Looking back... with Alun Hughes THE BEGINNINGS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIAGARA The division of responsibilities between the three main levels of government in Canada, federal, I start in the early eighteenth century, during the provincial and municipal, has long been well-defined. French period. At this time there was no local Thus on April 11, 1793, John Graves Simcoe, government as we know it in Niagara, obviously so Lieutenant-Governer of Upper Canada, issued the because apart from the Native peoples, who had their following proclamation: own systems, there was no one here to govern. Interestingly enough, there was no local government Whereas it is the indispensable duty of all either in those areas where European settlers did exist, People, and more especially of all Christian for apart from a brief period in the mid-seventeenth Nations, to preserve and advance the Honor century, strong central control was the order of the day and Service of Almighty GOD, and to in New France. discourage and suppress all Vice, Profaneness and Immorality, which if not timely prevented With the assumption of British control in 1763 all may justly draw down the Divine Vengeance power was vested in the military authorities, and the upon Us and our Country: and His Majesty Province of Quebec was administered by a Governor having for the promotion of Virtue, and in and Legislative Council. A few concessions were tenderness to the best interest of His Subjects, made to local autonomy, but only in church matters given command for causing all Laws made did settlers exercise any great responsibility. The against Blasphemy, Profaneness, Adultery, original intention was to introduce English institutions Fornication, Polygamy, Incest, Profanation of and laws, including the freehold system of land tenure, the Lord's Day, Swearing and Drunkenness, to but apart from the creation in 1764 of Courts of be strictly put in Execution in every part of the Quarter Sessions composed of justices of the peace for Province, I do therefore direct, require and the trial of minor matters, very little was done. This command the Peace Officers and Constables intention was formally abandoned anyway in 1774, of the several Towns and Townships, to make when the Quebec Act re-affirmed the French character presentment upon Oath, of any of the Vices of Quebec and extended the province’s boundaries to before mentioned, to the Justices of the Peace include much of what is now Ontario and with it, of in their Session…. course, Niagara. The proclamation goes on, but I stop right there at The Quebec Act was in part a response to mention of Justices of the Peace, for they were the impending problems in America, and a year later these councillors of the time. They were the people who ran culminated in the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. local government, though they differed from modern The war set in motion a chain of events that aldermen in several respects. They were appointed, not transformed Niagara and led ultimately to the system elected, they represented districts that were vast in of local government that exists today. comparision to present-day municipalities yet very sparsely populated, and they had a variety of The Revolutionary War functions, not only administrative but also legislative and judicial (among the latter, as we see from the Three key developments can be identified in the quote, the enforcement of public morality). period during and immediately following the War: first, the influx of thousands of Loyalist and other Local government in Simcoe’s time was quite refugees into Niagara and other border areas; second, different from what we are familiar with today, and the subdivision of the land into townships for the my aim is to trace its origins, with emphasis on the purpose of settlement; and third, a growing call on the Niagara Peninsula, and to pursue the topic until 1849, part of settlers for control over their own affairs. when the Baldwin Act established a structure that was to survive for over a century, a structure that survives The influx began during wartime. At the start of in modified form to the present day. the War the British presence in this area consisted solely of the garrisons at Fort Niagara on the east bank The “French” Period of the Niagara River and Fort Erie on the west. But early in 1779 over 1300 persons, comprising troops, in the new country of Canada, a fact that became a Butler’s Rangers, displaced Natives and Loyalists, source of major discontent. The discontent was were listed as drawing rations at Fort Niagara alone. exacerbated by the fact that the settlers were subject to The fort was largely dependent on imported provisions French civil law and in particular to the seignieural and the situation was becoming increasingly critical. system of land tenure, which deprived them of proper To alleviate the problem a strip of land on the west title to their land. bank was purchased from the Seneca, and selected Loyalists were authorized to occupy and farm it. The The immediate post-war need to maintain law and intention was not to create a permanent settlement — order led to the appointment of several ex-officers the Loyalists were to return home when the War was among the Loyalists as magistrates to settle minor won — but simply to provide food for the garrison. A disputes, and in 1785 they were given limited civil map by Allan McDonell shows the ‘Niagara jurisdiction. But this was a token move, and in April of Settlement’ as it was early in 1783. the same year Sir John Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and several others petitioned the Crown But the War was lost, and the Loyalists retained for the abolition of the seignieural system and the their land. The influx of refugees continued unabated, creation of a separate district in upper Quebec not only to Niagara, but also to the Kingston area, to encompassing the lands settled by Loyalists and the upper St. Lawrence and to Nova Scotia, and it was disbanded troops. The new district would extend west clear that vast areas of land had to be opened up for from Lake St. Francis near Montreal and would itself large-scale civilian settlement. Two prerequisites were be subdivided into smaller districts. Though it would the purchase of land from the Natives, and its have its own “metropolis” in Cataraqui, it would still subdivision into lots. In 1784 a huge tract extending as be subordinate to the Governor of Quebec, much as far as present-day London was bought from the Cape Breton was subordinate to Nova Scotia. Mississauga, and William Tinling was dispatched to Niagara to survey the land. How much work Tinling Here we have the first formal proposal for local did is uncertain, but his efforts were superseded government in this area, but the response from the anyway in 1787 by an 18-month crash program of Crown was unsympathetic. Sobered by their surveys under the direction of Philip Frey that saw the experience in the American colonies, the British were laying-out of 14 townships in the Niagara Peninsula, most reluctant to grant local autonomy, so much so extending along the shoreline from Barton in the west that when the earliest townships were surveyed they to Bertie in the south-east, and including the inland were numbered instead of named in a conscious effort townships of Binbrook, Pelham, Thorold and to discourage the emergence of any sense of territorial Crowland. Over time the remaining townships were identity on the part of the settlers. Thus Niagara surveyed, thus completing what was to become the Township was No. 1, Stamford was No. 2, Grantham basic framework for local government in Niagara. was No. 3, and so on. The same occurred in the However, the townships did not assume that role until vicinity of Cataraqui and along the St. Lawrence. much later; initially they were nothing more than units of survey. The Districts Despite the patchwork of varying shapes and sizes But the Loyalists persisted, and a combination of the basic model for the townships surveyed in 1787-9 additional petitions and mounting population pressures seems to have been the six-mile-square township with forced the British to acquiesce. On July 24, 1788 Lord which many Loyalists were familiar from New Dorchester, the Governor-General, issued a England and New York State. They were also familiar proclamation dividing the “Upper Country,” formerly with the degree of local autonomy that went along part of the District of Montreal, into four districts with township life. The New England Loyalists were called Hesse, Nassau, Mecklenburg and Luneburg accustomed to a vigorous form of local self- (German names being chosen presumably in deference government centred on the town meeting, at which to the British Royal Family’s German connections). selectmen were elected to oversee town affairs. The boundaries were simple north-south lines running Though in theory their appointment and actions were through Long Point and the mouths of the Trent and subject to approval by the Governor, in practice they Gananoque Rivers, but the districts so defined neatly operated independently of central authority. In New contained the four main areas of Loyalist settlement — York the townships enjoyed less autonomy, but still Detroit, Niagara, Cataraqui and the St. Lawrence; provided their inhabitants with a measure of local Niagara was in Nassau. control. There was nothing even remotely comparable Various officials were appointed to each district, certificates to sell liquor, and to permit among them a clerk and judges of the Court of dissenting clergy to solemnize marriages.