of the mycelium room) in spring.

4th ETS Conference 2014 109 Practical Paper Fig. 5: The effect of a wetting agent is nearly as good as fungicide use. Three weeks after treatment as well as six weeks after Fig. 4: Picture of a Type III fairy ring, here treatment. Only the Amanita verna (Fool´s Mushroom). combination of both shows a significantly better result. FI- present and there is no turf loss (Figure DANZA M. from his 3); lecture “Fairy Ring and Localized Dry Type III – shows only mushrooms that Spot Issues for Golf form a circle; the rest of the year the Courses and Sports circle is not visible (Figure 4). Fields” (2013). Every kind of stress to the turfgrass for the death of the grass in the ring leads to a stronger emergence of these and for the killing of the fungus down- visible fairy ring symptoms particular- hill. Fungi metabolic products are often ly of Type I and II. Stress can occur effective to control and limit the growth through low mowing, low fertilization of other fungal competitors and may be with shortage of nutrients, heavy use, responsible for the visible inhibition of low temperatures or even the changes both rings when they grow into each occurring with climate change in the other (Figure 6). Metabolites transport- last years (e.g., more frequent intense ed with water downhill become effec- summer-heat and severe drought tive in controlling other fungal colonies stress). of the same species and even of the Fig. 6: Picture showing two fairy rings own same fungiorganism Detection Plant protection and cultural severely affecting each other by their own and purification of these active meta- practices chemical ‘weapons’ and causing a reduc- bolic compounds are hopefully open- tion of the ring growth. ing new possibilities for the control of fairy ring. It is possible to successfully treat fairy ring-causing fungi with existing fungi- For example, two spot treatment trials cides, mainly developed for the treat- with water and wetting agent (19 L ha-1 Literature ment of lower fungi pathogenic to turf- Revolution in 1600 L water ha-1) on aer- grass, however, in Germany their use ated turfgrass show very positive ef- BALDWIN N.A., 1990: Turfgrass Pests and Dis- against fairy ring fungi is not allowed. fects for reducing fairy ring symptoms. eases. The Sport Turf Research Institute, This wetting agent program significant- Bingley. Some combinations of different mainly reduced the area of Type I fairy ring of Bayrische Landesanstalt für Weinbau und Gar- tenance practices cause a strong re- Agaricus after 2 to 3 weeks and helped tenbau; www.stmelf.bayern.de; 1999. duction of the fungus and the resulting to correct the water repellence effect by FIDANZA M., 2009: Fairy Ring I0I. USGA Green symptoms. Therefore green keepers 4 to 6 weeks. The effect of aeration and Section Record, 02-2009, 8-10. and groundsmen must manage water the wetting agent Revolution is nearly JAHN H., 1979: Pilze rundum. Park Verlag and nutrients and use wetting agents, as good as using the fungicides Herit- Hamburg. which are able to combat the water re- age or Insignia. Only the combination LANGE J.E. and M. LANGE, 1977: Pilze. BLV pellent mycelium effect. of wetting agent and fungicide shows Verlag München. SMILEY R.W., P.H. DERNODEN and B.B. Higher doses of nutrients, especially a still better result (Figure 5). Practice tests on a sports field in Halberstadt, CLARK, 2005: Compendium of Turfgrass nitrogen and iron, “mask” Type I and Diseases. APS Press 2005. II fairy ring symptoms by inducing Germany, with the soil surfactant Kick -1 The Lawn Society UK, 2007: Technical leaflet – stronger turfgrass growth and darker LDS (two treatments with 20 L ha Kick Fairy Rings; www.lawnsociety.com.uk. green leaf colour, but raise the costs LDS in 600 L water ha-1) in combination for nutrients and mowing. Water appli- with a 20 cm deep aeration and a sufficient post-application irrigation, lead to cations on Type I fairy rings can only Author: prevent the grasses from dying, if it is a complete reduction of the Marasmius possible to buffer the water repellent oreades fairy rings in the same year. Martin Bocksch, effect. Diplom-Agrarbiologe Vision Professor Hochschule Geisenheim Many trials performed by FIDANZA on University golf greens and sports grounds, and Schenkenstr. 17 also field trials in Germany, performed Some fairy rings are only arcs that are D-70771 Leinfelden-Echterdingen by Compo, show the importance of always open on the downhill side. It is Germany wetting agents in managing turfgrass hypothesized that metabolic products E-Mail: [email protected] affected by fairy ring. containing prussic acid are one reason

110 4th ETS Conference 2014 Turf quality concept for stadium pitches in the German Bundesliga

Mueller-Beck, K. and H. Nonn

Introduction ence, uses a five-scale ranking from 1 = poor to 5 = excellent with a comment function. The rating is transmitted on- he turfgrass pitches in the sta- Fig. 1: Sward line to the DFL and is stored in and in- diums of the First and Second density T terpreted by using a database. The ad- “Bundesliga” have to offer an optimal measured by ditional comments to the ratings allow pitch quality to guarantee a fair match ground cover rate. to draw conclusions from the reasons service according to the rules. Besides for positive or negative assessments. the sportive and protective functions These comments are helpful for the of the turfgrass also the visual as- groundsmen to initiate specific mainte- pects for TV broadcasting are consid- nance procedures. ered. Fig. 2: Water infiltration rate During the season 2012/2013 the pitch To ensure the high quality of the turf- measured by quality in the Bundesliga was rated an grass surface, the Deutsche Fußball double-ring average of 3.9 (min. 3.4 end of Febru- Liga (DFL), who is responsible for the infiltrometer. ary and max. 4.5 mid of May), which organisation of the “German Soccer is indicating a very good pitch quali- League” (Bundesliga), has set up an ty (figure 6). The quality rating for the expert team in 2011, which developed pitches in the second league reached within one year a three stage quality the average of 3.6 (min. 2.8 beginning concept. Fig. 3: Shear of February and max. 4.4 mid of Sep- strength tember) which means a good quality Stage 1: Evaluation and monitoring measured by system vane appara- aspect too. (since season 2012/2013); tus. The curves in figure 6 are showing a Stage 2: Further education program decline for the turf quality from the be- (in implementation phase); ginning of the season to late winter. With the start of the second half in the Stage 3: Annual Award Bundesliga (end of January) the quality “Pitch of the Year” Fig. 4: Even- is increasing. The reasons for this are (in preparation). ness meas- the applications of maintenance and ured by level This article presents and explains the indicator (op- renovating procedures as overseeding content and results of the quality con- tional). or renewing of the sods. Additionally, in cept’s Stage 1 “evaluation and moni- spring the plants growing season starts toring system”. and regeneration growth begins.

2. Measuring and Monitoring Stage 1: Evaluation and Measurements of the quality param- monitoring system eters are done by the groundsmen. The methods are based on European This assessment system, which was Fig. 5: Position or German standards (Table 1). This of the measur- introduced in the season 2012/2013, ing points on standardized basis allows for the com- is based on two parts and is obligato- the pitch (SD parison of the data among each other, ry for all clubs in the First and Second = sward den- and for the pooling with later data to Bundesliga. sity, W = water find and compare trends. infiltration 1. General evaluation of the pitch qual- rate, S = shear The above-mentioned standards were ity by both team captains (guest strength). used as target value. When there are and home) and the referee on each no adequate minimum requirements Matchday. defined by the standards, the values Results identified during the measuring periods 2. Measurement of the following quali- can be used as threshold for the future. ty parameters: sward density, water 1. General evaluation infiltration rate, shear strength and During the season 2012/2013 the evenness (figures 1 to 4) at eight giv- The subjective estimation of the pitch measurement of the specific quality pa- en times during the playing season quality by the two team captains and rameters was conducted everywhere on predetermined measuring points the referee directly after the match, at the same time (within 1 week), and (figure 5). based on the individual playing experi- repeated 8 times during the playing

4th ETS Conference 2014 111 Practical Paper with subjective ratings of turf quality, establish a clever strategy for the management of the stadium pitches quality. Furthermore the regular control and documentation of the specific criteria Fig. 6: Ranking of provides the groundsmen in charge turfgrass quality eval- with useful decision guidance for the uation during playing safeguarding of the turf quality. season 2012/2013 (average of each Measuring and evaluation attest a Match day in “First high quality standard in the stadiums Bundesliga” (BL) and “Second Bundesliga” of the German Bundesliga and 2. Bun- (2.BL)). desliga. Potentially the present measurements could be completed with the introduction of other quality param- Quality criteria EU or German standard eters, like resiliency, strength reduc- Sward density DIN EN 12231:2003-07, method B tion, ball roll distance to mention but a Water infiltration rate DIN EN 12616:2003-07, method B few. Shear resistance DIN 18035-4:2012-01 The positive acceptance and the implementation of stage 1 of the DFL quality Evenness DIN 18035-4:2012-01 concept by the groundsmen, and the Tab. 1: Quality criteria and standards for evaluation. rising attendance for education and advanced training (stage 2) acknowledge Sward Density (%) the significance of both quality levels: quantitative data and qualitative infor- SD 1 SD 2 SD 3 SD 4 SD 5 SD 6 SD 7 SD 8 SD 9 mation. cw 32 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 Based on the positive experience with cw 40/41 97 96 97 97 96 97 97 96 97 stage 1 implementation of the turf quality concept, now the basis for stage 2 Water infiltration Rate Shear Strength “education and advanced training” has (mm/h) (kPa) been laid. This then leads to the an- WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 WS1 WS2 WS3 WS4 nual Award “Pitch of the Year” (stage mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean 3). The DFL-expert team is confident, cw 32 45 72 79 42 cw 32 48 50 53 52 that the high quality standard of the German Bundesliga stadiums will per- cw 40/41 55 68 66 49 cw 40/41 57 56 47 63 manently maintained and even en- cw = calender week hanced.

Tab. 2: Example of results of the quality tests at different times (cw 32 and cw 40/41) in Annex: „Turf quality concept for sta- one soccer field, the BayArena Leverkusen (“First Bundesliga”). dium pitches in the German Soccer League” season. As an example, the test results )) 90 % sward density; of the stadium in Leverkusen for two Authors: )) 30 mm/h water infiltration rate; measuring periods are shown (table 2). )) 60 kPa shear strength. Dr. Klaus Mueller-Beck Now, as a result of the first measure- President German Turfgrass Society ment period, the data, averaged over These data serve as threshold value for Warendorf, Germany the season and over all stadiums, serve future good quality turf on the stadium [email protected] as base mean value for the quality. pitches. Dr. Harald Nonn Measuring the evenness was optional EUROGREEN GmbH and therefore it is not considered in the Conclusion R&D Turfgrass Science results. On average, over the complete Betzdorf, Germany season of the Bundesliga, the following The collection of objective, measur- [email protected] results were ascertained: able parameters and their correlation

112 4th ETS Conference 2014 Hybrid turf systems for more wear tolerance on soccer pitches

Nonn, H.

Introduction Netlon Advanced Turf contains plastic sandy root zone mix tufts of PE-fibres grids in the root zone mix. It is mainly are grooved 16 cm deep in a distance used for event areas, parking areas and of 2 cm. Fibres stay 2 cm above the atural turf on soccer pitches has approaches. surface to stabilize grasses. Nto withstand a lot of stress. Com- pression and shear forces compact the Fibreturf is a mixture of a special sand XtraGrass, developed in the Nether- root zone and damage the turfgrasses based, root zone mix and non-elas- lands, uses an artificial turfgrass mat especially in the mainly used areas. tic polypropylene fibres. Fibrelastic is partially biodegradable. The mat with This leads to lower sward density and based on Fibreturf but with additional its 70 mm long tufted PE-fibres is in- uneven playing surface with the effect elastic polypropylene fibres. Both root stalled on the root zone mix, filled with that appearance and performance de- zone mixes are mainly used for soccer approx. 5 cm root zone material and crease. These disadvantages can be pitches. seeded. minimized by stabilizing the root zone mix and/or sward. In addition, stabi- Terrasoil Advance is based on the root PowerGrass is the newest develop- lized soccer pitches, called “hybrid zone mix Terrasoil containing approx. ment in hybrid systems. A woven, not turf”, could be an alternative to the ex- 18 cm long polyethylene fibres which degradable, permeable for roots, wa- pensive and often problematic fully ar- are randomly distributed in the soil. ter and air, artificial turfgrass mat with tificial turf over rubber infill. 45 mm long PE-fibres is placed on the root zone. 25 mm of root zone material About 50 years ago products like En- is added and seeded. The fibres sta- kamat, Austria-Grasvlies and turfgrass bilize the roots and protect the plant protection mat Point 15R were intro- crown and the grass leaves. duced in the market. None of these products was successful. All hybrid turf systems are mainly used for soccer or similar turf sport During the last two decades different events. systems entered the turfgrass market. These systems can be divided in two groups: systems that stabilize the root zone mix, and systems that combine a stabilization of the root zone Fig. 1: Intensively used area on Terrasoil with the sward. Practice has shown Advance root zone mix with nearly no that, regarding sport performances, grasses but even surface. there are differences between these systems. To understand these differences a closer look to the construction and the components of the systems is necessary.

Systems to stabilize the root zone mix = hybrid root Fig. 3: Hybrid turf system PowerGrass: stabilization mat in the root zone, filled zone mix with 2.5 cm root zone mix.

In these systems plastic fibres or plastic grids are added to the root zone Fig. 2: New constructed soccer pitch with mix. The root zone is mainly based Fibrelastic root zone mix stabilizing root on sand and fibres/grids are mixed in system and surface. outside of the pitch. After installing the root zone mix the turf is sown with a mixture of Lolium perenne and Poa pratensis, or sometimes up to 100 % Systems to stabilize the root of Lolium perenne. Brand names* for zone mix and the hybrid root zone mixes are Netlon Ad- sward = hybrid turf vanced Turf, Fibreturf, Fibrelastic or Terrasoil Advance. GrassMaster was introduced 20 Fig. 4: Soccer training area: Sward injuries * registered brand names in this report are years ago as the first system to stabi- on PowerGrass (top left) compared to not not marked with ® lize sward and root zone. In a special stabilized turf (down right).

4th ETS Conference 2014 113 Practical Paper Construction costs cept topdressing, necessary to main- chance to increase sports turf usage tain an excellent soccer turf have to be and quality but they cannot reach the applied intensively. yearly use intensity of an artificial turf All these systems, on top of the costs because grasses pose a limit to the for a solid and well draining soil foun- Topdressing is prohibited or strictly wear tolerance. dation, require the following additional limited due to the fact that the fibres financial efforts (averages for a soccer will be buried and thus taken out of In practice, the hybrid turf systems field, pre-tax): function. Effects of sanding have to can stand increases of up to 2 hours be replaced by grooming, scarifying, per day of usage compared to not Netlon Advanced Turf: + 400,000 € sweeping and matting. Coring with stabilized turf, with good turf density Fibreturf: + 200,000 € solid tines is possible in all systems, and surface evenness. This increase hollow tines shall not be used be- of usage is sufficient for most of the Fibrelastic: + 300,000 € cause they cannot penetrate into the football clubs and therefore these sys- Terrasoil Advance: + 60,000 € root zone or they would damage the tems are a real alternative to artificial stabilizing materials. Regeneration of turf. Grassmaster: + 300,000 € the sward has to be done by recur- XtraGrass: + 300,000 € rent overseedings because inset with sods or plugs is not possible. Thicker € PowerGrass: + 150,000 sods of XtraGrass and PowerGrass are available and may be used for new in- Maintenance of hybrid stallation or partial repair such as goal Author: systems or penalty area. Dr. Harald Nonn Conclusion EUROGREEN GmbH All maintenance actions have to keep R&D Turfgrass Science and to optimize wear tolerance as well Betzdorf, Germany as the stabilizing system for a long Due to their stabilization, hybrid root [email protected] time. This means that all actions, ex- zone mixes and hybrid turfs provide the

114 4th ETS Conference 2014 Characterisation of organic matter dynamics in sports turf

Evers, M. and A. Wolleswinkel

Background tio of the soil organic matter. With this overnight drying at 70°C followed by information the choice for specific turf milling at 1 mm and drying at 103°C grass varieties and/or changes to the (gravimetrical method). For the N sports turf rootzone undergoes dy- total maintenance programs can be im- analysis the elementary Dumas method namic changes as plants and root A proved. is used, C is measured via infrared systems grow, mature, and die. The total spectophotometry. debris of organic matter created in this cycle is deposited in the upper part of Materials and Methods the rootzone. This process of organ- Turf grass shoot organic ic matter accumulation, referred to as Growth medium: The trial field was ex- matter organic matter dynamics, has a major ecuted over sub-grade of coarse sand impact on the soil physical properties (383 μm) with 1.3% (LOI) organic mat- of the rootzone. Appropriately manag- After full establishment Frc and Dc ter covered with 15 cm topsoil (0-20 ing this cycle will lay the foundation for gave the highest amount of Ctotal with cm) of medium coarse sand (336 μm) healthy turfgrass, and failure to do so the lowest Ntotal, followed by Pt and Pp. with 5.8% (LOI) organic matter, CN-ra- can lead to many secondary problems Lp provided opposite results (low Ctotal tio of 18 and pH-KCl = 6. (Hartwiger, 2004). Research done by with high Ntotal content). As a result the CARROW showed that reduced oxy- Turf grass species: Lolium prenne (Lp), CN-ratio for Frc, Dc and Pp tends to be gen levels, caused by the accumulation Poa pratensis (Pp), Festuca arundin- higher than the CN-ratio of Fa, Pt and of organic matter in the surface zone, is acea (Fa), Festuca rubra commutata Lp. In general there is a strong season- the primary cause of many secondary (Frc), Poa trivialis (Pt) and Descampsia al influence on the CN-ratio. problems experienced in sand-based caespitosa (Dc). root zones (CARROW, 1998). Maintenance: ordinary for sports turf Turf grass rootzone organic pitches with a mean mowing height of matter Introduction 35 mm. The annual NPK application rate was roughly 120 kg N ha-1, 50 kg CN-ratios of the soil show the tendency -1 -1 Many researches have been done on P2O5 ha and 100 kg K2O ha . Irrigation to increase with Frc and Dc and a more the organic matter build up in sports was done in dry periods. steady state with Lp and Fa. Pp and turf soil. Also much knowledge is Trial setup: Randomized block design Pt are more intermediates. It results in available on how to control excessive with 3 repetitions. Unifactorial trial per more thatch build up with Frc, Dc and amounts of organic matter in a top grass specie. Plot size: 1 x 2 m. Pt. Lp gives the lowest thatch build up. layer. However, much less is known As thatch build up by the turf grass on- about the quality of the organic matter. During the trial period 3 times a year ly appears in the upper few cm of the

This quality is summarized in a CN- (Spring, Summer and Autumn) 20 soil soil and the Ctotal and Ntotal analysis is ratio. The total organic matter formed cores (0-10 cm depth) per plot were done for the 0-10 cm soil layer (which by the turf in combination with the taken for Ctotal and Ntotal analysis in the is a standard depth for sports turf) the CN-ratio can give information about the laboratory. At the same time from every influence of the soil sampling depth risk of thatch build up. It is expected single plot the clippings were collected and the relatively high initial CN-ratio that different turf grass species will dif- for fresh weight analysis and Ctotal, Ntotal of the soil weakened the overall results. fer in CN-ratio of the shoots and roots and dry matter analysis in the labora- Nevertheless some trends at the end of that could finally influence the CN-ra- tory. Dry matter analysis was done by the trial are shown.

4th ETS Conference 2014 115 Practical Paper Conclusions the strongest correlation. It is expected that this correlation will be much Authors: stronger in a more sandy soil with low- There seems to be the tendency that Maurice Evers MSc er organic matter content and lower in- turf grasses, like Frc, Dc and, to a less- Dutch Outdoor Concepts BV, itial CN-ratio. er extent, Pt and Pp, with a high fresh Herveld,The Netherlands, and dry matter production, with rela- e-mail: tively high Ctotal content and relatively Literature [email protected] low N content in the shoots, will give total Arthur Wolleswinkel MSc a higher risk for thatch build up with in- HARTWIGER, C., 2004: USGA Green Section Barenbrug Holland BV, creasing CN-ratio of the soil than other Record. May/June. 42(3): p. 9-11. Nijmegen, The Netherlands turf grasses. CARROW, R. N., 1998: Organic matter dynamics in the surface zone of a USGA green: There is a weak correlation between practices to alleviate problems. USGA CN-ratio of the turf grass shoot and 1998 Turfgrass and Environmental Re- the CN-ratio of the topsoil. Pp shows search Summary. USGA, Far Hills, N.J.

116 4th ETS Conference 2014 Report on the conditions of the soccer pitches in Germany

Albracht, R. and H. Nonn

Introduction

bout 25,000 lawn soccer pitches Ain the Federal Republic of Germa- ny have a size of more than 5,000 m² (SPORTSTAETTENSTATISTIK, 2002). Quality parameters as type of soil construction and level of maintenance decide about their usage and resilience. The objective and repeatable evalua- Fig. 1: Soil construction Fig. 3: Compaction rootzone tion of the performance gives a proper base to determine the necessary measures for conservation or amelioration of the pitch.

Material and Methods

Since 2005 Eurogreen has used a standardised questionnaire to evaluate soccer pitches. Until the end of 2013 2,535 turf soccer pitches were evaluat- Fig. 2: Water infiltration Fig. 4: Unevenness ed on that base and the data were in- terpreted. The results in this report only show the data of the first pitch analysis. Data of the following years, which represent the development of the pitch performance, are not considered. The most important quality parameters are: – type of soil construction; – characteristics of the rootzone (drainage, compaction, evenness); – sward density and botanical composition; – thatch, rooting, shear strength. The evaluation of the data was done by experienced turfgrass consultants using visual methods, estimations and easy to execute measurements.

Results Fig. 5: Sward density

Soil construction (Figure 1): 50 % of the inspected pitches have a soil constructed according to DIN 18035-4 (DIN, 2012). These are mainly pitches built after 1974, after the launch of this standard specification. The other 50 % are pitches neither constructed according to the norm nor showing any noticeable soil construction.

Water infiltration (Figure 2): 84 % of Fig. 6: Ground cover sports turfgrasses Fig. 7: Ground cover broadleaf weeds and the pitches offer a good to medium legume

4 ETS Conference 2014 117 Practical Paper pacted and another 51 % are medium % of Lolium perenne und Poa praten- compacted. This high proportion is an sis (Figure 6). This indicates the impor- indication of insufficient soil loosening tance of the right botanical composi- or angular construction materials, e.g. tion regarding the quality parameter of Lava. shear strength. Ground Evenness (Figure 4): More than half of the pitches show disrupting un- Conclusion evenness. This concerns especially goal areas and penalty areas due to Generally all reviewed turf pitches offer Fig. 8: Thatch accumulation their high usage. a good to medium potentials for soc- Sward density (Figure 5): A dense cer. The good water infiltration match- sward offers ideal properties for foot- es the needs of the climate in Middle ball game and players. High densities Europe. Compaction of the rootzone, (> 90 %) are primarily found along the unevenness and not suitable botanical side bands, in the goal area high sward compositions are frequent. Mechanical density is present in only 24 % of the soil treatment, measures to increase pitches. evenness and amendment of botanical composition have to be intensified. Botanical composition (Figures 6 and Quality parameters shown in this re- 7): sports pitches should be covered port are useful tools for operators and by high density turf of Lolium peren- groundsmen to define the required ac- Fig. 9: Rooting ne and Poa pratensis. Only 22 % have tivities for preservation or amelioration more than 75 % of these species, in of their pitches. fact 44 % of the pitches show less than 50 % of these two species. One third References of the pitches shows more than 10 % broadleaf weeds and legume coverage. SPORTSTAETTENSTATISTIK, 2002: Senats- Thatch (Figure 8): Thatch accumula- verwaltung für Bildung, Jugend und Sport tion up to 0.5 cm is acceptable. Most IX, Berlin. of the pitches (64 %) comply with this DIN, 2012: DIN 18035-4 Sportplätze – Rasen- requirement. Only 12 % have thatch flächen. Beuth-Verlag, Berlin. layers more than 1.5 cm thick.

Fig. 10: Shear strength Rooting (Figure 9): Poor rooting (< 5 Authors: cm) is measured at only 16 % of the pitches. Most of the fields (58 %) vary Dr. Rainer Albracht water infiltration. Only 16 % are rated between 5 and 10 cm, the middle and Dr. Harald Nonn as poor. This suggests that the pitches lower zone of the vegetation layer. EUROGREEN GmbH have sandy root zones and/or efficient R&D Turfgrass Science Shear strength (Figure 10): The small drainage systems. Betzdorf, Germany number (20 %) of pitches with high [email protected] Soil Compaction (Figure 3): 30 % of shear strength correlates to the num- [email protected] the root zone mixes are highly com- ber of pitches showing more than 75

118 4th ETS Conference 2014 Multifunctional golf facilities as a driving force in implementing the European Landscape Convention: a case study in Sweden

Strandberg, M., K. Schmidt, O. Skarin and L.-G. Bråvander

Introduction and background natural origin. Sigtuna with its medieval habitats. Inventories made at Sigtu- centre, is Sweden’s first and oldest city na Golf Club of plants, insects, birds, he European Landscape Conven- dating back to 970 C.E. amphibians and bats show that the area contains a vast biological diversity Ttion (ELC) is the first European The aims of the project are to: agreement to specifically present the (BRÅVANDER & DRAKENBERG, 2008). landscape as a resource for multiple )) use the local golf Club as a driving Many golf courses have revealed their uses and an important precondition for force to improve the availability cultural monuments through setting sustainable development. The conven- and sustainable development of up information boards and installing tion come into force 2004 and it is the the area containing cultural, nature footpaths leading to these objects. first agreement to be exclusively de- and recreational values as well as Through collaboration with the National voted to all aspects of European land- economically viable activities in the Property Board of Sweden, museums scapes. The ELC was ratified by Swe- defined area at Garnsviken; and the local history society, the golf den in May 2011. The ELC provides us club and stakeholders in the area have )) implement an open democratic pro- obtained private, local and governmen- with a framework for developing the active “visionary planning process”; landscape. It states that the landscape tal guidance and practical and financial support for renovating or preserving is a shared asset and a shared respon- )) identify, promote and expand busi- sibility. The aim of the ELC is to pro- ness advantages of multifunctional ancient monuments and the history of mote people’s quality of life and well- activities for the golf facility as well the area, for example, a number of cul- being by promoting European land- as for the area stakeholders; and tural buildings and locations at Viby By scape protection, development, man- and Wenngarn Castle. )) act as an “umbrella” project for all agement and planning and to organise initiatives in the defined area and a The accessibility of golf courses varies. European co-operation related to this. coordinating platform for activities This one has a policy to actively pro- The ELC has a holistic approach to cul- aiming to develop the area. mote non-golfers to visit the course, to ture, nature, outdoor activities, sports, experience the nature and culture, vis- and economic development of a de- it the restaurant and try out golf at the fined area (ELC, 2013). Results practice area. Within the project, three Europe´s landscape has faced more seminars, based on visionary based habitat loss and fragmentation than The first phase of the project shows planning, have been arranged. In all, any other continent. This is a major that a multifunctional golf facility can about 100 persons have attended the problem for biodiversity, ecosystem be a practical hub and a good exam- seminars. The first seminar gave a short services and outdoor recreation. Ex- ple of cooperation on landscape issues introduction to sustainable landscape tensively managed turfgrass areas can and an instrument in implementing the development and multifunctional golf promote critical ecosystem services ELC. The “visionary planning process” facilities. At the following workshop and help to restore and enhance bio- used within the project is a key tool for 75 persons defined 100 project ideas diversity in ecologically simplified land- achieving shared responsibilities and that would be possible to conduct in scapes such as agricultural and urban good, efficient cooperation between the area. During the second seminar land (EU 2011, STRANDBERG 2012a). more than 50 stakeholders represent- the auditorium took on the task to pri- The development of multifunctional golf ing authorities, institutions, developers, oritize among the 100 suggested pro- courses as the core in a geographically associations and private individuals, ject ideas and came up with one idea larger landscape can comprise estab- where all parties stand to gain. The co- supported by everyone: enhancing the lishment or conversion of facilities and operation has been adapted to the re- infrastructure in the area in order to functions, with the aim of contribut- quirements and the specific challenges make it more accessible. The first step ing to society’s many different values, facing golf and other interests in the re- is to build a bridge, 3700 m long, for whether cultural, ecological, aesthetic, gion. It has also been interdisciplinary, walking and cycling, adjusted for dis- social or economic (STRANDBERG, in other words encompassed a range abled persons. The bridge will be built 2011; 2012b). of interests such as local authorities, in the reed belt on the marsh between national authorities, sports and recre- the golf course hole number 16 and 17 The area around Garnsviken and Sigtu- ation groups, landowners, residents, and the open water of the lake. It was na Golf Club, 2 km northeast of Sigtu- industry and others. decided that the first leg, 1450 m, will na, Sweden, is a naturally defined area be opened May 9th 2015. where conservation values as well as A golf course is an artificial environ- historical values and modern outdoor ment where biotopes, such as pools, activities are clearly represented. The ponds, extensively managed turfgrass Further actions underway and area is unique and contains a number areas et cetera, which have decreased intended of different types of landscapes that drastically in the agricultural and pe- have conservational value, both from riurban landscape, are restored and The project includes seven sub-pro- the result of human activity and from provide threatened species with new jects within the defined geographic

4th ETS Conference 2014 119 Practical Paper area. The aim is to develop the project Literature into an important forum for communi- Authors: cation and action, involving all sub-pro- BRÅVANDER, L-G., B. DRAKENBERG, 2008: MARIA STRANDBERG jects and stakeholders in the area. As Development and management of the STERF - Scandinavian Turfgrass and a part of the project, the concept of Garnsviken area in Sigtuna community. Environment Research Foundation using multifunctional golf facilities as a Project report at Department of Physi- P. O. Box 84, SE 182 11 Danderyd, driving force and a hub for sustainable cal Geography and Quaternary Geology. Stockholm University. Sweden landscape development will be spread ELC, 2013: The European Landscape Conven- [email protected] internationally to begin with in Europe, tion. Council of Europe. http://www.coe.in- Canada and China. The ambition is to t/t/dg4/cultureheritage/heritage/landscape/ KARIN SCHMIDT nominate the project for the Landscape EU 2011: Communication from the Commission STERF Scandinavian Turfgrass and Award of the Council of Europe, the to the European Parliament, the Council, Environment Research Foundation objective of which is to reward exem- the economic and social committee and P. O. Box 84, SE 182 11 Danderyd, plary practical initiatives aimed at suc- the committee of the regions: Our life insur- Sweden ance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversi- karin.schmidt@ cessful landscape quality objectives ty strategy to 2020. COM (2011) 244 final. on the territories of the Parties to the Brussels: EU. naturskyddsforeningen.se Convention. STRANDBERG, M 2011. Multifunctional Golf OLE SKARIN Courses – An Unutilised Resource. STERF, Box 84, 182 11 Danderyd. sterf.golf.se. 31 s. Sigtuna Golf Club Acknowledgement STRANDBERG, M., K. BLOMBÄCK, A.M. DAHL Norra Vibyvägen 187, JENSEN and J.W. KNOX, 2012a: The future Box 89, 193 22 Sigtuna, of turfgrass management: challenges and Sweden The project “Multifunctional golf facili- opportunities. Acta Agriculturae Scandina- [email protected] ties as a driving force in implementing vica Section B – Soil and Plant Science 1: the European Landscape Convention” 3-9. LARS-GUNNAR BRÅVANDER is funded by Sigtuna kommun and STRANDBERG, M. and K. SCHMIDT, 2012b: Sigtuna Society for Leader Upplandsbygd, and is carried Nordic cooperation to create multifunction- Nature Conservation, al golf courses and healthy ecosystems. out by Sigtuna Golf Club, STERF and Reviewed abstract presented at the 3rd Sweden Sigtuna Society for Nature Conserva- ETS Conference, 25-27 June 2012. Bio- [email protected] tion. forsk FOKUS 7(8): 98-99.

120 4th ETS Conference 2014 Soil and vegetation characteristics of a golf course in a Southern Russian floodplain

Go rbov S.N. and O.S. Bezuglova

Introduction To do this a full profile pit was made in An additional soil examination and the area of the future golf course, with analysis of the territory was conducted obligatory selection of soil samples during 2008-2012, following golf course he natural soil cover of the Don-Ak- both horizontally and from the surface. construction and soil disturbance for say floodplain territory is a com- T To classify the soils, specialists defined the construction of the course. This ex- pound polygenic soil system with var- its chemical and physical features with amination revealed spots with initially ious composition and complex soil the help of standard methods gener- native soil types and artificial soil-like cover (POLYNOV, 1956; BEZUGLOVA ally used in Russian Federation. Total formation, forming the general basis et al., 2012a). On the upland territo- humus content was determined by us- for our hypothesis of newly formed soil ries, formed by bedrock with light tex- ing a wet combustion via a mixture of types. ture, there can be seen alluvial mead- potassium dichromate and sulphuric ow stratified soils (Fluvisols according acid at about 125°C. Soil salinity was WRB) (WORLD REFERENCE BASE, determined using the saturation extract Results and Discussion 2006), on the lowland territories alluvial method following government stand- meadow-boggy soil and alluvial-boggy ard #26424-85. Soil bulk density was The process of golf course construction gley soil (Gleysols, according WRB). determined by the following method. associated with the movement of soil However, the basis of soil cover mostly A metal cylinder of known volume was horizons and parent material had two consists of saline alluvial meadow soils pressed into the soil and the mass of main objectives. First, the golf course of various deep and heavy texture (sa- the sample was weighted. The sam- architect desired a slightly wavy sur- linik Fluvisols according WRB). ple was then oven-dried and weighed face as the final concept of the course. again. The bulk density is the ratio of Second, it was necessary to raise the dry mass to volume at the determined golf course surface to a certain level water content. Determinations were higher than native surface to prevent made in triplicate. The content of sand, flooding of the playing area. Construc- clay and silt fractions was determined tion resulted in the shift of the upper 20 by the pipette method (VOROBYOVA, centimeters of soil, and it was stored 2006). offsite. Next, for channel and pond de-

Total Sum of Bulk Hori- Depth Salinity Soil type humus fraction, size density Photo 1: Alluvial-meadow soil (Fluvisol). zons cm % % <0.01 mm, % g/cm3 Taking into consideration the given ―d 0-10 2.08 0.05 55.04 1.05 information, the decision to construct ―1 10-40 1.15 0.08 56.60 1.37 a golf course in this place was purely alluvial ―― 40-60 1.04 0.06 45.36 1.39 determined by historical attractiveness meadow of the place and its proximity to the riv- soil ―1 60-80 1.85 0.07 87.40 1.30 (Fluvisol) er Don. Ecological soil characteristics ―2 85-30 1.06 0.24 73.76 n/d were largely not considered, and soil ―― 130-145 n/d 0.41 47.04 n/d properties had little importance in the selection of a place for the construction ―p 0-24 3.60 0.049 74.12 1.28 of a golf course. cherno- ― 24-50 2.32 0.063 58.76 1.42 zemic ―― 50-60 3.56 0.078 65.44 1.56 meadow Materials and Methods soil ― 60-85 2.79 0.165 57.96 1.51 ―― 85-100 0.68 0.480 50.00 n/d Research was conducted in the right ―d 0-10 4.57 0.05 79.28 1.02 bank floodplain of the river Don, on the territory of Starocherkasskaya village alluvial ―1 10-24 2.53 0.07 57.44 1.25 (Rostov region, the South of European gley ―g 24-44 1.18 0.10 51.32 1.31 meadow part of Russia). Alongside with early ―1 44-56 1.42 0.12 65.20 1.31 soil investigations (1936, 1956, 1977) soil a fourth detailed examination was car- (Gleysols) ―2 56-90 1.73 0.29 81.84 n/d ried out in 2003, prior to golf course ―― 90-125 3.22 0.50 84.36 n/d construction. More extensive soil ex- * n/d – not determined aminations were carried out in 2005- 2007 during golf course construction. Tab. 1: Physical and chemical properties of natural soils.

4th ETS Conference 2014 121 Practical Paper velopment, soil layers and their parent The soils of the intermediate zone plex of natural and anthropogenic material were extracted at 3-4 meter (roughs), on the contrary, were pre- soils, which are ecologically stable layers, stored, and later were used as served in a natural condition, be- and continue to fulfill natural func- the basis for the future play zones. cause only minimal top layer (no more tions, despite their considerable than 20 centimeters) was removed. man-made transformation. As a result of such laborious work, The unfavorable air-water ratio in there was created a totally new slight- the soils of the rough area along with ly wavy surface among the flood-plain Literature the usage of a non-aggressive grass landscape by means of shaping. Al- (Festuca ovina) allowed for the return of most all native soil types which were the natural flora of the floodplain which BEZUGLOVA, O.S., E.M. ROMANUTA, S.N. located above sea level were either GORBOV, 2012a: Soil cover of Dono-Ak- is replacing the manmade lawn of the made thinner or its top layers were re- say floodplain near the village Starocher- roughs. kasskaya. Modern problems of science moved (GORBOV, 2012). The original and education J. # 5, URL: http://www.sci- territory above sea level was 1.0 - 1.2 ence-education.ru/105-7098. m. During a building of the golf course BEZUGLOVA, O.S., S.N. GORBOV, A.V. GOR- all Fairways and putting greens were OVTSOV, A.B. KARPUSHOVA, A.V. POL- raised up to 2.0 - 3.2 m. above sea lev- YAKOVA, E.M. ROMANUTA, 2012b: Agro- el and tee zones were raised up to 2.0 chemical and microbiological properties - 9.0 m. above sea level. The soil cover of anthropogenic transformed soils of golf course “Don” and their impact on the lawn. of game holes consist of artificial soils, Problems of Agrochemistry and Ecology J. the lower part of which is composed # 4, pp. 14-17. of various granulometric composition GORBOV, S.N., 2012: The anthropogenic of ground and the upper part is com- transformed soils of the golf course “Don” posed of horizon A of alluvial meadow as a new soil difference.Proceedings of the stratified soils (Fluvisols). On this ter- V All-Russian Congress of Soil Science So- ritory before golf course construction Photo 3: Plant association of Rough. ciety. Book of Abstracts. Rostov-on-Don. P. 430. only 7 natural soil types could be iden- Over time the development of a par- POLYNOV, B.B., 1956: The soil of Aksai flood- tified, and currently the given territory plains and their relation to the reclamation. consists of 15 newly framed (artificial) ticular plant type association occurred, Selected Works. Moscow, pp. 49-78. with the natural vegetation representa- soils. BEARD, J.B., 2002: Turf management for golf tives of the floodplain of the river Don, courses. Golf courses – United States – According to our research the top hori- among which are more common spe- Maintenance and repair, United States Golf zon of Fluvisols in construction territory cies of the such kinds as Artemisia, Association / James B. Beard. 658 p. had the medium humus content (2.1- Veronica, Carex, Chenopodium, Cichó- VOROBYOVA, L.F., 2006: Theory and practice 4.6%). rium, Elytrigia, Trifolium etc. existing in chemical analysis of soils. Moscow: GEOS publ. 400 p. Despite of this the normal development the roughs. WORLD REFERENCE BASE FOR SOIL RE- of a lawn was impossible because of SOURCES 2006: World Soil Resources Re- the heavy texture of Fluvisols and the Conclusions ports No. 103. FAO, Rome. IUSS Working amelioration of the topsoil was neces- Group WRB. sary. (BEZUGLOVA et al.,2012b; GOR- 1. Design visions of the golf course ar- BOV, 2012; BEARD, 2002). All fairways chitect resulted in the development were amended with A horizon material of a complex soil cover within this Authors: consisting of alluvial and chernozemic golf course site. On this territory, soils from meadows. This was done to before the golf course construction, Dr. Sergey N. Gorbov ensure a quality planting medium for only 7 natural soil types could be Sothern federal university / lawn grasses. identified. After the construction 15 Institute of biology sciences newly framed (artificial) soils were Stachki av., 194/1 identified. Rostov-on-Don Russia 2. The considerable transformations [email protected] completely changed the ecological condition of the agricultural land. In Prof. Olga S. Bezuglova addition modern automatic irrigation Sothern federal university / systems and local drainage provides Department of soil sciences for the cultivation of stable lawns on Stachki av., 194/1 artificial soils. Rostov-on-Don Russia 3. The golf club, constructed in the [email protected] Photo 2: Tee and Fairway of hole # 4. floodplain of the river Don, is a com-

122 4th ETS Conference 2014 Effect of different P-sources on turf quality

Albracht, R. and M. Schlosser

-1 Introduction – 24.7 mg K2O 100 g and 6.1 mg Mg other macro nutrients were added by 100 g-1 soil. Based on a yearly uptake mineral NK(Mg)-fertilisers four times a of 5 g P O m-2 the 3 years need was year. Plots were irrigated when neces- n appropriate and sufficient sup- 2 5 applied at once and raked before seed- sary, frequently mowed at a height of ply of phosphorous is necessary A ing with a 50/50 mix of Lolium perenne 35 mm and turf clippings were collect- for the development of a dense and and Poa pratensis specific for sports ed. Dry matter yield and P-content in wear tolerant turf. The economically turfs in accordance with the RSM 3.1 the clippings were measured of every exploitable sources of phosphate are (FLL, 2011) specifications. cut. Turf quality was evaluated visually limited worldwide and additionally the every week (TQ 9 = best quality). contamination with heavy metals (e.g. The trial was established in June 2012 Cadmium) reduces the quantities of and structured with 7 treatments repli- available high quality phosphate. This cated three times, and plots of 4.5 m². Results and Discussion research was meant to evaluate wheth- Here the treatments list: control (with- er P-fertilisers from alternative sources out P-fertiliser), single superphosphate, During the first complete growing sea- (e.g. recycling processes) are suitable (18 % P O ), meat-and-bone meal son the control showed the lowest for use on turf. 2 5 (16 % P2O5), redox bone ash (39 % dry matter yield (Figure 1), the lowest P2O5), sewage-sludge ash, from mo- P-content (Figure 2) and the lowest no-pincineration (16 % P O ), phosphite P-removal (Figure 3) both at every cut Materials and Methods 2 5 (42 % P2O5), and magnesium-ammoni- and on average during the whole sea- um-phosphate (24 % P2O5). The treat- son (Table 1). The P additions in any The experimental work was carried ments meat-and-bone meal and mag- form had positive effects on these da- out on a sport field built accordingly nesium-ammonium-phosphate con- ta. The highest values were observed the DIN 18035-4 (DIN, 2013) specifica- tain nitrogen therefore a compensation at the meat-and-bone meal treat- tions, with a drainage layer and sandy fertilisation was applied to the other ment. The redox bone ash and sew- -1 -2 soil with pH of 6.2, 5.3 mg P2O5 100 g treatments to achieve a 25 g N m . The age-sludge ash from mono-incinera-

Fig. 1: Dry matter yield of sports turf according to the phosphate Fig. 2: P-Content of grass according to the phosphate source. source.

Fig. 4: Colour difference between some treatments during spring.

̇ Fig. 3: P-Removal according to the phosphate source.

4th ETS Conference 2014 123 Practical Paper mendation for P-fertilisation on sports ø DM ø P- ø P- Total turf is up to 100 kg P O ha-1 and year Treatments Yield Content Removal P-Removal 2 5 (BISP, 1993) and thus clearly higher kg DM/ha % Pi. DM (kg P/ha) (kg P/ha) than the measured removal. Addition- 1-Control 175,7 0,2 0,4 3,0 ally the P-contents in the soil of older 2-Single Superphosphate 187,5 0,3 0,6 4,2 pitches (even with higher N-fertilisation and mowing frequency) are very often 3-Meat-and-bone meal 215,4 0,4 0,8 5,6 high and therefore revealing that the re- 4-Redox bone ash 183,7 0,3 0,5 3,3 moval is lower than the recommended 5-Sewage-sludge ash 179,0 0,3 0,5 3,4 dosage. That leads to the conclusion that it is possible to fertilise with low- 6-Phosphite 200,4 0,3 0,6 4,2 er amounts of P than actually recom- 7-Magnesium- mended without lowering turf quality. ammonium-phosphate 194,8 0,3 0,6 4,3 red: lowest, blue: highest Literature Tab. 1: Average DM yield, P-content, P-removal and total P-removal according to the phosphate source. BERGMANN, W. und P. NEUBERT, 1976: Pflanzendiagnose und Pflanzenanalyse. VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1th edition tended to result in second lowest ideal to show the influence of the dif- tion. levels, short above the control. The ferent fertilisers. During the trial the BISP, 1993: Grundsätze zur funktions- und P-removal was similar or higher com- P-content of the soil in the control plots umweltgerechten Pflege von Rasensport- pared to single superphosphate (Ta- decreased from 5.3 to 2.3 mg, P2O5 flächen, Teil I: Nährstoffversorgung durch ble 1 and Figure 3) for meat-and-bone 100 g-1 soil). For the next years it would Duengung. Bundesinstitut für Sportwissen- meal, magnesium-ammonium-phos- be interesting to observe the change schaft – Köln: sb 67, Verl.-GmbH phate and phosphite. of the soil P-content and the occur- DIN, 2013: DIN 18035-4 Sportplätze – Rasen- rence of P-deficiencies in the grasses. flächen. Beuth-Verlag, Berlin. The visual rating in spring 2013 showed The measures of the grass clippings FLL, 2011: Regel-Saatgut-Mischungen Rasen – a blue-green colour of the grasses in RSM Rasen 2012. FLL, Bonn. P-contents in all treatments indicated the control plots, redox bone ash, and no P-deficiencies, 0.2 % threshold ac- sewage-sludge ash from mono-in- cording to BERGMANN and NEUBERT cineration (Figure 4). This colouration (1976). Authors: suggests a stress situation caused by a lack of phosphate because an insuf- In the following years the trial will show Dr. Rainer Albracht ficient availability of phosphate at this if a sufficient supply of phosphorus is Dr. Michael Schlosser time. Later in spring these differences possible even with P-fertilisers from re- KDS – Kompetenzzentrum für Dün- disappeared. This could be caused cycling processes and if a stock fertilis- gung und Sekundärrohstoffe e.V. by improved growing conditions and ation can be achieved. Karlrobert-Kreiten-Straße 13 P-availability in these treatments. 53115 Bonn, Germany The results showed that even the high- [email protected] The sandy soil with shortage of P2O5 est P-removal was bellow 20 kg P2O5 [email protected] -1 -1 (only 5.3 mg P2O5 100 g soil) was ha per year. The common recom-

124 4th ETS Conference 2014 Impact of turfgrass fertilization on nutrient losses through runoff and leaching

Grégoire, G., C. Bouffard and Y. Desjardins

Introduction a depth of 50 cm in the middle and 30 Corporation, Bourne, MA, USA) under cm on the sides. Two sheets of plas- each pipe. A water sample from each tic were placed at the bottom of each tip was collected, and pooled samples ver the last few years, citizens of plot in order to isolate them from the from tips in each plot were collected Québec have expressed increas- O water table, and a perforated drain was every day and analyzed for nutrient ing concern over the impact of turf- placed on top of these plastic covers content (NO -N, NH -N, total P, total grass fertilization on water quality. This 3 4 (Figure 1). Plots were then filled with dissolved P, and dissolved reactive P). has led to the adoption of several mu- the excavated soil (St-Nicolas schist Total N and ammonium-N were meas- nicipal ordinances regulating the use loam) and laser graded to obtain a 5% ured by colorimetry (adapted proce- of fertilizer on home lawns. However, slope at the surface. Kentucky blue- dure from NKONGE and BALANCE, those regulations are often not based grass (Poa pratensis L.) was then sod- 1982) while nitrate-N was measured on science, and their ability to reduce ded on the plots. In order to accelerate using single column ion chromatog- nutrient loading to water bodies has the effects of not fertilizing turfgrass raphy (Waters Corporation method not been demonstrated. Furthermore, for the control plots, sod was obtained B-1101, Waters Corporation, Milford, it has been previously shown that un- from adjacent plots that had not been MA, USA). Total P content was de- fertilized turfgrass can result in higher fertilized for five years. In addition to termined by a sulfuric acid-persulfate nutrient losses compared to properly grasses (30% Kentucky bluegrass, digest of the unfiltered water samples fertilized turf (EASTON and PETRO- 15% sheep fescue, 15% colonial bent- adapted from ROWLAND and HAY- VIC, 2004; HOCHMUTH et al., 2012; grass), control plots contained about GARTH (1997). Soluble P (organic and SOLDAT and PETROVIC, 2008). This is 20% clover and 20% of other broadleaf inorganic) was quantified from filtered mostly the result of an increase in run- weeds (dandelion, plantain, orange (0.45 μm) water samples following pro- off volume caused by low tiller densi- hawkweed, etc.). cedures described by MURPHY and ty in unfertilized turf (BIERMAN et al., RILEY (1962) and VAZ et al., (1992). 2010). Dissolved organic P (DOP) values were The objective of this project, initiated calculated from the results of those in 2011, was to quantify nutrient losses analysis (DOP = DTP-DRP). from turfgrass fertilized with two con- ventional fertilization programs (based on industry practices), and from one program based on a typical municipal fertilizer use regulation. Unfertilized treatments were also included as controls. The specific objectives of this Fig. 2: Slit ABS pipe project were to: Fig. 1: Excavated plot with the two plastic sheets and the drain used to collect lea- placed at the – compare the impact of different chate. lowest part of the plots to nutrient sources on runoff and In each plot, we installed three capac- collect runoff leaching losses of nitrogen and water. phosphorus itance soil moisture probes (Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA), at Treatments application began in the – measure the impact of cultural depths of 10, 20 and 30 cm and one spring of 2012. Five treatments were practices (aeration, topdressing and soil temperature sensor, at a depth of evaluated as a completely randomized overseeding) on nitrogen and phos- 10 cm. The probes were all connected design with three replicates. The three phorus losses through runoff and to a data logger (Decagon Em-5b) that fertilized treatments were based on leaching registers soil readings every hour. In industry practices (treatment 1 and 2) – compare nutrient losses from order to collect runoff water, we placed and on a typical city by-law currently in standard industry fertilization re- a 4” ABS pipe with a slit at the surface place in Québec (treatment 3). We also gimes to that which happens when of the soil in the lowest part of the plot included two unfertilized treatments, lawns are fertilized using practices (Figure 2). The result was that each plot one with some maintenance practices required by municipalities. had two water collection pipes: one for applied (aeration, topdress, overseed) leachate (through the perforated drain) and the other one with no maintenance. and one for runoff (from the PVC pipe). Specific treatments were: Material and methods Water flow from these two sources was measured by placing a tipping bucket 1. Synthetic fertilizer: 20-0-12 (made For this project, 15 separated research (TB1L flow gauge, Hydrological servic- from urea, polymer and sulfur coa- plots were built during the summer of es Pty Ltd, Warwick Farm, NSW, Aus- ted urea and KCl, Envirosol Inc., 2011. Plots were 5 m wide by 10 m tralia) hooked to a data logger (Hobo St-Michel, Qc, Canada) with 50% long, and had a v-shaped bottom with Pendant UA-003-64, Onset Computer slow-release N (1.5 kg N / 100 m2

4th ETS Conference 2014 125 Practical Paper Fig. 4: Total nitrogen losses from the experimental plots during the 2012 growing season in A) nitrate-N and B) ammonium-N. Columns with the same letter are not statistically different.

Fig. 5: Total phosphorus load in runoff water during the 2012 season. Column with the same letters are not significantly different. (DOP = dissolved organic P, DRP = dissolved reactive Fig. 3: Soil water content (% of field capacity) at three depths (10, 20 and P, TDP = total dissolved P and TP= total P). Columns with the 30 cm) in the research plots throughout the 2012 growing season. same letter are not statistically different.

/ yr) split in four applications (May, amount of water during the irrigation had a consistently higher soil water June, August, September). events. We also evaluated turfgrass content compared to unfertilized plots visual quality monthly on a 1 to 9 scale (Figure 3). Some of these differenc- 2. Natural fertilizer: 9-2-5 (made from (1 = low quality, 9 = high quality, 6 = es are likely due to the type of cover blood, feather and bone meal and acceptable quality). (i.e. Kentucky bluegrass sod vs mixed potassium sulphate, Envirosol Inc., species cover). In 2013, precipitation St-Michel, Qc, Canada) applied at was more abundant, and these dif- 2 1.5 kg N / 100 m / yr split in four Results ferences were not observed (data not applications (May, June, August, shown). September). Preliminary results from this project (full No differences between treatments results from 2012 and partial results 3. Compost: 1.8-1-0.9 (Sea compost, were observed in runoff volume dur- from 2013) show that few significant Fafard Inc., Saint-Bonaventure, Qc, ing both years, but grass fertilized with differences were observed for the dif- Canada) applied at 1.5 kg N / 100 m2 synthetic fertilizer had a lower leachate ferent variables among the fertilized / yr all at once in May volume than other plots in 2012. Re- treatments. However, turfgrass fertili- sults from water sample analyses for zation did influence soil water content, 4. Unfertilized with maintenance 2013 are currently not fully available, runoff and leaching volume, and nutri- but during the 2012 season, fertiliz- 5. Unfertilized control ent losses. ing plots resulted in higher nitrate-N Plots were irrigated with overhead The 2012 growing season was ex- losses, but lower ammonium-N losses sprinklers in order to prevent turf dor- ceptionally dry in Québec city. We than unfertilized plots through leaching mancy by applying 2,5 cm of water did observe significant differences (Figure 4). However, fertilized plots re- once per week during drought periods. in soil moisture content, especial- tained more phosphorus than unferti- We calibrated the irrigation system to ly at depths of 20 and 30 cm. Fertili- lized plots and had less runoff during make sure each plot received the same zed plots (regardless of treatment) that same season (Figure 5). On aver-

126 4th ETS Conference 2014 age, we estimate that losses in P from term changes in soil nutrient content in soil solutions. Journal of Environmental unfertilized plots were twice as high and N and P losses through runoff and Quality 26: 410-415. when compared to fertilized plots. Fer- leaching. SOLDAT, D.J. and A.M. PETROVIC, 2008: The tilizer source did not influence nutrient Fate and Transport of Phosphorus in Turf- grass Ecosystems. Crop Science 48(6): losses, either through leaching or run- Bibliography 2051-2065. off, in 2012. VAZ, M.D.R., A.C. EDWARDS and C.A. SHAND, BIERMAN, P.M., B.P. HORGAN, C.J. ROSEN, 1992: Determination of dissolved organ- Conclusion A.B. HOLLMAN and P.H. PAGLIARI, 2009: ic phosphorus in soil solutions by an im- Phosphorus Runoff from Turfgrass as Af- proved automated photo-oxidation procedure, Talanta 39(11): 1479-1487. Preliminary results from this experi- fected by Phosphorus Fertilization and Clipping Management. Journal of Environ- ment indicate that turfgrass fertiliza- mental Quality 39(1): 282–292. tion does not significantly contribute EASTON, Z.M. and A.M. PETROVIC, 2004: Fer- Authors: to water contamination. An increase tilizer Source Effect on Ground and Surface Guillaume Grégoire, Ph.D., in NO3 losses through leaching was Water Quality in Drainage from Turfgrass. observed in fertilized plots, but the av- Journal of Environmental Quality 33(2): Research Associate 645–655. erage nitrate concentration measured Cédric Bouffard, over the season (3 mg L-1 NO -N) was HOCHMUTH, G., T. NELL, J.B. UNRUH, L. 3 TRENHOLM and J. SARTAIN, 2012: Poten- Research Professional more than 3 times below the Québec tial Unintended Consequences Associat- threshold criteria for potable water (10 ed with Urban Fertilizer Bans in Florida-A Yves Desjardins, Ph.D., Professor -1 mg L ). Furthermore, fertilized turf- Scientifi c Review. HortTechnology 22(5): Centre de Recherche en Horticulture 600-616. grass reduced P load to water bodies Département de Phytologie NKONGE, C. and G.M. BALANCE, 1982: by almost 50% when compared to Université Laval unfertilized turf. While no differences A sensitive colorimetric procedure for nitrogen determination in micro-Kjeldahl digest. Québec, Qc were observed between the different Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Canada fertilizer sources to date, we hope to 30(3): 416-420. [email protected] continue this experiment during 4 more ROWLAND, A.P. and HAYGARTH, 1997: De- [email protected] years in order to better measure long termination of total dissolved phosphorus

4th ETS Conference 2014 127 Practical Paper