PH3993
EXTENDED RESEARCH PROJECT
2017/2018
HOW AESTHETIC VISION HAS DEVELOPED SINCE THE INVENTION OF THE CAMERA:
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PAINTINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS AND HOW THE CAMERA
HAS CHANGED THE WAY WE VIEW THE ‘ART WORLD’.
A.J. CARTMELL
SUPERVISED BY P. GREENE
BA PHOTOGRAPHY (WITH HONS)
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL LANCASHIRE
DR. G. BRATCHFORD
WORD COUNT: 6,598 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
ABSTRACT
This thesis aims to recognise how ‘Pictorialism’ paved the way for photography to become a globally recognised art form in its own right.
“The term Pictorialism derives from a conception based on the primacy of
making a picture, not merely showing something or stopping an action or
event, but taking the information of observable reality and transforming it
in a way that is unique to the realm of two-dimensional art” (Green,
1978).
Since photography’s inception, practitioners all over the world have been discovering new and unique ways to take a photograph, but there are still many within the art world who hold the opinion that photography is merely a pseudo art form; that anyone can do it, with no talent or creativity involved. There are also people who believe common ‘photographic errors’, such as camera shake or blur, mean that a photograph is unsuccessful and no longer fit for public viewing, when in reality it is often these ‘errors’ that can define a photograph, as the following quote supports:
“…a photograph need not be crisply rendered or ‘correctly’ exposed,
colour-balanced, framed or even composed by the photographer… to have
artistic merit.” (Higgins, 2013)
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This thesis will examine both historical and contemporary photographers alike;
Julia Margaret Cameron, Ansel Adams, Richard Prince, and Uta Barth to name a few, to research further into how practitioners can simply transform light into arguably enthralling pieces of art. I will also be responding to my research in some chapters with a unique photographic output, in an attempt to further understand the innovative ways in which the camera can alter the way we look at an image.
There is a rise of those who are calling themselves ‘Fine Art Photographers’ and I am one of these people. I believe that art is fundamentally about aesthetics, including masterful choices about light and space, and the interpretation of this visual language. Therefore, I aim to prove through this research project that photography can be, and is in fact, art.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT – 2 INTRODUCTION – 5
1 EARLY PHOTOGRAPHY & PICTORIALISM – 6
THE IMAGE & THE BIRTH OF PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY – 6 THE RISE OF PICTORIALISM – 9 EARLY PICTORIALISTS AND THEIR TECHNIQUES – 11 THE PICTORIALIST INFLUENCE ON CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE – 14 PERSONAL EXPERIMENTATIONS WITH THE OUT-OF-FOCUS AESTHETIC – 16
2 REPRODUCTION & REPHOTOGRAPHY – 22
REPRODUCTION WITHIN THE ART WORLD – 22 APPROPRIATION & AUTHORSHIP – 25 ‘HAVE YOU SEEN ME?’ – 28
3 PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE DIGITAL AGE – 31
THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION – 31 MOBILE PHOTOGRAPHY & SOCIAL MEDIA – 33 AMATEUR VS. PROFESSIONAL – 35 ‘MODERN RENAISSANCE’ – 37
4 LOOKING AT PHOTOGRAPHY – 39
PERCEPTION & THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEEING – 39 IS PHOTOGRAPHY ART? – 42 SYNOPSIS – 44
IMAGE APPENDIX – 46
BIBLIOGRAPHY – 48
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INTRODUCTION
Is photography art? It has been almost two centuries since the invention of the medium, yet critics are still disputing this question. The debate first began with early 19th century Pictorialists and questions about the legitimacy of their photographs as an art form. I will be researching the history of Pictorialism, what it is, how it came to be such an influential movement, and how historical and contemporary practitioners alike draw inspiration from the aesthetics of paintings.
To further research into what should be considered art, I will investigate how we look at art and will review academic literary responses to this question.
Hopefully, this will shine fresh light on the debate and bring new arguments forward, which will either differ from or support my own opinions. Pictorialism is a dying movement, and more artists need to feel comfortable to experiment with new techniques without being fearful of whether or not their work is art, including myself.
Ronner (2015) suggests that “…the debate over the legitimacy of photography as a form of fine art will endure as long as the medium itself exists and its tools— and thereby its products—continue to change with shifts in technology.”
Therefore, I will be looking into how technological advances in photography and recent social media influences such as ‘Instagram’ and ‘Snapchat’ are affecting the general proliferation of digital photography. The question becomes not only whether or not photography is art, but also, can anyone do it?
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CHAPTER ONE: EARLY PHOTOGRAPHY & PICTORIALISM
1.1 THE IMAGE & THE BIRTH OF PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHY
This first chapter will briefly outline the origins of ‘the image’ and proceed to explain the pivotal innovations which eventually led to the invention of the camera. “A history of ‘the image’ should begin by acknowledging that the term forces a convergence of three fundamental human activities: seeing, thinking, and depicting” (Leja, 2011). Images have arguably existed since the parietal art of cave men at least 35,000 years ago, with animals being common subjects and humans depicted in the form of hand stencils. Since prehistoric times, humans have found ways of expressing themselves through some form of art, from painting to sculpture. In the time after the Renaissance era, “…artists and inventors searched for a mechanical method of capturing visual scenes”
(Stokstad et al., 2005), which eventually resulted in the invention of their newest tool of visual expression: the camera.
Photography was developed in the early Victorian era, and at that time, people thought it was a miraculous new technology “…conjoining scientific advances in the fields of optics and chemistry” (McLaren, 2014). The discovery of the halides
(iodine, bromine, and chlorine) in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, lead to an increase in their commercial availability, meaning that silver photographic processes relying on the reduction of the halides to metallic silver became feasible.
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The first photographic technique resulting in an image captured using a camera was a process called Heliography. It involves coating a metal or glass plate with a naturally occurring viscous solution called Bitumen of
Judea, placing the plate into the camera, and Figure 1 – View from the Window at Le Gras (1826/1827). "after an exposure of at least eight hours", the Photograph by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. plate is then eroded with "a mixture of oil of lavender and white petroleum"
(Harry Ransom Center, n.d.). This mixture then dissolves away the fragments of the Bitumen that have not been hardened by light. The outcome is a direct positive picture. The earliest known surviving photograph was created using this technique by its inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce around 1826 (see figure 1)
and depicts the view from an upstairs
window at Niépce's estate, Le Gras. In the
image, we see what appears to be the
outlines of buildings and trees, although
there is no detail whatsoever. A re-touched
version, however, now shows us the image Figure 2 –Re-touched version of View from the Window at Le Gras (1826/1827). Photograph by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. more clearly (see figure 2).
The birth of practical photography began with the invention of two very different processes. Firstly, the ‘daguerreotype', devised by the French artist Louis
Daguerre, capable of producing images with unprecedented sharpness and realism. Secondly, the ‘calotype', also known as the ‘talbotype' in homage to its inventor – the British scientist, William Henry Fox Talbot – which produces
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images with a softer, more painterly quality. As discussed by King (n.d.), “…these two photographic models have defined the antithetical purposes of the use of the medium.” King describes this by saying how “The sharp… image of the daguerreotype suggested the path of… straight photography, while the soft calotype seemed better suited for rendering the picturesque.”
In contrast to Daguerre’s silvered plates, which produced unique images, Fox
Talbot’s calotype technique used sensitised paper and enabled multiple prints.
Thus, “it was far more versatile, even though the paper’s fibres typically created
‘Rembrandtesque’ effects in place of Daguerre’s precision” (Willsdon, 2016). It was these painterly photographic qualities that led to the movement which I will now discuss in the following section.
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1.2 THE RISE OF PICTORIALISM
“Pictorialism was a photographic movement… that sought to elevate the
photograph to the status of painting or drawing.” (Tate, n.d.)
The genre initially emerged from the struggle to establish photography as not only a useful tool for visual documentation but also as an accessible instrument of creativity. In ‘Ways of Seeing’ Berger (1972) states how “…photographs are not, as is often assumed, a mechanical record” and it was this stereotype that pictorialists were attempting to escape. Practising photographers started to abandon the predetermined notions that photography was merely an instrument for documentation and instead, began “taking the information of observable reality and transforming it in a way that is unique to the realm of two- dimensional art” (Green, 1978).
As Pictorialism began to evolve as a practice, it was thought by the museum and gallery culture of the time that photography would “never become its own form of high art” (King, 2014), an opinion which sparked much debate and controversy. During this time, photography was primarily a tool for science, so when practitioners began to use it as a tool to emulate paintings, they earned the wrath of their critics.
After discarding the notion of photography as a scientific means, pictorialists began developing a unique approach to photography. With the intention to create images which regarded an artistic quality that could rival painting, they
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crafted their style using innovative techniques, except "…the point of taking photographs was a vast departure from the aims of painters" (Sontag, 1979).
Ultimately, “Pictorialism was a successful aesthetical response to the outburst of amateur photographic popularity” (Wilson, 1994), resulting in aesthetically indifferent photographs. It is the innovative techniques responsible for these changes in aesthetic vision which I will now examine.
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1.3 EARLY PICTORIALISTS AND THEIR TECHNIQUES
I will now consider how the ‘outburst of amateur’ photography caused ‘serious’ photographers to attempt to “…force the medium (photography) closer to the appearance and functions of paintings of the day” (Langford, 2000) to ensure they gained artistic recognition. They did so by shooting picturesque subjects, often with a soft-focus, and printing on textured paper using “processes which eliminated most of photography’s ‘horrid detail’” (Langford, 2000).
Photographs, like paintings, are artificially
constructed representations: they had to be
carefully composed, lit and produced, and no one
made this more explicit in her work than in Julia
Margaret Cameron’s re-envisaging of Renaissance
paintings. Cameron often “gathered her friends to
pose as mythical or legendary figures”
(Lomography Magazine, 2017), like in figure 3 Figure 3 – ‘I Wait’ (1872). Photograph by Julia Margaret Cameron. showing a child wearing angel wings, and a bored expression that recalls the underwhelmed cherubs in Raphael's Sistine Madonna
(see figure 4). “Such photographs were not direct quotations from paintings, but they raised in the viewer's mind a string of associations that gave photography a historical hinterland” (Prodger, 2012).
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Figure 4 – Cropped version of ‘The Sistine Madonna’ (left) (1513-1514). Painting by Raphael.
“Many early photographers, (like Cameron),
either were or began as pictorialists” and
some even “originally trained as artists"
…….(Romanoff, 2016), like Alfred Stieglitz for example. This meant that they already understood the language of paintings and the methods of their creators and could identify how paintings themselves functioned as art. With this knowledge, they "strove to reproduce these ideas in photographic form" (Tate, n.d.).
“Selective focus, along with disregard for the highlight and shadow
detail… abandoned a mastery of craft which for centuries had been sought
after in all other disciplines of art, and strived for by other photographers
of the time” (King, 2014).
Ansel Adams’ landscapes are notable when describing this ‘mastery of craft’, in particular, his images of Yosemite National Park (see figure 5). While pictorial photographers were considering elements such as form, shape, tone, and texture
– some of art’s key principles – “certain rules of mastery were neglected or even
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abandoned altogether” (King, 2014).
Oppositely, ‘straight’ photographers like
Adams aimed to distinguish themselves from any visual media that was not photography, mainly paintings, by maintaining sharp focus and detail. Interestingly though, Adams started out as a pictorialist but, “…abandoned
Pictorialism and turned vehemently against it” (Romanoff, 2016) after becoming part of the the f/64 school – a collective of Figure 5 – Moon and Half Dome, Yosemite National Park (1960). photographers who, during the late 1920s Photograph by Ansel Adams. and early 1930s, tried to establish that photography could stand on its own as art and not have to mimic painting.
Although late nineteenth and early twentieth-century photographers “often disagreed on details of (their) method, they were allied in their… belief that photography was a fine art, deserving of aesthetic contemplation” (Hostetler,
2004). These beliefs went on to inspire the next generation of photographers, some of which I will now introduce.
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1.4 THE PICTORIALIST INFLUENCE ON CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE
“The claim made by many professional photographers to do something…
different from recording reality is the clearest index of the immense
counter-influence that painting has had on photography” (Sontag, 1979).
Many practising photographers of today, particularly those who approach the medium from a fine art perspective, are heavily influenced by the aesthetic vision of early Pictorialists. Higgins (2013) remarks on how "There is something perverse about using photography–a medium that supposedly records reality–to create abstraction", and this idea of abstraction is something that is being experimented with by contemporary practitioners.
One artist in particular who has been
influenced by the painterly aesthetic is Uta
Barth, whose Field and Ground series depict
blurred and empty foregrounds (see figures 6
& 7). Higgins (2013) suggests that we seem to
Figure 6 – Field #3 (1995). be "witnessing a resurgence of the out-of- Photograph by Uta Barth focus aesthetic popular at the turn of the 19th century" yet for considerably different reasons. It is through her innovative use of an extremely shallow depth of field that Barth uses photography to investigate this aesthetic and challenge visual perception. Her "lack of focus has become something of the artist's signature, and often elicits comparisons (with)… early-
20th-century pictorialists" (Guggenheim, Solomon R. Foundation, 2017).
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“I was taking a painting class… and did not have the skill to paint… images
directly, so I started to make photographs to work from. But repeatedly I
found the photographs that I thought to be the disposable source
materials much more interesting and more engaging than the paintings
and drawings I made from them” (Barth, 2012).
In Barth’s book ‘The Long Now’, she has a thought-provoking discussion on the relationship between her work and art. She says how “The discussion of these photographs, or anything that lacks focus for that matter, as being “painterly” or pictorialist, drives me crazy.” Barth (2010) goes on to state how “It assumes that a photograph would secretly–or overtly–aspire to the attributes of painting… to justify itself as an artwork.” She speaks as though the photograph itself has a voice and strives to be accepted in the world, much like humans do, by aspiring to be something that it is not. It is this notion which I have attempted to explore within my experiments in the next section.
Figure 7 – Ground #42 (1994). Photograph by Uta Barth.
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1.5 PERSONAL EXPERIMENTATIONS WITH THE OUT-OF-FOCUS AESTHETIC
The idea to study the relationship between paintings and photographs started with a collection of images initially dismissed for being blurred, underexposed or poorly composed. Curious to see what would happen, I presented them not as a series of failures, but as a series of artworks (see figure 8).
Figure 8 – Untitled experiments with the out-of-focus aesthetic (2016). Photographs by Amy Jade Cartmell
I am interested in “…the tension between realism and abstraction” (Higgins,
2013). We think of photographs as fact, but they can also be fiction or merely a representation of something depending on the subject matter. “The scholar
Roland Barthes recognized photography’s reliance on subjects” (Higgins, 2013).
However, this reliance on subject matter is precisely what I am attempting to escape.
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After re-imagining unintentionally blurred images, I decided to deliberately distort my photographs to see if images with a similar appearance to my experiments could be created, rather than just by accident. Initially, it was a quote by Eizo (2016) which inspired my creative process for the next series of images:
“Whether it is simply aiding the recognition of everyday objects and
materials, or decoding the complex results of astronomical
spectroscopy… colour is an intriguing and fascinating phenomena that
helps us navigate and understand the world around us”.
Intrigued by the sciences and
the astral world, I chose to
theme the images in ‘An
Astronomical Focus’1 around
the vibrant colours and unique
forms found within Space.
Regarding my actual images, Figure 9 – ‘IV’ from An Astronomical Focus (2016). Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell. they do not tell a story, but a different entity inspires each one. For example, figure 9 has linear qualities and symbolises the countless small particles that make up Saturn’s rings.
1 See all images at www.amyjadecartmell.com/an-astronomical-focus
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I am primarily interested in work which is appreciated predominantly for its imaginative, aesthetic, or intellectual content, and have always been concerned with how people perceive things differently to one another. “Colours are an invention of the eye and brain” (Eizo, 2016) and they have a massive impact on how we see the world. I find it intriguing that our brain can decide what is pleasing and displeasing before we have even had chance to deconstruct something visually. With this in mind, my work aims to be mysterious and evoke questions about what is visually exciting.
When discussing her work, Barth says "'I value confusion,'…claiming that it intensifies the ‘activity of looking'" (Higgins, 2013). My objective is to be able to frustrate and confuse the viewer in a similar way by removing the clarity of my images, making the audience question their expectations of what a photograph usually shows and what is present within the frame.
This project intends to push the boundaries of photography through the creation of images, which may usually be rejected because they don't fit within the
‘normal' rules and constraints of photography. The out-of-focus aesthetic is a contradiction to typical photographic practices and connotes a distinct break from the sharp focus of so-called ‘straight photography’. The purposefully blurred images within this series are, therefore, an attempt to redeem that which is typically considered a failure and to allow the audience to connect with a photograph uniquely.
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Figure 10 – ‘V’ from An Astronomical Focus (2016). Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell
After my initial experiments with focus and the effects of colour, I decided to continue exploring the question of ‘what is art?’ Offering atmospheric scenes that challenge the viewers’ perception of the physical world. Informed by the ideas resolved in my journal2 and inspired by pictorial practices discussed previously in this chapter, these next works titled ‘Camera Obscur-ities’3 aim to hover between the painterly and the cinematic. Taken in a city setting while employing an extremely shallow depth of field, the first series of images were initially part of a test shoot experimenting with man-made subject matter; architecture, artificial light and anonymous silhouettes. However, some of the photos ended up working successfully with one another and became part of the final edit (see figures 11 & 12).
2 Demonstration of process and development can be seen in digital version of journal pages at www.vesta.uclan.ac.uk/~ajcartmell1/wordpress/index.php/blog 3 See all images at www.amyjadecartmell.com/cameraobscurities
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Figure 11 – ‘Closing Time’ (2017) from Camera Obscur-ities. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell
Figure 12 – Triptych of three images; ‘Office’, ‘Office #2’, and ‘Stairway’ (2017) from Camera Obscur-ities. Photographs by Amy Jade Cartmell
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For the second part of this project, a vastness of ‘golden hour’ light was captured as it fell upon the landscape, a time chosen carefully to ensure the softest and most vibrant daylight. This unique light renders the ethereal compositions as abstract, hence, the viewer is delivered to a subjective reality where the effects of light extend beyond the purely visual and act on the imagination. At the same time, they are continuously pulled into deciphering the images presented (see figure 13).
Figure 13 – ‘Untitled’ (2017) from Camera Obscur-ities. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell.
This series aimed to render everyday spaces all but illegible, while still engaging with the audience. In the next chapter though, my experiments attempt to engage with the audience not through obscurity, but by taking images from their original state and purpose and presenting them in a new way.
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CHAPTER TWO: REPRODUCTION & REPHOTOGRAPHY
2.1 REPRODUCTION WITHIN THE ART WORLD
This section will now discuss the term ‘reproduction’, which in art terms, is “a copy of a work of art, especially a print or photograph of a painting” (Oxford
English Dictionary, 2010). With advances in technology, cameras became so easy to operate that “a debate began as to whether photography could be considered art, arguing that in reality, it was simply a mechanical copying device” (Tate, n.d.). John Berger had much to say on this matter in his 1972 BBC art series
‘Ways of Seeing’. He states that “Because works of art are reproducible, they can, theoretically, be used by anybody” (Ways of Seeing: Episode 1, 1972), meaning that their authorship is lost along with their authority and stature. In reference to this, he also states how the invention of the camera has “changed paintings” and how we see paintings painted centuries before the camera was invented. As a result of this, “The art of the past no longer exists as it once did” (Ways of
Seeing: Episode 1, 1972).
Paintings are ‘one-off’ creations. The exact brush strokes cannot be recreated and this is one of the reasons why some paintings are so highly valued. It is amusing though how some pieces have astronomical price tags, for example,
Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi (Saviour of the World) was bought for around £342 million in 2017, “shattering the record for the most expensive artwork ever sold” (Henderson, 2017), yet a fridge magnet with the same image printed on it can likely be purchased for a few pounds in the gallery shop. An
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original painting is unique and can only be in one place at a time, but “the camera reproduces it, making it available in any size, anywhere, for any purpose” (Ways of Seeing: Episode 1, 1972), with the potential to be seen in a million different places at the same time.
Reproduction can also cause an artwork to lose its prominence if it is cropped or its framing is altered in some way, meaning the story or message behind the image is changed. In Berger’s ‘Ways of Seeing’ he focuses on a painting called
‘Venus and Mars’ by Renaissance painter Botticelli (see figure 14). “The meaning of the picture is that love conquers war, or love conquers all” (National Gallery
(The), n.d.), however, if the image is cropped, isolating certain details from the whole like is often seen on gallery merchandise, e.g. fridge magnets, postcards etc. (see figure 15), its meaning is altered. It is now no longer about two lovers, but instead, focuses solely on the goddess of love, a symbol of sex and beauty.
“An allegorical figure becomes a pretty girl anywhere” (Ways of Seeing: Episode
1, 1972).
Figure 14 – ‘Venus and Mars’ (1485). Painting by Sandro Botticelli.
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The next section moves on from how paintings
can be manipulated by reproduction and focuses
on how reproduction can become a
photographer’s tool for appropriation, including
the controversy surrounding it.
Figure 15 – Fridge magnet featuring a detail from Sandro Botticelli’s ‘Venus and Mars’ (National Gallery (The)).
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2.2 APPROPRIATION & AUTHORSHIP
Described as “the taking over of… an existing work of art” (Wilson & Lack, 2008), appropriation refers to “the use of pre-existing objects or images with little or no transformation applied to them” (Chilvers & Glaves-Smith, 2009). Regarding photography, Sontag (1979) goes as far as to say that by simply pressing the shutter, the photographer can be considered an appropriator, stating, “To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed.”
When discussing appropriation, it is difficult not to mention Richard Prince, “…a deeply controversial… artist of appropriation” (TIME, 2016). In the early 1980s,
Prince ‘re-photographed’ images from advertisements, intentionally cropping out the type, and then exhibited them in galleries. Berger (1972) suggests how
“The meaning of an image is changed according to what one sees immediately beside it” and Prince’s images of ‘The Marlboro Man’ are a perfect example of this. Look at figure 16 of a man riding a horse under blue skies. Originally, the image was part of a cigarette advertisement for Marlboro (see figure 17) that
included; their slogan, an image of
a packet of cigarettes, and a
general health warning addressing
women about the dangers of
smoking whilst pregnant.
However, after the picture is taken
Figure 16 - ‘Untitled (Cowboy)’ (1989). from the magazine page, cropped, Photograph by Richard Prince.
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enlarged, and re-framed as fine art on the wall of a gallery, then suddenly its impact on the audience is completely changed.
One of the exciting aspects of Prince's work is that “It pushes the boundaries of what is acceptable within copyright law”
(Wallis, 2016). Even with his recent projects, he is essentially passing off others’ work as his own. As ‘victims’ of Figure 17 – Cigarette Advertisment (n.d.). Magazine Advertisment for Marlboro. Prince’s work, Marlboro Photographers
Norm Clasen and Sam Abell both commented on the matter. Clasen (2016) said,
“You can define it however you want, but it’s basically stealing of one’s image” while Abell (2016) pointed out how “It’s without risk for him, he’s taken failure out of the artistic equation.”
When trying to understand Prince’s methodology, it is worth pointing out that all artists are in some way inspired by artwork already created, and it could be argued that in some cases, they refer back to the artist that came before them. It is Prince’s opinion that “Making art is nothing more than continuation” (Prince,
2016) and although some may consider it to be stealing of another person’s work, Prince’s Cowboys are still carefully constructed images to the point where he even describes himself as “the director”.
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Prince’s re-photography has not only “…helped to create a new art form”, but has
“…upended our understanding of a photo’s authenticity and ownership” (Ben
Goldberger, n.d.). “Looking back, people will recognise Richard Prince as the pivotal inventor of… the shift from the artist as somebody who makes something, to somebody who recognises and points it out” (Wallis, 2016). Whether you agree or disagree with appropriation art, it is the change of context which makes it art and in the next section, context will be experimented with to produce new images from already existing ones.
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2.3 ‘HAVE YOU SEEN ME?’
Having looked at the work of Prince, I became interested in how an entirely new piece of work can be created from something which already exists. One image can be viewed in one place and mean one thing, and then be presented in a new environment, and suddenly it is transformed. I came to the conclusion that I
ought to experiment with appropriation for
myself in order to comment on whether or not
it can be considered art. At this present time in
my research, it is November 2017 and the
second season of the critically acclaimed
science-fiction television series ‘Stranger
Things’, has just been released on Netflix. I
decided to revisit the very first episode, Figure 18 – ‘Stranger Things’ (2016). Poster for the TV series created, written, directed and co-executive ‘Chapter One: The Vanishing of Will Byers’, produced by The Duffer Brothers which is set on the 6th November 1983, the same date (minus a few imaginary decades and years later) that I decided to
‘take’ my images. I chose this particular programme because it is already iconic and I wanted to see if I could create something which might not be as instantly recognisable if altered. Also, I found the nostalgic atmosphere and artistic direction of the series inspiring, not to mention its homages to high concept
1980s genre films.
At first, I tried to screenshot certain scenes while playing the episode back on my computer. However, they kept coming back as black images. After some reading,
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I discovered that Netflix does not let you take screenshots, and for good reason.
Streaming services like Netflix have to make sure that their content is not taken advantage of and used to make pirate copies. If I wanted to get around these copyright issues and copy images using Netflix, it could be done, but it was not going to be an easy task. However, after much trial and error, I managed to create a new series of images.
I gave this series the title ‘Have You Seen Me?’, which refers to the iconic missing person posters for one of the main characters, Will Byers, but also it is a play on the fact that these images have already been seen, by millions in fact. In an attempt to give them a new storyline, the images are in a different order than they would have originally appeared in the episode. They have also been edited black and white to emulate film and transport them back to the era in which they were set.
Berger (1972) talks about how "The relation between what we see and what we know is never settled." This concept relates to these images in the way that someone who has never ‘seen' them before and is blind to their original story, will experience them in a completely different way to someone who has already
‘seen' them in their original context. I now invite the viewer to create their own narrative…
29 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
Figure 19 – Images from Have You Seen Me? (2017) Photographs by Amy Jade Cartmell.
30 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
CHAPTER THREE: PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE DIGITAL AGE
3.1 THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION
The penultimate chapter of this research project will discuss photography in the digital age and how the introduction of digital cameras revolutionised photography. McLaren (2014) notices how “…photography seems to be racing headlong into the digital future with nary a glance backwards” and this section will give a brief overview of some of the pivotal inventions which lead to this ever-quickening technological race.
This revolution in photography did not happen overnight though. It started with digital cameras intended for professional use only as “it was not until the mid
1990s that personal digital cameras became more readily available” (Doble,
2007). In 1995, Canon and Kodak jointly released the EOS DCS series of digital cameras at a then-colossal price of nearly two million Japanese yen (which converts to around £13,300), meaning that they were definitely not yet accessible to any working class enthusiast wishing to take up photography as a hobby. However, this would change in 2000 when the world's first mobile phone with a built-in camera for recording videos and still photos was introduced, accompanied by ‘Lightsurf’, a platform founded by Philippe Kahn in 1998, which allowed users to capture, view, annotate, and share multimedia messages with any handset or e-mail address, regardless of device, file type, or network operator.
31 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
In the digital age we are now in, “information and stories flow through the internet at a bewildering pace” (McLaren & Formhals, 2014) and this is mostly due to the use of smartphones and digital devices alike. The next section will observe mobile photography in more detail and how social media is heavily responsible for the rapid growth and expansion of imagery.
32 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
3.2 MOBILE PHOTOGRAPHY & SOCIAL MEDIA
Most mobile phones these days are equipped with a decent camera function so
“…just about everyone has a digital camera at his or her disposal” (Doble, 2007).
This section will consider how the camera phone has facilitated a change in aesthetic vision in regards to the “spontaneous nature” (McLaren & Formhals,
2014) of mobile photography and its ability to reach millions in an instant.
Batchen (1999) tells how postmodern scholars described photography as
“myriad” and labelled photographic meaning as “entirely mutable and contingent”, which is relatable to the photographic practices that are now commonplace. The aesthetics of mobile photography, particularly on social media platforms, is inconsistent and constantly changing due to trends amongst users. Often labelled as the ‘Instagram Effect’, the way images are filtered, shadowed, sharpened, brightened, tilted, faded, structured, or saturated is
“…the new way of seeing life through a lens. It's changed the way people portray themselves and see others” (Swant, 2015)
(see figure 20).
Figure 20 – Example of Instagram Feed (2015) via @littledrill. Photographs by Shelby Edwards.
33 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
More and more people are becoming prolific photographers due to the sophistication of smartphone cameras, and sales of digital cameras have actually declined in recent years, most likely due to the fact that smartphones are cheaper and much more accessible. According to Beaumont (2010), “We love snapping away so much… that we now take around 60 billion photos a year,” a number which will no doubt continue to increase.
“The popularity of social media sites… has likely played a key role in the
rise of smartphones… since it's generally much easier to upload photos
from a smartphone than from stand-alone cameras” (Business Insider UK,
2017).
Sontag (1979) argues that “…photography is not practiced by most… as an art. It is mainly a social rite”, linking to the popular notion among some that ‘if you don’t take a picture, it didn’t happen’. Does these mean then that people are taking pictures just for the sake of it, without stopping to think why? The next section will debate amateur vs. professional photography and whether or not they can both be defined as art.
34 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
3.3 AMATEUR VS. PROFESSIONAL
This section will deliberate what is considered to be amateur or professional within photography. To begin, Stieglitz (1899) has an interesting way of discussing this when he recognises three different classes of photographers:
“…the ignorant, the purely technical, and the artistic…. the first bring
nothing but what is not desirable; the second… education obtained after
years of study; and the third bring the feeling and inspiration of the
artist.”
However accurate Stieglitz may be, it is “…one of the most universally popular mistakes” to class supposedly exceptional work as professional, and to use “…the term amateur to convey the idea of immature productions and to excuse atrociously poor photographs” (Vaule, 2004). As defined by the Oxford English
Dictionary (2010), a ‘professional’ is “engaged in a specified activity as one's main paid occupation” so does this mean that if one only practices photography as a hobby then they can only be considered an amateur?
It is Sontag’s (1979) opinion that “Time eventually positions most photographs, even the most amateurish, at the level of art”, but with the number of people calling themselves photographers on the rise, it may no longer be enough for one to simply press the shutter and call it art. It is my belief though that whether or not a photograph can be defined as art has more to do with the individual behind the lens, regardless of whether they are paid to create the work or have a
35 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
technical education. In the mind of the artist, the camera is still only a tool, just as much as paint brushes, paint and a canvas are, therefore, it is down to the photographer alone to use their tool to create something which the art world can appreciate.
36 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
3.4 ‘MODERN RENAISSANCE’
While researching the relationship between paintings and photographs, I have become particularly interested in the radical developments of photography in the digital age, particularly how social media has changed aesthetic vision. The images in this section were also inspired by my research into appropriation and how reproduction can alter an image’s meaning. For this series I took renowned renaissance paintings and cropped them so that a face was the only subject matter. I then printed and ‘re-photographed' them using filters from the popular social media platforms ‘Snapchat' and ‘Instagram’.
Some still think that photography is merely a pseudo art form, and mobile photography is an amateur attempt at this. It is my belief however, that mobile photography in particular can be used to create visual projects that have the potential to grow and expand on a daily basis, especially with the impact of social media. With the renaissance images, I discovered how after they were cropped and placed in an entirely new setting to which they were never intended for, the effect they have on the audience, and the audience itself, in fact, is wholly changed (see figures 21-25).
37 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
Figure 21 – ‘I Can't Stop Thinking Figure 22 – ‘X For A Line’ (2018) Figure 23 – ‘I Just Want You To About You’ (2018) from Modern Renaissance. Want Me’ (2018) from Modern Renaissance. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell. from Modern Renaissance. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell.
Figure 24 – ‘If You Have Eyes, Look At Me Now’ (2018) from Modern Renaissance. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell.
Figure 25 – ‘I Just Want You To Want Me (Instagram Version)’ (2018) from Modern Renaissance. Photograph by Amy Jade Cartmell. 38 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
CHAPTER FOUR: LOOKING AT PHOTOGRAPHY
4.1 PERCEPTION & THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEEING
The final chapter of this thesis will examine what is art, but more importantly, how we look at it. This section will analyse extracts from four different texts containing existing research relating to how we ‘see’ an image; Berger (1972),
Takvam (2010), Vertov (1984) and Gregory (1997). I wish to demonstrate what research has already been carried out in the realms of photography and art and to indicate my critical analysis of it.
When we look at paintings, we examine both what is in front of us and what the artist wants us to see. Gregory (1997) makes an interesting analysis of this process:
“We have to consider a double reality. The painting is itself a physical
object, and our eyes may see it as such… but it can also evoke other
objects… It is the artist’s task to make us reject the first reality while
conveying the second – so that we see his world.”
We exercise almost the same process when looking at photographs, whether it be a ‘selfie’ on Instagram or a carefully constructed exposure of the night sky. We still ask the same questions about photographs as we do about paintings, yet some still do not consider them art.
39 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
Humans’ perception of seeing has developed and changed over time due to the advances in the understanding of sight and psychology. Berger believes that seeing and looking are two distinct components stating how ‘to look’ is an act of choice. “The way we see things is affected by what we know or… believe”
(Berger, 1972) and an individual’s perceptions are heavily influenced by what is already known. “Sensory signals are not adequate for direct or certain perceptions; intelligent guessing is needed for seeing objects” (Berger, 1972;
Takvam, 2010; Gregory, 1997).
It is recognised that the perception of images involves the translation of information taken in from the senses, yet “…psychologists described visual perceptions as more than the sum of stimuli” (Gregory, 1997). They believed that perception and the underlying physiological representation are similar, stating how perceptions are “pictures inside the brain: supposed electrical brain fields copying forms of objects” (Gregory, 1997).
Vertov (1984) and Berger (1972) both point out that photographers present an individual way of seeing and experiencing the world which is unique to them.
Interestingly, Gregory (1997) discusses how the receiver also adds information, which builds on to the stimuli of the image; meaning that an individual perceives an image as more than the image itself. From these statements it could be argued that for something to be art, it must be looked at; both the artist and the viewer are involved in the creation of the artwork. In photography, “every image embodies a way of seeing” (Berger, 1972) and ultimately, “our perception or appreciation of an image depends… upon our own way of seeing.”
40 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
When describing the camera as a ‘mechanical eye’, it is clear that Vertov (1984) concurs when he states how photography can create new perceptions of the world:
“I’m an eye, a mechanical eye. I, the machine, show you a world the way
only I can see it… I'm in constant movement… This is I, the machine,
manoeuvring in the chaotic movements, recording one movement after
another… My way leads towards the creation of a fresh perception of the
world. Thus, I explain in a new way the world unknown to you” (Vertov,
1984).
Similarly to the ‘mechanical eye’ (camera), Berger (1972) describes our vision as
“continually active, continually moving”, establishing what is present to us as we are. “We are never looking at just one thing; we are always looking at the relationship between objects and ourselves” and art can be considered the object in this sense. How we ‘look’ at or perceive art is predominantly based on what we ‘see’ in front of us, but also where we see it and how this relates to our senses. Takvam (2010) supports this by saying “…every judgement, assumption, and interpretation is based primarily on what we mostly perceive through sight.”
Of all the five senses, Takvam (2010) argues that sight is “the sense that it is the most difficult to live without” because it is “used to gain knowledge about the world around us.” Ultimately, it is this visual knowledge interpreted by our brain which allows us to perceive what we are looking at; is it a painting, a sculpture, a movie, an image… or art?
41 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
4.2 IS PHOTOGRAPHY ART?
“From its very inception, photography has fought to earn recognition as a form of art” (Higgins, 2013). There is the argument that its mechanical nature leaves “no scope for artistic skill and interpretation” (Higgins, 2013), but having looked at the work of Cameron, Adams, Barth and Prince, it is evident that this is not the case. Higgins (2013) summarises this well when she states how “…a photograph need not be crisply rendered or ‘correctly’ exposed, colour-balanced, framed or even composed by the photographer in order to have artistic merit.”
Photography has always been and is ever a popular medium, but although many predicted that it would develop as an art form, “the vast majority of photographers have not used it to explore and resolve the problems of form and expression which we have come to know as sophisticated art” (Green, 1978). Can it be argued then that only certain styles of photography, e.g. conceptual or portraiture, may be recognised as art and others, such as documentary or photojournalism, belong in separate category altogether? In most situations,
“…the image is mentally constructed and composed well before the camera is considered” (King, 2014), however, a photojournalist is known for capturing unexpected moments. Does this mean then that they are not artists, because they have not spent hours considering lighting, preparing backdrops in a studio, or drafting ideas in their sketchbooks? Luckily for photographers though, there seems to be much more scope these days for “…work that instigates a conversation and is suggestive of new terrain to be explored” (McLaren, 2014).
42 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
Officially, photography was actually admitted as fine art at the French Salon in
1859. Disgusted, Baudelaire (1965) argued that photography should “return to its true duty, which is to be the servant of the sciences and arts.” “For Baudelaire, photography was painting’s “mortal enemy”; but eventually a truce was worked out, according to which photography was held to be painting’s liberator” (Sontag,
1979). Despite this though, it wasn’t until the 1970s that “…the art world first began to accept photography as a legitimate fine art” (McLaren, 2014). It was during this time that “…a sensibility of finality and scarcity entered the medium: framed prints, limited editions, pictures of massive heft and dimensions intended for big galleries and even bigger living rooms” (McLaren, 2014). According to a contemporary art expert at Christie’s, Prince’s ‘Untitled (Cowboy)’ discussed in the second chapter, is an example of “…the first time a work of contemporary photography sold for over a million dollars” (Massad, 2016), and this was proof that the way people viewed photography was changing. With appropriation in mind though, if a photographer, similar to Prince, takes a picture and another person copies it, is that art, or is it just “…living off other people’s creativity”
(Clasen, 2016)?
It is clear that “…even in the contemporary art world, photography is still fighting for stature as a high and sophisticated art” (King, 2014). Although, it is my opinion that with the camera as their tool, artists are redefining the medium by pushing the boundaries of what the art world is used to seeing on the gallery wall. “We only see what we look at. To look is an act of choice” (Berger, 1972) and if one chooses to look at a photograph, then it is my belief that it has earned the right to be called art.
43 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
4.3 SYNOPSIS
In respect to this thesis, the aims are to establish how the camera has changed the way we view the ‘art world’ and whether or not photography can be given artistic merit. This research shows how aesthetic vision has developed since the invention of the camera, from historical practitioners attempting to relate their photographic experiments to the aesthetics of paintings, to the influence of
Pictorialism on contemporary practitioners, allowing them to develop their practice in innovative ways with ever more skill and ingenuity.
Photographs are open to interpretation, much like paintings, and having looked at their similarities, it can be seen that there is a clear relationship between the two, not only in terms of aesthetics and subject matter, but also how we look at them. A piece of art shouldn’t be formed by rules or constraints. Artists should be able to express themselves or make their feelings visible through a creative medium, regardless of anyone else’s opinion.
Having read various opinions on photography as art, there is still an element of doubt, but it is clear that photography is, at last, being embraced by the art world. An awareness and acceptance of photography as a creative medium will not be won easily though, and there will always be an opposing opinion to something, or there would be no debate in the first place. This may not be a bad thing after all though, as hopefully, it will motivate photographers to continue to produce art, despite what critics may say.
44 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
In regard to contemporary practitioners, it shouldn’t feel almost like an act of faith to pursue a career in photography. The demoralisation of the artists of today is only restricting the amount of work available for an audience to appreciate, therefore, people need to let go of their traditional beliefs about what art is and allow a new generation of artists to define the medium in their own way.
In summary, photography is not simply an art form but is one of such shape- shifting variety that it is possibly the most important of our time. There is no doubt that the camera has momentously altered the way we view the world, but given that art in general is subjective to the viewer, the audience must first look at what they see before they define what they see. In doing so, they must turn themselves towards their own experiences and allow themselves to appreciate any piece of work as art, regardless of any labels or stigma attached. To conclude with the words of Le Gray (1852), “It is my deepest wish that photography, instead of falling within the domain of industry, or commerce, …be included among the arts. That is its sole, true place.”
45 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
IMAGE APPENDIX
Figure 1: Niépce, J.N., 1826/1827. View from the Window at Le Gras. [Online] Available at: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/firstphotograph/#top/heliogra phy.html [Accessed 15 February 2018].
Figure 2: Niépce, J.N., 1826/1827. View from the Window at Le Gras (Retouched). [Online] Available at: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/windows/southeast/joseph_ni cephore_niepce.html [Accessed 15 February 2018].
Figure 3: Cameron, J.M., 1872. I Wait. [Online] Available at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/I_Wait%2C_by_Julia_Marg aret_Cameron.jpg [Accessed 26 January 2018].
Figure 4: Raphael, 1513-1514. The Sistine Madonna. [Online] Available at: https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Sistine-Madonna.html [Accessed 26 February 2018].
Figure 5: Adams, A., 1960. Moon and Half Dome. [Online] Available at: http://shop.anseladams.com/Moon_and_Half_Dome_p/5010117-u.htm [Accessed 12 February 2018].
Figure 6: Barth, U., 1995. Field #3. [Online] Available at: http://utabarth.net/work/field/#image-4 [Accessed 21 February 2018].
Figure 7: Barth, U., 1994. Ground #42. [Online] Available at: https://bombmagazine.org/articles/light-looking-uta-barth/ [Accessed 18 February 2018].
Figure 8: Cartmell, A.J., 2016. Untitled experiments with the out-of-focus aesthetic. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com [Accessed 11 January 2018].
Figure 9: Cartmell, A.J., 2016. IV. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/an-astronomical-focus/ [Accessed 11 January 2018].
Figure 10: Cartmell, A.J., 2016. V. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/an-astronomical-focus/ [Accessed 11 January 2018].
Figure 11: Cartmell, A.J., 2017. Closing Time. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/cameraobscurities/ [Accessed 11 January 2017].
Figure 12: Cartmell, A.J., 2017. Camera Obscur-ities Triptych. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/cameraobscurities/ [Accessed 11 January 2018].
46 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
Figure 13: Cartmell, A.J., 2017. Untitled. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/cameraobscurities/ [Accessed 11 January 2018].
Figure 14: Botticelli, S., 1485. Venus and Mars. [Online] Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/sandro-botticelli-venus-and-mars [Accessed 12 February 2018].
Figure 15: National Gallery (The), n.d. Fridge magnet featuring a detail from Sandro Botticelli’s ‘Venus and Mars'. [Online] Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.co.uk/products/venus-and-mars-fridge- magnet/p_1001852 [Accessed 12 February 2018].
Figure 16: Prince, R., 1989. Untitled (Cowboy). [Online] Available at: http://www.richardprince.com/photographs/cowboys/#/detail/1/ [Accessed 8 March 2018].
Figure 17: Marlboro, n.d. Marlboro Magazine Advertisement. [Online] Available at: https://www.guggenheim.org/arts-curriculum/topic/cowboys [Accessed 8 March 2018].
Figure 18: Duffer Brothers (The), 2016. Stranger Things (Poster). [Online] Available at: http://strangerthings.wikia.com/wiki/Stranger_Things/Season_1 [Accessed 7 November 2017].
Figure 19: Cartmell, A.J., 2017. Have You Seen Me? [Online] Available at: https://www.instagram.com/ajcartmellphotography/ [Accessed 7 November 2018].
Figure 20: Edwards, S., 2015. Example of Instagram Feed. [Online] Available at: https://www.instagram.com/littledrill/ [Accessed 21 March 2018].
Figure 21: Cartmell, A.J., 2018. I Can't Stop Thinking About You. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/modern-renaissance [Accessed 7 March 2018].
Figure 22: Cartmell, A.J., 2018. X For A Line. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/modern-renaissance [Accessed 7 March 2018].
Figure 23: Cartmell, A.J., 2018. I Just Want You To Want Me. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/modern-renaissance [Accessed 7 March 2018].
Figure 24: Cartmell, A.J., 2018. If You Have Eyes, Look At Me Now. [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/modern-renaissancex/ [Accessed 7 March 2018].
Figure 25: Cartmell, A.J., 2018. If You Have Eyes, Look At Me Now (Instagram Version). [Online] Available at: https://www.amyjadecartmell.com/modern- renaissance [Accessed 7 March 2018].
47 How Aesthetic Vision Has Developed Since the Invention of the Camera… Amy Jade Cartmell Amy Jade Cartmell
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